Gandhara - wikipedia Gandhara For the kingdom in Hindu Epics, see Gandhara Kingdom. For other uses, see Gandhara ( disambiguation ). Gandhāra c. 1500 BCE -- 535 BCE Approximate boundaries of the Gandharan Empire, in northernwestern Pakistan, and northeast Afghanistan. Capital Charsadda ( Puṣkalavati ), and later Peshawar ( Puruṣapura ) Government Monarchy Historical era Ancient Era Established c. 1500 BCE Disestablished 535 BCE Succeeded by Achaemenid Empire Today part of Afghanistan Pakistan Part of a series on the History of Pakistan Timeline Ancient Palaeolithic Riwatian Culture, c. 1,900,000 BCE Soanian Culture, c. 500,000 -- 250,000 BCE Neolithic Mehrgarh, c. 7000 -- c. 3000 BCE Indus Valley Civilisation, c. 3300 -- c. 1700 BCE Early Harappan Period, c. 3300 -- c. 2600 BCE Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600 -- c. 1900 BCE Late Harappan Period, c. 1900 -- c. 1500 BCE Vedic Civilization, c. 1500 -- c. 500 BCE Bahlika Kingdom Kamboja Kingdom Kasmira Kingdom Madra Kingdom Sindhu Kingdom Swat culture Sudra Kingdom Achaemenid Empire, c. 550 -- c. 330 BCE Gedrosia, c. 542 -- c. 330 BCE Gandhara, c. 518 -- c. 330 BCE Arachosia, c. 518 -- c. 330 BCE Hindush, c. 517 -- c. 330 BCE Sattagydia, c. 516 -- c. 330 BCE Ror Dynasty, c. 489 -- c. 450 BCE Macedonian Empire, c. 329 -- c. 323 BCE Arachosia, c. 323 -- c. 312 BCE Gedrosia, c. 323 -- c. 312 BCE Paropamisadae, c. 323 -- c. 312 BCE Porus, c. 323 -- c. 312 BCE Taxiles, c. 323 -- c. 312 BCE Mauryan Empire, c. 322 -- c. 200 BCE Greco - Bactrian Kingdom, c. 190 -- c. 140 BCE Indo - Greek Kingdom, c. 170 -- c. 50 BCE Indo - Scythian Kingdom, c. 110 BCE -- c. 95 CE Apracharajas, c. 25 BCE -- c. 50 CE Paratarajas, c. 120 -- c. 300 CE Classical Parthian Empire, c. 90 BCE -- c. 25 CE Indo - Parthian Kingdom, c. 25 -- c. 80 CE Kushan Empire, c. 60 -- 345 CE Sasanian Empire, c. 250 -- 655 CE Kushano - Sasanian Kingdom, c. 240 -- 410 CE Kushanshahr Makuran Paradan Turgistan Gupta Empire, c. 345 -- c. 455 CE Rai Dynasty, c. 415 -- 644 CE Hephthalite Empire, c. 450 -- 560 CE Brahman Dynasty, c. 641 -- 725 CE Caliphate, c. 643 -- 860 CE Rashidun Caliphate, c. 643 -- 661 CE Umayyad Caliphate, c. 670 -- 860 CE Habbari Dynasty, c. 841 -- 1024 CE Kabul Shahi, c. 870 -- 1010 CE Samanid Empire, c. 905 -- 999 CE Medieval Ghaznavids, c. 999 -- 1186 CE Soomra Dynasty, c. 1024 -- 1351 CE Ghurid Dynasty, c. 1170 -- 1215 CE Delhi Sultanate, c. 1206 -- c. 1526 CE Mamluk Dynasty, c. 1206 -- c. 1290 CE Khilji Dynasty, c. 1290 -- c. 1320 CE Tugluq Dynasty, c. 1320 -- c. 1413 CE Sayyid Dynasty, c. 1414 -- c. 1451 CE Lodhi Dynasty, c. 1451 -- c. 1526 CE Mongol Empire, c. 1221 -- c. 1327 CE Chagatai Khanate, c. 1225 -- c. 1485 CE Ilkhanate, c. 1256 -- c. 1353 CE Chitral State, c. 1320 -- 1947 CE Raees Dynasty, c. 1320 -- 1620 CE Katoor Dynasty, c. 1570 -- c. 1947 CE Samma Dynasty, c. 1351 -- 1524 CE Arghun Dynasty, c. 1520 -- 1554 CE Mughal Empire, c. 1526 -- c. 1707 CE Kabul Subah, c. 1574 -- c. 1707 CE Lahore Subah, c. 1574 -- c. 1707 CE Multan Subah, c. 1574 -- c. 1707 CE Kashmir Subah, c. 1627 -- c. 1707 CE Thatta Subah, c. 1627 -- c. 1707 CE Suri Dynasty, c. 1540 -- c. 1556 CE Tarkhan Dynasty, c. 1554 -- 1591 CE Dir State, c. 1626 -- c. 1947 Modern Kalhora Dynasty, c. 1701 -- c. 1783 CE Durrani Empire, c. 1747 -- c. 1826 CE Talpur Dynasty, c. 1783 -- c. 1843 CE Khanate of Kalat, c. 1794 -- c. 1947 CE Kharan, c. 1801 -- c. 1947 CE Las Bela, c. 1802 -- c. 1947 CE Misl, c. 1716 -- c. 1799 CE Sikh Empire, c. 1799 -- c. 1849 CE State of Bahawalpur, c. 1802 -- c. 1849 CE Yusufzai State of Swat, c. 1802 -- c. 1947 CE Phulra, c. 1828 -- c. 1947 CE Makran, c. 1828 -- c. 1947 CE British Raj, c. 1858 -- c. 1947 CE Independence Movement Pakistan, c. 1947 CE -- present Dominion of Pakistan, c. 1947 -- 1956 CE Islamic Republic, c. 1956 CE -- present History of provinces Azad Jammu & Kashmir Balochistan East Pakistan Gilgit - Baltistan Islamabad Capital Territory Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Punjab Sindh Portal Gandhāra was an ancient kingdom situated in the northwestern region of Pakistan, around Peshawar. It encompassed the Peshawar valley and later extended to both Jalalabad district of modern - day Afghanistan as well as Taxila, in Pakistan. During the Achaemenid period and Hellenistic period, its capital city was Charsadda, but later the capital city was moved to Peshawar by the Kushan emperor Kanishka the Great in about 127 CE. Gandhara existed since the time of the Rigveda ( c. 1500 -- 1200 BC ), as well as the Zoroastrian Avesta, which mentions it as Vaēkərəta, the sixth most beautiful place on earth, created by Ahura Mazda. Gandhara was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC. Conquered by Alexander the Great in 327 BC, it subsequently became part of the Maurya Empire. As a center of Bactrian Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and later, Greco - Buddhism, and famed for its local tradition of Gandhara Art ( Greco - Buddhist ), Gandhara attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century under the Kushan Empire. The Persian term Shahi is used by history writer Al - Biruni to refer to the ruling dynasty that took over from the Kabul Shahi and ruled the region during the period prior to Muslim conquests of the 10th and 11th centuries. After it was conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1001 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During the Muslim period, the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul. During Mughal times, it was an independent district which included the Kabul province. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Stone age 3.2 Vedic Gandhara 3.3 Achaemenid Gandhara 3.4 Macedonian Gandhara 3.5 Mauryan Gandhara 3.6 Graeco - Bactrians, Sakas, and Indo - Parthians 3.7 Kushan Gandhara 3.8 Hepthalite Invasion 3.9 Kabul Shahi 3.10 Decline 4 Rediscovery 5 Taliban destruction of Buddhist relics 6 Language 7 Buddhism 7.1 Mahāyāna Buddhism 7.2 Buddhist translators 7.3 Textual finds 8 Art 9 Timeline 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Sources 14 Further reading 15 External links Name Gandhara was known in Sanskrit as गन्धार gandhāra, in Avestan as Vaēkərəta, in Old Persian as Para-upari - sena, in Chinese as 犍 陀 罗, and in Greek as Παροπαμισάδαι Paropamisadae. The name Gāndhāra occurs later in the classical Sanskrit of the epics. It is recorded in Avestan as Vaēkərəta. The Gandhari people are a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, the Atharvaveda, and later texts. One proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word gandha, meaning `` perfume '' and `` referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they ( the inhabitants ) traded and with which they anointed themselves. '' Some authors have connected the modern name Kandahar to Gandhara. A Persian form of the name, Gandara, is mentioned by Herodotus in the context of the story of the Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda, who sailed down the Indus River starting at the city of Caspatyrus in Gandara ( Κασπάτυρος, πόλις Γανδαρική ). Herodotus records that those Iranic tribes, which were adjacent to the city of Caspatyrus and the district of Pactyïce, had customs similar to the Bactrians, and are the most warlike amongst them. These are also the people who obtain gold from the ant - hills of the adjoining desert. On the identity of Caspatyrus, there have been two opinions, one equating