Lone pair - wikipedia Lone pair Lone pairs ( shown as pairs of dots ) in the Lewis structure of hydroxide In chemistry, a lone pair refers to a pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom and is sometimes called a non-bonding pair. Lone pairs are found in the outermost electron shell of atoms. They can be identified by using a Lewis structure. Electron pairs are therefore considered lone pairs if two electrons are paired but are not used in chemical bonding. Thus, the number of lone pair electrons plus the number of bonding electrons equals the total number of valence electrons around an atom. Lone pair is a concept used in valence shell electron pair repulsion theory ( VSEPR theory ) which explains the shapes of molecules. They are also referred to in the chemistry of Lewis acids and bases. However, not all non-bonding pairs of electrons are considered by chemists to be lone pairs. Examples are the transition metals where the non-bonding pairs do not influence molecular geometry and are said to be stereochemically inactive. Lone pairs in ammonia ( A ), water ( B ) and hydrogen chloride ( C ) A single lone pair can be found with atoms in the nitrogen group such as nitrogen in ammonia, two lone pairs can be found with atoms in the chalcogen group such as oxygen in water and the halogens can carry three lone pairs such as in hydrogen chloride. In VSEPR theory the electron pairs on the oxygen atom in water form the vertices of a tetrahedron with the lone pairs on two of the four vertices. The H -- O -- H bond angle is with 104.5 °, less than the 109 ° predicted for a tetrahedral angle, and this can be explained by a repulsive interaction between the lone pairs. Contents 1 Different descriptions of the lone pairs of water 2 Angle changes 3 Dipole moments 4 Unusual lone pairs 5 Stereogenic lone pairs 6 See also 7 References Different descriptions of the lone pairs of water The symmetry - adapted and hybridized lone pairs of H O In elementary chemistry courses, the lone pairs of water are described as `` rabbit ears '' : two equivalent electron pairs of approximately sp hybridization, 104.5 ° apart. The smaller bond angle is attributed to the larger space required by lone pairs compared to bonding pairs. As a modification of this basic picture, using the theory of isovalent hybridization, the O -- H bonds are considered to be constructed from O bonding orbitals of ~ sp hybridization ( ~ 80 % p character, ~ 20 % s character ), which leaves behind O lone pairs orbitals of ~ sp hybridization ( ~ 70 % p character, ~ 30 % s character ). These deviations from idealized sp hybridization are consistent with Bent 's rule. However, an alternative description of water using symmetry - adapted linear combinations treats the lone pairs of water as energetically and geometrically different : a lower energy in - plane orbital mixing s and p character ( σ ( out ), Mulliken symbol a ) and a higher energy orbital perpendicular to the plan of the molecule of pure 2p character ( p, Mulliken symbol b ). In fact, in the fully delocalized MO picture, the a `` nonbonding '' orbital actually consists of σ ( out ) mixed with the in - phase symmetry - adapted linear combination of the H ( 1s ) orbitals ( the small back lobe of σ ( out ) is able to interact ). Thus, a is actually weakly bonding in character. Both models are of value, but one must be careful of their applicability. Since only the symmetry - adapted orbitals are eigenfunctions of the effective Hamiltonian, one must consider the inequivalent orbitals when interpreting the photoelectron spectrum of water ( Koopmans ' theorem ), which does indeed show two signals corresponding to the different energy lone pairs. However, any set of orbitals obtained by taking linear combination of symmetry - adapted orbitals via unitary transformations, as the hybrid orbitals are, result in the same electron density. Thus, both models are equally good at accounting for much of the chemical and physical properties of water. For example, the hydrogen bonds of water form along the directions of the `` rabbit ears '' lone pairs, as a reflection of the high electron density. Because the use of hybridization provides a more intuitive view of chemical bonding and remains a common model, treatment of the water lone pairs as equivalent is widely accepted and useful. The use of similarly `` localized '' MO 's is common in organic chemistry. A similar situation arises when considering the two lone pairs on the carbonyl oxygen of a ketone, for instance. ( See article on localized molecular orbitals for more details. ) Angle changes The pairs often exhibit a negative polar character with their high charge density and are located closer to the atomic nucleus on average compared to the bonding pair of electrons. The presence of a lone pair decreases the bond angle between the bonding pair