Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - wikipedia Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Part of the Pacific War of World War II Atomic bomb mushroom clouds over Hiroshima ( left ) and Nagasaki ( right ) Date August 6 and August 9, 1945 Location Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Empire of Japan Result Allied victory Belligerents United States Manhattan Project : United Kingdom Canada Japan Commanders and leaders William S. Parsons Paul W. Tibbets, Jr. Charles Sweeney Frederick Ashworth Shunroku Hata Units involved Manhattan District : 50 U.S., 2 British 509th Composite Group : 1,770 U.S. Second General Army : Hiroshima : 40,000 ( 5 Anti-aircraft batteries ) Nagasaki : 9,000 ( 4 Anti-aircraft batteries ) Casualties and losses 20 British, Dutch, and American prisoners of war killed Hiroshima : 20,000 soldiers killed 70,000 -- 126,000 civilians killed Nagasaki : 39,000 -- 80,000 killed Total : 129,000 -- 226,000 + killed Pacific War Central Pacific Hawaii Marshalls - Gilberts raids Doolittle Raid Coral Sea Midway RY Solomons Gilberts & Marshalls Marianas & Palau Volcano & Ryukyu Truk Southeast Asia Indochina ( 1940 ) Indian Ocean ( 1940 -- 45 ) Philippines 1941 -- 42 Franco - Thai War Thailand Dutch East Indies Malaya Hong Kong Singapore Indochina ( 1945 ) Malacca Strait Jurist Tiderace Zipper Strategic bombing ( 1944 -- 45 ) Burma Burma ( 1941 -- 42 ) Burma ( 1942 -- 43 ) Burma ( 1944 ) Burma ( 1944 -- 45 ) Southwest Pacific Dutch East Indies 1941 -- 42 Portuguese Timor Australia New Guinea Philippines 1944 -- 45 Borneo 1945 North America Attack on Pearl Harbor Ellwood Aleutian Islands Estevan Point Lighthouse Fort Stevens Lookout Air Raids Fire balloon Project Hula PX Japan Air raids Mariana Islands Volcano & Ryukyu Is Tokyo Starvation Naval bombardments Yokosuka Sagami Bay Kure Downfall Hiroshima & Nagasaki Kurils Karafuto Japanese surrender Manchuria Kantokuen Manchuria ( 1945 ) Mutanchiang Sakhalin Island Kuril Islands Shumshu Second Sino - Japanese War During the final stage of World War II, the United States detonated two nuclear weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively. The United States dropped the bombs after obtaining the consent of the United Kingdom, as required by the Quebec Agreement. The two bombings killed at least 129,000 people, most of whom were civilians. They remain the only use of nuclear weapons in the history of warfare. In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a bloody invasion of the Japanese mainland. This undertaking was preceded by a conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities. The war in Europe had concluded when Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945. As the Allies turned their full attention to the war in the Pacific War, the Japanese faced the same fate. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945 -- the alternative being `` prompt and utter destruction ''. The Japanese ignored the ultimatum and the war continued. By August 1945, the Allies ' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs, and the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands. Orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. On August 6, one of its B - 29s dropped a Little Boy uranium gun - type bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, on August 9, a Fat Man plutonium implosion - type bomb was dropped by another B - 29 on Nagasaki. The bombs immediately devastated their targets. Over the next two to four months, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000 -- 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000 -- 80,000 people in Nagasaki ; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. Large numbers of people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition, for many months afterward. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison. Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war. On September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The ethical and legal justification for the bombings is still debated to this day. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Pacific War 1.2 Preparations to invade Japan 1.3 Air raids on Japan 1.4 Atomic bomb development 2 Preparations 2.1 Organization and training 2.2 Choice of targets 2.3 Proposed demonstration 2.4 Leaflets 2.5 Consultation with Britain and Canada 2.6 Potsdam Declaration 2.7 Bombs 3 Hiroshima 3.1 Hiroshima during World War II 3.2 Bombing of Hiroshima 3.3 Events on the ground 3.4 Japanese realization of the bombing 4 Events of August 7 -- 9 5 Nagasaki 5.1 Nagasaki during World War II 5.2 Bombing of Nagasaki 5.3 Events on the ground 6 Plans for more atomic attacks on Japan 7 Surrender of Japan and subsequent occupation 8 Reportage 9 Post-attack casualties 9.1 Cancer increases 9.2 Birth defect investigations 9.3 Investigations into brain development 10 Hibakusha 10.1 Double survivors 10.2 Korean survivors 11 Memorials 12 Debate over bombings 13 Legacy 14 Public opinion in the West 15 Notes 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links Background Pacific War Main article : Pacific War Situation of the Pacific War on August 1, 1945. Areas still controlled by Japan ( in white and green ) included Korea, Taiwan, Indochina, and much of China, including most of the main cities, and the Dutch East Indies. Allied - held areas are in red, with the neutral Soviet Union and Mongolia in grey. In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by the United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action. Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all - time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. America 's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war - weary, and demanding that long - serving servicemen be sent home. In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, and invaded Borneo. Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5 : 1 in the Philippines to 2 : 1 on Okinawa. Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99 % of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April -- June 1945, 94 % were killed ; 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedented large number. As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan 's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 % of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan 's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan 's production of 70,000 for the entire war. By the middle of 1944, the U.S. had almost a hundred aircraft carriers in the Pacific, far more than Japan 's twenty - five for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate. Preparations to invade Japan Main article : Operation Downfall Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall, the Allied invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts : Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū. Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First, Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass. U.S. Army propaganda poster prepares the public for the invasion of Japan after ending war on Germany and Italy Japan 's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese ; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all - out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan, and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths. A study from June 15, 1945, by the Joint War Plans Committee, who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Olympic would result in between 130,000 and 220,000 U.S. casualties, of which U.S. dead would be in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on June 15, 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan 's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General of the Army George Marshall, and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate. The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley. Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk, and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million. Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon that was `` readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives '' : poison gas. Quantities of phosgene, mustard gas, tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan. Air raids on Japan Main article : Air raids on Japan A B - 29 over Osaka on June 1, 1945 While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long - ranged Boeing B - 29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India - based B - 29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber 's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities. Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B - 29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B - 29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on November 18, 1944. The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China - based B - 29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so - called high - altitude precision bombing, aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action. The Operation Meetinghouse firebombing of Tokyo on the night of March 9 -- 10, 1945, was the single deadliest air raid in history ; with a greater area of fire damage and loss of life than either of the nuclear bombings of Hiroshima or Nagasaki. Hansell 's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay, assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low - level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries. Like most strategic bombing during World War II, the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy 's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale. Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 67 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo, codenamed Operation Meetinghouse, on March 9 -- 10 killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 16 square miles ( 41 km ) of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B - 29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 % of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan 's `` paper cities ''. By mid-June, Japan 's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka, the U.S. fire - bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. These raids were devastating. The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country 's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and antiaircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids in order to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B - 29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, in order to conserve supplies of fuel. In July 1945, the Japanese had 1,156,000 US barrels ( 137,800,000 l ) of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About 604,000 US barrels ( 72,000,000 l ) had been consumed in the home islands area in April, May and June 1945. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids. Atomic bomb development Main article : Manhattan Project The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein - Szilard letter. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium - 235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water. The 1943 Quebec Agreement merged the nuclear weapons projects of the United Kingdom and Canada, Tube Alloys and the Montreal Laboratory, with the Manhattan Project, under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out. Two types of bombs were eventually developed, both named by Robert Serber. Little Boy was a gun - type fission weapon that used uranium - 235, a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The other, known as a Fat Man device, was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion - type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington. There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program, but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb. Preparations Organization and training Aircraft of the 509th Composite Group that took part in the Hiroshima bombing. Left to right : Big Stink, The Great Artiste, Enola Gay The 509th Composite Group was constituted on December 9, 1944, and activated on December 17, 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets. Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a `` composite '' rather than a `` bombardment '' unit. Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas, and Mountain Home, Idaho, because of its remoteness. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat - ready. The `` Tinian Joint Chiefs '' : Captain William S. Parsons ( left ), Rear Admiral William R. Purnell ( center ), and Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell ( right ) The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta, known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B - 29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel - injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible - pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements. The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on April 26, 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men flew by C - 54 to North Field on Tinian, between May 15 and May 22. There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the `` Tinian Joint Chiefs ''. Choice of targets The mission runs of August 6 and 9, with Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Kokura ( the original target for August 9 ) displayed In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF ; and scientists John von Neumann, Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on April 27 ; at Los Alamos on May 10, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there ; and finally in Washington on May 28, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project 's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman. The Target Committee nominated five targets : Kokura, the site of one of Japan 's largest munitions plants ; Hiroshima, an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters ; Yokohama, an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries ; Niigata, a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery ; and Kyoto, a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria : The target was larger than 3 mi ( 4.8 km ) in diameter and was an important target in a large city. The blast would create effective damage. The target was unlikely to be attacked by August 1945. These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as `` an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target. '' The Target Committee stated that `` It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are ( 1 ) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and ( 2 ) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that a large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor 's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value. '' Edwin O. Reischauer, a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service, was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim :... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier. On May 30, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On July 25, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan 's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance. Proposed demonstration In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy. During the meetings on May 31 and June 1, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that : It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all - too - long intervals. We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan 's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war. The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16, saying that `` we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war ; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use. '' Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re-examine its earlier conclusions ; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target. Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a dud since the Trinity test was of a stationary device, not an air - dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at the start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive. Leaflets Various leaflets were dropped on Japan, three versions showing the names of 11 or 12 Japanese cities targeted for destruction by firebombing. The other side contained text stating ``... we can not promise that only these cities will be among those attacked... '' For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings ; some were as much as 97 % destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area - bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice `` to appeal to their compatriots ''. In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer - led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership. No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was July 27, and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it was July 30. The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on July 27, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on July 30. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on August 1 and August 4. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing ; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese ``... we can not promise that only these cities will be among those attacked... '' Hiroshima was not listed. Consultation with Britain and Canada General Thomas Handy 's order to General Carl Spaatz ordering the dropping of the atomic bombs Under the Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom, nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee was held at the Pentagon on July 4, 1945. Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, at the upcoming Potsdam Conference, as this also required British concurrence. Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on July 25 under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting Chief of Staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. It read : The 509th Composite Group, 20th Air Force will deliver its first special bomb as soon as weather will permit visual bombing after about 3 August 1945 on one of the targets : Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata and Nagasaki. To carry military and civilian scientific personnel from the War Department to observe and record the effects of the explosion of the bomb, additional aircraft will accompany the airplane carrying the bomb. The observing planes will stay several miles distant from the point of impact of the bomb. Additional bombs will be delivered on the above targets as soon as made ready by the project staff. Further instructions will be issued concerning targets other than those listed above. That day, Truman noted in his diary that : This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the leader of the world for the common welfare can not drop that terrible bomb on the old capital ( Kyoto ) or the new ( Tokyo ). He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one. Potsdam declaration Main article : Potsdam Declaration The July 16 success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. On July 26, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in `` the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland ''. The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué. On July 28, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash ( yakinaoshi ) of the Cairo Declaration and that the government intended to ignore it ( mokusatsu, `` kill by silence '' ). The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position. Japan 's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai ( Imperial institution and national polity ), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands, Korea or Formosa, and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government. At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal to Wilson. Bombs The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. There were two uranium - 235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile was completed on June 15, and the target insert on July 24. The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies ( partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components ) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on July 16 aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis, and arrived on Tinian on July 26. The target insert followed by air on July 30, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta. Responding to concerns expressed by the 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B - 29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight. The first plutonium core, along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator, was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C - 54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on July 26, and arrived at North Field July 28. Three Fat Man high - explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on July 28 by three B - 29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on August 2. Hiroshima Hiroshima during World War II The Enola Gay dropped the `` Little Boy '' atomic bomb on Hiroshima. In this photograph are five of the aircraft 's ground crew with mission commander Paul Tibbets in the center. At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army, which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle. Hata 's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army, the 5th Division and the 224th Division, a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 7 - cm and 8 - cm ( 2.8 and 3.1 inch ) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city. Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military. The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops. It was a beehive of war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns. The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage. It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command 's priority target. On July 3, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto. The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000 -- 350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks. These continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6, 1945. Bombing of Hiroshima Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on August 6, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. The 393d Bombardment Squadron B - 29 Enola Gay, named after Tibbets ' mother and piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian, about six hours ' flight time from Japan. Enola Gay was accompanied by two other B - 29s. The Great Artiste, commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, which carried instrumentation, and a then - nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt, which served as the photography aircraft. Strike order for the Hiroshima bombing as posted on August 5, 1945 Special Mission 13, Primary target Hiroshima, August 6, 1945 Aircraft Pilot Call Sign Mission role Straight Flush Major Claude R. Eatherly Dimples 85 Weather reconnaissance ( Hiroshima ) Jabit III Major John A. Wilson Dimples 71 Weather reconnaissance ( Kokura ) Full House Major Ralph R. Taylor Dimples 83 Weather reconnaissance ( Nagasaki ) Enola Gay Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Dimples 82 Weapon delivery The Great Artiste Major Charles W. Sweeney Dimples 89 Blast measurement instrumentation Necessary Evil Captain. George W. Marquardt Dimples 91 Strike observation and photography Top Secret Captain Charles F. McKnight Dimples 72 Strike spare -- did not complete mission After leaving Tinian the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05 : 55 at 9,200 feet ( 2,800 m ), and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 31,060 feet ( 9,470 m ). Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb in flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B - 29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B - 29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area. The Hiroshima atom bomb cloud 2 -- 5 minutes after detonation During the night of August 5 -- 6, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi, 261 en route to Nishinomiya, 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all - clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00 : 05. About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay. It read : `` Cloud cover less than 3 / 10th at all altitudes. Advice : bomb primary. '' The all - clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07 : 09. At 08 : 09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee. The release at 08 : 15 ( Hiroshima time ) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg ( 141 lb ) of uranium - 235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 31,000 feet ( 9,400 m ) to a detonation height of about 1,900 feet ( 580 m ) above the city. Enola Gay traveled 11.5 mi ( 18.5 km ) before it felt the shock waves from the blast. Due to crosswind, the bomb missed the aiming point, the Aioi Bridge, by approximately 800 ft ( 240 m ) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic. It released the equivalent energy of 16 kilotons of TNT ( 67 TJ ), ± 2 kt. The weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7 % of its material fissioning. The radius of total destruction was about 1 mile ( 1.6 km ), with resulting fires across 4.4 square miles ( 11 km ). Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was ten miles away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon ; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. `` It was hard to believe what we saw '', Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said `` the whole thing was tremendous and awe - inspiring... the men aboard with me gasped ' My God ' ''. He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to `` a close burst of ack - ack fire ''. Events on the ground People on the ground reported a pika ( ピカ ) -- a brilliant flash of light -- followed by a don ( ドン ) -- a loud booming sound. Some 70,000 -- 80,000 people, or around 30 % of the population of Hiroshima, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 were injured. Perhaps as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed. U.S. surveys estimated that 4.7 square miles ( 12 km ) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 -- 7 % damaged. Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall, now commonly known as the Genbaku ( A-bomb ) dome. This building was designed and built by the Czech architect Jan Letzel, and was only 150 m ( 490 ft ) from ground zero. The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective. The bombing started fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes. As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective. The intense fires started gutted everything in a 2 kilometres ( 1.2 mi ) radius. Hiroshima bombing Hiroshima in the aftermath of the bombing Injured civilian casualties The Hiroshima Genbaku Dome after the bombing The clothes pattern, in the tight - fitting areas on this survivor, shown burnt into the skin. Direct, thermal flash burns 22 - year old victim Toyoko Kugata being treated at the Hiroshima Red Cross Hospital ( October 6, 1945 ) The air raid warning had been cleared at 07 : 31, and many people were outside, going about their activities. Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, being in the basement of a reinforced concrete building ( it remained as the Rest House after the war ) only 170 metres ( 560 ft ) from ground zero ( the hypocenter ) at the time of the attack. He died in 1982, aged 84. Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She was in the solidly built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters ( 980 ft ) from ground - zero at the time of the attack. For decades this `` Hiroshima strike '' photo was misidentified as the mushroom cloud of the bomb that formed at c. 08 : 16. However, due to its much greater height, the scene was identified by a researcher in March 2016 as the firestorm - cloud that engulfed the city, a fire that reached its peak intensity some three hours after the bomb. Over 90 % of the doctors and 93 % of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured -- most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage. The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki, remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital. Nonetheless, by early afternoon, the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library. Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were at physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle, barely 900 yards ( 820 m ) from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground. The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been mobilized to serve as a communications officer had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi, when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters ( some 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) away ) that `` Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near - total destruction. '' Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Hata, who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including a Korean prince of the Joseon Dynasty, Yi Wu, who was serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Japanese Army. Hata 's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto, who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used suicide boats, intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina. Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city. Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters, about 1,300 feet ( 400 m ) from the hypocenter of the blast. Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai, where they were stoned to death. Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up. Japanese realization of the bombing Hiroshima before the bombing Hiroshima after the bombing and firestorm The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed. About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within 16 km ( 10 mi ) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff. Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff ; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor. The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km ( 100 mi ) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb. After circling the city in order to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo 's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman 's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later. Events of August 7 -- 9 See also : Mokusatsu Truman announcing the bombing of Hiroshima President Truman announces the bombing of Hiroshima, which he describes as `` a military base ''. Problems playing this file ? See media help. After the Hiroshima bombing, Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon. He stated, `` We may be grateful to Providence '' that the German atomic bomb project had failed, and that the United States and its allies had `` spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history -- and won ''. Truman then warned Japan : `` If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware. '' This was a widely broadcast speech picked up by Japanese news agencies. Leaflet AB12, with information on the Hiroshima bomb and a warning to civilians to petition the Emperor to surrender was dropped over Japan beginning on August 9, by the 509th Composite Group. An AB11 is in the possession of the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum. The 50,000 - watt standard wave station on Saipan, the OWI radio station, broadcast a similar message to Japan every 15 minutes about Hiroshima, stating that more Japanese cities would face a similar fate in the absence of immediate acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and emphatically urged civilians to evacuate major cities. Radio Japan, which continued to extoll victory for Japan by never surrendering, had informed the Japanese of the destruction of Hiroshima by a single bomb. Prime Minister Suzuki felt compelled to meet the Japanese press, to whom he reiterated his government 's commitment to ignore the Allies ' demands and fight on. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact on August 5. At two minutes past midnight on August 9, Tokyo time, Soviet infantry, armor, and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Four hours later, word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's official declaration of war. The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation, with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami, in order to stop anyone attempting to make peace. On August 7, a day after Hiroshima was destroyed, Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city, and carefully examined the damage. They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by an atomic bomb. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, the Chief of the Naval General Staff, estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied, so they decided to endure the remaining attacks, acknowledging `` there would be more destruction but the war would go on ''. American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet 's messages. Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9. Parsons agreed to try to do so. Nagasaki Nagasaki during World War II The Bockscar and its crew, who dropped a Fat Man atomic bomb on Nagasaki The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan, and was of great wartime importance because of its wide - ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards, Electrical Shipyards, Arms Plant, and Steel and Arms Works, which employed about 90 % of the city 's labor force, and accounted for 90 % of the city 's industry. Although an important industrial city, Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN / APQ - 13 radar. Unlike the other target cities, Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's July 3 directive, and was bombed on a small scale five times. During one of these raids on August 1, a number of conventional high - explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. By early August, the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm ( 2.8 in ) anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries. In contrast to Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings were of old - fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber - framed buildings with timber walls ( with or without plaster ) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan ; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki. Bombing of Nagasaki Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets. Scheduled for August 11 against Kokura, the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five - day period of bad weather forecast to begin on August 10. Three bomb pre-assemblies had been transported to Tinian, labeled F - 31, F - 32, and F - 33 on their exteriors. On August 8, a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane. Assembly F - 33 was expended testing the components and F - 31 was designated for the August 9 mission. Strike order for the Nagasaki bombing as posted August 8, 1945 Special Mission 16, Secondary target Nagasaki, August 9, 1945 Aircraft Pilot Call Sign Mission role Enola Gay Captain George W. Marquardt Dimples 82 Weather reconnaissance ( Kokura ) Laggin ' Dragon Captain Charles F. McKnight Dimples 95 Weather reconnaissance ( Nagasaki ) Bockscar Major Charles W. Sweeney Dimples 77 Weapon delivery The Great Artiste Captain Frederick C. Bock Dimples 89 Blast measurement instrumentation Big Stink Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Dimples 90 Strike observation and photography Full House Major Ralph R. Taylor Dimples 83 Strike spare -- did not complete mission At 03 : 49 on the morning of August 9, 1945, Bockscar, flown by Sweeney 's crew, carried Fat Man, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission, with two B - 29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B - 29s in Sweeney 's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission. Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged. During pre-flight inspection of Bockscar, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons ( 2,400 l ; 530 imp gal ) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours ; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission. This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission, flying as observers on the third plane, Big Stink, flown by the group 's operations officer, Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear. When Sweeney 's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan, Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous. According to Cheshire, Hopkins was at varying heights including 9,000 feet ( 2,700 m ) higher than he should have been, and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock, who was piloting the support B - 29 The Great Artiste. Instead, Hopkins was flying 40 - mile ( 64 km ) dogleg patterns. Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes, Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink for forty minutes. Before leaving the rendezvous point, Sweeney consulted Ashworth, who was in charge of the bomb. As commander of the aircraft, Sweeney made the decision to proceed to the primary, the city of Kokura. Nagasaki before and after the bombing and the fires had long since burnt out After exceeding the original departure time limit by nearly a half - hour, Bockscar, accompanied by The Great Artiste, proceeded to Kokura, thirty minutes away. The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B - 29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. Additionally, the Yawata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar, to produce black smoke. The clouds and smoke resulted in 70 % of the area over Kokura being covered, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses around Kokura, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser, who was monitoring Japanese communications, reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands. After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump, Bockscar and The Great Artiste headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa, which had become entirely Allied - occupied territory only six weeks earlier. After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary, Ashworth agreed with Sweeney 's suggestion that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured. At about 07 : 50 Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the `` all clear '' signal was given at 08 : 30. When only two B - 29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10 : 53, the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given. A few minutes later at 11 : 00, The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes. These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane, a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California, Berkeley, urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction. The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later. In 1949, one of the authors of the letter, Luis Alvarez, met with Sagane and signed the document. At 11 : 01, a last - minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscar 's bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, to visually sight the target as ordered. The Fat Man weapon, containing a core of about 5 kg ( 11 lb ) of plutonium, was dropped over the city 's industrial valley. It exploded 47 seconds later at 1,650 ± 33 ft ( 503 ± 10 m ), above a tennis court, halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north. This was nearly 3 km ( 1.9 mi ) northwest of the planned hypocenter ; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills. The resulting explosion released the equivalent energy of 21 ± 2 kt ( 87.9 ± 8.4 TJ ). Big Stink spotted the explosion from a hundred miles away, and flew over to observe. Urakami Tenshudo ( Catholic Church in Nagasaki ) destroyed by the bomb, the dome / bell of the church, at right, having toppled off Bockscar flew on to Okinawa, arriving with only sufficient fuel for a single approach. Sweeney tried repeatedly to contact the control tower for landing clearance, but received no answer. He could see heavy air traffic landing and taking off from Yontan Airfield. Firing off every flare on board to alert the field to his emergency landing, the Bockscar came in fast, landing at 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ). The number two engine died from fuel starvation as he began the final approach. Touching down midway down the landing strip, Bockscar bounced up into the air again for about 25 feet ( 7.6 m ) before slamming back down hard. The heavy B - 29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B - 24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. Its reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately, and with both pilots standing on the brakes, Bockscar made a swerving 90 - degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off it. A second engine died from fuel exhaustion before the plane came to a stop. The flight engineer later measured fuel in the tanks and concluded that less than five minutes total remained. Following the mission, there was confusion over the identification of the plane. The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock, reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste. He also noted its `` Victor '' number as 77, which was that of Bockscar. Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew, and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste. Except for Enola Gay, none of the 393d 's B - 29s had yet had names painted on the noses, a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account. Unaware of the switch in aircraft, Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste, which was in fact, Victor 89. Events on the ground The Nagasaki Prefecture Report on the bombing characterized Nagasaki as `` like a graveyard with not a tombstone standing ''. Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, the effect was confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including `` mobilized '' students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000 -- 22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000 to 75,000. At least 35,000 -- 40,000 people were killed and 60,000 others injured. In the days and months following the explosion, more people died from their injuries. Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers, and a number of military personnel in transit, there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945 ; a range of 39,000 to 80,000 can be found in various studies. Unlike Hiroshima 's military death toll, only 150 Japanese soldiers were killed instantly, including thirty - six from the 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division. At least eight known POWs died from the bombing and as many as 13 may have died, including a British prisoner of war, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw, and seven Dutch POWs. One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived. Partially incinerated child in Nagasaki. Photo from Japanese photographer Yosuke Yamahata, one day after the blast and building fires had subsided. Once the American forces had Japan under their military control, they imposed censorship on all such images including those from the conventional bombing of Tokyo, this prevented the distribution of Yamahata 's photographs. These restrictions were lifted in 1952. The radius of total destruction was about 1 mi ( 1.6 km ), followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi ( 3.2 km ) south of the bomb. About 58 % of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78 % of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10 % structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast. Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, the ambient wind at the time pushed the fire spread along the valley. As in Hiroshima, the bombing badly dislocated the city 's medical facilities. A makeshift hospital was established at the Shinkozen Primary School, which served as the main medical centre. The trains were still running, and evacuated many victims to hospitals in nearby towns. A medical team from a naval hospital reached the city in the evening, and fire - fighting brigades from the neighboring towns assisted in fighting the fires. Takashi Nagai was a doctor working in the radiology department of Nagasaki Medical College Hospital. He received a serious injury that severed his right temporal artery, but joined the rest of the surviving medical staff in treating bombing victims. Plans for more Atomic attacks on Japan Memorandum from Groves to Marshall regarding the third bomb, with Marshall 's hand - written endorsement Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19, with three more in September and a further three in October. On August 10, he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that `` the next bomb... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August. '' Marshall endorsed the memo with the hand - written comment, `` It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President '', something Truman had requested that day. This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs `` as made ready ''. There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall, and Marshall suggested to Stimson that the remaining cities on the target list be spared attack with atomic bombs. Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on August 11 and 14, and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to collect them. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until August 16. Therefore, it could have been ready for use on August 19. Unable to reach Marshall, Groves ordered on his own authority on August 13 that the core should not be shipped. Surrender of Japan and subsequent occupation Main articles : Surrender of Japan and Occupation of Japan Until August 9, Japan 's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender. The full cabinet met on 14 : 30 on August 9, and spent most of the day debating surrender. Anami conceded that victory was unlikely, but argued in favour of continuing the war nonetheless. The meeting ended at 17 : 30, with no decision having been reached. Suzuki went to the palace to report on the outcome of meeting, where he met with Kōichi Kido, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan. Kido informed him that the emperor had agreed to hold an imperial conference, and gave a strong indication that the emperor would consent to surrender on condition that kokutai be preserved. A second cabinet meeting was held at 18 : 00. Only four ministers supported Anami 's position of adhering to the four conditions, but since cabinet decisions had to be unanimous, no decision was reached before it ended at 22 : 00. Calling an imperial conference required the signatures of the prime minister and the two service chiefs, but the Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu had already obtained signatures from Toyoda and General Yoshijirō Umezu in advance, and he reneged on his promise to inform them if a meeting was to be held. The meeting commenced at 23 : 50. No consensus had emerged by 02 : 00, but the emperor gave his `` sacred decision '', authorizing the Foreign Minister, Shigenori Tōgō, to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration `` does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler. '' On August 12, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved. Hirohito simply replied, `` Of course. '' As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender. In his declaration, Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings, and did not explicitly mention the Soviets as a factor for surrender : Despite the best that has been done by every one -- the gallant fighting of military and naval forces, the diligence and assiduity of Our servants of the State and the devoted service of Our one hundred million people, the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan 's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest. Moreover, the enemy now possesses a new and terrible weapon with the power to destroy many innocent lives and do incalculable damage. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization. Such being the case, how are we to save the millions of our subjects, or to atone ourselves before the hallowed spirits of our imperial ancestors ? This is the reason why we have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the joint declaration of the powers. In his `` Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors '' delivered on August 17, however, he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion on his decision to surrender. Reportage See also : Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in popular culture Play media The Hiroshima ruins in March and April 1946, by Daniel A. McGovern and Harry Mimura On August 10, 1945, the day after the Nagasaki bombing, Yōsuke Yamahata, correspondent Higashi, and artist Yamada arrived in the city with orders to record the destruction for maximum propaganda purposes, Yamahata took scores of photographs, and on August 21, they appeared in Mainichi Shimbun, a popular Japanese newspaper. Leslie Nakashima filed the first personal account of the scene to appear in American newspapers. A version of his August 27 UPI article appeared in The New York Times on August 31. Wilfred Burchett was the first western journalist to visit Hiroshima after the bombing, arriving alone by train from Tokyo on September 2. His Morse code dispatch, `` The Atomic Plague '', was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on September 5, 1945. Nakashima 's and Burchett 's reports were the first public reports to mention the effects of radiation and nuclear fallout -- radiation burns and radiation poisoning. Burchett 's reporting was unpopular with the U.S. military, who accused Burchett of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda, and suppressed a supporting story submitted by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News. Laurence dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale, ignoring his own account published one week earlier. A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Lieutenant Daniel McGovern, used a film crew to document the effects of the bombings in early 1946. The film crew shot 90,000 ft ( 27,000 m ) of film, resulting in a three - hour documentary titled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb ; it showed burned - out buildings and cars, and rows of skulls and bones on the ground. It was classified `` secret '' for the next 22 years. Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On October 24, 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha 's reels were confiscated by the American authorities, but they were requested by the Japanese government, and declassified. The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan, but the Hiroshima - based magazine, Chugoku Bunka, in its first issue published on March 10, 1946, devoted itself to detailing the damage from the bombing. Play media Life among the rubble in Hiroshima in March and April 1946. Film footage taken by Lieutenant Daniel A. McGovern ( director ) and Harry Mimura ( cameraman ) for a United States Strategic Bombing Survey project. The book Hiroshima, written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey, which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker, on August 31, 1946, is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947, and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949. It narrated the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior to, and months after, the dropping of the Little Boy bomb. Beginning in 1974, a compilation of drawings and artwork made by the survivors of the bombings began to be compiled, with completion in 1977, and under both book and exhibition format, it was titled The Unforgettable Fire. The bombing amazed Otto Hahn and other German atomic scientists, whom the British held at Farm Hall in Operation Epsilon. Hahn stated that he had not believed an atomic weapon `` would be possible for another twenty years '' ; Werner Heisenberg did not believe the news at first. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker said `` I think it 's dreadful of the Americans to have done it. I think it is madness on their part '', but Heisenberg replied, `` One could equally well say ' That 's the quickest way of ending the war ' ''. Hahn was grateful that the German project had not succeeded in developing `` such an inhumane weapon '' ; Karl Wirtz observed that even if it had, `` we would have obliterated London but would still not have conquered the world, and then they would have dropped them on us ''. The Vatican agreed ; L'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb 's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity. Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse, the Dean of St Albans, prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war 's end, calling the use of atomic weapons `` an act of wholesale, indiscriminate massacre ''. Nonetheless, news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S. ; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans ( 22.7 % ) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan. The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public ( mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud ). During this time in America, it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films, magazines, and newspapers. Post-attack casualties See also : Epidemiology data for low - linear energy transfer radiation, Acute radiation syndrome § History, Radiobiology, Hiroshima ( book ), and Terufumi Sasaki Play media Silent film footage taken in Hiroshima in March 1946 showing survivors with severe burns and keloid scars. Survivors were asked to stand in the orientation they were in at the time of the flash, to document and convey the line - of - sight nature of flash burns, and to show that, much like a sunburn, thick clothing and fabric offered protection in many cases. The sometimes extensive burn scar contracture is not unusual, being common to all 2nd and 3rd degree burns when they cover a large area of skin. Frequent estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima ( 38.9 % of the population ) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki ( 28.0 % of the population ) died in 1945, though the number which died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome ( ARS ), all within about 20 -- 30 days. The most well known of which being Midori Naka, some 650 meters from the hypocenter at Hiroshima, who would travel to Tokyo and then with her death on August 24, 1945 was to be the first death officially certified as a result of radiation poisoning, or as it was referred to by many, `` Atomic bomb disease ''. It was unappreciated at the time but the average radiation dose that will kill approximately 50 % of adults, the LD50, was approximately halved, that is, smaller doses were made more lethal, when the individual experienced concurrent blast or burn polytraumatic injuries. Conventional skin injuries that cover a large area frequently result in bacterial infection ; the risk of sepsis and death is increased when a usually non-lethal radiation dose moderately suppresses the white blood cell count. In the spring of 1948, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission ( ABCC ) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences -- National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1956, the ABCC published The Effect of Exposure to the Atomic Bombs on Pregnancy Termination in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The ABCC became the Radiation Effects Research Foundation ( RERF ), on 1 April 1975. A binational organization run by both the United States and Japan, the RERF is still in operation today. Cancer increases As cancers do not immediately emerge after exposure to radiation instead radiation - induced cancer has a minimum latency period of some 5 + years and Leukemia some 2 + which peaks around 6 - 8 years later. Dr Jarrett Foley published the first major reports on the significant increased incidence of the latter among survivors, almost all cases of leukemia over the following 50 years were in people exposed to more than 1 Gy. In a strictly dependent manner dependent on their distance from the hypocenter, in the 1987 Life Span Study, conducted by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation, a statistical excess of 507 cancers, of undefined lethality, were observed in 79,972 hibakusha who had still been living between 1958 -- 1987 and who took part in the study. As the epidemiology study continues with time, the RERF estimates that from 1950 to 2000, 46 % of leukemia deaths which may include Sadako Sasaki and 11 % of solid cancers of unspecificed lethality, were likely due to radiation from the bombs or some other post-attack city effects, with the statistical excess being 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality. Both of these statistics being derived from the observation of approximately half of the total survivors, strictly those who took part in the study. Birth defect investigations While during the preimplantation period, that is 1 -- 10 days following conception, interuterine radiation exposure of `` at least 0.2 Gy '' can cause complications of implantation and death of the human embryo. The number of miscarriages caused by the radiation from the bombings, during this radiosensitive period, is not known. One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and in a control city, Kure, located 18 mi ( 29 km ) south of Hiroshima, in order to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure. James V. Neel led the study which found that the overall number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings. He also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later. While The National Academy of Sciences raised the possibility that Neel 's procedure did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure which could bias the results. Overall, a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima when the cities were taken as wholes, in terms of distance from the hypocenters however, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about 1 kilometre ( 0.62 mi ) from the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure, were approximately 20 cases were observed in a similar sample size. In 1985, Johns Hopkins University geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel 's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation ( RERF ) were still looking for possible birth defects among the survivors decades later, but found no evidence that they were significantly common among the survivors, or inherited in the children of survivors. Investigations into brain development See also : Radiation - induced cognitive decline § Radiation Therapy Despite the small sample size of 1600 to 1800 persons who came forth as prenatally exposed at the time of the bombings, that were both within a close proximity to the two hypocenters, to survive the In utero absorption of a substantial dose of radiation and then the malnourished post-attack environment, data from this cohort does support the increased risk of severe mental retardation ( SMR ), that was observed in some 30 individuals, with SMR being a common outcome of the aforementioned microencephaly. While a lack of statistical data, with just 30 individuals out of 1800, prevents a definitive determination of a threshold point, the data collected suggests a threshold interuterine or fetal dose for SMR, at the most radiosensitive period of cognitive development, when there is the largest number of undifferentiated neural cells ( 8 to 15 weeks post-conception ) to begin at a threshold dose of approximately `` 0.09 '' to `` 0.15 '' Gy, with the risk then linearly increasing to a 43 % rate of SMR when exposed to a fetal dose of 1 Gy at any point during these weeks of rapid Neurogenesis. However either side of this radiosensitive age, none of the prenatally exposed to the bombings at an age less than 8 weeks, that is prior to synaptogenesis or at a gestational age more than 26 weeks `` were observed to be mentally retarded '', with the condition therefore being isolated to those solely of 8 -- 26 weeks of age and who absorbed more than approximately `` 0.09 '' to `` 0.15 '' Gy of prompt radiation energy. Examination of the prenatally exposed in terms of IQ performance and school records, determined the beginning of a statistically significant reduction in both, when exposed to greater than 0.1 to 0.5 Gray, during the same gestational period of 8 -- 25 weeks. However outside this period, at less than 8 weeks and greater than 26 after conception, `` there is no evidence of a radiation - related effect on scholastic performance. '' The reporting of doses in terms of absorbed energy in units of ( Gy and rad ) rather than the use of the biologically significant, biologically weighted Sievert, in both the SMR and cognitive performance data is typical. The reported threshold dose variance between the two cities, is suggested to be a manifestation of the difference between X-ray and neutron absorption, with Little Boy emitting substantially more neutron flux, whereas the Baratol that surrounded the core of Fat Man, filtered or shifted the absorbed neutron - radiation profile, so that the dose of radiation energy received in Nagasaki, is mostly that from exposure to x-rays / gamma rays, in contrast to the environment within 1500 meters of the hypocenter at Hiroshima, were instead the in - utero dose more depended on the absorption of neutrons, which have a higher biological effect per unit of energy absorbed. From the Radiation dose reconstruction work, which were also informed by the 1962 BREN Tower - Japanese city analog, the estimated dosimetry at Hiroshima still has the largest uncertainty as the Little Boy - bomb design was never tested before deployment or afterward, therefore the estimated radiation profile absorbed by individuals at Hiroshima had required greater reliance on calculations than the Japanese soil, concrete and roof - tile measurements which began to reach accurate levels and thereby inform researchers, in the 1990s. Many other investigations into cognitive outcomes, such as Schizophrenia as a result of prenatal exposure, have been conducted with `` no statistically significant linear relationship seen '', there is a suggestion that in the most extremely exposed, those who survived within a kilometer or so of the hypocenters, a trend emerges akin to that seen in SMR, though the sample size is too small to determine with any significance. Hibakusha Main article : Hibakusha The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha ( 被爆 者, Japanese pronunciation : ( çibakɯ̥ɕa ) ), a Japanese word that literally translates to `` explosion - affected people ''. The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha. As of March 31, 2017, 164,621 were still alive, mostly in Japan. The government of Japan recognizes about 1 % of these as having illnesses caused by radiation. The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, as of August 2017 the memorials record the names of almost 485,000 hibakusha ; 308,725 in Hiroshima and 175,743 in Nagasaki. If they discuss their background, Hibakusha and their children were ( and still are ) victims of fear based discrimination and exclusion when it comes to prospects of marriage or work due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness or that the low doses that the majority received were less than a routine diagnostic x-ray, much of the public however persist with the belief that the Hibakusha carry some hereditary or even contagious disease. This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects / congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of the nuclear weapons used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or indeed has been found in the later conceived children of cancer survivors who had previously received radiotherapy. The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that could conceive, who were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation, went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities / birth defects than the rate which is observed in the Japanese average. A study of the long - term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17 -- 20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms. Double survivors Perhaps as many as 200 people from Hiroshima sought refuge in Nagasaki. The 2006 documentary Twice Survived : The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha ( lit. double explosion - affected people ), nine of whom claimed to be in the blast zone in both cities. On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha. He was confirmed to be 3 km ( 1.9 mi ) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when the bomb was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, the day before the bombing, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings. He died on January 4, 2010, at the age of 93, after a battle with stomach cancer. Korean survivors See also : Anti-Korean sentiment § Japan During the war, Japan brought as many as 670,000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor. About 5,000 -- 8,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and another 1,500 -- 2,000 died in Nagasaki. For many years, Korean survivors had a difficult time fighting for the same recognition as Hibakusha as afforded to all Japanese survivors, a situation which resulted in the denial of the free health benefits to them in Japan. Most issues were eventually addressed in 2008 through lawsuits. Memorials Hiroshima was subsequently struck by Typhoon Ida on September 17, 1945. More than half the