it with Kabul, the other with the name of Kashmir ( Kasyapa pur, condensed to Kaspapur as found in Hecataeus ). Geography Female spouted figure, terracotta, Charsadda, Gandhara, 3rd to 1st century BC Victoria and Albert Museum The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout history. Sometimes the Peshawar Valley and Taxila were collectively referred to as Gandhara ; sometimes the Swat Valley ( Sanskrit : Suvāstu ) was also included. The heart of Gandhara, however, was always the Peshawar Valley. The kingdom was ruled from capitals at Kapisa ( Bagram ), Pushkalavati ( Charsadda ), Taxila, Puruṣapura ( Peshawar ) and in its final days from Udabhandapura ( Hund ) on the River Indus. History Mother Goddess ( fertility divinity ), possibly derived from the Indus Valley Civilization, terracotta, Sar Dheri, Gandhara, 1st century BC, Victoria and Albert Museum Stone Age Evidence of the Stone Age human inhabitants of Gandhara, including stone tools and burnt bones, was discovered at Sanghao near Mardan in area caves. The artifacts are approximately 15,000 years old. More recent excavations point to 30,000 years before the present. Vedic Gandhara Main articles : Gandhara Kingdom, Indo - Aryan migration, and Vedic civilization Gandhara was an ancient kingdom of Purushpura, extending between the Swat valley and Potohar plateau regions of Pakistan as well as the Jalalabad district of northeastern Afghanistan. Gandhara is mentioned in the Mahabharata as well as Ramayana also mentions it as a western kingdom. Gandhara prince Shakuni was the root of all the conspiracies of Duryodhana against the Pandavas, which finally resulted in the Kurukshetra War. Shakuni 's sister was the wife of the Kuru king Dhritarashtra and was known as Gandhari. Gandhara was in modern Pakistan. Puskalavati, Takshasila ( Taxila ) and Purushapura ( Peshawar ) were cities in this Gandhara kingdom. Takshasila was founded by Raghava Rama 's brother Bharata. Bharata 's descendants ruled this kingdom afterwards. During epic period it was ruled by Shakuni 's father Suvala, Shakuni and Shakuni 's son. Arjuna defeated Shakuni 's son during his post-war military campaign for Yudhishthira 's Aswamedha Yagna. The name of the Gandhāris is attested in the Rigveda ( RV 1. 126.7 ) and in ancient inscriptions dating back to Achaemenid Persia. The Behistun inscription listing the 23 territories of King Darius I ( 519 BC ) includes Gandāra along with Bactria and Sattagydia ( Θataguš ). In the book Histories by Herodotus, Gandhara is named as a source of tax collections for King Darius. The Gandhāris, along with the Balhika ( Bactrians ), Mūjavants, Angas, and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda ( AV 5.22. 14 ), as distant people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. The Aitareya Brahmana refers to King Sailusha of Gandhara who was a contemporary of Janaka, king of Videha. The primary cities of Gandhara were Puruṣapura ( Peshawar ), Takṣaśilā ( Taxila ), and Pushkalavati ( Charsadda ). The latter remained the capital of Gandhara down to the 2nd century AD, when the capital was moved to Peshawar. An important Buddhist shrine helped to make the city a centre of pilgrimage until the 7th century. Pushkalavati, in the Peshawar Valley, is situated at the confluence of the Swat and Kabul rivers, where three different branches of the River Kabul meet. That specific place is still called Prang ( from Prayāga ) and considered sacred ; local people still bring their dead there for burial. Similar geographical characteristics are found at site of Prang in Kashmir and at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna, where the sacred city of Prayag is situated, west of Benares. There are some legends in which the two rivers are said to be joined here by the underground Sarasvati River, forming a triveṇī, a confluence of three rivers. However, Rigvedic texts, and modern research, suggest that the path of the Sarasvati River was very different. It ended in the ocean at Kachchh in modern Gujrat and not at Prayag. The Gandharan city of Taxila was an important Buddhist and Hindu centre of learning from the 5th century BC to the 2nd century. Achaemenid Gandhara Main articles : Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley and Mahajanapadas The main Vedic tribes remaining in the Indus Valley by 550 BC were the Kamboja, Sindhu, Taksas of Gandhara, the Madras and Kathas of the River Chenab, Mallas of the River Ravi and Tugras of the River Sutlej. These several tribes and principalities fought against one another to such an extent that the Indus Valley no longer had one powerful Vedic tribal kingdom to defend against outsiders and to wield the warring tribes into one organized kingdom. The area was wealthy and fertile, yet infighting led misery and despair. King Pushkarasakti of Gandhara was engaged in power struggles against his local rivals and as such the Khyber Pass remained poorly defended. King Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire took advantage of the opportunity and planned for an invasion. The Indus Valley was fabled in Persia for its gold and fertile soil and conquering it had been a major objective of his predecessor Cyrus The Great. In 542 BC, Cyrus had led his army and conquered the Makran coast in southern Balochistan. However, he is known to have campaigned beyond Makran ( in the regions of Kalat, Khuzdar, Panjgur ) and lost most of his army in the Gedrosian Desert ( speculated today as the Kharan Desert ). In 518 BC, Darius led his army through the Khyber Pass and southwards in stages, eventually reaching the Arabian Sea coast in Sindh by 516 BC. Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or `` satrapy '' were established with provincial capitals : Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BC with its capital at Pushkalavati ( Charsadda ). Gandhara Satrapy was established in the general region of the old Gandhara grave culture, in what is today Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. During Achaemenid rule, the Kharosthi alphabet, derived from the one used for Aramaic ( the official language of Achaemenids ), developed here and remained the national script of Gandhara until 200 AD. The inscription on Darius ' ( 521 -- 486 BC ) tomb at Naqsh - i - Rustam near Persepolis records Gadāra ( Gandāra ) along with Hindush ( Hənduš, Sindh ) in the list of satrapies. By about 380 BC the Persian hold on the region had weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang up in Gandhara. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Gandhara as well as the Indian satrapies of the Persian Empire. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by his court historians and by Arrian ( around AD 175 ) in his Anabasis Alexandri and by other chroniclers many centuries after the event. Sir Mortimer Wheeler conducted some excavations there in 1962, and identified various Achaemenid remains. Coin of Early Gandhara Janapada : AR Shatamana and one - eighth Shatamana ( round ), Taxila - Gandhara region, c. 600 -- 300 BC A monetary silver coin of the satrapy of Gandhara about 500 - 400 BC. Obv : Gandhara symbol representing 6 weapons with one point between two weapons ; At the bottom of the point, a hollow moon. Rev : Empty. Dimensions : 14 mm Weight : 1.4 g. Macedonian Gandhara Main articles : Indian campaign of Alexander the Great and Macedonian Empire In the winter of 327 BC, Alexander invited all the chieftains in the remaining five Achaemenid satraps to submit to his authority. Ambhi, then ruler of Taxila in the former Hindush satrapy complied, but the remaining tribes and clans in the former satraps of Gandhara, Arachosia, Sattagydia and Gedrosia rejected Alexander 's offer. The first tribe they encountered were the Aspasioi tribe of the Kunar Valley, who initiated a fierce battle against Alexander, in which he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi eventually lost and 40,000 people were enslaved. Alexander then continued in a southwestern direction where he encountered the Assakenoi tribe of the Swat & Buner valleys in April 326 BC. The Assakenoi fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander and his army in the cities of Ora, Bazira ( Barikot ) and Massaga. So enraged was Alexander about the resistance put up by the Assakenoi that he killed the entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubble - similar slaughters followed in Ora. A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. The stories of these slaughters reached numerous Assakenians, who began fleeing to Aornos, a hill - fort located between Shangla and Kohistan. Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill - fort, eventually capturing and destroying the fort and killing everyone inside. The remaining smaller tribes either surrendered or like the Astanenoi tribe of Pushkalavati ( Charsadda ) were quickly neutralized where 38,000 soldiers and 230,000 oxen were captured by Alexander. Eventually Alexander 's smaller force would meet with the larger force which had come through the Khyber Pass met at Attock. With the conquest of Gandhara complete, Alexander switched to strengthening his military supply line, which by now stretched dangerously vulnerable over the Hindu Kush back to Balkh in Bactria. After conquering Gandhara and solidifying his supply line back to Bactria, Alexander combined his forces with the King Ambhi of Taxila and crossed the River Indus in July 326 BC to begin the Archosia ( Punjab ) campaign. Alexander founded several new settlements in Gandhara, Punjab and Sindh. and nominated officers as Satraps of the new provinces : In Gandhara, Oxyartes was nominated to the position of Satrap by Alexander in 326 BC. Mauryan Gandhara Approximate extent of Maurya empire under Ashoka. The empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bengal to southern India Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, is said to have lived in Taxila when Alexander captured the city. According to tradition, he trained under Kautilya, who remained his chief adviser throughout his reign. Supposedly using Gandhara and Vahika as his base, Chandragupta led a rebellion against the Magadha Empire and ascended the throne at Pataliputra in 321 BC. However, there are no contemporary Indian records of Chandragupta Maurya and almost all that is known is based on the diaries of Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus at Pataliputra, as recorded by Arrian in his Indika. Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all of his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title, and the gifts, but he also presented him with a wardrobe of : `` Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1000 talents in gold ''. Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund ( Fox 1973 ), supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander ; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip ( son of Machatas ) ; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself ( 323 BC ), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC. Later Ambhi was deposed and killed by Chandragupta Maurya, emperor of the Mauryan Empire. Gandhara was acquired from the Greeks by Chandragupta Maurya. After a battle with Seleucus Nicator ( Alexander 's successor in Asia ) in 305 BC, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domain up to and including present Southern Afghanistan. With the completion of the Empire 's Grand Trunk Road, the region prospered as a center of trade. Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire for about a century and a half. Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, was one of the greatest Indian rulers. Like his grandfather, Ashoka also started his career in Gandhara as a governor. Later he supposedly became a Buddhist and promoted this religion in his empire. He built many stupas in Gandhara. Mauryan control over the northwestern frontier, including the Yonas, Kambojas, and the Gandharas, is attested from the Rock Edicts left by Ashoka. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were cognate people. It is also contended that the Kurus, Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people and all had Iranian affinities, or that the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and hence influencing each other 's language. However, the local language of Gandhara is represented by Panini 's conservative bhāṣā ( `` language '' ), which is entirely different from the Iranian ( Late Avestan ) language of the Kamboja that is indicated by Patanjali 's quote of Kambojan śavati ' to go ' ( = Late Avestan šava ( i ) ti ). Graeco - Bactrians, Sakas, and Indo - Parthians Greco - Buddhist statue of standing Buddha, Gandhara ( 1st -- 2nd century ), Tokyo National Museum The decline of the Empire left the sub-continent open to Greco - Bactrian invasions. Present - day southern Afghanistan was absorbed by Demetrius I of Bactria in 180 BC. Around about 185 BC, Demetrius invaded and conquered Gandhara and the Punjab. Later, wars between different groups of Bactrian Greeks resulted in the independence of Gandhara from Bactria and the formation of the Indo - Greek kingdom. Menander I was its most famous king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala ( Sialkot ). He rebuilt Taxila ( Sirkap ) and Pushkalavati. He became a Buddhist and is remembered in Buddhist records for his discussions with the great Buddhist philosopher, Nāgasena, in the book Milinda Panha. Marine deities, Gandhara. Around the time of Menander 's death in 140 BC, the Central Asian Kushans overran Bactria and ended Greek rule there. Around 80 BC, the Sakas, diverted by their Parthian cousins from Iran, moved into Gandhara and other parts of Pakistan and Western India. The most famous king of the Sakas, Maues, established himself in Gandhara. By 90 BC the Parthians had taken control of eastern Iran and, around 50 BC, they put an end to the last remnants of Greek rule in today 's Afghanistan. Eventually an Indo - Parthian dynasty succeeded in taking control of Gandhara. The Parthians continued to support Greek artistic traditions. The start of the Gandharan Greco - Buddhist art is dated to about 75 -- 50 BC. Links between Rome and the Indo - Parthian kingdoms existed. There is archaeological evidence that building techniques were transmitted between the two realms. Christian records claim that around AD 40 Thomas the Apostle visited India and encountered the Indo - Parthian king Gondophares. Kushan Gandhara Casket of Kanishka the Great, with Buddhist motifs The Parthian dynasty fell about 75 to another group from Central Asia. The Kushans, known as Yuezhi in China ( argued by some to be ethnically Asii ) moved from Central Asia to Bactria, where they stayed for a century. Around 75, one of their tribes, the Kushan ( Kuṣāṇa ), under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises gained control of Gandhara and other parts of what is now Pakistan. The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of Indian sculpture. Many monuments were created to commemorate the Jatakas. Head of a bodhisattva, c. 4th century Gandhara 's culture peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka the Great ( 128 -- 151 ). The cities of Taxila ( Takṣaśilā ) at Sirsukh and Peshawar were built. Peshawar became the capital of a great empire stretching from Gandhara to Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of the Buddhist faith ; Buddhism spread to Central Asia and the Far East across Bactria and Sogdia, where his empire met the Han Empire of China. Buddhist art spread from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. Under Kanishka, Gandhara became a holy land of Buddhism and attracted Chinese pilgrims eager to view the monuments associated with many Jatakas. In Gandhara, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form. Under the Kushans new Buddhists stupas were built and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. Kanishka also built a great 400 - foot tower at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Chinese monks Faxian, Song Yun, and Xuanzang who visited the country. This structure was destroyed and rebuilt many times until it was finally destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century. Hepthalite invasion Gandhara fortified city depicted in a Buddhist relief The Hephthalite Huns captured Gandhara around 451, and did not adopt Buddhism, but in fact `` perpetrated frightful massacres. '' Mihirakula became a `` terrible persecutor '' of the religion. During their rule, Hinduism revived itself and the Buddhist Gandharan civilization declined. The travel records of many Chinese Buddhist pilgrims record that Gandhara was going through a transformation during these centuries. Buddhism was declining, and Hinduism was rising. Faxian traveled around 400, when Prakrit was the language of the people, and Buddhism was flourishing. 100 years later, when Song Yun visited in 520, a different situation was described : the area had been destroyed by the White Huns and was ruled by Lae - Lih, who did not practice the laws of the Buddha. Xuanzang visited India around 644 and found Buddhism on the wane in Gandhara and Hinduism in the ascendant. Gandhara was ruled by a king from Kabul, who respected Buddha 's law, but Taxila was in ruins, and Buddhist monasteries were deserted. Kabul Shahi Sharing of the Buddha 's relics, above a Gandhara fortified city. After the fall of the Sassanid Empire to the Arabs in 644, today 's Afghanistan region and Gandhara came under pressure from Muslims. But they failed to extend their empire to Gandhara. Gandhara was first ruled by local kings who later expanded their kingdom onto an empire. Gandhara was ruled from Kabul by Kabulshahi for next 200 years. Sometime in the 9th century the Kabul Shahi replaced the Shahi. Based on various Muslim records it is estimated this occurred in 870. According to Al - Biruni ( 973 -- 1048 ), Kallar, a Brahmin minister of the Kabulshahi, founded the Shahi dynasty in 843. The dynasty ruled from Kabul, later moved their capital to Udabhandapura. They built great temples all over their kingdoms. Some of these buildings are still in good condition in the Salt Range of the Punjab. Decline Jayapala was the last great king of this dynasty. His empire extended from west of Kabul to the river Sutlej. However, this expansion of Gandhara kingdom coincided with the rise of the powerful Ghaznavid Empire under Sabuktigin. Defeated twice by Sabuktigin and then by Mahmud of Ghazni in the Kabul valley, Jayapala gave his life on a funeral pyre. Anandapala, a son of Jayapala, moved his capital near Nandana in the Salt Range. In 1021 the last king of this dynasty, Trilochanapala, was assassinated by his own troops which spelled the end of Gandhara. Subsequently, some Shahi princes moved to Kashmir and became active in local politics. The city of Kandahar in Afghanistan is said to have been named after Gandhara. According to H.W. Bellow, an emigrant from Gandhara in the 5th century brought this name to modern Kandahar. Faxian reported that the Buddha 's alms - bowl existed in Peshawar Valley when he visited around 400 ( chapter XII ). In 1872 Bellow saw this huge begging bowl ( seven feet in diameter ) preserved in the shrine of Sultan Wais outside Kandahar. When Olaf Caroe wrote his book in 1958 ( Caroe, pp. 170 -- 171 ), this relic was reported to be at Kabul Museum. The present status of this bowl is unknown. Al Biruni writing c. 1030 CE, reported on the devastation caused during the conquest of Gandhara and much of northwest India by Mahmud of Ghazni following his defeat of Jayapala in the Battle of Peshawar at Peshawar in 1001 : Now in the following times no Muslim conqueror passed beyond the frontier of Kâbul and the river Sindh until the days of the Turks, when they seized the power in Ghazna under the Sâmânî dynasty, and the supreme power fell to the lot of Nâṣir - addaula Sabuktagin. This prince chose the holy war as his calling, and therefore called himself al - Ghâzî ( `` the warrior / invader '' ). In the interest of his successors he constructed, in order to weaken the Indian frontier, those roads on which afterwards his son Yamin - addaula Maḥmûd marched into India during a period of thirty years and more. God be merciful to both father and son ! Maḥmûd utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed there wonderful exploits, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people. Their scattered remains cherish, of course, the most inveterate aversion towards all Muslims. This is the reason, too, why Hindu sciences have retired far away from those parts of the country conquered by us, and have fled to places which our hand can not yet reach, to Kashmir, Benares, and other places. And there the antagonism between them and all foreigners receives more and more nourishment both from political and religious sources. During the closing years of the tenth and the early years of the succeeding century of our era, Mahmud the first Sultan and Musalman of the Turk dynasty of kings who ruled at Ghazni, made a succession of inroads twelve or fourteen in number, into Gandhar -- the present Peshwar valley -- in the course of his proselytizing invasions of Hindustan. < Fire and sword, havoc and destruction, marked his course everywhere. Gandhar which was styled the Garden of the North was left at his death a weird and desolate waste. Its rich fields and fruitful gardens, together with the canal which watered them ( the course of which is still partially traceable in the western part of the plain ), had all disappeared. Its numerous stone built cities, monasteries, and topes with their valuable and revered monuments and sculptures, were sacked, fired, razed to the ground, and utterly destroyed as habitations. Rediscovery Many stupas, such as the Shingerdar stupa in Ghalegay, are scattered throughout the region near Peshawar. By the time Gandhara had been absorbed into the empire of Mahmud of Ghazni, Buddhist buildings were already in ruins and Gandhara art had been forgotten. After Al - Biruni, the Kashmiri writer Kalhaṇa wrote his book Rajatarangini in 1151. He recorded some events that took place in Gandhara, and provided details about its last royal dynasty and capital Udabhandapura. In the 19th century, British soldiers