Stradivarius - wikipedia Stradivarius This article is about the string - instrument family. For other uses, see Stradivarius ( disambiguation ). This article 's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article 's talk page. ( June 2018 ) Antonio Stradivari, by Edgar Bundy, 1893 : a romanticized image of a craftsman - hero Maker 's label from Stradivari A Stradivarius is one of the violins, violas, cellos and other string instruments built by members of the Italian family Stradivari, particularly Antonio Stradivari ( Latin : Antonius Stradivarius ), during the 17th and 18th centuries. According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, though this belief is disputed. The fame of Stradivarius instruments is widespread, appearing in numerous works of fiction. Contents 1 Construction 2 Market value 3 Comparisons in sound quality 4 Theories and reproduction attempts 5 Violins bearing the Stradivari label 6 Stradivari instruments 7 Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Construction Stradivari made his instruments using an inner form, unlike the French copyists, such as Vuillaume, who employed an outer form. It is clear from the number of forms throughout his career that he experimented with some of the dimensions of his instruments. The woods used included spruce for the top, willow for the internal blocks and linings, and maple for the back, ribs, and neck. There has been conjecture that the wood used may have been treated with several types of minerals, both before and after construction of a violin. Scientists at National Taiwan University have detected trace amounts of aluminum, copper, and calcium in wood from Stradivari violins. The traces may have come from chemical preservatives applied by loggers to the wood they sold. As well, the violin makers applied varnishes to their instruments. Potassium borate ( borax ) may have been used to protect against Woodworm. Sodium and potassium silicate may have been used to prevent mildew, rotting and insect damage. Simone Fernando Sacconi suggested that Vernice bianca, an egg tempera varnish composed of gum arabic, honey, and egg white, may have been used. More recently, French chemist Jean - Philippe Echard and his co-workers have studied varnishes on Stradivarius violins. He reports that even when varnish is no longer visible to the human eye on the surface of older violins, it can be detected within the top layers of cells. A lower layer of varnish is found within the topmost wood cells while an upper rests upon the wood. Echard 's findings also suggest that Stradivari used a mixture of common Cremonese resin, oil, and pigment as a varnish, rather than making his own. Echard did not find traces of specialized ingredients such as protein materials, gums, or fossil amber. A comparative study published in PLOS ONE in 2008 found no significant differences in median densities between modern and classical violins, or between classical violins from different origins ; instead the survey of several modern and classical examples of violins highlighted a notable distinction when comparing density differentials. These results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins. A later survey, focused on comparing median densities in both classical and modern violin examples, questioned the role available materials may have played in sound production differences, though it made no comment on variations in density differentials. The content of copper and aluminium is higher than current instruments. Market value Antonio Stradivari violin of 1703 on exhibit, behind glass, at the Musikinstrumentenmuseum ( Berlin Musical Instrument Museum ), 2006 A Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivari 's `` Long Pattern '' period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U.S. dollars at today 's prices. The 1697 `` Molitor '' Stradivarius, once rumored to have belonged to Napoleon ( it did belong to a general in his army, Count Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor ), sold in 2010 at Tarisio Auctions to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers for $3,600,000, at the time a world record. Depending on condition, instruments made during Stradivari 's `` golden period '' from 1700 to about 1725 can be worth millions of dollars. In 2011, his `` Lady Blunt '' violin from 1721, which is in pristine condition, was sold in London for $15.9 million ( it is named after Lord Byron 's granddaughter Lady Anne Blunt, who owned it for 30 years ). It was sold by the Nippon Music Foundation in aid of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami appeal. In Spring 2014 the `` Macdonald '' viola was put up for auction through the musical instrument auction house Ingles & Hayday in