Progressive Era - wikipedia Progressive Era For other uses, see Progressive Era ( disambiguation ). See also : History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) and United States in World War I Periods in United States history Colonial Era 1607 -- 1775 American Revolution 1765 -- 1783 Confederation Period 1783 -- 1788 Federalist Era 1788 -- 1801 Jeffersonian Era 1801 -- 1817 Era of Good Feelings 1817 -- 1825 Jacksonian Era 1825 -- 1849 Civil War Era 1849 -- 1865 Reconstruction Era 1865 -- 1877 Gilded Age 1870s -- ca 1900 Progressive Era 1897 -- 1920 Roaring Twenties 1920 -- 1929 Great Depression 1929 -- 1939 World War II 1941 -- 1945 Postwar Era 1945 -- 1964 Civil Rights Era 1964 -- 1980 Reagan Era 1981 -- present Timeline Part of a series on Progressivism History Atomic Age Enlightenment Industrial Age Information Age Jet Age Machine Age Progressive Era Space Age Ideas Economic development Broad measures Economic growth Empirical evidence Direct democracy Freedom of movement Human enhancement Idea of Progress Industrialisation Linear history Modernity Philosophical progress Progressive education in Latin America Progressive rationalism Reform movement Social organization Social progress List of countries Scientific progress Social change Sustainable design Ecological engineering Self - determination Scientific management Scientific method Sustainable development Technological change Techno - progressivism Welfare Women 's suffrage People Edith Abbott Grace Abbott Jane Addams Sophonisba Breckinridge William Jennings Bryan Marquis de Condorcet Charles Evans Hughes Robert M. La Follette Immanuel Kant John Stuart Mill Theodore Roosevelt Al Smith William Howard Taft Woodrow Wilson Long Yun By region In the Muslim world In South Korea In the United States Philosophy portal Politics portal The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States that spanned from the 1890s to the 1920s. The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and corruption in government. The movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of direct democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies ( Trust Busting ) and corporations through antitrust laws. These antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors. Many progressives supported prohibition of alcoholic beverages, ostensibly to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons, but others out of a religious motivation. At the same time, women 's suffrage was promoted to bring a `` purer '' female vote into the arena. A third theme was building an Efficiency Movement in every sector that could identify old ways that needed modernizing, and bring to bear scientific, medical and engineering solutions ; a key part of the efficiency movement was scientific management, or `` Taylorism ''. Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made `` scientific '' the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science. In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Republicans Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes, as well as Democrats William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics. Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential non-governmental Progressive Era reformers. Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels ; later, it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and business people. Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe and adopted numerous policies, such as a major transformation of the banking system by creating the Federal Reserve System in 1913. Reformers felt that old - fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the `` one best system ''. Contents 1 Government reform 2 Muckraking : exposing corruption 3 Modernization 4 Women 4.1 Women 's suffrage 5 Philanthropy 6 Democracy 7 Municipal reform 8 Rural reform 9 Overseas possessions : the Philippines 10 Race relations 11 Family and food 12 Eugenics 13 Constitutional change 14 Prohibition 15 Education 16 Medicine and law 17 Social sciences 18 Economic policy 18.1 Labor unions 18.2 Immigration 19 War 20 Decline 20.1 End of the Era 20.2 Business progressivism in 1920s 21 Notable progressive leaders 22 See also 23 References 24 Further reading 24.1 Overviews 24.2 Presidents and politics 24.3 State, local, gender, ethnic, business, labor, religion 24.4 Primary sources and year books Government Reform Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, stubbornness, corruption, and injustices of the Gilded Age, the Progressives were committed to changing and reforming every aspect of the state, society and economy. Significant changes enacted at the national levels included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, election reforms to stop corruption and fraud, and women 's suffrage through the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Muckraking : exposing corruption Further information : Muckrakers and Mass media and American politics Magazines experienced a boost in popularity in 1900, with some attaining circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. In the beginning of the age of Mass media the rapid expansion of national advertising led to the cover price of popular magazines falling sharply to about 10 cents, lessening the financial barrier to consuming them. Another factor contributing to the dramatic upswing in magazine circulation was the prominent coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business, especially by journalists and writers who were labeled muckrakers. They wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. Relying on their own investigative journalism ; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption. Muckraking magazines, notably McClure 's, took on corporate monopolies and crooked political machines while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and social issues like child labor. The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Others such as Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities ; Ida Tarbell is famed for her criticisms of John D. Rockefeller 's Standard Oil Company. In 1905 Samuel Hopkins Adams showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, while Upton Sinclair 's 1906 novel The Jungle exposed the unsanitary and inhumane practices of the meat packing industry. In 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed a blistering indictment of corruption in the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck. Modernization Further information : Efficiency Movement The Progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and technology as the grand solution to society 's flaws. They looked to education as the key to bridging the gap between their present wasteful society and technologically enlightened future society. Characteristics of Progressivism included a favorable attitude toward urban - industrial society, belief in mankind 's ability to improve the environment and conditions of life, belief in an obligation to intervene in economic and social affairs, a belief in the ability of experts and in the efficiency of government intervention. Scientific management, as promulgated by Frederick Winslow Taylor, became a watchword for industrial efficiency and elimination of waste, with the stopwatch as its symbol. Women Main article : History of women in the United States § Progressive era : 1900 -- 1940 Across the nation, middle - class women organized on behalf of social reforms during the Progressive Era. Using the language of municipal housekeeping women were able to push such reforms as Prohibition, women 's suffrage, child - saving, and public health. Middle class women formed local clubs, which after 1890 were coordinated by the General Federation of Women 's Clubs ( GFWC ). Historian Paige Meltzer puts the GFWC in the context of the Progressive Movement, arguing that its policies : built on Progressive - era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During the Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs : as `` municipal housekeepers, '' they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and well being of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community 's needs and used their `` maternal '' expertise to lobby, create, and secure a place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman Julia Lathrop 's leadership in the Children 's Bureau. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive - era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children, to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to the state to help implement their vision of social justice. Women 's suffrage Main article : National American Woman Suffrage Association `` The Awakening '' : Suffragists were successful in the West ; their torch awakens the women struggling in the East and South in this cartoon by Hy Mayer in Puck Feb. 20, 1915. The National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) was an American women 's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the National Woman Suffrage Association ( NWSA ) and the American Woman Suffrage Association ( AWSA ). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing woman suffrage legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women 's right to vote. Carrie Chapman Catt was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women 's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. A breakaway group, the National Woman 's Party, tightly controlled by Alice Paul, used civil disobedience to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul 's members chained themselves to the White House fence in order to get arrested, then went on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring the war and attracting radical anti-war elements. Philanthropy The number of rich families climbed exponentially, from 100 or so millionaires in the 1870s, to 4000 in 1892 and 16,000 in 1916. Many subscribed to Andrew Carnegie 's credo outlined in The Gospel of Wealth that said they owed a duty to society that called for philanthropic giving to colleges, hospitals, medical research, libraries, museums, religion and social betterment. In the early 20th century, American philanthropy matured, with the development of very large, highly visible private foundations created by Rockefeller, and Carnegie. The largest foundations fostered modern, efficient, business - oriented operations ( as opposed to `` charity '' ) designed to better society rather than merely enhance the status of the giver. Close ties were built with the local business community, as in the `` community chest '' movement. The American Red Cross was reorganized and professionalized. Several major foundations aided the blacks in the South, and were typically advised by Booker T. Washington. By contrast, Europe and Asia had few foundations. This allowed both Carnegie and Rockefeller to operate internationally with powerful effect. Democracy Theodore Roosevelt ( 1901 -- 1909 ; left ), William Howard Taft ( 1909 -- 1913 ; center ) and Woodrow Wilson ( 1913 -- 1921 ; right ) were the main progressive U.S. Presidents ; their administrations saw intense social and political change in American society. Many Progressives sought to enable the citizenry to rule more directly and circumvent machines, bosses and professional politicians. The institution of the initiative and referendums made it possible to pass laws without the involvement of the legislature, while the recall allowed for the removal of corrupt or under - performing officials, and the direct primary let people democratically nominate candidates, avoiding the professionally dominated conventions. Thanks to the efforts of Oregon State Representative William S. U'Ren and his Direct Legislation League, voters in Oregon overwhelmingly approved a ballot measure in 1902 that created the initiative and referendum processes for citizens to directly introduce or approve proposed laws or amendments to the state constitution, making Oregon the first state to adopt such a system. U'Ren also helped in the passage of an amendment in 1908 that gave voters power to recall elected officials, and would go on to establish, at the state level, popular election of U.S. Senators and the first presidential primary in the United States. In 1911, California governor Hiram Johnson established the Oregon System of `` Initiative, Referendum, and Recall '' in his state, viewing them as good influences for citizen participation against the historic influence of large corporations on state lawmakers. These Progressive reforms were soon replicated in other states, including Idaho, Washington, and Wisconsin, and today roughly half of U.S. states have initiative, referendum and recall provisions in their state constitutions. About 16 states began using primary elections to reduce the power of bosses and machines. The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, requiring that all senators be elected by the people ( they were formerly appointed by state legislatures ). The main motivation was to reduce the power of political bosses, who controlled the Senate seats by virtue of their control of state legislatures. The result, according to political scientist Henry Jones Ford, was that the United States Senate had become a `` Diet of party lords, wielding their power without scruple or restraint, on behalf of those particular interests '' that put them in office. Municipal Reform Further information : American urban history § Progressive era : 1890s -- 1920s A coalition of middle - class reform - oriented voters, academic experts, and reformers hostile to the political machines started forming in the 1890s and introduced a series of reforms in urban America, designed to reduce waste, inefficiency and corruption, by introducing scientific methods, compulsory education and administrative innovations. The pace was set in Detroit Michigan, where Republican mayor Hazen S. Pingree first put together the reform coalition. Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets and administrative structures of local governments. Progressive mayors took the lead in many key cities, such as Cleveland, Ohio ( especially Mayor Tom Johnson ) ; Toledo, Ohio ; Jersey City, New Jersey ; Los Angeles ; Memphis, Tennessee ; Louisville, Kentucky ; and many other cities, especially in the western states. In Illinois, Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state government. In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert La Follette Sr., the Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a major source of ideas and expertise. Rural Reform Further information : Country life movement As late as 1920, half the population lived in rural areas. They experienced their own progressive reforms, typically with the explicit goal of upgrading country life. By 1910 most farmers subscribed to a farm newspaper, where editors promoted efficiency as applied to farming. Special efforts were made to reach the rural South and remote areas, such as the mountains of Appalachia and the Ozarks. The most urgent need was better transportation. The railroad system was virtually complete ; the need was for much better roads. The traditional method of putting the burden on maintaining roads on local landowners was increasingly inadequate. New York State took the lead in 1898, and by 1916 the old system had been discarded in every area. Demands grew for local and state government to take charge. With the coming of the automobile after 1910, urgent efforts were made to upgrade and modernize dirt roads designed for horse - drawn wagon traffic. The American Association for Highway Improvement was organized in 1910. Funding came from automobile registration, and taxes on motor fuels, as well as state aid. In 1916, federal - aid was first made available to improve post-roads, and promote general commerce. Congress appropriated $75 million over a five - year period, with the Secretary of Agriculture in charge through the Bureau of Public Roads, in cooperation with the state highway departments. There were 2.4 million miles of rural dirt rural roads in 1914 ; 100,000 miles had been improved with grading and gravel, and 3000 miles were given high quality surfacing. The rapidly increasing speed of automobiles, and especially trucks, made maintenance and repair a high priority. Concrete was first used in 1933, and expanded until it became the dominant surfacing material in the 1930s. The South had fewer cars and trucks and much less money, but it worked through highly visible demonstration projects like the `` Dixie Highway. '' Rural schools were often poorly funded, one room operations. Typically, classes were taught by young local women before they married, with only occasional supervision by county superintendents. The progressive solution was modernization through consolidation, with the result of children attending modern schools. There they would be taught by full - time professional teachers who had graduated from the states ' teachers colleges, were certified, and were monitored by the county superintendents. Farmers complained at the expense, and also at the loss of control over local affairs, but in state after state the consolidation process went forward. Numerous other programs were aimed at rural youth, including 4 - H clubs, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. County fairs not only gave prizes for the most productive agricultural practices, they also demonstrated those practices to an attentive rural audience. Programs for new mothers included maternity care and training in baby care. The movement 's attempts at introducing urban reforms to rural America often met resistance from traditionalists who saw the country - lifers as aggressive modernizers who were condescending and out of touch with rural life. The traditionalists said many of their reforms were unnecessary and not worth the trouble of implementing. Rural residents also disagreed with the notion that farms needed to improve their efficiency, as they saw this goal as serving urban interests more than rural ones. The social conservatism of many rural residents also led them to resist attempts for change led by outsiders. Most important, the traditionalists did not want to become modern, and did not want their children inculcated with alien modern values through comprehensive schools that were remote from local control. The most successful reforms came from the farmers who pursued agricultural extension, as their proposed changes were consistent with existing modernizing trends toward more efficiency and more profit in agriculture. Overseas possessions : the Philippines Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as : steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated Port of Manila ; dredging the River Pasig, ; streamlining of the Insular Government ; accurate, intelligible accounting ; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network ; the establishment of a postal savings bank ; large - scale road - and bridge - building ; impartial and incorrupt policing ; well - financed civil engineering ; the conservation of old Spanish architecture ; large public parks ; a bidding process for the right to build railways ; Corporation law ; and a coastal and geological survey. In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law 's failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines ' best path to development. Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children 's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women 's Clubs. Race relations Across the South black communities developed their own Progressive reform projects. Typical projects involved upgrading schools, modernizing church operations, expanding business opportunities, fighting for a larger share of state budgets, and engaging in legal action to secure equal rights. Reform projects were especially notable in rural areas, where the great majority of Southern blacks lived. George Washington Carver ( 1860 - 1943 ) was well known for his research projects, especially involving agriculture. He was also a leader in promoting environmentalism. Rural blacks were specially involved in environmental issues, in which they developed their own traditions and priorities. Although there were some achievements that improved conditions for African Americans and other non-white minorities, the Progressive Era was the nadir of American race relations. While white Progressives in principle believed in improving conditions for minority groups, there were wide differences in how this was to be achieved. Some, such as Lillian Wald, fought to alleviate the plight of poor African Americans. Many, though, were concerned with enforcing, not eradicating, racial segregation. In particular, the mixing of black and white pleasure - seekers in ' black - and - tan ' clubs troubled Progressive reformers. The Progressive ideology espoused by many of the era attempted to correct societal problems created by racial integration following the Civil War by segregating the races and allowing each group