and administrators started taking an interest in the ancient history of the Indian Subcontinent. In the 1830s coins of the post-Ashoka period were discovered, and in the same period Chinese travelogues were translated. Charles Masson, James Prinsep, and Alexander Cunningham deciphered the Kharosthi script in 1838. Chinese records provided locations and site plans for Buddhist shrines. Along with the discovery of coins, these records provided clues necessary to piece together the history of Gandhara. In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures north of Peshawar. He also identified the site of Taxila in the 1860s. From then on a large number of Buddhist statues were discovered in the Peshawar valley. Archaeologist John Marshall excavated at Taxila between 1912 and 1934. He discovered separate Greek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and a large number of stupas and monasteries. These discoveries helped to piece together much more of the chronology of the history of Gandhara and its art. After 1947 Ahmed Hassan Dani and the Archaeology Department at the University of Peshawar made a number of discoveries in the Peshawar and Swat Valley. Excavation of many of the sites of Gandhara Civilization are being done by researchers from Peshawar and several universities around the world. Taliban destruction of Buddhist relics Swat Valley in Pakistan has many Buddhist carvings, and stupas, and Jehanabad contains a Seated Buddha statue. Kushan era Buddhist stupas and statues in Swat valley were demolished after two attempts by the Taliban and the Jehanabad Buddha 's face was dynamited. Only the Buddhas of Bamiyan were larger than the carved giant Buddha statues in Swat near Mangalore which the Taliban attacked. The government did nothing to safeguard the statue after the initial attempts to destroy the Buddha, which did not cause permanent harm. But when a second attack took place on the statue, the feet, shoulders, and face were demolished. Islamists such as the Taliban, and looters, destroyed many of Pakistan 's Buddhist artifacts from the Buddhist Gandhara civilization especially in the Swat Valley. The Taliban deliberately targeted Gandhara Buddhist relics for destruction. The Christian Archbishop of Lahore, Lawrence John Saldanha, wrote a letter to Pakistan 's government denouncing the Taliban 's activities in Swat Valley including their destruction of Buddha statues and their attacks on Christians, Sikhs, and Hindus. Gandhara Buddhist artifacts were illegally looted by smugglers. A group of Italians helped repair the Buddha. Language The Gandharan Buddhist texts are both the earliest Buddhist as well as Asian manuscripts discovered so far. Most are written on birch bark and were found in labelled clay pots. Panini has mentioned both the Vedic form of Sanskrit as well as what seems to be Gandhari, a later form of Sanskrit, in his Ashtadhyayi. Gandhara 's language was a Prakrit or `` Middle Indo - Aryan '' dialect, usually called Gāndhārī. The language used the Kharosthi script, which died out about the 4th century. However, Punjabi, Hindko, and Kohistani, are derived from the Indo - Aryan Prakrits that were spoken in Gandhara and surrounding areas. However, a language shift occurred as the ancient Gandharan culture gave way to Iranian invaders from Central Asia. Buddhism Further information : Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Maitreya Bodhisattva, Gautama Buddha, and Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. 2nd -- 3rd century CE, Gandhāra Bronze statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. Fearlessness mudrā. 3rd century CE, Gandhāra Mahāyāna Buddhism Mahāyāna Pure Land sūtras were brought from the Gandhāra region to China as early as 147 CE, when the Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating some of the first Buddhist sūtras into Chinese. The earliest of these translations show evidence of having been translated from the Gāndhārī language. Lokakṣema translated important Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, as well as rare, early Mahāyāna sūtras on topics such as samādhi, and meditation on the buddha Akṣobhya. Lokaksema 's translations continue to provide insight into the early period of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This corpus of texts often includes and emphasizes ascetic practices and forest dwelling, and absorption in states of meditative concentration : Paul Harrison has worked on some of the texts that are arguably the earliest versions we have of the Mahāyāna sūtras, those translated into Chinese in the last half of the second century CE by the Indo - Scythian translator Lokakṣema. Harrison points to the enthusiasm in the Lokakṣema sūtra corpus for the extra ascetic practices, for dwelling in the forest, and above all for states of meditative absorption ( samādhi ). Meditation and meditative states seem to have occupied a central place in early Mahāyāna, certainly because of their spiritual efficacy but also because they may have given access to fresh revelations and inspiration. Some scholars believe that the Mahāyāna Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra was compiled in the age of the Kushan Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, by an order of Mahīśāsaka bhikṣus which flourished in the Gandhāra region. However, it is likely that the longer Sukhāvatīvyūha owes greatly to the Mahāsāṃghika - Lokottaravāda sect as well for its compilation, and in this sūtra there are many elements in common with the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu. There are also images of Amitābha Buddha with the bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta which were made in Gandhāra during the Kushan era. The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa records that Kaniṣka of the Kushan Empire presided over the establishment of the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings in the northwest. Tāranātha wrote that in this region, 500 bodhisattvas attended the council at Jālandhra monastery during the time of Kaniṣka, suggesting some institutional strength for Mahāyāna in the northwest during this period. Edward Conze goes further to say that Prajñāpāramitā had great success in the northwest during the Kushan period, and may have been the `` fortress and hearth '' of early Mahāyāna, but not its origin, which he associates with the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism. Buddhist translators Gandharan Buddhist missionaries were active, with other monks from Central Asia, from the 2nd century AD in the Han - dynasty ( 202 BC -- 220 AD ) at China 's capital of Luoyang, and particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They promoted scriptures from Early Buddhist schools as well as those from the Mahāyāna. These translators included : Lokakṣema, a Kushan and the first to translate Mahāyāna scriptures into Chinese ( 167 -- 186 ) Zhi Yao ( c. 185 ), a Kushan monk, second generation of translators after Lokakṣema Zhi Qian ( 220 -- 252 ), a Kushan monk whose grandfather had settled in China during 168 -- 190 Zhi Yue ( c. 230 ), a Kushan monk who worked at Nanjing Dharmarakṣa ( 265 -- 313 ), a Kushan whose family had lived for generations at Dunhuang Jñānagupta ( 561 -- 592 ), a monk and translator from Gandhāra Śikṣānanda ( 652 -- 710 ), a monk and translator from Oḍḍiyāna, Gandhāra Prajñā ( c. 810 ), a monk and translator from Kabul, who educated