conjunction with Sotheby 's via silent auction with a minimum bid of $45 million. The auction failed to reach its minimum bid by 25 June 2014, and the viola was not sold. Vice magazine reported in May 2013 that `` in recent years, Stradivarius investment funds have started to appear, pushing already astronomical prices even higher ''. Stradivarius instruments are at risk of theft. Stolen instruments are often recovered, however, even after being missing for many years. They are difficult to sell illicitly as dealers will typically call the police if approached by a seller with a Stradivarius known to have been stolen. In recent years, the General Kyd Stradivarius was stolen in 2004. It was returned three weeks later by a woman who found it and handed it over to the police. The Sinsheimer / Iselin was stolen in Hanover, Germany in 2008 and recovered in 2009. the Lipinski Stradivarius was stolen in an armed robbery on 27 January 2014 and subsequently recovered. The Ames Stradivarius was stolen in 1981 and recovered in 2015. A number of stolen instruments remain missing, such as the Davidoff - Morini, stolen in 1995, the Le Maurien, stolen in 2002, and the Karpilowsky, stolen in 1953. Comparisons in sound quality Above all, these instruments are famous for the quality of sound they produce. However, the many blind experiments from 1817 to the present ( as of 2014 ) have never found any difference in sound between Stradivari 's violins and high - quality violins in comparable style of other makers and periods, nor has acoustic analysis. In a particularly famous test on a BBC Radio 3 programme in 1977, the violinists Isaac Stern and Pinchas Zukerman and the violin expert and dealer Charles Beare tried to distinguish between the `` Chaconne '' Stradivarius, a 1739 Guarneri del Gesú, an 1846 Vuillaume, and a 1976 British violin played behind a screen by a professional soloist. The two violinists were allowed to play all the instruments first. None of the listeners identified more than two of the four instruments. Two of the listeners identified the 20th - century violin as the Stradivarius. Violinists and others have criticized these tests on various grounds such as that they are not double - blind ( in most cases ), the judges are often not experts, and the sounds of violins are hard to evaluate objectively and reproducibly. In a test in 2009, the British violinist Matthew Trusler played his 1711 Stradivarius, said to be worth two million U.S. dollars, and four modern violins made by the Swiss violin - maker Michael Rhonheimer ( de ). One of Rhonheimer 's violins, made with wood that the Empa ( Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology ) researcher Francis Schwarze had treated with fungi, received 90 of the 180 votes for the best tone, while the Stradivarius came second with 39 votes. The majority ( 113 ) of the listeners misidentified the winning violin as the Stradivarius. In a double - blind test in 2012 published in the study `` Player preferences among new and old violins '', expert players could not distinguish old from new instruments by playing them for a short time in a small room. In an additional test, performed in a concert hall, one of the Stradivarius violins placed first, but one of the participants stated that `` the audience in the concert hall were essentially equivocal on which instruments were better in each of the pair-wise instrument comparisons '' and `` I could tell slight differences in the instruments... but overall they were all great. None of them sounded substantially weaker than the others '' Modern violins were rated as having better sound - carrying qualities and were preferred again in a study in 2017. While many world - class soloists play violins by Antonio Stradivari, there are notable exceptions. For example, Christian Tetzlaff formerly played `` a quite famous Strad '', but switched to a violin made in 2002 by Stefan - Peter Greiner. He states that the listener can not tell that his instrument is modern, and he regards it as excellent for Bach and better than a Stradivarius for `` the big Romantic and 20th - century concertos. '' Theories and reproduction attempts Some maintain that the very best Stradivari have unique superiorities. Various attempts at explaining these supposed qualities have been undertaken, most results being unsuccessful or inconclusive. Over the centuries, numerous theories have been presented -- and debunked -- including an assertion that the wood was salvaged from old cathedrals. Dendrochronology, or tree - ring dating, has proved this false. A more modern theory attributes tree growth during a time of global cold temperatures during the Little Ice Age associated with unusually low solar activity of the Maunder Minimum, circa 