to achieve its own potential. That is to say that most Progressives saw racial integration as a problem to be solved, rather than a goal to be achieved. As white progressives sought to help the white working - class, clean - up politics, and improve the cities, the country instated the system of racial segregation known as Jim Crow. Legal historian Herbert Hovenkamp, argues that while many early progressives inherited the racism of Jim Crow, as they begin to innovate their own ideas, they would embrace behaviorism, cultural relativism and marginalism which stress environmental influences on humans rather than biological inheritance. He states that ultimately progressives `` were responsible for bringing scientific racism to an end ''. Family and food Colorado judge Ben Lindsey a pioneer in the establishment of juvenile court systems. Progressives believed that the family was the foundation stone of American society, and the government, especially municipal government, must work to enhance the family. Local public assistance programs were reformed to try to keep families together. Inspired by crusading Judge Ben Lindsey of Denver, cities established juvenile courts to deal with disruptive teenagers without sending them to adult prisons. The purity of food, milk and drinking water became a high priority in the cities. At the state and national levels new food and drug laws strengthened urban efforts to guarantee the safety of the food system. The 1906 federal Pure Food and Drug Act, which was pushed by drug companies and providers of medical services, removed from the market patent medicines that had never been scientifically tested. With the decrease in standard working hours, urban families had more leisure time. Many spent this leisure time at movie theaters. Progressives advocated for censorship of motion pictures as it was believed that patrons ( especially children ) viewing movies in dark, unclean, potentially unsafe theaters, might be negatively influenced in witnessing actors portraying crimes, violence, and sexually suggestive situations. Progressives across the country influenced municipal governments of large urban cities, to build numerous parks where it was believed that leisure time for children and families could be spent in a healthy, wholesome environment, thereby fostering good morals and citizenship. Eugenics Main article : Eugenics in the United States Some Progressives sponsored eugenics as a solution to excessively large or underperforming families, hoping that birth control would enable parents to focus their resources on fewer, better children. Progressive leaders like Herbert Croly and Walter Lippmann indicated their classically liberal concern over the danger posed to the individual by the practice of Eugenics. The Catholics strongly opposed birth control proposals such as eugenics. Constitutional change The Progressives fixed some of their reforms into law by adding amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 to the US Constitution. The 16th amendment made an income tax legal ( this required an amendment due to Article One, Section 9 of the Constitution, which required that direct taxes be laid on the States in proportion to their population as determined by the decennial census ). The Progressives also made strides in attempts to reduce political corruption through the 17th amendment ( direct election of U.S. Senators ). The most radical and controversial amendment came during the anti-German craze of World War I that helped the Progressives and others push through their plan for prohibition through the 18th amendment ( once the Progressives fell out of power the 21st amendment repealed the 18th in 1933 ). The ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, which recognized women 's suffrage was the last amendment during the progressive era. Another significant constitutional change that began during the progressive era was the incorporation of the Bill of Rights so that those rights would apply to the states. In 1920, Benjamin Gitlow was convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917 and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court, where the justices decided that the First Amendment applied to the states as well as the federal government. Prior to that time, the Bill of Rights was considered to apply only to the federal government, not the states. Prohibition Prohibition was the outlawing of the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol. Drinking itself was never prohibited. Throughout the Progressive Era, it remained one of the prominent causes associated with Progressivism at the local, state and national level, though support across the full breadth of Progressives was mixed. It pitted the minority urban Catholic population against the larger rural Protestant element, and Progressivism 's rise in the rural communities was aided in part by the general increase in public consciousness of social issues of the temperance movement, which achieved national success with the passage of the 18th Amendment by Congress in late 1917, and the ratification by three - fourths of the states in 1919. Prohibition was essentially a religious movement backed by the Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Scandinavian Lutherans and other evangelical churches. Activists were mobilized by the highly effective Anti-Saloon League. Timberlake ( 1963 ) argues the dries sought to break the liquor trust, weaken the saloon base of big - city machines, enhance industrial efficiency, and reduce the level of wife beating, child abuse, and poverty caused by alcoholism. Agitation for prohibition began during the Second Great Awakening in the 1840s when crusades against drinking originated from evangelical Protestants. Evangelicals precipitated the second wave of prohibition legislation during the 1880s, which had as its aim local and state prohibition. During the 1880s, referendums were held at the state level to enact prohibition amendments. Two important groups were formed during this period. The Woman 's Christian Temperance Union ( WCTU ) was formed in 1874. The Anti-Saloon League was formed in 1893, uniting activists from different religious groups. The third wave of prohibition legislation, of which national prohibition was the grand climax, began in 1907, when Georgia passed a statewide prohibition law. By 1917, two thirds of the states had some form of prohibition laws and roughly three quarters of the population lived in dry areas. In 1913, the Anti-Saloon League first publicly appealed for a prohibition amendment. They preferred a constitutional amendment over a federal statute because although harder to achieve, they felt it would be harder to change. In 1913, Congress passed the Webb - Kenyon Act, which forbade the transport of liquor into dry states. As the United States entered World War I, the Conscription Act banned the sale of liquor near military bases. In August 1917, the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act banned production of distilled spirits for the duration of the war. The War Prohibition Act, November, 1918, forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages ( more than 2.75 % alcohol content ) until the end of demobilization. The drys worked energetically to secure two - third majority of both houses of Congress and the support of three quarters of the states needed for an amendment to the federal constitution. Thirty - six states were needed, and organizations were set up at all 48 states to seek ratification. In late 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment ; it was ratified in 1919 and took effect in January 1920. It prohibited the manufacturing, sale or transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The Volstead Act, 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5 % and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try. Consumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not eradicate the use of alcohol, it certainly decreased alcohol consumption during the period. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed in 1933, with the passage of the Twenty - First Amendment, thanks to a well - organized repeal campaign led by Catholics ( who stressed personal liberty ) and businessmen ( who stressed the lost tax revenue ). Education The Progressives sought to reform and modernize schools at the local level. The era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the number of schools and students attending them, especially in the fast - growing metropolitan cities. By 1940, 50 % of young adults had earned a high school diploma. The result was the rapid growth of the educated middle class, who typically were the grass roots supporters of Progressive measures. During the Progressive Era, many states began passing compulsory schooling laws. An emphasis on hygiene and health was made in education, with physical and health education becoming more important and widespread. Medicine and law The `` Flexner Report '' of 1910, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation, professionalized American medicine by discarding the scores of local small medical schools and focusing national funds, resources, and prestige on larger, professionalized medical schools associated with universities. Prominent leaders included the Mayo Brothers whose Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, became world - famous for innovative surgery. In the legal profession, the American Bar Association set up in 1900 the Association of American Law Schools ( AALS ). It established national standards for law schools, which led to the replacement of the old system of young men studying law privately with established lawyers by the new system of accredited law schools associated with universities. Social sciences Progressive scholars, based at the emerging research universities such as Harvard, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin and California, worked to modernize their disciplines. The heyday of the amateur expert gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. Their explicit goal was to professionalize and make `` scientific '' the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science. Professionalization meant creating new career tracks in the universities, with hiring and promotion dependent on meeting international models of scholarship. Economic policy President Wilson uses tariff, currency, and anti-trust laws to prime the pump and get the economy working. The Progressive Era was one of general prosperity after