the Japanese Kūkai in Sanskrit texts Textual finds The Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited a Lokottaravāda monastery in the 7th century CE, at Bamiyan, Afghanistan. The site of this monastery has since been rediscovered by archaeologists. Birchbark and palm leaf manuscripts of texts in this monastery 's collection, including Mahāyāna sūtras, have been discovered at the site, and these are now located in the Schøyen Collection. Some manuscripts are in the Gāndhārī language and Kharoṣṭhī script, while others are in Sanskrit and written in forms of the Gupta script. Manuscripts and fragments that have survived from this monastery 's collection include the following source texts : Pratimokṣa Vibhaṅga of the Mahāsāṃghika - Lokottaravāda ( MS 2382 / 269 ) Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, a sūtra from the Āgamas ( MS 2179 / 44 ) Caṃgī Sūtra, a sūtra from the Āgamas ( MS 2376 ) Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra ( MS 2385 ) Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra ( MS 2385 ) Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra ( MS 2378 ) Pravāraṇa Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra ( MS 2378 ) Sarvadharmapravṛttinirdeśa Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra ( MS 2378 ) Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra ( MS 2378 ) Śāriputra Abhidharma Śāstra ( MS 2375 / 08 ) A Sanskrit manuscript of the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaiḍūryaprabhārāja Sūtra was among the textual finds at Gilgit, Pakistan, attesting to the popularity of the Medicine Buddha in Gandhāra. The manuscripts in this find are dated before the 7th century, and are written in the upright Gupta script. Art Greco - Buddhist Portraits from the site of Hadda, Gandhara, 3rd century, Guimet Museum Gandhāra is noted for the distinctive Gandhāra style of Buddhist art, which developed from a merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian artistic influences. This development began during the Parthian Period ( 50 BC -- AD 75 ). The Gandhāran style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period, from the 1st to the 5th centuries. It declined and was destroyed after the invasion of the White Huns in the 5th century. Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara -- Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Central Asia, and China. See also : Greco - Buddhist art Standing Bodhisattva ( 1st -- 2nd century ) Buddha head ( 2nd century ) Buddha head ( 4th -- 6th century ) Buddha in acanthus capital The Greek god Atlas, supporting a Buddhist monument, Hadda The Bodhisattva Maitreya ( 2nd century ) Wine - drinking and music, Hadda ( 1st -- 2nd century ) Maya 's white elephant dream ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) The birth of Siddharta ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) The Great Departure from the Palace ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) The end of ascetism ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) The Buddha preaching at the Deer Park in Sarnath ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) Scene of the life of the Buddha ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) The death of the Buddha, or parinirvana ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) A sculpture from Hadda, ( 3rd century ) The Bodhisattva and Chandeka, Hadda ( 5th century ) The Buddha and Vajrapani under the guise of Herakles Hellenistic decorative scrolls from Hadda, Afghanistan Hellenistic scene, Gandhara ( 1st century ) A stone plate ( 1st century ). `` Laughing boy '' from Hadda Bodhisattva seated in meditation Timeline Legend : Bharat, the brother of Lord Rama of Kosala, ruled from Gandhara, his sons were Taksh and Pushkala, who inhabited new cities called Taksha - shila ( Taxila ), and Pushkarvati ( Peshawar ). Tentative timeline for this event is 5000 BC or before that ( citation needed ). Legend : Gandhari, the princess of Gandhara is married to Dhritrashtra, the king of Hastinapur. The Ancient Indian scripture Mahabharata dates this event to be around 3000 BC ( citation needed ). c. 2300 -- c. 1900 BC Indus Valley civilization c. 1900 -- c. 520 BC No written records. Indo - Aryan migrations. Ramayana legend says Lord Rama 's brother Bharat ruled from Gandhara. c. 1500 -- c. 500 BC Gandhara grave culture c. 1200 -- c. 800 BC Gandhari people mentioned in Rigveda and Atharvaveda. c. 520 -- c. 326 BC Persian Empire. Under direct Persian control and / or local control under Achaemenid suzerainty. c. 326 -- c. 305 BC Occupied by Alexander the Great and Macedonian generals c. 305 -- c. 180 BC Controlled by the Maurya dynasty, founded by Chandragupta. Converted to Buddhism under King Ashoka ( 273 -- 232 BC ) c. 185 -- c. 97 BC Under control of the Indo - Greek Kingdom, with some incursions of the Indo - Scythians from around 100 BC c. 97 BC -- c. AD 7 Saka ( Indo - Scythian ) Rule c. 7 -- c. 75 Parthian invasion and Indo - Parthian Kingdom, Rule of Commander Aspavarman ?. Ambhi Kumar, king of Gandhara was a descendant of Lord Raghu and prince Bharat of Kosala Kingdom. c. 75 -- c. 230 Kushan Empire c. 230 -- c. 440 Kushanshas under Persian Sassanid suzerainty c. 450 -- c. 565 White Huns ( Hephthalites ) c. 565 -- c. 644 Nezak kingdom, ruled from Kapisa and Udabhandapura c. 650 -- c. 870 Kabul Shahi, ruled from Kabul c. 870 -- 1021 Hindu Shahi, ruled from Udabhandapura c. 1032 -- 1350 Conquered and controlled by the empire of Mahmud of Ghazni. See also History of Pakistan Gandhari people Kambojas Kashmir Smast Mahajanapadas Mankiala Notes Jump up ^ Sanskrit Puruṣapura, literally meaning `` city of men '', from puruṣa, `` ( primordial ) man '' and pura, `` city ''. Jump up ^ Takṣaśilā in Sanskrit and Takkasilā in Pali Jump up ^ Puṣkalavati meaning `` Lotus City '' in Sanskrit Jump up ^ NOTE : See long discussion under Mahajanapada from the Ancient Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya 's list of Mahajanapadas. References Jump up ^ `` Rigveda 1.126 : 7, English translation by Ralph TH Griffith ''. Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=8wM-dNOa7fMC&pg=PA130&dq=gandharis+rgveda#v=onepage&q=gandharis%20rgveda&f=false Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=FzmkFXSgxqgC&pg=PA120&dq=center+of+religion+hindu+taxila#v=onepage&q=center%20of%20religion%20hindu%20taxila&f=false Jump up ^ Kalhana Rajatarangini referred to them as simply Shahi and inscriptions refer to them as sahi. ( Wink, pg 125 ) Jump up ^ Al Biruni refers to the subsequent rulers as `` Brahman kings '' ; however, most other references such as Kalahan refer to them as kshatriyas. ( Wink, pg 125 ) Jump up ^ Kabul Shahi Jump up ^ Macdonell, Arthur Anthony ; Keith, Arthur Berriedale ( 1995 ). Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. 1. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 219. At Google Books. Jump up ^ Thomas Watters ( 1904 ). `` On Yuan Chwang 's travels in India, 629 -- 645 A.D. ''. Royal Asiatic Society. p. 200. Taken as Gandhavat the name is explained as meaning hsiang - hsing or `` scent - action '' from the word gandha which means scent, small, perfume. At the Internet Archive. Jump up ^ Adrian Room ( 1997 ). Placenames of the World. McFarland. Kandahar. City, south central Afghanistan At Google Books. Jump up ^ Herodotus ( 1920 ). `` 3.102. 1 ''. Histories. `` 4.44. 2 ''. Histories ( in Greek ). With an English translation by A.D. Godley. `` 3.102. 