1645 to 1750, during which cooler temperatures throughout Europe are believed to have caused stunted and slowed tree growth, resulting in unusually dense wood. Further evidence for this `` Little Ice Age theory '' comes from a simple examination of the dense growth rings in the wood used in Stradivari 's instruments. Two researchers -- University of Tennessee tree - ring scientist Henri Grissino - Mayer and Lloyd Burckle, a Columbia University climatologist -- published their conclusions supporting the theory on increased wood density in the journal Dendrochronologia. In 2008, researchers from the Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands, announced further evidence that wood density caused the claimed high quality of these instruments. After examining the violins with X-rays, the researchers found that these violins all have extremely consistent density, with relatively low variation in the apparent growth patterns of the trees that produced this wood. Yet another possible explanation is that the wood was sourced from the forests of northern Croatia. This maple wood is known for its extreme density resulting from the slow growth caused by harsh Croatian winters. Croatian wood was traded by Venetian merchants of the era, and is still used today by local luthiers and craftsfolk for musical instruments. Some research points to wood preservatives used in that day as contributing to the resonant qualities. Joseph Nagyvary reveals that he has always held the belief that there are a wide range of chemicals that will improve the violin 's sound. In a 2009 study co-authored with Renald Guillemette and Clifford Spiegelman, Nagyvary obtained shavings from a Stradivarius violin and examined them, and analysis indicated they contained `` borax, fluorides, chromium and iron salts. '' He also found that the wood had decayed a little, to the extent that the filter plates in the pores between the wood 's component tracheids had rotted away, perhaps while the wood was stored in or under water in the Venice lagoon before Stradivarius used it. Steven Sirr, a radiologist, worked with researchers to perform a CT scan of a Stradivari known as the `` Betts. '' Data regarding the differing densities of woods used were then used to create a reproduction instrument. Violins bearing the Stradivari label While only about 650 original Stradivari instruments ( harps, guitars, violas, cellos, violins ) survive, thousands of violins have been made in tribute to Stradivari, copying his model and bearing labels that read `` Stradivarius '' on them. The presence of a Stradivarius label does not confirm that the instrument is a genuine work of Stradivari. Stradivari instruments Main article : List of Stradivarius instruments Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York `` Gould '' violin ( 1693 ) `` Francesca '' violin ( 1694 ) `` Antonius '' violin ( 1711 ) References ^ Jump up to : Roberts, Jacob ( 2017 ). `` Stradivari and the Search for Brilliance ''. Distillations. 3 ( 3 ) : 12 -- 23. Retrieved June 6, 2018. ^ Jump up to : Belluck, Pam ( April 7, 2014 ). `` A Strad ? Violinists Ca n't Tell ''. The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 8, 2014. Retrieved April 9, 2014. Jump up ^ Christopher Joyce ( 2012 ). `` Double - Blind Violin Test : Can You Pick The Strad ? ''. NPR. Archived from the original on 2012 - 01 - 08. Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 02. Jump up ^ The Violin Forms of Antonio Stradivari by Stewart Pollens, Biddulph ( 1992 ) ISBN 0 - 9520109 - 0 - 9. Jump up ^ Pollens, Stewart ( 2015 ). The Manual of Musical Instrument Conservation. Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107077805. Retrieved 14 June 2018. ^ Jump up to : Tai, Hwan - Ching ; Li, Guo - Chian ; Huang, Shing - Jong ; Jhu, Chang - Ruei ; Chung, Jen - Hsuan ; Wang, Bo Y. ; Hsu, Chia - Shuo ; Brandmair, Brigitte ; Chung, Dai - Ting ; Chen, Hao Ming ; Chan, Jerry Chun Chung ( 3 January 2017 ). `` Chemical distinctions between Stradivari 's maple and modern tonewood ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 ( 1 ) : 27 -- 32. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1611253114. PMC 5224390. Retrieved 14 June 2018. ^ Jump up to : Yin, Steph ( December 20, 2016 ). `` The Brilliance of a Stradivari Violin Might Rest Within Its Wood ''. The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2018. Jump up ^ Uhlig, Robert ( 31 Mar 2001 ). `` Stradivari ' owes it all to worms ' ''. The Telegraph. Retrieved 14 June 2018. Jump up ^ Lemonick, Michael ( 13 October 2000 ). `` The varnished truth about a Stradivarius ''. The Guardian. Retrieved 14 June 2018. Jump up ^ Feltman, Jeff ( 1987 ). `` Jack Batts : An interview by Jeff Feltman ''. American Lutherie : The Quarterly Journal of the Guild of American Luthiers. The Guild ( 10 ) : 38 -- 39. Jump up ^ Echard, Jean - Philippe ; Bertrand, Loïc ; von Bohlen, Alex ; Le Hô, Anne - Solenn ; Paris, Céline ; Bellot - Gurlet, Ludovic ; Soulier, Balthazar ; Lattuati - Derieux, Agnès ; Thao, Sylvie ; Robinet, Laurianne ; Lavédrine, Bertrand ; Vaiedelich, Stéphane ( 4 January 2010 ). `` The Nature of the Extraordinary Finish of Stradivari 's Instruments ''. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 49 ( 1 ) : 197 -- 201. doi : 10.1002 / anie. 200905131. ^ Jump up to : Stoel, Berend C. ; Borman, Terry M ( 2008 ). Grama, Ananth, ed. `` A Comparison of Wood Density between Classical Cremonese and Modern Violins ''. PLoS ONE. 3 ( 7 ) : e2554. doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0002554. PMC 2438473. PMID 18596937. Archived from the original on 2008 - 07 - 07. Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. Jump up ^ Wood Densitometry in 17th and 18th Century Dutch, German, Austrian and French Violins, Compared to Classical Cremonese and Modern Violins Archived 2012 - 10 - 19 at the Wayback Machine., Stoel, Borman, DeJohng. October 10, 2012 Jump up ^ `` Stradivarius Violin Price ''. Archived from the original on 2017 - 06 - 13. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 13. Jump up ^ `` Cozio.com : violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1697 ( Molitor ) ''. cozio.com. 2010. Archived from the original on 2013 - 11 - 10. Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 17. Jump up ^ Jeanne Claire van Ryzin ( 2010 ). `` Austin violinist Anne Akiko Meyers buys rare Stradivarius for record - setting $3.6 million ''. Austin360. Archived from the original on 2010 - 10 - 17. Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 17. Jump up ^ `` Tarisio, October 2010 ( New York ) -- Lot 467 ''. Tarisio. 2010. Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 16. Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 17. Jump up ^ Hart, George ( 1875 ). The violin : its famous makers and their imitators. London : Dulau. pp. 130, 135. Archived from the original on 2014 - 01 - 03. Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 05. Jump up ^ Yoree Koh ( June 21, 2011 ). `` Stradivarius Nets $16 M for Japan Quake Relief ''. The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on June 26, 2011. Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 29. Jump up ^ Reaney, Patricia. `` Sale of rare Stradivari viola could set world auction record ''. reuters.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2018. Jump up ^ `` The World 's Most Expensive Instrument Just Got Slightly Cheaper ''. businessweek.com. Archived from the original on 6 January 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2018. Jump up ^ Justin Rohrlich ( May 9, 2014 ). `` The $5 Million Violin and the Telltale Taser : Inside an Epically Stupid Crime ''. Vice magazine. Archived from the original on May 11, 2014. ^ Jump up to : Nuckols, Ben ( 6 August 2015 ). `` Roman Totenberg : Violinist who claimed rival musician stole his Stradivarius is vindicated three years after his death ''. The Independent. Archived from the original on 9 August 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015. Jump up ^ `` Rare cello escapes CD rack fate ''. BBC News. 15 May 2004. Archived from the original on 6 April 2008. Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 09. Jump up ^ Kevin Roderick ( 18 May 2004 ). `` Cello returned with damage ''. LA Observed. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 10. Jump up ^ `` Cello by Antonio Stradivari, 1684 ( General Kyd ; ex-Leo Stern ) ''. Cozio.com. Archived from the original on 2008 - 05 - 03. Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 09. Jump up ^ `` Violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1721 ( Sinsheimer ; Iselin ) ''. Cozio.com. Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 07. Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 12. Jump up ^ Colleen Henry ( 2014 - 01 - 28 ). `` Multi-million dollar violin stolen from Milwaukee Symphony performer ''. WISN News. Archived from the original on 2014 - 02 - 01. Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 28. Jump up ^ Ashley Luthern ( 2014 - 02 - 06 ). `` Stolen Stradivarius violin found in suitcase in Milwaukee attic ''. Milwaukee Wisconsin Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on 2014 - 02 - 22. Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 18. Jump up ^ `` Theft Notices & Recoveries ''. FBI Art Theft Program. Archived from the original on 2007 - 04 - 02. Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 07. Jump up ^ `` Violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1714 ( Le Maurien ) ''. Cozio.com. Archived from the original on 2008 - 12 - 10. Jump up ^ `` Violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1712 ( Karpilowsky ) ''. Cozio.com. Archived from the original on 2010 - 12 - 14. Jump up ^ A guitar - like violin made by the naval engineer François Chanot, a member of a family of luthiers. A committee of scientists and musicians, listening to the violins played in an adjacent room, judged Chanot 's violin to be at least as good as the Stradivarius, but apparently Chanot 's instruments quickly lost their good qualities. Fétis, François - Joseph ( 1868 ). Biographie Universelle des Musiciens et Bibliographie Générale de la Musique, Tome 1 ( Second ed. ). Paris : Firmin Didot Frères, Fils, et Cie. p. 249. Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 21. Jump up ^ Dubourg, George ( 1852 ). The Violin : Some Account of That Leading Instrument and its Most Eminent Professors... ( Fourth ed. ). London : Robert Cocks and Co. pp. 356 -- 357. Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 21. ^ Jump up to : Fritz, Claudia ; Joseph Curtin ; Jacques Poitevineau ; Palmer Morrel - Samuels ; Fan - Chia Tao ( 3 January 2012 ). `` Player preferences among new and old violin ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 : 760 -- 763. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1114999109. PMC 3271912. PMID 22215592. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Jump up ^ Beamen, John ( 2000 ). The Violin Explained : Components, Mechanism, and Sound. Oxford University Press. pp. 89 -- 90. ISBN 0 - 19 - 816739 - 3. Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 23. ^ Jump up to : Coggins, Alan ( Feb 2007 ). `` Blind Listening Tests ''. The Strad : 52 -- 55. Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 20. Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 14. Jump up ^ Marchese, John ( 2008 ). The Violin Maker : A Search for the Secrets of Craftsmanship, Sound, and Stradivari. Harper Perennial. pp. 133 -- 134. ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 001268 - 7. Jump up ^ Fritz, Claudia ; Curtin, Joseph ; Poitevineau, Jacques ; Borsarello, Hugues ; Wollman, Indiana ; Tao, Fan - Chia ; Ghasarossian, Thierry ( 4 April 2014 ). `` Soloist evaluations of six Old Italian and six new violins ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences : 201323367. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1323367111. PMC 4034184. PMID 24711376. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2018 -- via www.pnas.org. Jump up ^ `` Fungus - Treated Violin Outdoes Stradivarius ''. Science Daily. 14 September 2009. Archived from the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 22. Jump up ^ Analysis of the treated wood revealed a reduction in density, accompanied by relatively little change in the speed of sound. According to this analysis, treatment improves the sound radiation ratio to the level of cold - climate wood considered to have superior resonance Jump up ^ Francis W.M.R. Schwarze, Melanie Spycher and Siegfried Fink ( 24 April 2008 ). `` Superior wood for violins -- wood decay fungi as a substitute for cold climate ''. Wiley Interscience. Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 22. ^ Jump up to : `` Violinists ca n't tell the difference between Stradivarius violins and new ones ''. Archived from the original on January 3, 2012. Retrieved January 3, 2012. Jump up ^ `` Double - Blind Violin Test : Can You Pick The Strad ? ''. Archived from the original on January 3, 2012. Retrieved January 3, 2012. Jump up ^ Nicholas Wade ( January 2, 2012 ). `` In Classic vs. Modern Violins, Beauty Is in Ear of the Beholder ''. The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2012. ( Carlyss ) likened the test to trying to compare a Ford and a Ferrari in a Walmart parking lot. Jump up ^ Fritz, Claudia ; Curtin, Joseph ; Poitevineau, Jacques ; Tao, Fan - Chia ( 23 May 2017 ). `` Listener evaluations of new and Old Italian violins ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 ( 21 ) : 5395 -- 5400. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1619443114. Retrieved 14 June 2018. Jump up ^ Norris, Geoffrey ( 2005 - 02 - 10 ). `` Debunking the Stradivarius Myth ''. The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2009 - 09 - 23. Retrieved 2009 - 08 - 08. Jump up ^ Inskeep, Steve ; Hoffman, Miles ( 2004 - 06 - 24 ). `` The Sweet Sound of a Stradivarius ''. National Public Radio ( U.S. ). Archived from the original on 2008 - 02 - 16. Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 23. Jump up ^ `` The Secret Of The Stradivarius Sound ''. Newsweek. October 27, 2002. Retrieved 13 June 2018. Jump up ^ Associated Press ( 8 December 2003 ). `` Cool weather may be Stradivarius ' secret ''. CNN. Archived from the original on 2007 - 05 - 13. Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24. Jump up ^ John Pickrell ( 7 January 2004 ). `` Did `` Little Ice Age '' Create Stradivarius Violins ' Famous Tone ? ``. National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 2 July 2007. Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24. Jump up ^ Rachelle Oblack ( 10 March 2008 ). `` 10 Non-Military Historical Events Drastically Changed by the Weather ''. About.com. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 2008 - 06 - 11. Jump up ^ Hill, W.H. ; Hill, A.F. ; Hill, A.E. ( 1963 ). Antonio Stradivari : His Life and Work. New York : Dover Publications. ISBN 0 - 486 - 20425 - 1. Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 03. Jump up ^ Paul Marks ( 29 November 2006 ). `` Why do Stradivari 's violins sound sublime ? ''. New Scientist. Accessed 2008 - 05 - 25. Jump up ^ Charles Choi ( 10 June 2002 ). `` Secrets of the Stradivarius : An Interview with Joseph Nagyvary ''. Scientific American. Retrieved 2008 - 05 - 25. Jump up ^ Texas A&M University. `` Secrets Of Stradivarius ' Unique Violin Sound Revealed, Professor Says '' Archived 2016 - 10 - 02 at the Wayback Machine., Science Daily 25 January 2009. Jump up ^ RSNA ( 28 November 2011 ). `` Researchers Use CT to Recreate Stradivarius Violin ''. Archived from the original on 30 November 2011. Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 28. Jump up ^ Stradivarius Violins Archived 2008 - 12 - 01 at the Wayback Machine. -- Encyclopedia Smithsonian. Retrieved 26 June 2013. Further reading Music portal How Many Strads ?, Ernest N. Doring, William Lewis & Son, Chicago, 1945 Hill, William Henry ; Hill, Arthur F. ; Hill, Alfred Ebsworth ( 1902 ). Antonio Stradivari, His Life and Work ( 1644 -- 1737 ). London : W.E. Hill & Sons. OCLC 8179349. Faber, Toby ( 2004 ). Stradivari 's Genius : Five Violins, One Cello, and Three Centuries of Enduring Perfection. New York : Random House. ISBN 0 - 375 - 50848 - 1. Vannes, Rene ( 1985 ) ( 1951 ). Dictionnaire Universel del Luthiers ( vol. 3 ). Bruxelles : Les Amis de la musique. OCLC 53749830. Henley, Wiliam ( 1969 ). Universal Dictionary of Violin & Bow Makers. Brighton ; England : Amati. ISBN 0 - 901424 - 00 - 5. Walter Hamma, Meister Italienischer Geigenbaukunst, Wilhelmshaven 1993, ISBN 3 - 7959 - 0537 - 0 Violin Iconography of Antonio Stradivari 1644 -- 1737, Herbert K. Goodkind, Larchmont, New York, 1972. Kestenbaum, David, `` Is A Stradivarius Just A Violin ? '', NPR, May 16, 2014 Millant, Roger ( 1972 ). J.B. Vuillaume : Sa Vie et son Oeuvre ( in French ). London : W.E. Hill. OCLC 865746. David Schoenbaum ( 2012 ). The Violin : A Social History of the World 's Most Versatile Instrument. New York : W.W. Norton & Company. OCLC 783162545. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stradivarius. A FourDoc ( short on - line documentary ) about a group of violin makers making a violin in the original spec of the maurin Stradivarius in just five days What makes a Stradivarius so Great ? Carleen Hutchins obituary, today 's master violin maker who tried to emulate Stradivarius Los Angeles Times, August 18, 2009 Cozio.com Online database of instruments by Antonio Stradivari. Instruments by Antonio Stradivari on the MIMO online database, website mimo-international.com. Cheniston K. Roland, Discography ( incomplete ) of Stradivarius recordings Mark Levine, `` Medici of the Meadowlands '', The New York Times 3 August 2003 Herbert R. Axelrod 's Stravarius collection. Chladni patterns for visualizing violin plate resonance patterns Stradivari Violin Forms A detailed study of Stradivari 's molds and drawings kept in the Cremona Museum... How Stradivari and Guarneri got their music discusses the chemical techniques used to figure out what makes these instruments ' unique sound. From the February 1, 2007 issue of Analytical Chemistry Gough, Colin ( April 2000 ). `` Science and the Stradivarius ''. Physics Web. Institute of Physics Publishing. Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 30. Grovier, Kelly ( 22 August 2004 ). `` Biography of Antonio Stradivari ''. The Observer. Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 30. Hanscom, Michael ( 9 December 2003 ). `` Stradivarius ' Secret ''. Eclecticism. Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 30. `` The Case of the Missing Stradivarius, '' an annotated historical novel by author Emanuel E. Garcia which investigates the secrets of Stradivari violins and musical virtuosity. `` The Violins of Stradivarius '' by the Hill Family on the Amati website. 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Question: what kind of wood is a stradivarius violin made of
Answer: spruce for the top