of electrons, due to their high electric charge which causes great repulsion between the electrons. They are also used in the formation of a dative bond. For example, the creation of the hydronium ( H O ) ion occurs when acids are dissolved in water and is due to the oxygen atom donating a lone pair to the hydrogen ion. This can be seen more clearly when looked at it in two more common molecules. For example, in carbon dioxide ( CO ), the oxygen atoms are on opposite sides of the carbon, whereas in water ( H O ) there is an angle between the hydrogen atoms of 104.5 o. Due to the repulsive force of the oxygen atom 's lone pairs, the hydrogens are pushed further away, to a point where the forces of all electrons on the hydrogen atom are in equilibrium. This is an illustration of the VSEPR theory. Dipole moments Lone pairs can make a contribution to a molecule 's dipole moment. NH has a dipole moment of 1.47 D. As the electronegativity of nitrogen ( 3.04 ) is greater than that of hydrogen ( 2.2 ) the result is that the N-H bonds are polar with a net negative charge on the nitrogen atom and a smaller net positive charge on the hydrogen atoms. There is also a dipole associated with the lone pair and this reinforces the contribution made by the polar covalent N-H bonds to ammonia 's dipole moment. In contrast to NH, NF has a much lower dipole moment of 0.24 D. Fluorine is more electronegative than nitrogen and the polarity of the N-F bonds is opposite to that of the N-H bonds in ammonia, so that the dipole due to the lone pair opposes the N-F bond dipoles, resulting in a low molecular dipole moment. Unusual lone pairs A stereochemically active lone pair is also expected for divalent lead and tin ions due to their formal electronic configuration of ns. In the solid state this results in the distorted metal coordination observed in the litharge structure adopted by both PbO and SnO. The formation of these heavy metal ns lone pairs which was previously attributed to intra-atomic hybridization of the metal s and p states has recently been shown to have a strong anion dependence. This dependence on the electronic states of the anion can explain why some divalent lead and tin materials such as PbS and SnTe show no stereochemical evidence of the lone pair and adopt the symmetric rocksalt crystal structure. In molecular systems the lone pair can also result in a distortion in the coordination of ligands around the metal ion. The lead lone pair effect can be observed in supramolecular complexes of lead ( II ) nitrate, and in 2007 a study linked the lone pair to lead poisoning. Lead ions can replace the native metal ions in several key enzymes, such as zinc cations in the ALAD enzyme, which is also known as porphobilinogen synthase, and is important in the synthesis of heme, a key component of the oxygen - carrying molecule hemoglobin. This inhibition of heme synthesis appears to be the molecular basis of lead poisoning ( also called `` saturnism '' or `` plumbism '' ). Computational experiments reveal that although the coordination number does not change upon substitution in calcium - binding proteins, the introduction of lead distorts the way the ligands organize themselves to accommodate such an emerging lone pair : consequently, these proteins are perturbed. This lone - pair effect becomes dramatic for zinc - binding proteins, such as the above - mentioned porphobilinogen synthase, as the natural substrate can not bind anymore - in those cases the protein is inhibited. In Group 14 elements ( the carbon group ), lone pairs can manifest themselves by shortening or lengthening single ( bond order 1 ) bond lengths, as well as in the effective order of triple bonds as well. The familiar alkynes have a carbon - carbon triple bond ( bond order 3 ) and a linear geometry of 180 ° bond angles ( figure A in reference ). However, further down in the group ( silicon, germanium, and tin ), formal triple bonds have an effective bond order 2 with one lone pair ( figure B ) and trans - bent geometries. In lead, the effective bond order is reduced even further to a single bond, with two lone pairs for each lead atom ( figure C ). In the organogermanium compound ( Scheme 1 in the reference ), the effective bond order is also 1, with complexation of the acidic isonitrile ( or isocyanide ) C-N groups, based on interaction with germanium 's empty 4p orbital. Stereogenic lone pairs ⇌ Inversion of a generic organic amine molecule at nitrogen. A lone pair can contribute to the existence of chirality in a molecule, when three other groups attached to an atom all differ. The effect is seen in certain amines, phosphines, sulfonium and oxonium ions, sulfoxides, and even carbanions. The resolution of enantiomers where the stereogenic center is an amine is usually precluded because the energy barrier for nitrogen inversion at the stereo