1 ''. Histories. `` 4.44. 2 ''. Histories. Cambridge : Harvard University Press. At the Perseus Project. Jump up ^ Smith, William, ed. ( 1854 ). `` Caspatyrus ''. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood. At the Perseus Project. Jump up ^ https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins01lahoiala Jump up ^ `` Rigveda 1.126 : 7, English translation by Ralph TH Griffith ''. Jump up ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre : Taxila Jump up ^ Histories, epigraphy and authority : Achaemenid and indigenous control in Pakistan in the 1st millennium BC ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Rafi U. Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara : The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing, 2011, p. 32 ISBN 0875868592 Jump up ^ Mukerjee, R.K. History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion. p. 46. Jump up ^ Curtius in McCrindle, p. 192, J.W. McCrindle ; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punjabi University, Patiala ( editors ) : Fauja Singh, L.M. Joshi ; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p. 134, Kirpal Singh. Jump up ^ `` Alexanders Empire - History of Ancient Pakistan ''. Jump up ^ Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p 131, Ch - Em Ruelle, Association pour l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France. Jump up ^ Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan Saletore. Jump up ^ Myths of the Dog - man, 199, p 119, David Gordon White ; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200 ; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums Association of India ; The Pāradas : A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p 52, Dr B.N. Mukherjee -- Pāradas ; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit - Sanskrit literature ; The Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of Indian Numismatics and Sigillography -- Numismatics ; Cf : Rivers of Life : Or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p 114, J.G.R. Forlong. Jump up ^ Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute ( Vadodara, India ) -- Oriental studies ; For Kuru - Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra Chakraberty 's views in : Literary history of ancient India in relation to its racial and linguistic affiliations, pp 14, 37, Vedas ; The Racial History of India, 1944, p 153, Chandra Chakraberty -- Ethnology ; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed -- Pakistan. Jump up ^ Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938, pp 38, 98 Dr T.L. Shah. Jump up ^ Rowland, Benjamin 1945 ' Ganhdara and Early Christian Art : Buddha Palliatus ', American Journal of Archaeology 49.4, 445 - 8 ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Bracey, R ' Pilgrims Progress ' Brief Guide to Kushan History Jump up ^ Grousset, Rene ( 1970 ). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 69 -- 71. ISBN 0 - 8135 - 1304 - 9. Jump up ^ Alberuni 's India. ( c. 1030 AD ). Translated and annotated by Edward C. Sachau in two volumes. Kegana Paul, Trench, Trübner, London. ( 1910 ). Vol. I, p. 22. ^ Jump up to : Henry Walter Bellow. The races of Afghanistan Being a brief account of the principal nations inhabiting that country. Asian Educational services. p. 73. Jump up ^ http://factsanddetails.com/asian/cat62/sub406/item2566.html Jump up ^ Malala Yousafzai ( 8 October 2013 ). I Am Malala : The Girl Who Stood Up for Education and Was Shot by the Taliban. Little, Brown. pp. 123 -- 124. ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 32241 - 6. Jump up ^ Wijewardena, W.A. ( 17 February 2014 ). `` ' I am Malala ' : But then, we all are Malalas, are n't we ? ''. Daily FT. Jump up ^ Wijewardena, W.A ( 17 February 2014 ). `` ' I am Malala ' : But Then, We All Are Malalas, Are n't We ? ''. Colombo Telegraph. Jump up ^ `` Attack on giant Pakistan Buddha ''. BBC NEWS. 12 September 2007. Jump up ^ `` Another attack on the giant Buddha of Swat ''. AsiaNews.it. 10 November 2007. Jump up ^ `` Taliban and traffickers destroying Pakistan 's Buddhist heritage ''. AsiaNews.it. 22 October 2012. Jump up ^ `` Taliban trying to destroy Buddhist art from the Gandhara period ''. AsiaNews.it. 27 November 2009. Jump up ^ Felix, Qaiser ( 21 April 2009 ). `` Archbishop of Lahore : Sharia in the Swat Valley is contrary to Pakistan 's founding principles ''. AsiaNews.it. Jump up ^ Rizvi, Jaffer ( 6 July 2012 ). `` Pakistan police foil huge artefact smuggling attempt ''. BBC News. Jump up ^ Khaliq, Fazal ( 7 November 2016 ). `` Iconic Buddha in Swat valley restored after nine years when Taliban defaced it ''. DAWN. Jump up ^ `` Khaljies are Afghan ''. Abdul Hai Habibi. alamahabibi.com. Retrieved 19 August 2012. Jump up ^ `` The Korean Buddhist Canon : A Descriptive Catalog ( T. 361 ) ''. Jump up ^ Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. India in Early Central Asia. 1996. p. 15 Jump up ^ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism : The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008. p. 30 ^ Jump up to : Nakamura, Hajime. Indian Buddhism : A Survey With Biographical Notes. 1999. p. 205 Jump up ^ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism : The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008. p. 239 Jump up ^ `` Gandharan Sculptural Style : The Buddha Image ''. ^ Jump up to : Ray, Reginald. Buddhist Saints in India : A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. 1999. p. 410 Jump up ^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist Saints in India : A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. 1999. p. 426 ^ Jump up to : `` Schøyen Collection : Buddhism ''. Retrieved 23 June 2012. ^ Jump up to : Bakshi, S.R. Kashmir : History and People. 1998. p. 194 Jump up ^ Vālmīki, `` Ramayana, the epic of Rama, prince of India '', page 181 Sources Beal, Samuel. 1884. Si - Yu - Ki : Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint : Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969. Beal, Samuel. 1911. The Life of Hiuen - Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I - Tsing. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint : Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973. Bellew, H.W. Kashmir and Kashgar. London, 1875. Reprint : Sang - e-Meel Publications 1999 ISBN 969 - 35 - 0738 - X Caroe, Sir Olaf, The Pathans, Oxford University Press, Karachi, 1958. Herodotus ( 1920 ). Histories ( in Greek and English ). With an English translation by A.D. Godley. Cambridge : Harvard University Press. Hill, John E. 2003. `` Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu ''. 2nd Edition : Through the Jade Gate to Rome : A Study of the Silk Routes, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. 2015. John E. Hill. Volume I, ISBN 978 - 1500696702 ; Volume II, ISBN 978 - 1503384620. CreateSpace, North Charleston, S.C. Hussain, J. An Illustrated History of Pakistan, Oxford University Press, Karachi, 1983. Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms : being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ - hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon ( A.D. 399 -- 414 ) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Reprint : Dover Publications, New York. 1965. Shaw, Isobel. Pakistan Handbook, The Guidebook Co., Hong Kong, 1989 Watters, Thomas. 1904 -- 5. On Yuan Chwang 's Travels in India ( A.D. 629 -- 645 ). Reprint : Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. 