the Panic of 1893 -- a severe depression -- ended in 1897. The Panic of 1907 was short and mostly affected financiers. However, Campbell ( 2005 ) stresses the weak points of the economy in 1907 -- 1914, linking them to public demands for more Progressive interventions. The Panic of 1907 was followed by a small decline in real wages and increased unemployment, with both trends continuing until World War I. Campbell emphasizes the resulting stress on public finance and the impact on the Wilson administration 's policies. The weakened economy and persistent federal deficits led to changes in fiscal policy, including the imposition of federal income taxes on businesses and individuals and the creation of the Federal Reserve System. Government agencies were also transformed in an effort to improve administrative efficiency. In the Gilded Age ( late 19th century ) the parties were reluctant to involve the federal government too heavily in the private sector, except in the area of railroads and tariffs. In general, they accepted the concept of laissez - faire, a doctrine opposing government interference in the economy except to maintain law and order. This attitude started to change during the depression of the 1890s when small business, farm, and labor movements began asking the government to intercede on their behalf. By the start of the 20th century, a middle class had developed that was leery of both the business elite and the radical political movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The Progressives argued the need for government regulation of business practices to ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a law regulating railroads in 1887 ( the Interstate Commerce Act ), and one preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890 ( the Sherman Antitrust Act ). These laws were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when Republican President Theodore Roosevelt ( 1901 -- 1909 ), Democratic President Woodrow Wilson ( 1913 -- 1921 ), and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives came to power. Many of today 's U.S. regulatory agencies were created during these years, including the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission. Muckrakers were journalists who encouraged readers to demand more regulation of business. Upton Sinclair 's The Jungle ( 1906 ) was influential and persuaded America about the supposed horrors of the Chicago Union Stock Yards, a giant complex of meat processing plants that developed in the 1870s. The federal government responded to Sinclair 's book and The Neill - Reynolds Report with the new regulatory Food and Drug Administration. Ida M. Tarbell wrote a series of articles against Standard Oil, which was perceived to be a monopoly. This affected both the government and the public reformers. Attacks by Tarbell and others helped pave the way for public acceptance of the breakup of the company by the Supreme Court in 1911. When Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected President with a Democratic Congress in 1912 he implemented a series of Progressive policies in economics. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment was ratified, and a small income tax was imposed on higher incomes. The Democrats lowered tariffs with the Underwood Tariff in 1913, though its effects were overwhelmed by the changes in trade caused by the World War that broke out in 1914. Wilson proved especially effective in mobilizing public opinion behind tariff changes by denouncing corporate lobbyists, addressing Congress in person in highly dramatic fashion, and staging an elaborate ceremony when he signed the bill into law. Wilson helped end the long battles over the trusts with the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. He managed to convince lawmakers on the issues of money and banking by the creation in 1913 of the Federal Reserve System, a complex business - government partnership that to this day dominates the financial world. In 1913, Henry Ford dramatically increased the efficiency of his factories by large - scale use of the moving assembly line, with each worker doing one simple task in the production of automobiles. Emphasizing efficiency, Ford more than doubled wages ( and cut hours from 9 a day to 8 ), attracting the best workers and sharply reducing labor turnover and absenteeism. His employees could and did buy his cars, and by cutting prices over and over he made the Model T cheap enough for millions of people to buy in the U.S. and in every major country. Ford 's profits soared and his company dominated the world 's automobile industry. Henry Ford became the world - famous prophet of high wages and high profits. Labor unions Labor unions, especially the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ), grew rapidly in the early 20th century, and had a Progressive agenda as well. After experimenting in the early 20th century with cooperation with business in the National Civic Federation, the AFL turned after 1906 to a working political alliance with the Democratic party. The alliance was especially important in the larger industrial cities. The unions wanted restrictions on judges who intervened in labor disputes, usually on the side of the employer. They finally achieved that goal with the Norris -- La Guardia Act of 1932. Immigration The influx of immigration grew steadily after 1896, with most new arrivals being unskilled workers from eastern and southern Europe. These immigrants were able to find work in the steel mills, slaughterhouses, and construction crews of the emergent mill towns and industrial cities of the late 19th century. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 halted most transcontinental immigration, only after 1919 did the flow of immigrants resume. Starting in the 1880s, the labor unions aggressively promoted restrictions on immigration, especially restrictions on Chinese, Japanese and Korean immigrants. In combination with the racist attitudes of the time, there was a fear that large numbers of unskilled, low - paid workers would defeat the union 's efforts to raise wages through collective bargaining. In addition, rural Protestants distrusted the urban Catholics and Jews who comprised most of the immigrants after 1890, and on those grounds opposed immigration. On the other hand, the rapid growth of the industry called for a greater and expanding labour pool that could not be met by natural birth rates. As a result many large corporations were opposed to immigration restrictions. By the early 1920s a consensus had been reached that the total influx of immigration had to be restricted, and a series of laws in the 1920s accomplished that purpose. A handful of eugenics advocates were also involved in immigration restriction for their own pseudo-scientific reasons. Immigration restriction continued to be a national policy until after World War II. During World War I, the Progressives strongly promoted Americanization programs, designed to modernize the recent immigrants and turn them into model American citizens, while diminishing loyalties to the old country. These programs often operated through the public school system, which expanded dramatically. War Although the Progressive Era was characterized by public support for World War I under Woodrow Wilson, there was also a substantial opposition to World War I. Decline In the 1940s typically historians saw the Progressive Era as a prelude to the New Deal and dated it from 1901 ( when Roosevelt became president ) to the start of World War I in 1914 or 1917. Historians have moved back in time emphasizing the Progressive reformers at the municipal and state levels in the 1890s. End of the Era Much less settled is the question of when the era ended. Some historians who emphasize civil liberties decry their suppression during World War I and do not consider the war as rooted in Progressive policy. A strong anti-war movement headed by noted Progressives including Jane Addams, was suppressed after Wilson 's 1916 re-election, a victory largely enabled by his campaign slogan, `` He kept us out of the war. '' The slogan was no longer accurate by April 6 of the following year, when Wilson surprised much of the Progressive base that twice elected him and asked a joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. The Senate voted 82 -- 6 in favor ; the House agreed, 373 -- 50. Some historians see the so - called `` war to end all wars '' as a globalized expression of the American Progressive movement, with Wilson 's support for a League of Nations as its climax. The politics of the 1920s was unfriendly toward the labor unions and liberal crusaders against business, so many if not most historians who emphasize those themes write off the decade. Urban cosmopolitan scholars recoiled at the moralism of prohibition, the intolerance of the nativists and the KKK, and on those grounds denounced the era. Richard Hofstadter, for example, in 1955 wrote that prohibition, `` was a pseudo-reform, a pinched, parochial substitute for reform '' that `` was carried about America by the rural - evangelical virus ''. However, as Arthur S. Link emphasized, the Progressives did not simply roll over and play dead. Link 's argument for continuity through the twenties stimulated a historiography that found Progressivism to be a potent force. Palmer, pointing to leaders like George Norris, says, `` It is worth noting that progressivism, whilst temporarily losing the political initiative, remained popular in many western states and made its presence felt in Washington during both the Harding and Coolidge presidencies. '' Gerster and Cords argue that, `` Since progressivism was a ' spirit ' or an ' enthusiasm ' rather than an easily definable force with common goals, it seems more accurate to argue that it produced a climate for reform which lasted well into the 1920s, if not beyond. '' Some social historians have posited that the KKK may in fact fit into the Progressive agenda, if Klansmen are protrayed as `` ordinary white Protestants '' primarily interested in purification of the system, which had long been a core Progressive goal. This however ignores the violence and racism central to Klan ideology and activities, that had nothing to do with improving society, so much as enforcing racial hierarchies. While some Progressive leaders became reactionaries, that usually happened in the 1930s, not in the 1920s, as exemplified by William Randolph Hearst, Herbert Hoover, Al Smith and Henry Ford. Business Progressivism in 1920s What historians