center is low, which allow the two stereoisomers to rapidly interconvert at room temperature. As a result, such chiral amines can not be resolved, unless the amine 's groups are constrained in a cyclic structure ( such as in Tröger 's base ). See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lone pair. Ligand Coordination complex Highest occupied molecular orbital Inert pair effect Shared pair References Jump up ^ IUPAC Gold Book definition : lone ( electron ) pair Jump up ^ Organic Chemistry Marye Anne Fox, James K. Whitesell 2nd Edition 2001 Jump up ^ Organic chemistry John McMurry 5th edition 2000 Jump up ^ Concise Inorganic Chemistry J.D. Lee 4th Edition 1991 Jump up ^ Albright, T.A. ; Burdett, J.K. ; Whangbo, M. - H. ( 1985 ). Orbital Interactions in Chemistry. New York : Wiley. p. 102. ISBN 0471873934. Jump up ^ Ansyln, E.V. ; Dougherty, D.A. ( 2006 ). Modern Physical Organic Chemistry. Sausalito, CA : University Science Books. p. 41. ISBN 978 - 1 - 891389 - 31 - 3. Jump up ^ Housecroft, C.E. ; Sharpe, A.G. ( 2004 ). Inorganic Chemistry ( 2nd ed. ). Prentice Hall. p. 40. ISBN 978 - 0130399137. Jump up ^ Stereochemistry of Ionic Solids J.D. Dunitz and L.E. Orgel, Advan. Inorg. and Radiochem. 1960, 2, 1 -- 60 Jump up ^ Electronic origins of structural distortions in post-transition metal oxides : experimental and theoretical evidence for a revision of the lone pair model D.J. Payne, R.G. Egdell, A. Walsh, G.W. Watson, J. Guo, P. - A. Glans, T. Learmonth and K.E. Smith, Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 96, 157403 doi : 10.1103 / PhysRevLett. 96.157403 Jump up ^ The origin of the stereochemically active Pb ( II ) lone pair : DFT calculations on PbO and PbS A. Walsh and G.W. Watson, J. Sol. Stat. Chem. 2005, 178, 5 doi : 10.1016 / j. jssc. 2005.01. 030 Jump up ^ Influence of the Anion on Lone Pair Formation in Sn ( II ) Monochalcogenides : A DFT Study A. Walsh and G.W. Watson, J. Phys. Chem. B 2005, 109, 18868 doi : 10.1021 / jp051822r Jump up ^ Gourlaouen, Christophe ; Parisel, Olivier ( 15 January 2007 ). `` Is an Electronic Shield at the Molecular Origin of Lead Poisoning ? A Computational Modeling Experiment ''. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 46 ( 4 ) : 553 -- 556. doi : 10.1002 / anie. 200603037. PMID 17152108. Jump up ^ Jaffe, E.K. ; Martins, J. ; et al. ( 13 October 2000 ). `` The Molecular Mechanism of Lead Inhibition of Human Porphobilinogen Synthase ''. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 276 ( 2 ) : 1531 -- 1537. doi : 10.1074 / jbc. M007663200. PMID 11032836. Jump up ^ Scinicariello, Franco ; Murray, H. Edward ; et al. ( 15 September 2006 ). `` Lead and δ - Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase Polymorphism : Where Does It Lead ? A Meta - Analysis ''. Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 ( 1 ) : 35 -- 41. doi : 10.1289 / ehp. 9448. PMC 1797830. PMID 17366816. Jump up ^ Chhabra, Namrata ( November 15, 2015 ). `` Effect of Lead poisoning on heme biosynthetic pathway ''. Clinical Cases : Biochemistry For Medics. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016. Jump up ^ Richards, Anne F. ; Brynda, Marcin ; Power, Philip P. ( 2004 ). `` Effects of the alkali metal counter ions on the germanium -- germanium double bond length in a heavier group 14 element ethenide salt ''. Chem. Commun. ( 14 ) : 1592 -- 1593. doi : 10.1039 / B401507J. Jump up ^ Power, Philip P. ( December 1999 ). `` π - Bonding and the Lone Pair Effect in Multiple Bonds between Heavier Main Group Elements ''. Chemical Reviews. 99 ( 12 ) : 3463 -- 3504. doi : 10.1021 / cr9408989. PMID 11849028. Jump up ^ Vladimir Ya. Lee ; Akira Sekiguchi ( 22 July 2011 ). Organometallic Compounds of Low - Coordinate Si, Ge, Sn and Pb : From Phantom Species to Stable Compounds. John Wiley & Sons. p. 23. ISBN 978 - 1 - 119 - 95626 - 6. ^ Jump up to : Spikes, Geoffrey H. ; Power, Philip P. ( 2007 ). `` Lewis base induced tuning of the Ge -- Ge bond order in a `` digermyne '' ``. Chem. Commun. ( 1 ) : 85 -- 87. doi : 10.1039 / b612202g. PMID 17279269. Jump up ^ Power, Philip P. ( 2003 ). `` Silicon, germanium, tin and lead analogues of acetylenes ''. Chemical Communications ( 17 ) : 2091 -- 101. doi : 10.1039 / B212224C. PMID 13678155. Jump up ^ Quin, L.D. ( 2000 ). A Guide to Organophosphorus Chemistry, LOCATION : John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471318248. Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lone_pair&oldid=821635692 '' Categories : Theoretical chemistry Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Português Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi தமிழ் 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18 : 27. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: where are the lone-pair electrons on the central atom located
Answer: found in the outermost electron shell of atoms