1973. Further reading Lerner, Martin ( 1984 ). The flame and the lotus : Indian and Southeast Asian art from the Kronos collections. New York : The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0 - 87099 - 374 - 7. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gandhara. Livius.org : Gandara The Buddhist Manuscript project University of Washington 's Gandharan manuscript Coins of Gandhara janapada Gandhara Civilization - National Fund for Cultural Heritage ( Pakistan ) Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire ( Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh - e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions ) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber - Nari Elam Kusha ( Nubia ) Gandhara Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Lydia Sattagydia Thrace Sogdia Yehud See also Districts of the Achaemenid Empire ( according to Herodotus ) Tribes and kingdoms mentioned in the Mahabharata Abhira Andhra Anarta Anga Anupa Assaka Asmaka Avanti Ay Bahlika Bhārata Chedi Chera Chola Chinas Dakshina Kosala Dakshinatya Danda Dasarna Dasharna Dasherka Dwaraka Gandhāra Garga Gomanta Gopa Rashtra Hara Huna Heheya Himalaya Huna Kanchi Kasmira Kalakuta Kalinga Kamboja Karnata Karusha Kashi Kekeya Kerala Khasa Kikata Kirata Kishkindha Konkana Kosala Kuru Kunti Lanka Madra Madraka Magadha Maha Chinas Mahisha Malla Malava Matsya Mekhalas Mleccha Mudgala Mushika Nasikya Nepa Niharas Nishada Odra Pallava Panchala Pandya Parada Parama Kamboja Parasika Parvartaka Parvata Pishacha Pragjyotisha Pratyagratha Prasthala Pundra Pulinda Saka Salva Salveya Salwa Saraswata Saurashtra Sauvira Shakya Sindhu Sinhala Sivi Sonita Sudra Suhma Surparaka Surasena Tangana Trigarta Tulu Tushara Ursa Uttara Kuru Uttara Madra Utkala Vidarbha Vanga Vatadhana Vatsa Videha Vidarbha Yavana Youdheya Mahajanapadas Great Indian Kingdoms ( c. 600 BCE -- c. 300 BCE ) Anga Assaka ( Asmaka ) Avanti Chedi Gandhara Kashi Kamboja Kosala Kuru Magadha Malla ( Mallarashtra ) Machcha ( Matsya ) Panchala Surasena Vriji Vatsa ( Vamsa ) Middle kingdoms of India Timeline and cultural period Northwestern India ( Punjab - Sapta Sindhu ) Indo - Gangetic Plain Central India Southern India Western Gangetic Plain ( Kuru - Panchala ) Northern India ( Central Gangetic Plain ) Northeastern India ( Northeast India ) IRON AGE Culture Late Vedic Period Late Vedic Period ( Brahmin ideology ) Painted Grey Ware culture Late Vedic Period ( Kshatriya / Shramanic culture ) Northern Black Polished Ware Pre-history 6th century BC Gandhara Kuru - Panchala Magadha Adivasi ( tribes ) Culture Persian - Greek influences `` Second Urbanisation '' Rise of Shramana movements Jainism - Buddhism - Ājīvika - Yoga Pre-history 5th century BC ( Persian rule ) Shishunaga dynasty Adivasi ( tribes ) 4th century BC ( Greek conquests ) Nanda empire Kalinga HISTORICAL AGE Culture Spread of Buddhism Pre-history Sangam period ( 300 BC -- 200 AD ) 3rd century BC Maurya Empire Early Cholas Early Pandyan Kingdom Satavahana dynasty Cheras 46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam Culture Preclassical Hinduism - `` Hindu Synthesis '' ( ca. 200 BC - 300 AD ) Epics - Puranas - Ramayana - Mahabharata - Bhagavad Gita - Brahma Sutras - Smarta Tradition Mahayana Buddhism Sangam period ( continued ) ( 300 BC -- 200 AD ) 2nd century BC Indo - Greek Kingdom Shunga Empire Maha - Meghavahana Dynasty Early Cholas Early Pandyan Kingdom Satavahana dynasty Cheras 46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam 1st century BC 1st century AD Indo - Scythians Indo - Parthians Kuninda Kingdom 2nd century Kushan Empire 3rd century Kushano - Sasanian Kingdom Kushan Empire Western Satraps Kamarupa kingdom Kalabhra dynasty Pandyan Kingdom ( Under Kalabhras ) Culture `` Golden Age of Hinduism '' ( ca. AD 320 - 650 ) Puranas Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism 4th century Kidarites Gupta Empire Varman dynasty Kalabhra dynasty Pandyan Kingdom ( Under Kalabhras ) Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty 5th century Hephthalite Empire Alchon Huns Kalabhra dynasty Pandyan Kingdom ( Under Kalabhras ) Vishnukundina 6th century Nezak Huns Kabul Shahi Maitraka Adivasi ( tribes ) Badami Chalukyas Kalabhra dynasty Pandyan Kingdom ( Under Kalabhras ) Culture Late - Classical Hinduism ( ca. AD 650 - 1100 ) Advaita Vedanta - Tantra Decline of Buddhism in India 7th century Indo - Sassanids Vakataka dynasty Empire of Harsha Mlechchha dynasty Adivasi ( tribes ) Pandyan Kingdom ( Under Kalabhras ) Pandyan Kingdom ( Revival ) Pallava 8th century Kabul Shahi Pala Empire Pandyan Kingdom Kalachuri 9th century Gurjara - Pratihara Rashtrakuta dynasty Pandyan Kingdom Medieval Cholas Pandyan Kingdom ( Under Cholas ) Chera Perumals of Makkotai 10th century Ghaznavids Pala dynasty Kamboja - Pala dynasty Kalyani Chalukyas Medieval Cholas Pandyan Kingdom ( Under Cholas ) Chera Perumals of Makkotai Rashtrakuta References and sources for table References Jump up ^ Samuel Jump up ^ Samuel Jump up ^ Michaels ( 2004 ) p. 39 Jump up ^ Hiltebeitel ( 2002 ) Jump up ^ Michaels ( 2004 ) p. 39 Jump up ^ Hiltebeitel ( 2002 ) Jump up ^ Micheals ( 2004 ) p. 40 Jump up ^ Michaels ( 2004 ) p. 41 Sources Flood, Gavin D. ( 1996 ), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press Hiltebeitel, Alf ( 2002 ), Hinduism. In : Joseph Kitagawa, `` The Religious Traditions of Asia : Religion, History, and Culture '', Routledge Michaels, Axel ( 2004 ), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey : Princeton University Press Samuel, Geoffrey ( 2010 ), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press Coordinates : 33 ° 45 ′ 22 '' N 72 ° 49 ′ 45 '' E ﻿ / ﻿ 33.7560 ° N 72.8291 ° E ﻿ / 33.7560 ; 72.8291 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gandhara&oldid=800381562 '' Categories : Former monarchies of Asia Former countries in South Asia States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC History of Pakistan Gandhara Achaemenid satrapies Kabul Shahi Ancient empires and kingdoms of India Ancient peoples Mahajanapadas Civilizations Kingdoms in the Ramayana Archaeological sites in Pakistan Locations in Hindu mythology Buddhist sites in Pakistan Buddhism in Afghanistan Hinduism in Afghanistan Geographic history of Afghanistan Hidden categories : CS1 Greek - language sources ( el ) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use British English from March 2013 Use dmy dates from September 2015 Former country articles requiring maintenance Pages using infobox former country with unknown parameters Articles containing Sanskrit - language text Articles containing Avestan - language text Articles containing Old Persian - language text Articles containing Chinese - language text Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015 All articles with links needing disambiguation Articles with links needing disambiguation from September 2017 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from July 2017 Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Bân - lâm - gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français ગુજરાતી 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Русский संस्कृतम् Scots සිංහල Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 September 2017, at 05 : 20. 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Question: where are the traces of gandhara art found
Answer: Afghanistan