have identified as `` business progressivism '', with its emphasis on efficiency and typified by Henry Ford and Herbert Hoover reached an apogee in the 1920s. Wik, for example, argues that Ford 's `` views on technology and the mechanization of rural America were generally enlightened, progressive, and often far ahead of his times. '' Tindall stresses the continuing importance of the Progressive movement in the South in the 1920s involving increased democracy, efficient government, corporate regulation, social justice, and governmental public service. William Link finds political Progressivism dominant in most of the South in the 1920s. Likewise it was influential in the Midwest. Historians of women and of youth emphasize the strength of the Progressive impulse in the 1920s. Women consolidated their gains after the success of the suffrage movement, and moved into causes such as world peace, good government, maternal care ( the Sheppard -- Towner Act of 1921 ), and local support for education and public health. The work was not nearly as dramatic as the suffrage crusade, but women voted and operated quietly and effectively. Paul Fass, speaking of youth, says `` Progressivism as an angle of vision, as an optimistic approach to social problems, was very much alive. '' International influences that sparked many reform ideas likewise continued into the 1920s, as American ideas of modernity began to influence Europe. By 1930 a block of progressive Republicans in the Senate who were urging Hoover to take more vigorous action to fight the depression. There were about a dozen members of this group including William Borah of Idaho, George W. Norris of Nebraska, Robert M. La Follette Jr., of Wisconsin, Gerald Nye of North Dakota, Hiram Johnson of California and Bronson M. Cutting of New Mexico. While these western Republicans could stir up issues, they could rarely forge a majority, since they were too individualistic and did not form a unified caucus. Hoover himself had sharply moved to the right, and paid little attention to their liberal ideas. By 1932 this group was moving toward support for Roosevelt 's New Deal. They remain staunch isolationists deeply opposed to any involvement in Europe. Outside the Senate, however, a strong majority of the surviving Progressives from the 1910s had become conservative opponents of new deal economic planning. Notable progressive leaders Jane Addams, social reformer Susan B. Anthony, suffragist Robert P. Bass, New Hampshire politician Charles A. Beard, historian and political scientist Louis Brandeis, Supreme Court justice William Jennings Bryan, Democratic presidential nominee in 1896, 1900, 1908 ; Secretary of State Lucy Burns, suffragist Andrew Carnegie, steel magnate, philanthropist Carrie Chapman Catt, suffragist Winston Churchill, author ( not the British politician ) Herbert Croly, journalist Clarence Darrow, lawyer John Dewey, philosopher W.E.B. Du Bois, Black scholar Thomas Edison, inventor Irving Fisher, economist Abraham Flexner, education Henry Ford, automaker Henry George, writer on political economy Charlotte Perkins Gilman, feminist Susan Glaspell, playwright, novelist Emma Goldman, anarchist, philosopher, writer Lewis Hine, photographer Charles Evans Hughes, statesman William James, philosopher Hiram Johnson, Governor of California Mary Harris `` Mother '' Jones, union activist Samuel M. Jones, politician, reformer Florence Kelley, child advocate Robert M. La Follette, Sr., Governor of Wisconsin Fiorello LaGuardia, U.S. Congressman from New York ; New York City mayor Walter Lippmann, journalist Mayo Brothers, medicine Fayette Avery McKenzie, sociology John R. Mott, YMCA leader George Mundelein, Catholic leader Alice Paul, suffragist Ulrich B. Phillips, historian Gifford Pinchot, conservationist Walter Rauschenbusch, theologian of Social Gospel Jacob Riis, reformer John D. Rockefeller, Jr., philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt, President Elihu Root, statesman Margaret Sanger, birth control activist Anna Howard Shaw, suffragist Upton Sinclair, novelist Albion Small, sociologist Ellen Gates Starr, sociologist Lincoln Steffens, reporter Henry Stimson, statesman William Howard Taft, President and Chief Justice Ida Tarbell, muckraker Frederick Winslow Taylor, efficiency expert Frederick Jackson Turner, historian Thorstein Veblen, economist Lester Frank Ward, sociologist Woodrow Wilson, President Ida B. Wells, Black leader Burton Kendall Wheeler, Montana politician See also Efficiency Movement Trust - busting Wisconsin Idea Woman 's club movement Edwardian era, for comparable trends in Great Britain around 1910 References Jump up ^ John D. Buenker, John C. Burnham, and Robert M. Crunden, Progressivism ( 1986 ) pp 3 -- 21 Jump up ^ James H. Timberlake, Prohibition and the progressive movement, 1900 -- 1920 ( 1970 ) pp 1 -- 7. Jump up ^ On purification, see David W. Southern, The Malignant Heritage : Yankee Progressives and the Negro Question, 1900 -- 1915 ( 1968 ) ; Southern, The Progressive Era And Race : Reaction And Reform 1900 -- 1917 ( 2005 ) ; Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil : An Interpretation of American Prohibition ( 1976 ) p 170 ; and Aileen Kraditor, The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement : 1890 -- 1920 ( 1967 ). 134 -- 36. ^ Jump up to : Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians : Turner, Beard, Parrington ( 1968 ) ^ Jump up to : Joseph Dorfman, The economic mind in American civilization, 1918 -- 1933 vol 3, 1969 ^ Jump up to : Barry Karl, Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics ( 1975 ) Jump up ^ George Mowry, The California Progressives ( 1963 ) p 91. Jump up ^ Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings : Social Politics in a Progressive Age ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ Michael Kazin ; et al. ( 2011 ). The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political Turn up History. Princeton University Press. p. 181. ISBN 9781400839469. Jump up ^ Lewis L. Gould, America in the Progressive Era, 1890 -- 1914 ( 2000 ) Jump up ^ David B. Tyack, The One Best System : A History of American Urban Education ( Harvard UP, 1974 ), p. 39 Jump up ^ David E. Kyvig, Explicit and authentic acts : amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776 -- 1995 ( Kansas UP, 1996 ) pp. 208 -- 14 ; Hedwig Richter : TRANSNATIONAL REFORM AND DEMOCRACY : ELECTION REFORMS IN NEW YORK CITY AND BERLIN AROUND 1900, in : Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 15 ( 2016 ), 149 - 175 ( URL : https://www.academia.edu/25338056/_TRANSNATIONAL_REFORM_AND_DEMOCRACY_ELECTION_REFORMS_IN_NEW_YORK_CITY_AND_BERLIN_AROUND_1900_in_Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era_15_2016_149-175 Jump up ^ Peter C. Holloran et al. eds. ( 2009 ). The A to Z of the Progressive Era. Scarecrow Press. p. 266. CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Herbert Shapiro, ed., The muckrakers and American society ( Heath, 1968 ), contains representative samples as well as academic commentary. Jump up ^ Robert Miraldi, ed. The Muckrakers : Evangelical Crusaders ( Praeger, 2000 ) Jump up ^ Harry H. Stein, `` American Muckrakers and Muckraking : The 50 - Year Scholarship, '' Journalism Quarterly, ( 1979 ) 56 # 1 pp. 9 -- 17 Jump up ^ John D. Buenker, and Robert M. Crunden. Progressivism ( 1986 ) ; Maureen Flanagan, America Reformed : Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890 -- 1920s ( 2007 ) Jump up ^ Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift Scientific Management in the Progressive Era 1890 -- 1920 ( 1964 ) 656 Jump up ^ Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management ( 1970 ). Jump up ^ J. - C. Spender ; Hugo Kijne ( 2012 ). Scientific Management : Frederick Winslow Taylor 's Gift to the World ?. Springer. p. 63. Jump up ^ Paige Meltzer, `` The Pulse and Conscience of America '' The General Federation and Women 's Citizenship, 1945 -- 1960, '' Frontiers : A Journal of Women Studies ( 2009 ), Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 52 -- 76. online Jump up ^ Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle ( 1959 ), pp. 208 -- 17. Jump up ^ Corrine M. McConnaughy, The Woman Suffrage Movement in America : A Reassessment ( 2013 ). Jump up ^ Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism ( 1989 ) pp. 51 -- 82 Jump up ^ Olivier Zunz, Philanthropy in America : A History ( 2012 ) ch 1 excerpt and text search Jump up ^ Nikki Mandell, `` Allies or Antagonists ? Philanthropic Reformers and Business Reformers in the Progressive Era, '' Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era ( 2012 ), 11 # 1 71 -- 117. Jump up ^ Branden Little. `` Review of Jones, Marian Moser, The American Red Cross from Clara Barton to the New Deal '' H - SHGAPE, H - Net Reviews. August, 2013, online Jump up ^ Zunz, p. 42 Jump up ^ John M. Allswang, The initiative and referendum in California, 1898 -- 1998, ( 2000 ) ch 1 Jump up ^ `` State Initiative and Referendum Summary ''. State Initiative & Referendum Institute at USC. Archived from the original on 11 February 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2006. Jump up ^ Alan Ware, The American direct primary : party institutionalization and transformation ( 2002 ) Jump up ^ Christopher Hoebeke, The road to mass democracy : original intent and the Seventeenth Amendment ( 1995 ) p. 18 Jump up ^ Melvin G. Holli, Reform in Detroit : Hazen S. Pingree and Urban Politics ( 1969 ). Jump up ^ Kenneth Finegold, `` Traditional Reform, Municipal Populism, and Progressivism, '' Urban Affairs Review, ( 1995 ) 31 # 1 pp 20 - 42 Jump up ^ Arthur E. DeMatteo, `` The Progressive As Elitist : ' Golden Rule ' Jones And The Toledo Charter Reform Campaign of 1901, '' Northwest Ohio Quarterly, ( 1997 ) 69 # 1 pp 8 -- 30 Jump up ^ Eugene M. Tobin, `` The Progressive as Single Taxer : Mark Fagan and the Jersey City Experience, 1900 -- 1917, '' American Journal of Economics & Sociology, ( 1974 ) 33 # 3 pp 287 -- 298 Jump up ^ Martin J. Schiesl, `` Progressive Reform in Los Angeles under Mayor Alexander, 1909 -- 1913, '' California Historical Quarterly, ( 1975 ) 534 # 1, pp : 37 -- 56 Jump up ^ G. Wayne Dowdy, `` ' A Business Government by a Business Man ' : E.H. Crump as a Progressive Mayor, 1910 -- 1915, '' Tennessee Historical Quarterly, ( 2001 ) 60 # 3 3, pp 162 -- 175 Jump up ^ William E. Ellis, `` Robert Worth Bingham and Louisville Progressivism, 1905 -- 1910, '' Filson Club History Quarterly, ( 1980 ) 54 # 2 pp 169 -- 195 Jump up ^ William Thomas Hutchinson, Lowden of Illinois : the life of Frank O. Lowden ( 1957 ) vol 2 Jump up ^ `` Progressivism and the Wisconsin Idea ''. Wisconsin Historical Society. 2008. Jump up ^ William L. Bowers, `` Country - Life Reform, 1900 -- 1920 : A Neglected Aspect of Progressive Era History. '' Agricultural History 45 # 3 ( 1971 ) : 211 -- 21. in JSTOR Jump up ^ Stuart W. Shulman, `` The Progressive Era Farm Press, '' Journalism History ( 1999 ) 25 # 1 pp. 27 -- 36. Jump up ^ William A. Link, A Hard Country and a Lonely Place : Schooling, Society, and Reform in Rural Virginia, 1870 -- 1920 ( 1986 ). Jump up ^ Harold U. Faulkner, The Decline of Laissez Faire, 1897 -- 1917 ( 1951 ) pp. 233 -- 36. Jump up ^ Charles Lee Dearing, American highway policy ( 1942 ). Jump up ^ Tammy Ingram, Dixie Highway : Road Building and the Making of the Modern South, 1900 -- 1930 ( 2014 ). Jump up ^ David R. Reynolds, There goes the neighborhood : Rural school consolidation at the grass roots in early twentieth - century Iowa ( University of Iowa Press, 2002 ). Jump up ^ Danbom, David B. ( April 1979 ). `` Rural Education Reform and the Country Life Movement, 1900 -- 1920 ''. Agricultural History. 53 ( 2 ) : 464 -- 66. JSTOR 3742421. Jump up ^ Ellen Natasha Thompson, `` The Changing Needs of Our Youth Today : The Response of 4 - H to Social and Economic Transformations in Twentieth - century North Carolina. '' ( PhD Diss. University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2012 ). online Jump up ^ Marilyn Irvin Holt, Linoleum, Better Babies, and the Modern Farm Woman, 1890 -- 1930 ( 1995 ). Jump up ^ Danbom 1979, p. 473. Jump up ^ Richard Jensen and Mark Friedberger, Education and Social Structure : An Historical Study of Iowa, 1870 -- 1930 ( Chicago : Newberry Library, 1976, online ). Jump up ^ Andrew Roberts, A History of the English - Speaking Peoples Since 1900 ( 2008 ), p 26. Jump up ^ Theresa Ventura, `` From Small Farms to Progressive Plantations : The Trajectory of Land Reform in the American Colonial Philippines, 1900 -- 1916. '' Agricultural History 90 # 4 ( 2016 ) : 459 - 483. online Jump up ^ Mina Roces, `` Filipino Elite Women and Public Health in the American Colonial Era, 1906 -- 1940. '' Women 's History Review 26 # 3 ( 2017 ) : 477 - 502. Jump up ^ John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive era, 1900 -- 1920 ( 1980 ). Jump up ^ David W. Southern, The Progressive Era and Race : Reaction and Reform, 1900 -- 1917 ( 2005 ) Jump up ^ Angela Jones, African American Civil Rights : Early Activism and the Niagara Movement ( 2011 ) online Jump up ^ Debra Reid, `` Rural African Americans and Progressive Reform, '' Agricultural History ( 2000 ) 74 # 2 pp. 322 -- 41 on Texas. Jump up ^ Mark D. Hersey, My Work Is That of Conservation : An Environmental Biography of George Washington Carver ( 2011 ) online Jump up ^ Dianne D. Glave, `` ' A Garden so Brilliant With Colors, so Original in its Design ' : Rural African American Women, Gardening, Progressive Reform, and the Foundation of an African American Environmental Perspective. '' Environmental History 8 # 3 ( 2003 ) : 395 -- 411. Jump up ^ Dianne D. Glave and Mark Stoll, eds., To Love the Wind and the Rain ' : African Americans and Environmental History. ( 2006 ). Jump up ^ Keire, Mara L. ( 2001 ). `` The Vice Trust : A Reinterpretation of the White Slavery Scare in the United States, 1907 -- 1917 ''. Journal of Social History. 35 : 5 -- 41. Jump up ^ Durrheim, Kevin ; Dixon, John ( 2005 ). Racial Encounter : The Social Psychology of Contact and Desegregation. Routledge. pp. 134 -- 135. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Luebke, Paul ( 2000 ). Tar Heel Politics 2000. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 134. Jump up ^ Noel, Hans ( 2014 ). Political Ideologies and Political Parties in America. Cambridge University Press. p. 147. Jump up ^ Woodward, C. Vann ( 1955 ). The Strange Career of Jim Crow. Jump up ^ Hovenkamp, H. 2017 The Progressives : Racism and Public Law Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper Series, 59 Ariz. L. Rev. 947 Jump up ^ Gwendoline Alphonso, `` Hearth and Soul : Economics and Culture in Partisan Conceptions of the Family in the Progressive Era, 1900 -- 1920, '' Studies in American Political Development, Oct 2010, Vol. 24 Issue 2, pp. 206 -- 32 Jump up ^ D'Ann Campbell, `` Judge Ben Lindsey and the Juvenile Court Movement, 1901 -- 1904, '' Arizona and the West, 1976, Vol. 18 Issue 1, pp. 5 -- 20 Jump up ^ James Marten, ed. Children and Youth during the Gilded Page and Progressive Era ( 2014 ) Jump up ^ Marc T. Law, `` The Origins of State Pure Food Regulation, '' Journal of Economic History, Dec 2003, Vol. 63 Issue 4, pp. 1103 -- 31 Jump up ^ Black, Gregory D. Hollywood Censored : Morality Codes, Catholics, and the Movies. Cambridge University Press 1994 Jump up ^ Leonard, Thomas C. ( 2005 ) Retrospectives : Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19 ( 4 ) : 207 -- 24 Jump up ^ Nancy Cohen, The reconstruction of American liberalism, 1865 -- 1914 ( 2002 ) p. 243 Jump up ^ Celeste Michelle Condit, The meanings of the gene : public debates about human heredity ( 1999 ) p. 51 Jump up ^ David E. Kyvig, Explicit and authentic acts : amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776 -- 1995 ( 1996 ) Jump up ^ K. Austin Kerr, Organized for Prohibition : A New History of the Anti-Saloon League ( 1985 ). Jump up ^ James Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900 -- 1920 ( Harvard UP, 1963 ) Jump up ^ Jack S. Blocker, American Temperance Movements : Cycles of Reform ( 1989 ) Jump up ^ Jed Dannenbaum, Drink and Disorder : Temperance Reform in Cincinnati from the Washingtonian Revival to the WCTU ( 1984 ) Jump up ^ Kerr, Organized for Prohibition : A New History of the Anti-Saloon League ( 1985 ) Jump up ^ S.J. Mennell, `` Prohibition : A Sociological View, '' Journal of American Studies 3, no. 2 ( 1969 ) : 159 -- 75. ^ Jump up to : David E. Kyvig, Repealing National Prohibition ( 2000 ) Jump up ^ David B. Tyack, The One Best System : A History of American Urban Education ( Harvard University Press, 1974 ) Jump up ^ `` State Compulsory School Attendance Laws ''. Infoplease.com. 1999 - 10 - 01. Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 01. Jump up ^ Engs, Ruth C. ( 2003 ). The progressive era 's health reform movement : a historical dictionary. Westport, CT : Praeger Publishers. pp. 20 -- 22. ISBN 0 - 275 - 97932 - 6. Jump up ^ Abraham Flexner, Flexner Report on Medical Education in the United States and Canada 1910 ( new edition 1960 ) Jump up ^ Lawrence Friedman and Mark McGarvie, Charity, philanthropy, and civility in American history ( 2003 ) p. 231 Jump up ^ W. Bruce Fye, `` The Origins and Evolution of the Mayo Clinic from 1864 to 1939 : A Minnesota Family Practice Becomes an International ' Medical Mecca ' '', Bulletin of the History of Medicine Volume 84, Number 3, Fall 2010 pp. 323 -- 57 in Project MUSE Jump up ^ Steven J. Diner, A Very Different Age : Americans of the Progressive Era ( 1998 ) p. 186 Jump up ^ Ballard Campbell, `` Economic Causes of Progressivism, '' Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, Jan 2005, Vol. 4 Issue 1, pp. 7 -- 22 ^ Jump up to : Harold U. Faulkner, The Decline of Laissez Faire, 1897 -- 1917 ( 1951 ) Jump up ^ Vincent W. Howard, `` Woodrow Wilson, The Press, and Presidential Leadership : Another Look at the Passage of the Underwood Tariff, 1913, '' CR : The Centennial Review, 1980, Vol. 24 Issue 2, pp. 167 -- 14 Jump up ^ Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the progressive Era, 1910 -- 1917 ( 1954 ) pp. 25 -- 80 Jump up ^ Faith Jaycox ( 2005 ). The Progressive Era : Eyewitness History. Infobase. p. 403. ISBN 9780816051595. Jump up ^ Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics : The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 -- 1917 ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ Robert D. Parmet, Labor and immigration in industrial America ( 1987 ) p. 146 Jump up ^ Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development : Union, Party and State, 1875 -- 1920 ( 1990 ) Jump up ^ Daniel J. Tichenor, Dividing lines : the politics of immigration control in America ( 2002 ) p. 71 Jump up ^ Claudia Golden, `` The Political Economy of Immigration Restriction in the United States, 1890 to 1921, '' in Goldin, The regulated economy ( 1994 ) ch 7 Jump up ^ Thomas C. Leonard, `` Retrospectives : Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era '' Journal of Economic Perspectives, ( 2005 ) 19 ( 4 ) : 207 -- 24 Jump up ^ James R. Barrett, `` Americanization from the Bottom, Up : Immigration and the Remaking of the American Working Class, 1880 -- 1930, '' Journal of American History 79 ( December 1992 ) : 996 -- 1020. in JSTOR Jump up ^ Christina A. Ziegler - McPherson, Americanization in the States : Immigrant Social Welfare Policy, Citizenship, and National Identity in the United States, 1908 -- 1929 ( 2009 ) Jump up ^ Eric Goldman, Rendezvous with Destiny : A History of Modern American Reform ( 1952 ) Jump up ^ Melvin G. Holli, Reform in Detroit : Hazen S. Pingree and Urban Politics ( 1969 ) Jump up ^ David P. Thelen, The New Citizenship : Origins of Progressivism in Wisconsin, 1885 -- 1900 ( 1972 ) Jump up ^ Paul L. Murphy, World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States ( 1979 ) Jump up ^ Jane Addams, Bread and Peace in Time of War ( 1922 ) Jump up ^ John Milton Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World : Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations ( 2010 ) Jump up ^ Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform ( 1955 ) p. 287 Jump up ^ Arthur S. Link, `` What Happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s ?, '' American Historical Review Vol. 64, No. 4 ( Jul., 1959 ), pp. 833 -- 51 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Niall A. Palmer, The Twenties in America : Politics and History ( 2006 ) p. 176 Jump up ^ Patrick Gerster and Nicholas Cords, Myth in American History ( 1977 ) p. 203 Jump up ^ Stanley Coben, `` Ordinary white Protestants : The KKK of the 1920s, '' Journal of Social History, ( 1994 ) 28 # 1 pp. 155 -- 65 Jump up ^ Rodney P. Carlisle, Hearst and the New Deal : The Progressive as Reactionary ( 1979 ) Jump up ^ T.H. Watkins ( 2000 ). The Hungry Years : A Narrative History of the Great Depression in America. p. 313. Jump up ^ Steven Watts ( 2009 ). The People 's Tycoon : Henry Ford and the American Century. Knopf Doubleday. p. 430. Jump up ^ Barry C. Edwards, `` Putting Hoover on the Map : Was the 31st President a Progressive. Congress & the Presidency 41 # 1 ( 2014 ) pp 49 - 83 online Jump up ^ Reynold M. Wik, `` Henry Ford 's Science and Technology for Rural America, '' Technology & Culture, July 1962, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp. 247 -- 57 Jump up ^ George B. Tindall, `` Business Progressivism : Southern Politics in the Twenties, '' South Atlantic Quarterly 62 ( Winter 1963 ) : 92 -- 106. Jump up ^ George B. Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913 -- 1945 ( 1970 ) Jump up ^ William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880 -- 1930 ( 1997 ) p. 294 Jump up ^ Judith Sealander, Grand Plans : Business Progressivism and Social Change in Ohio 's Miami Valley, 1890 -- 1929 ( 1991 ) Jump up ^ Maureen A. Flanagan, America Reformed : Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s -- 1920s ( 2006 ) Jump up ^ Susan Zeiger, `` Finding a cure for war : Women 's politics and the peace movement in the 1920s, '' Journal of Social History, Fall 1990, Vol. 24 Issue 1, pp. 69 -- 86 in JSTOR Jump up ^ J. Stanley Lemons, `` The Sheppard - Towner Act : Progressivism in the 1920s, '' Journal of American History Vol. 55, No. 4 ( Mar., 1969 ), pp. 776 -- 86 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Jayne Morris - Crowther, `` Municipal Housekeeping : The Political Activities of the Detroit Federation of Women 's Clubs in the 1920s, '' Michigan Historical Review, March 2004, Vol. 30 Issue 1, pp. 31 -- 57 Jump up ^ Kristi Andersen, After suffrage : women in partisan and electoral politics before the New Deal ( 1996 ) Jump up ^ Paula S. Fass, The damned and the beautiful : American youth in the 1920s ( 1977 ) p. 30 Jump up ^ Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings : Social Politics in a Progressive Age ( 2000 ) ch 9 Jump up ^ Arthur M. Schlesinger ( 1959 ). The Crisis of the Old Order : 1919 - 1933. p. 242. Jump up ^ Edwards, `` Putting Hoover on the Map : Was the 31st President a Progressive p 60. Jump up ^ Otis L. Graham, An Encore for Reform : The Old Progressives and the New Deal ( 1968 ) Further reading Overviews Buenker, John D., John Chynoweth Burnham, and Robert Morse Crunden. Progressivism ( Schenkman Books, 1977 ). online Buenker, John D., and Edward R. Kantowicz, eds. Historical dictionary of the Progressive Era, 1890 -- 1920 ( Greenwood, 1988 ). Cocks, Catherine, Peter C. Holloran and Alan Lessoff. Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era ( 2009 ) Dawley, Alan. Changing the World : American Progressives in War and Revolution ( 2003 ) excerpt and text search Diner, Steven J. A Very Different Age : Americans of the Progressive Era ( 1998 ) Flanagan, Maureen. America Reformed : Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s -- 1920s ( 2007 ) Glad, Paul W. `` Progressives and the Business Culture of the 1920s, '' Journal of American History, Vol. 53, No. 1. ( June 1966 ), pp. 75 -- 89. in JSTOR Gould, Lewis L. America in the Progressive Era, 1890 -- 1914 '' ( 2000 ) Gould Lewis L. ed., The Progressive Era ( 1974 ) Hays, Samuel P. The Response to Industrialism, 1885 -- 1914 ( 1957 ), Hofstadter, Richard, The Age of Reform ( 1954 ), Pulitzer Prize Jensen, Richard. `` Democracy, Republicanism and Efficiency : The Values of American Politics, 1885 -- 1930, '' in Byron Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds, Contesting Democracy : Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775 -- 2000 ( U of Kansas Press, 2001 ) pp. 149 -- 80 ; online version Kennedy, David M. ed., Progressivism : The Critical Issues ( 1971 ), readings Kloppenberg, James T. Uncertain victory : social democracy and progressivism in European and American thought, 1870 -- 1920 1986 online at ACLS e-books Lasch, Christopher. The True and Only Heaven : Progress and its Critics ( 1991 ) Lears, T.J. Jackson. Rebirth of a Nation : The Remaking of Modern America, 1877 - 1920 ( 2009 ) excerpt and text search Leuchtenburg, William E. `` Progressivism and Imperialism : The Progressive Movement and American Foreign Policy, 1898 -- 1916, '' The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 39 # 3 ( 1952 ), pp. 483 -- 504. JSTOR Link, William A. The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880 -- 1930 ( 1992 ) online Mann, Arthur. ed., The Progressive Era ( 1975 ) excerpts from scholars and from primary sources McGerr, Michael. A Fierce Discontent : The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870 -- 1920 ( 2003 ) excerpt and text search Mowry, George. The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900 -- 1912. ( 1954 ) general survey of era Noggle, Burl. `` The Twenties : A New Historiographical Frontier, '' The Journal of American History, Vol. 53, No. 2. ( Sep., 1966 ), pp. 299 -- 314. in JSTOR Painter, Nell Irvin. Standing at Armageddon : The United States, 1877 - 1919 ( 1987 ) excerpt and text search Pease, Otis, ed. The Progressive Years : The Spirit and Achievement of American Reform ( 1962 ), primary documents Rodgers, Daniel T. Atlantic Crossings : Social Politics in a Progressive Age ( 2000 ). stresses links with Europe online edition Solty, Ingar. `` Social Imperialism as Trasformismo : A Political Economy Case Study on the Progressive Era, the Federal Reserve Act, and the U.S. 's Entry into World War One, 1890 -- 1917 '', in M. Lakitsch, Ed., Bellicose Entanglements 1914 : The Great War as a Global War ( LIT, 2015 ), pp. 91 -- 121. Thelen, David P. `` Social Tensions and the Origins of Progressivism, '' Journal of American History 56 ( 1969 ), 323 -- 41 online at JSTOR Wiebe, Robert. The Search For Order, 1877 -- 1920 ( 1967 ). Young, Jeremy C. The Age of Charisma : Leaders, Followers, and Emotions in American Society, 1870 - 1940 ( 2017 ) excerpt and text search Presidents and politics Beale Howard K. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power. ( 1956 ). Blum, John Morton. The Republican Roosevelt. ( 1954 ). Series of essays that examine how TR did politics Brands, H.W. Theodore Roosevelt ( 2001 ). Clements, Kendrick A. The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson ( 1992 ). Coletta, Paolo. The Presidency of William Howard Taft ( 1990 ). Cooper, John Milton The Warrior and the Priest : Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. ( 1983 ). Cooper, John Milton Woodrow Wilson : A Biography ( 2009 ) Dalton, Kathleen. `` Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive era. '' in Christopher M. Nichols and Nancy C. Unger, eds A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era ( 2017 ) : 296 - 307. Edwards, Barry C. `` Putting Hoover on the Map : Was the 31st President a Progressive. ( 1975 ). Congress & the Presidency 41 # 1 ( 2014 ) pp 49 - 83 online Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt ( 1991 ). Harbaugh, William Henry. Power and Responsibility The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt ( 1961 ), a standard scholarly biography emphasizing politics. online Harrison, Robert. Congress, Progressive Reform, and the New American State ( 2004 ). Hofstadter, Richard. The American Political Tradition ( 1948 ), ch. 8 -- 9 -- 10. Kolko, Gabriel ( 1963 ). The Triumph of Conservatism : A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900 - 1916. New York, NY : The Free Press. Link, Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910 -- 1917 ( 1972 ) standard political history of the era online Morris, Edmund Theodore Rex. ( 2001 ), biography of T. Roosevelt covers 1901 -- 1909 Mowry, George E. Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement. ( 1946 ). Pestritto, R.J. `` Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism. '' ( 2005 ). Rothbard, Murray N. The Progressive Era ( 2017 ), libertarian interpretation online excerpt Sanders, Elizabeth. Roots of Reform : Farmers, Workers and the American State, 1877 -- 1917 ( 1999 ). State, local, gender, ethnic, business, labor, religion Abell, Aaron I. American Catholicism and Social Action : A Search for Social Justice, 1865 -- 1950 ( 1960 ). Bruce, Kyle and Chris Nyland. `` Scientific Management, Institutionalism, and Business Stabilization : 1903 -- 1923 '' Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 35, 2001. in JSTOR Buenker, John D. Urban Liberalism and Progressive Reform ( 1973 ). Buenker, John D. The History of Wisconsin, Vol. 4 : The Progressive Era, 1893 -- 1914 ( 1998 ). Feffer, Andrew. The Chicago Pragmatists and American Progressivism ( 1993 ). Frankel, Noralee and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Gender, Class, Race, and Reform in the Progressive Era ( 1991 ). Hahn, Steven. A Nation under Our Feet : Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration ( 2003 ). Huthmacher, J. Joseph. `` Urban Liberalism and the Age of Reform '' Mississippi Valley Historical Review 49 ( 1962 ) : 231 -- 41, in JSTOR ; emphasized urban, ethnic, working class support for reform Link, William A. The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880 -- 1930 ( 1992 ). Maxwell, Robert S. La Follette and the Rise of the Progressives in Wisconsin. Madison, Wis. : State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1956. Montgomery, David. The Fall of the House of Labor : The workplace, the state, and American labor activism, 1865 -- 1925 ( 1987 ). Muncy, Robyn. Creating A Feminine Dominion in American Reform, 1890 -- 1935 ( 1991 ). Lubove, Roy. The Progressives and the Slums : Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890 -- 1917 Greenwood Press : 1974. Pollack, Norman ( 1962 ). The Populist Response to Industrial America : Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press. Recchiuti, John Louis. Civic Engagement : Social Science and Progressive - Era Reform in New York City ( 2007 ). Stromquist, Shelton. Reinventing ' The People ' : The Progressive Movement, the Class Problem, and the Origins of Modern Liberalism, ( U. of Illinois Press, 2006 ). ISBN 0 - 252 - 07269 - 3. Thelen, David. The New Citizenship, Origins of Progressivism in Wisconsin, 1885 -- 1900 ( 1972 ). Wesser, Robert F. Charles Evans Hughes : politics and reform in New York, 1905 -- 1910 ( 1967 ). Wiebe, Robert. `` Business Disunity and the Progressive Movement, 1901 -- 1914, '' The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 44 # 4 ( 1958 ), pp. 664 -- 85. in JSTOR Primary sources and year books New International year book : 1909 History of the United States Timeline Prehistory Pre-Columbian Colonial 1776 -- 89 1789 -- 1849 1849 -- 65 1865 -- 1918 1918 -- 45 1945 -- 64 1964 -- 80 1980 -- 91 1991 -- 2008 2008 -- present Topics American Century Cities Constitution Demographic Diplomatic Economic Education Immigration Medical Merchant Marine Military Musical Religious Slavery Southern Technological and industrial Territorial acquisitions Territorial evolution Voting rights Women Category Portal United States articles History By event Timeline of U.S. history Pre-Columbian era Colonial era Thirteen Colonies military history Continental Congress American Revolution War American frontier Confederation Period Drafting and ratification of Constitution Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial acquisitions Territorial evolution Mexican -- American War Civil War Reconstruction Era Indian Wars Gilded Age Progressive Era African - 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ownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Professional and working class conflict Standard of living Wealth Issues Ages of consent Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights islamophobia LGBT rights racism same - sex marriage Drug policy Energy policy Environmental movement Gun politics Health care abortion health insurance hunger obesity smoking Human rights Immigration illegal International rankings National security Mass surveillance Terrorism Separation of church and state Outline Index Book Category Portal Theodore Roosevelt 26th President of the United States, 1901 -- 1909 25th Vice President of the United States, 1901 33rd Governor of New York, 1899 -- 1900 Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1897 -- 1898 New York City Police Commissioner, 1895 -- 1897 New York State Assemblyman, 1882 1883 1884 Presidency First inauguration historic site Second inauguration `` Square Deal '' Booker T. Washington dinner Conservation Newlands Reclamation Act Transfer Act of 1905 Antiquities Act Pelican Island Devils Tower National Monument Muir Woods National Monument Other National Monuments United States Forest Service, United States Reclamation Service National Wildlife Refuge System Roosevelt Arch Conference of Governors Northern Securities Company breakup court case Coal strike of 1902 Pure Food and Drug Act Food and Drug Administration Meat Inspection Act Expediting Act Elkins Act Hepburn Act Aldrich -- Vreeland Act Federal Employers Liability Act Kinkaid Act Big Stick ideology Hay -- Bunau - Varilla Treaty Panama Canal Zone Panama Canal Venezuelan crisis Roosevelt Corollary Occupation of Cuba Russo - Japanese War Treaty of Portsmouth 1906 Nobel Peace Prize Gentlemen 's Agreement of 1907 College football meetings Bureau of Investigation Department of Commerce and Labor Bureau of Corporations Keep Commission Inland Waterways Commission Bureau of the Census Great White Fleet Perdicaris incident Cabinet White House West Wing State of the Union Address, 1901 1906 1908 White House desk Federal judiciary appointments Other events Spanish -- American War Rough Riders Battle of Las Guasimas Battle of San Juan Hill `` Bull Moose '' Progressive Party New Nationalism Assassination attempt Boone and Crockett Club Smithsonian -- Roosevelt African Expedition `` River of Doubt '' Amazonian expedition Life and homes Birthplace, boyhood home replica Sagamore Hill Home and Museum Oyster Bay Elkhorn Ranch Maltese Cross Cabin Pine Knot cabin Gravesite Writings and speeches Theodore Roosevelt bibliography The Naval War of 1812 ( 1882 book ) `` The Strenuous Life '' ( 1899 speech ) `` Citizenship in a Republic '' ( 1910 speech ) `` Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual '' ( 1912 post-assassination - attempt speech ) Theodore Roosevelt : An Autobiography ( 1913 book ) The Forum magazine articles Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia Archival collections Elections New York state election, 1898 Republican National Convention, 1900 1904 1912 1916 United States presidential election, 1900 1904 1912 Legacy Mount Rushmore Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library White House Roosevelt Room Theodore Roosevelt National Park Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness Theodore Roosevelt Island Roosevelt National Forest Roosevelt Study Center Theodore Roosevelt Association Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park Monument Assemblage Roosevelt River Theodore Roosevelt Award Roosevelt Road U.S. Postage stamps Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Rider sculpture Equestrian statue Popular culture Teddy bear `` Speak softly, and carry a big stick '' Books Films Roosevelt in Africa 1910 documentary The Roosevelts 2014 documentary Related Political positions `` Bully pulpit '' Ananias Club `` Nature fakers '' Progressive Era A Guest of Honor Porcellian Club `` Muckraker '' National Collegiate Athletic Association `` Roosevelt Republican '' Family Alice Hathaway Lee ( first wife ) Edith Kermit Carow ( second wife ) Alice Lee Roosevelt ( daughter ) Theodore Roosevelt III ( son ) Kermit Roosevelt ( son ) Ethel Carow Roosevelt ( daughter ) Archibald Roosevelt ( son ) Quentin Roosevelt ( son ) Theodore Roosevelt Sr. ( father ) Martha Stewart Bulloch ( mother ) Anna Roosevelt ( sister ) Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt ( brother ) Corinne Roosevelt ( sister ) Cornelius Roosevelt ( grandfather ) James Stephens Bulloch ( grandfather ) James A. Roosevelt ( uncle ) Robert Roosevelt ( uncle ) James Dunwoody Bulloch ( half - uncle ) Irvine Bulloch ( uncle ) Theodore Douglas Robinson ( nephew ) Corinne Robinson ( niece ) Anna Eleanor Roosevelt ( niece ) Hall Roosevelt ( nephew ) ← William McKinley William Howard Taft → Category William Howard Taft 10th Chief Justice of the United States ( 1921 -- 1930 ) 27th President of the United States ( 1909 -- 1913 ) 3rd Provisional Governor of Cuba ( 1904 ) 42nd United States Secretary of War ( 1904 -- 1908 ) Governor - General of the Philippines ( 1901 - 1904 ) 6th Solicitor General of the United States ( 1890 -- 1892 ) Presidency 1909 inauguration Dollar diplomacy Income Tax amendment Payne -- Aldrich Tariff Act Mann -- Elkins Act Defense Secrets Act of 1911 Commission on Economy and Efficiency U.S. occupation of Nicaragua United States Chamber of Commerce Ceremonial first pitch State of the Union Address 1912 Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court First Oval Office Chief Justice, Supreme Court Supreme Court career Judiciary Act of 1925 Creation of the Supreme Court Building Taft Court cases Other actions Taft Commission Insular Government of the Philippine Islands Philippines Civil Governor, 1901 -- 1904 Taft -- Katsura agreement 1906 -- 1909 Occupation of Cuba League to Enforce Peace National War Labor Board Life and legacy Early life Birthplace, home, and historic site Woodbury Point Taft Bridge Bibliography U.S. Postage stamps Elections 1908 Republican National Convention 1908 U.S. presidential election 1912 Republican National Convention 1912 U.S. presidential election Family Helen Herron Taft ( wife ) Robert Taft ( son ) Helen Taft Manning ( daughter ) Charles Phelps Taft II ( son ) Robert Taft Jr. ( grandson ) William Howard Taft III ( grandson ) Seth Taft ( grandson ) Alphonso Taft ( father ) Louise Taft ( mother ) Charles Phelps Taft ( brother ) Henry Waters Taft ( brother ) Horace Dutton Taft ( brother ) Peter Rawson Taft ( paternal grandfather ) Related Progressive Era ← Theodore Roosevelt Woodrow Wilson → Category Woodrow Wilson 28th President of the United States ( 1913 -- 1921 ) 34th Governor of New Jersey ( 1911 -- 1913 ) 13th President of Princeton University ( 1902 -- 1910 ) Presidency 1913 inauguration Suffrage Parade 1917 inauguration The New Freedom Clayton Antitrust Act Farm Loan Act Federal Employees ' Compensation Act Federal Reserve System Federal Reserve Act Federal Income Tax amendment Federal Trade Commission Act Federal Trade Commission Revenue Act of 1913 Flag Day National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Occupation of Haiti Bryan -- Chamorro Treaty Philippine Autonomy Act World War I entry campaigns home front Committee on Public Information Espionage Act of 1917 Selective Service Act of 1917 Four Minute Men Sedition Act of 1918 National War Labor Board The Inquiry American Commission to Negotiate Peace Paris Peace Conference, 1919 Treaty of Versailles The Big Four Fourteen Points League of Nations charter 1919 Nobel Peace Prize Wilsonian Armenia Silent Sentinels Women 's Suffrage amendment Roosevelt desk Judicial appointments Supreme Court Cabinet State of the Union Address 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1920 Life Birthplace and Presidential Library papers and manuscripts Boyhood home in Georgia Boyhood home in South Carolina Princeton University president Summer White House ( Harlakenden Shadow Lawn ) Woodrow Wilson House Gravesite Books Congressional Government When a Man Comes to Himself The New Freedom ( 1913 ) Elections New Jersey gubernatorial election, 1910 1912 Democratic National Convention 1912 U.S. presidential election 1916 Democratic National Convention 1916 U.S. presidential election Legacy Wilsonianism Woodrow Wilson Foundation Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial Woodrow Wilson Bridge Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation U.S. Postage stamps U.S. Currency Popular culture Wilson ( 1944 film ) Profiles in Courage ( 1965 series ) Wilson ( 2013 book ) Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century ( 2002 documentary ) Family Joseph Ruggles Wilson ( father ) Jessie Janet Woodrow ( mother ) Ellen Axson Wilson ( wife, 1885 -- 1914 ; death ) Edith Bolling Wilson ( wife, 1915 -- 1924 ) Margaret Wilson ( daughter ) Jessie Wilson Sayre ( daughter ) Eleanor Wilson McAdoo ( daughter ) William McAdoo ( son - in - law ) Francis Sayre, Jr. ( grandson ) James Woodrow ( maternal uncle ) Related Progressive Era Jefferson Literary and Debating Society ← William Howard Taft Warren G. Harding → Category Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&oldid=843126184 '' Categories : American political philosophy Eras of United States history Progressivism in the United States Progressive Era in the United States Social ethics Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Use dmy dates from November 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Bân - lâm - gú Dansk فارسی Français 한국어 日本 語 Polski Русский සිංහල Svenska 中文 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 May 2018, at 01 : 53. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: what was the major purpose of the progressive movement
Answer: social activism and political reform