bridges were destroyed, and the roads and railroads were damaged, further devastating the city. The population increased from 83,000 soon after the bombing to 146,000 in February 1946. The city was rebuilt after the war, with help from the national government through the Hiroshima Peace Memorial City Construction Law passed in 1949. It provided financial assistance for reconstruction, along with land donated that was previously owned by the national government and used for military purposes. In 1949, a design was selected for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, the closest surviving building to the location of the bomb 's detonation, was designated the Hiroshima Peace Memorial. The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was opened in 1955 in the Peace Park. Hiroshima also contains a Peace Pagoda, built in 1966 by Nipponzan - Myōhōji. Panoramic view of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. The Genbaku Dome can be seen in the center left of the image. The original target for the bomb was the `` T '' - shaped Aioi Bridge seen in the left of the image. Nagasaki was also rebuilt after the war, but was dramatically changed in the process. The pace of reconstruction was initially slow, and the first simple emergency dwellings were not provided until 1946. The focus on redevelopment was the replacement of war industries with foreign trade, shipbuilding and fishing. This was formally declared when the Nagasaki International Culture City Reconstruction Law was passed in May 1949. New temples were built, as well as new churches owing to an increase in the presence of Christianity. Some of the rubble was left as a memorial, such as a torii at Sannō Shrine, and an arch near ground zero. New structures were also raised as memorials, such as the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, which was opened in the mid-1990s. Panoramic view of the monument marking the hypocenter, or ground zero, of the atomic bomb explosion over Nagasaki Debate over bombings Main article : Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki The role of the bombings in Japan 's surrender, and the ethical, legal, and military controversies surrounding the United States ' justification for them have been the subject of scholarly and popular debate. On one hand, it has been argued, that the bombings caused the Japanese surrender, thereby preventing casualties that an invasion of Japan would have involved. Stimson talked of saving one million casualties. The naval blockade might have starved the Japanese into submission without an invasion, but this would also have resulted in many more Japanese deaths. It has also been pointed out that the conventional bombing of Japan caused just as much destruction as the atomic bombs, if not more so. Indeed, Operation Meetinghouse, known as the Great Tokyo Air Raid in Japan, was the single most devastating air raid of the war, with a higher death toll than either of the two atomic bombings. Japanese historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa argued that the entry of the Soviet Union into the war against Japan `` played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow 's mediation ''. A view among critics of the bombings, that was popularized by American historian Gar Alperovitz in 1965, is the idea of atomic diplomacy : that the United States used nuclear weapons in order to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War. Although not accepted by mainstream historians, this became the position in Japanese school history textbooks. Those who oppose the bombings, give other reasons for their view ; among them : a belief, that atomic bombing is fundamentally immoral, that the bombings counted as war crimes, that they constituted state terrorism, and that they involved racism against and the dehumanization of the Japanese people. Legacy Main article : Nuclear warfare Like the way it began, the manner in which World War II ended cast a long shadow over international relations for decades to come. By June 30, 1946, there were components for only nine atomic bombs in the US arsenal, all Fat Man devices identical to the one used in the bombing of Nagasaki. The nuclear weapons were handmade devices, and a great deal of work remained to improve their ease of assembly, safety, reliability and storage before they were ready for production. There were also many improvements to their performance that had been suggested or recommended, but that had not been possible under the pressure of wartime development. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy had decried the use of the atomic bombs as adopting `` an ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages '', but in October 1947, he reported a military requirement for 400 bombs. The American monopoly on nuclear weapons lasted only four years before the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb in September 1949. The United States responded with the development of the hydrogen bomb, a nuclear weapon a thousand times as powerful as the bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Such ordinary fission bombs would henceforth be regarded as small tactical nuclear weapons. By 1986, the United States would have 23,317 nuclear weapons, while the Soviet Union had 40,159. By 2017, nine nations had nuclear weapons, but Japan was not one of them. Japan reluctantly signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in February 1970, but it still sheltered under the American nuclear umbrella. American nuclear weapons were stored on Okinawa, and sometimes in Japan itself, albeit in contravention of agreements between the two nations. Lacking the resources to fight the Soviet Union using conventional forces, the Western Alliance came to depend on the use of nuclear weapons to defend itself during the Cold War, a policy that became known in the 1950s as the New Look. In the decades after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the United States would threaten to use its nuclear weapons many times. Public opinion in the west The Pew Research Center conducted a 2015 survey showing that 56 % of Americans support the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki from WWII, while only 34 % oppose the bombings. The study highlighted the impact of the respondent 's generation, showing that 70 % of Americans 65 and older support the bombings, while only 47 % of 18 - to 29 - year - olds support the bombings. Younger generations of Americans are less supportive of the bombings, according to the Pew Research Center statistics. Political leanings also impacted responses according to the survey. 74 % of Republicans support the bombings while 52 % of Democrats support the bombings. American approval of the US dropping the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki has decreased steadily since 1945. A 1945 Gallup poll showed that 85 % of Americans approved of using atomic weapons on Japanese cities, while only 10 % disapproved. Forty five years later in 1990, Gallup conducted another poll and recorded 53 % of Americans approving the bombings with 41 % disapproving the bombings. Another 2005 Gallup poll echoes the findings of the 2015 Pew Research Center study by finding 57 % of Americans approved the bombings while 38 % disapproved. While the poll data from The Pew Research Center and Gallup show a stark drop in support for the bombings over the last half century, Stanford political scientists have conducted research supporting their hypothesis that US public support for the use of nuclear force would be just as high today as in 1945 if a similar yet contemporary real life scenario presented itself. In a 2017 study conducted by political scientists Scott D. Sagan and Benjamin A. Valentino, it was found that 67 % of Americans support the conventional strike with use of atomic force in a hypothetical situation that killed 100,000 Iranian civilians over the other hypothetical option of an invasion that would kill 20,000 American soldiers. On the other hand, a 2010 Pew survey showed that 64 % of Americans approved of Barack Obama 's declaration of US abstinence of nuclear weapons against a nation that did not have them, showing that most Americans have a conflicted view on use of atomic force. Notes ^ Jump up to : Giangreco 2009, pp. 2 -- 3, 49 -- 51. Jump up ^ Williams 1960, p. 307. Jump up ^ Williams 1960, p. 532. Jump up ^ Williams 1960, p. 527. Jump up ^ Long 1963, pp. 48 -- 49. ^ Jump up to : Brooks & Stanley 2007, pp. 41 -- 44. Jump up ^ Appleman et al. 1948, pp. 462 -- 467. Jump up ^ Coox 1969, pp. 2540 -- 2544. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 32 -- 34. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 125 -- 130. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 169 -- 171. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 45 -- 48. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, p. 21. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 70 -- 72. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 121 -- 124. Jump up ^ `` The Final Months of the War With Japan. Part III ( note 24 ) ''. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved December 17, 2013. Jump up ^ Carroll 2007, p. 48. Jump up ^ Drea 1992, pp. 202 -- 225. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 98 -- 99. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, p. 340. ^ Jump up to : Giangreco 2009, p. 112. Jump up ^ Schaffer 1985, pp. 164 -- 165. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, p. 4. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 22 -- 24. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 169 -- 175. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 29 -- 31. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 507 -- 509. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 514 -- 521. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 548 -- 551. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 536 -- 545. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 558 -- 560. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, p. 566. Jump up ^ Sandler 2001, pp. 24 -- 26. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 574 -- 576. Jump up ^ Long, Tony ( March 9, 2011 ). `` March 9, 1945 : Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy ''. Wired. Retrieved August 8, 2011. Jump up ^ Laurence M. Vance ( August 14, 2009 ). `` Bombings Worse than Nagasaki and Hiroshima ''. The Future of Freedom Foundation. Archived from the original on November 13, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2011. Jump up ^ Joseph Coleman ( March 10, 2005 ). `` 1945 Tokyo Firebombing Left Legacy of Terror, Pain ''. CommonDreams.org. Associated Press. Retrieved August 8, 2011. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 608 -- 610. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 568 -- 570. Jump up ^ Edwards 1996, p. 83. Jump up ^ Werrell 1996, p. 250. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 614 -- 617. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 642 -- 643. Jump up ^ Kerr 1991, p. 207. Jump up ^ Tanaka & Young 2009, pp. 5, 84 -- 85, 117. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 653 -- 658. Jump up ^ Coox 1994, pp. 412 -- 414. Jump up ^ Coox 1994, p. 422. Jump up ^ Zaloga & Noon 2010, p. 54. Jump up ^ Zaloga & Noon 2010, pp. 58 -- 59. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 79 -- 80. Jump up ^ Coox 1994, p. 429. Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 7. Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 12. Jump up ^ Gowing 1964, pp. 40 -- 43, 76 -- 79. Jump up ^ `` Quebec Agreement ''. atomicarchive.com. August 19, 1943. Retrieved January 24, 2018. Jump up ^ Edwards, Gordon. `` Canada 's Role in the Atomic Bomb Programs of the United States, Britain, France and India ''. Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility. Archived from the original on December 13, 2007. Retrieved December 4, 2007. Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 89. Jump up ^ Jones 1985, pp. 82 -- 84. Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 522. Jump up ^ Jones 1985, pp. 511 -- 516. Jump up ^ Grunden 1998, pp. 50 -- 52. Jump up ^ `` Factsheets : 509th Operational Group ''. Air Force Historical Studies Office. Archived from the original on February 24, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2011. Jump up ^ `` History of 509th Composite Group -- 313th Bombardment Wing -- Twentieth Air Force -- Activation to August 15, 1945 '' ( PDF ). 509th Composite Group. 1945. pp. 8 -- 9. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 27, 2012. Retrieved February 1, 2012. Jump up ^ Tibbets 1998, pp. 163, 167 -- 168. Jump up ^ `` Minutes of 3rd Target Committee Meeting 28 May 1945 '' ( PDF ). National Archives. Archived ( PDF ) from the original on August 9, 2006. Retrieved August 9, 2006. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 25. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, p. 706. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, pp. 14 -- 15. Jump up ^ `` History of 509th Composite Group -- 313th Bombardment Wing -- Twentieth Air Force -- Activation to 15 August 1945 '' ( PDF ). Tinian : Air Force Historical Research Agency. 1945. pp. 17 -- 22. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 27, 2012. Retrieved February 1, 2012. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 100. Jump up ^ Christman 1998, p. 176. Jump up ^ Jones 1985, pp. 528 -- 529. ^ Jump up to : `` Atomic Bomb : Decision -- Target Committee, May 10 -- 11, 1945 ''. Archived from the original on August 8, 2005. Retrieved August 6, 2005. Jump up ^ Reischauer 1986, p. 101. Jump up ^ Kelly 2012, pp. 183 -- 203. ^ Jump up to : Jones 1985, p. 529. Jump up ^ Hasegawa 2006, pp. 67 -- 68. Jump up ^ Hasegawa 2006, pp. 149 -- 150. ^ Jump up to : Jones 1985, p. 530. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, pp. 255 -- 256. Jump up ^ Compton 1956, p. 240. Jump up ^ Compton 1956, pp. 238 -- 239. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, pp. 255 -- 260. Jump up ^ Newman 1995, p. 86. ^ Jump up to : `` The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources '' ( PDF ). National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 162. George Washington University. August 13, 1945. ^ Jump up to : Williams, Josette H. `` The Information War in the Pacific, 1945 Paths to Peace ''. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved December 5, 2016. ) ^ Jump up to : Craven & Cate 1953, p. 656. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, p. 153. ^ Jump up to : McNelly 2000, p. 138. ^ Jump up to : Lifton 1991, p. 17. Jump up ^ 空襲 予告 ビラ 、 高山 市民 が 保管 市 内 で 展示 ( Air Raid Notice ) ( in Japanese ). 岐阜 新聞 社 ( Gifu Shinbunsha ( Open Library ) ). Archived from the original on October 12, 2013. Retrieved January 31, 2013. Jump up ^ Bungei 1981, p. 215. ^ Jump up to : Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 372 -- 373. Jump up ^ Gowing 1964, p. 372. Jump up ^ `` Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, ''. Washington, DC : United States Department of State. July 4, 1945. Retrieved 18 September 2017. Jump up ^ Craven & Cate 1953, pp. 712 -- 713. Jump up ^ `` Letter received from General Thomas Handy to General Carl Spaatz authorizing the dropping of the first atomic bomb ''. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved January 26, 2018. Jump up ^ `` Pages from President Truman 's diary, July 17, 18, and 25, 1945 ''. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved December 16, 2013. Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 389 -- 390. Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 395 -- 396. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, pp. 233 -- 234. The meaning of mokusatsu can fall anywhere in the range of `` ignore '' to `` treat with contempt ''. Jump up ^ Bix 1996, p. 290. Jump up ^ Asada 1996, p. 39. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, pp. 326, 356, 370. ^ Jump up to : Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 262. ^ Jump up to : Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 265. Jump up ^ Coster - Mullen 2012, p. 30. Jump up ^ Coster - Mullen 2012, p. 45. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, pp. 38 -- 40. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 64 -- 65, 163. Jump up ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1995, p. 41. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 70, 163. ^ Jump up to : Zaloga & Noon 2010, p. 59. Jump up ^ United States Strategic Bombing Survey ( June 1946 ). `` U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey : The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Archived from the original on October 11, 2004. Retrieved July 26, 2009. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, pp. 224 -- 225. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, p. 38. Jump up ^ Groves 1962, p. 316. ^ Jump up to : Frank 1999, p. 263. ^ Jump up to : `` Frequently Asked Questions # 1 ''. Radiation Effects Research Foundation ( Formerly known as the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission ( ABCC ) ). Archived from the original on September 19, 2007. Retrieved September 18, 2007. Jump up ^ Bodden 2007, p. 20. Jump up ^ Preston 2005, p. 262. Jump up ^ Fiévé & Waley 2003, p. 330. Jump up ^ Rotter 2008, p. 267. ^ Jump up to : `` 509th Timeline : Inception to Hiroshima ''. The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved May 5, 2007. Jump up ^ `` Timeline # 2 -- the 509th ; The Hiroshima Mission ''. The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved May 4, 2007. Jump up ^ Dietz & Van Kirk 2012, p. 462. Jump up ^ Dietz & Van Kirk 2012, p. 467. Jump up ^ Lewis & Tolzer 1957, p. 72. Jump up ^ `` Timeline # 2 - the 509th ; The Hiroshima Mission ''. The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved May 5, 2007. Jump up ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. `` Rare Photo of the Mushroom Cloud Over Hiroshima Discovered in a Former Japanese Elementary School ''. The Atlantic. Retrieved December 4, 2016. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, pp. 391 -- 392. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, p. 414. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, p. 415. Jump up ^ Allen 1969, p. 2566. ^ Jump up to : Kerr et al 2005, pp. 42 -- 43. Jump up ^ Malik, John ( September 1985 ). `` The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Explosions '' ( PDF ). Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved March 9, 2014. describes how various values were recorded for the B - 29 's altitude at the moment of bomb release over Hiroshima. The strike report said 30,200 ft, the official history said 31,600 ft, Commander Parson 's log entry was 32,700 ft, and the navigator 's log was 31,060 ft -- the latter possibly an error transposing two digits. A later calculation using the indicated atmospheric pressure arrived at the figure of 32,200 ft. Similarly, several values have been reported as the altitude of the Little Boy bomb at the moment of detonation. Published sources vary in the range of 1,800 to 2,000 ft ( 550 to 610 m ) above the city. The device was set to explode at 1,885 ft ( 575 m ), but this was approximate. Malik uses the figure of 1,903 ft ( 580 m ) plus or minus 50 ft ( 15 m ), determined after data review by Hubbell et al 1969. Radar returns from the tops of multistory buildings near the hypocenter may have triggered the detonation at a somewhat higher altitude than planned. Kerr et al. ( 2005 ) found that a detonation altitude of 600 m ( 1,968.5 ft ), plus or minus 20 m ( 65.6 ft ), gave the best fit for all the measurement discrepancies. Jump up ^ `` The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima, Aug 6, 1945 ''. United States Department of Energy. Archived from the original on June 24, 2010. Retrieved June 25, 2010. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, pp. 423. 427. Jump up ^ `` The Bomb - '' Little Boy `` ''. The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved May 5, 2007. ^ Jump up to : `` Radiation Dose Reconstruction U.S. Occupation Forces in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, 1945 -- 1946 ( DNA 5512F ) '' ( PDF ). Defense Nuclear Agency. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 24, 2006. Retrieved June 9, 2006. Jump up ^ `` Super-fortress crew tell their story ''. The Guardian. August 8, 1945. Retrieved July 17, 2016. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, pp. 264 -- 265. Jump up ^ `` Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombing -- Facts about the Atomic Bomb ''. Hiroshima Day Committee. Retrieved August 11, 2013. Jump up ^ `` U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey : The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President 's Secretary 's File, Truman Papers. '' Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum. p. 6. Retrieved January 23, 2016. Jump up ^ `` U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey : The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President 's Secretary 's File, Truman Papers. '' Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum. p. 37. Retrieved January 23, 2016. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, pp. 286 -- 287. Jump up ^ `` U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey : The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President 's Secretary 's File, Truman Papers. '' Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. p. 9. Retrieved January 23, 2016. Jump up ^ `` Statements by China and the United States of America during the Inscription of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial ( Genbaku Dome ) ''. UNESCO. Archived from the original on August 29, 2005. Retrieved August 6, 2005. ^ Jump up to : Ham 2011, p. 330. Jump up ^ Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation 2003, p. 20. Jump up ^ Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation 2003, p. 14. Jump up ^ `` Special Exhibit 3 ''. Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. Retrieved August 30, 2010. Jump up ^ Kato, Toru ( June 4, 1999 ). `` A Short - Sighted Parrot ''. Geocities.jp. Archived from the original on March 9, 2009. Retrieved March 25, 2009. Jump up ^ Slavick, Elin O'Hara ( July 27, 2009 ). `` Hiroshima : A Visual Record ''. Asia - Pacific Journal. 7 ( 3 ). Retrieved April 21, 2013. Jump up ^ `` Testimony of Akiko Takakura ''. transcript from the video Hiroshima Witness produced by the Hiroshima Peace Cultural Center and NHK. Atomic Archive. Archived from the original on April 16, 2007. Retrieved April 30, 2007. Jump up ^ `` A Photo - Essay on the Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign. Retrieved December 4, 2016. ^ Jump up to : Broad, William J. ( May 23, 2016 ). `` The Hiroshima Mushroom Cloud That Was n't ''. The New York Times. Retrieved December 4, 2016. Jump up ^ Toon et al. 2007, p. 1994. Jump up ^ `` U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey : The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President 's Secretary 's File, Truman Papers. '' Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum. p. 7. Retrieved January 23, 2016. Jump up ^ Ham 2011, pp. 330 -- 331. Jump up ^ Ham 2011, p. 325. Jump up ^ `` Memories of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. The Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved March 18, 2014. ^ Jump up to : Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, pp. 443 -- 444. Jump up ^ `` Heart of Hiroshima Wiped Out as by Giant Bulldozer ''. Advocate ( Burnie, Tas. : 1890 -- 1954 ). Burnie, Tasmania : National Library of Australia. August 9, 1945. p. 1. Retrieved September 17, 2013. Jump up ^ Ham 2011, p. 333. Jump up ^ `` Americans Killed by Atomic Bomb to be Honored in Hiroshima ''. Allgov.com. June 4, 2009. Retrieved December 28, 2012. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, pp. 444 -- 445. Jump up ^ Mitchell, Greg ( August 5, 2011 ). `` Hidden History : American POWS Were Killed in Hiroshima ''. The Nation. Archived from the original on February 18, 2018. Retrieved February 24, 2017. Jump up ^ `` Sheryl P. Walter Declassified / Released US Department of State EO Systematic Review 20 Mar 2014 Sheryl P. Walter Declassified / Released US Department of State EO Systematic Review 20 Mar 2014 ''. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved December 5, 2016. Jump up ^ Knebel & Bailey 1960, pp. 175 -- 201 ^ Jump up to : Manhattan Engineer District ( June 29, 1946 ). `` The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. Trinity Atomic. Retrieved January 10, 2013. Jump up ^ `` Statement by the President Announcing the Use of the A-Bomb at Hiroshima ''. Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum. August 6, 1945. Retrieved April 2, 2015. Jump up ^ United States Department of State 1960, pp. 1376 -- 1377. Jump up ^ Friedman, Herbert A. `` OWI Pacific Psyop Six Decades ago ''. psywarrior.com. Retrieved January 26, 2018. Jump up ^ `` Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum '' ( PDF ). City of Nagasaki. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 10, 2014. Jump up ^ `` Warning Leaflets ''. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved December 5, 2016. Jump up ^ Scoenberger 1969, pp. 248 -- 249. Jump up ^ Slavinskiĭ 2004, pp. 153 -- 154. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, pp. 288 -- 289. Jump up ^ Hoyt 2001, p. 401. ^ Jump up to : Frank 1999, pp. 283 -- 284. ^ Jump up to : Russ 1990, pp. 64 -- 65. Jump up ^ Groves 1962, p. 342. ^ Jump up to : `` U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey : The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President 's Secretary 's File, Truman Papers. '' Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. p. 15. Retrieved December 21, 2012. Jump up ^ Groves 1962, p. 309. Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan - Witts 1977, pp. 353 -- 354. Jump up ^ Sherwin 2003, pp. 233 -- 234. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 114. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 32. ^ Jump up to : `` Timeline # 3 - the 509th ; The Nagasaki Mission ''. The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved May 5, 2007. Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, pp. 204 -- 205. Jump up ^ `` The Story of Nagasaki ''. Retrieved March 29, 2013. Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, p. 212. Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, p. 211. Jump up ^ `` Steel mill worker reveals blocking view of U.S. aircraft on day of Nagasaki atomic bombing ''. Mainichi Weekly. Archived from the original on 2015 - 11 - 22. Retrieved January 23, 2016. Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, pp. 213 -- 215. Jump up ^ `` Spitzer Personal Diary Page 25 ( CGP - ASPI - 025 ) ''. The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved May 5, 2007. Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, pp. 216 -- 217. Jump up ^ Chun 2008, p. 70. Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 295. Jump up ^ `` Stories from Riken '' ( PDF ). Riken. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 10, 2012. Retrieved April 30, 2007. Jump up ^ Kerr et al 2005, pp. 43, 46. Jump up ^ Wainstock 1996, p. 92. Jump up ^ Groves 1962, p. 346. Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, pp. 222 -- 226. Jump up ^ Laurence, William L. `` Eyewitness Account of Atomic Bomb Over Nagasaki ''. Atomic Archive. Retrieved March 28, 2013. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 222. Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 184. Jump up ^ `` Photos of Hiroshima and Nagasaki after the bombing, from a 1946 US report ''. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved December 3, 2016. Jump up ^ Ham 2011, p. 367. ^ Jump up to : Sklar 1984, pp. 56 -- 60. Jump up ^ `` The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. Atomic Archive. Retrieved August 16, 2016. Jump up ^ Rezelman, David ; F.G. Gosling ; Terrence R. Fehner ( 2000 ). `` The atomic bombing of Nagasaki ''. The Manhattan Project : An Interactive History. U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original on August 30, 2007. Retrieved September 18, 2007. Jump up ^ `` Nagasaki memorial adds British POW as A-bomb victim ''. The Japan Times. June 25, 2005. Retrieved January 9, 2009. Jump up ^ `` Two Dutch POWs join Nagasaki bomb victim list ''. The Japan Times. August 5, 2005. Archived from the original on December 20, 2005. Retrieved January 9, 2009. Jump up ^ `` How Effective Was Navajo Code ? One Former Captive Knows ''. News from Indian Country. August 1997. Retrieved September 15, 2013. Jump up ^ `` POW 's Remarkable Escapes in Nagasaki ''. The Argus. Melbourne : National Library of Australia. September 19, 1945. p. 20. Retrieved February 22, 2014. Jump up ^ `` Yosuke Yamahata ''. www.noorderlicht.com. Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 25. Jump up ^ `` A Veiled Truth : The U.S. Censorship of the Atomic Bomb ''. Duke East Asia Nexus. Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 25. Jump up ^ `` Nagasaki marks tragic anniversary ''. People 's Daily. August 10, 2005. Retrieved April 14, 2007. Jump up ^ `` U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey : The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President 's Secretary 's File, Truman Papers. '' Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. p. 19. Retrieved January 23, 2016. Jump up ^ Glasstone & Dolan 1977, p. 304. Jump up ^ `` Rescue and Relief Activities 長崎 市 平和 ・ 原爆 ''. City of Nagasaki. Retrieved January 29, 2018. Jump up ^ `` The Achievements of Dr. Takashi Nagai 長崎 市 平和 ・ 原爆 ''. City of Nagasaki. Retrieved January 29, 2018. ^ Jump up to : Bernstein 1991, pp. 149 -- 173. Jump up ^ Giangreco 2009, pp. 111 -- 112. Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 396 -- 397. Jump up ^ Terkel, Studs ( November 1, 2007 ). `` Paul Tibbets Interview ''. Aviation Publishing Group. Retrieved January 2, 2012. Jump up ^ `` Lawrence Litz 's Interview ( 2012 ) ''. Voices of the Manhattan Project. Retrieved February 27, 2015. Jump up ^ Wellerstein, Alex ( August 16, 2013 ). `` The Third Core 's Revenge ''. nuclearsecrecy.com. Retrieved January 27, 2015. Jump up ^ Hasegawa 2006, pp. 207 -- 208. Jump up ^ Hasegawa 2006, pp. 209 -- 210. Jump up ^ Kido & Yoshitake 1966, p. 1223. Jump up ^ Fujiwara 1991, p. 129. Jump up ^ Frank 1999, pp. 316 -- 319. Jump up ^ `` Imperial Rescript ending war -- What Hirohito really said in his acceptance speech ''. translated by William Wetherall. Yosha Research. Archived from the original on September 15, 2013. Retrieved September 15, 2013. Jump up ^ `` Emperor Hirohito 's Surrender Rescript to Japanese Troops ''. Taiwan Document Project. Archived from the original on January 27, 2012. Retrieved September 15, 2013. Jump up ^ `` The Bombing of Nagasaki After Yosuke Yamahata : A collection of 24 photographs taken the day after the bombing, ( Japan ) 1945 -- 46 ''. Bonhams. Retrieved December 5, 2016. Jump up ^ Haynes, Danielle ( August 6, 2015 ). `` For one reporter, 1945 visit to Hiroshima was about more than a scoop ''. UPI. Jump up ^ Nakashima, Leslie ( August 27, 1945 ). `` Hiroshima as I saw it ''. UPI. Jump up ^ Burchett 2004, pp. 10 -- 25. Jump up ^ Goodman, Amy ; Goodman, David ( August 5, 2005 ). `` The Hiroshima Cover - Up ''. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved September 15, 2013. Jump up ^ Moore 1995, p. 73. ^ Jump up to : Greg Mitchell ( August 7, 2009 ). `` The Great Hiroshima Cover - Up ''. Huffington Post. Retrieved April 26, 2011. Jump up ^ Ishikawa & Swain 1981, p. 5. Jump up ^ `` Destructive Effects ''. Atomic Bomb Museum. Retrieved 22 December 2016. ^ Jump up to : Angell, Roger ( July 31, 1995 ). `` Hersey and History ''. The New Yorker. From the Archives. p. 66. Retrieved January 24, 2018. Jump up ^ Richie, Donald ( August 16, 2013 ). `` The pure horror of Hiroshima ''. The Japan Times. Retrieved October 12, 2013. Jump up ^ Sharp 2000, pp. 434 -- 452. Jump up ^ Michaub, Jon ( June 8, 2010 ). `` Eighty - Five from the Archive : John Hersey ''. The New Yorker. Retrieved February 3, 2014. Jump up ^ Japanese Broadcasting Corporation ( NHK ) 1977, p. 1. Jump up ^ `` Transcript of Surreptitiously Taped Conversations among German Nuclear Physicists at Farm Hall ( August 6 -- 7, 1945 ) '' ( PDF ). German History in Documents and Images. Retrieved 24 September 2016. Jump up ^ `` Vatican Regrets Inventors Did Not Destroy Bomb ''. The Miami News. Associated Press. August 7, 1945. pp. 1 -- A. Archived from the original on August 23, 2013. Retrieved August 22, 2013. Jump up ^ `` No Abbey Service ''. The Guardian. August 15, 1945. Retrieved 17 July 2016. ^ Jump up to : Hixson 2002, p. 239. Jump up ^ White 1995, pp. 1 -- 8. Jump up ^ Hein & Selden 1997, pp. 25 -- 26. Jump up ^ Latest Knowledge on Radiological Effects : Radiation Health Effects of Atomic Bomb Explosions and Nuclear Power Plant Accidents Jump up ^ Medical Effects Of Atomic Bombs The Report Of The Joint Commission For The Investigation Of The Effects Of The Atomic Bomb In Japan Volume 1 Jump up ^ Borden Institute. Chapter 2 Acute radiation syndrome Jump up ^ Nuclear fallout medical effects. Mettler Jump up ^ Putnam, Frank W. `` The Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission in Retrospect ''. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved January 31, 2014. Jump up ^ Lindee, 241 Jump up ^ `` Objectives '' Jump up ^ Radiation Effects Research Foundation ( former Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission ) `` Leukemia risks among atomic - bomb survivors '' Accessed 2011 - 10 - 30 Jump up ^ http://hiroshima.australiandoctor.com.au/ Jump up ^ Peterson & Abrahamson 1998, p. 101. Jump up ^ `` Frequently Asked Questions # 2 ''. Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Retrieved March 2, 2014. Jump up ^ ( Biological Effects of Prenatal Irradiation Christian Streffer doi.org/10.1002/9780470515006.ch11 2007 ) Jump up ^ `` The Radiation Effects Research Foundation ''. Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Archived from the original on March 8, 2009. Retrieved March 25, 2009. Jump up ^ Voosen, Paul ( April 11, 2011 ). `` Nuclear Crisis : Hiroshima and Nagasaki cast long shadows over radiation science ''. E&E News. Retrieved December 22, 2013. ^ Jump up to : `` The American Spectator, Volume 35 ''. Saturday Evening Club. 2002. p. 57. Jump up ^ Johnston 2008, p. 143. Jump up ^ `` Birth defects among the children of atomic - bomb survivors ( 1948 -- 1954 ) ''. Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Retrieved December 22, 2013. Jump up ^ Krimsky & Shorett 2005, p. 118. Jump up ^ `` Data India ''. Press Institute of India. 2008. p. 697. Jump up ^ NAP pg 354 effects of growth and development Jump up ^ ICRP and impairment of mental function following prenatal irradiation. RH Mole. Journal of Radiological Protection, Volume 12, Number 2. 1992 Jump up ^ pg 354 effects of growth and development Jump up ^ Prenatal Exposure to Atomic Radiation and Brain Damage doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4520.1989.tb00751.x Congenital Anomalies 1989. Schull Jump up ^ NAP pg 360 effects of growth and development Jump up ^ Prenatal Exposure to Atomic Radiation and Brain Damage doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4520.1989.tb00751.x Congenital Anomalies 1989 Jump up ^ Mental Retardation Following In Utero Exposure to the Atomic Bombs of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Pediatric Radiology doi.org/10.1148/106.3.617. `` Significant increases at doses greater than 50 rads in Hiroshima and 200 in Nagasaki were found, with the risk of mental retardation generally rising directly with increasing dose. The lower dose - effect in Hiroshima may have been due to irradiation by neutrons which were virtually absent in Nagasaki. '' Jump up ^ New Study Questions Hiroshima Radiation. 1992 Jump up ^ The impact of possible modifications to the DS86 dosimetry on neutron risk and relative biological effectiveness Jump up ^ Reassessment of gamma doses from the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki 10.2307 / 3577175 Jump up ^ Lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia among individuals prenatally exposed to atomic bomb radiation in Nagasaki City / doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1999.tb10877.x Jump up ^ `` Hiroshima marks 72nd A-bomb anniversary with eyes on ban treaty ''. The Mainichi. August 6, 2017. Archived from the original on August 10, 2017. Retrieved August 9, 2017. Jump up ^ `` Relief for A-bomb victims ''. The Japan Times. August 15, 2007. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Jump up ^ `` UN chief calls for intensified effort on nuclear disarmament ''. Asian News Service. August 7, 2017. Retrieved August 9, 2017. Jump up ^ `` Atomic bombing of Nagasaki remembered ''. The Japan News. August 9, 2017. Archived from the original on August 13, 2017. Retrieved August 9, 2017. Jump up ^ Simons, Lewis M. ( June 7, 1984 ). `` Children of Hiroshima, Nagasaki survivors facing prejudice, discrimination in Japan ''. Ottawa Citizen. Knight - Rider News. Retrieved 29 January 2016. Jump up ^ `` Prejudice haunts atomic bomb survivors ''. Japan Times. Archived from the original on 2007 - 08 - 10. Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 25. Jump up ^ http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/268/5/661.short The Children of Atomic Bomb Survivors : A Genetic Study. 1992. No differences were found ( in frequencies of birth defects, stillbirths, etc ), thus allaying the immediate public concern that atomic radiation might spawn an epidemic of malformed children. Jump up ^ http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/78218/1/9789241505130_eng.pdf World Health Organization report. page 23 & 24 internal Jump up ^ Winther, J.F. ; Boice, J.D. ; Thomsen, B.L. ; Schull, W.J. ; Stovall, M. ; Olsen, J.H. ( 1 January 2003 ). `` Sex ratio among offspring of childhood cancer survivors treated with radiotherapy ''. Br J Cancer. 88 ( 3 ) : 382 -- 387. doi : 10.1038 / sj. bjc. 6600748. PMC 2747537. PMID 12569380 -- via www.nature.com. Jump up ^ http://www.rerf.jp/radefx/genetics_e/birthdef.html ( RERF ) Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Formerly known as the ( ABCC ) Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission. Jump up ^ `` Birth defects among the children of atomic - bomb survivors ( 1948 -- 1954 ) ''. Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Retrieved February 2, 2014. Jump up ^ `` NUCLEAR CRISIS : Hiroshima and Nagasaki cast long shadows over radiation science ''. Jump up ^ Yamada & Izumi 2002, pp. 409 -- 415. Jump up ^ `` Twice Bombed, Twice Survived : Film Explores Untold Stories from Hiroshima & Nagasaki ''. Columbia University. August 2, 2006. Archived from the original on April 3, 2009. Retrieved March 31, 2009. Jump up ^ `` Japan Confirms First Double A-Bomb Survivor ''. Sky News. Archived from the original on April 18, 2016. Retrieved November 4, 2010. Jump up ^ `` Man who survived two atom bombs dies ''. CNN. January 8, 2010. Archived from the original on January 7, 2010. Retrieved January 8, 2010. Jump up ^ Gruhl 2007, p. 111. Jump up ^ Dower 1996, p. 140 Dower says that Korean survivor groups use higher estimates. Jump up ^ Palmer, David ( February 20, 2008 ). `` Korean Hibakusha, Japan 's Supreme Court and the International Community : Can the U.S. and Japan Confront Forced Labor and Atomic Bombing ? ''. Asia - Pacific Journal. Retrieved January 3, 2012. Jump up ^ Ishikawa & Swain 1981, p. 6. ^ Jump up to : `` After the Bomb ''. Atomic Bomb Museum. Retrieved February 22, 2017. Jump up ^ `` Peace Memorial City, Hiroshima ''. Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation. Archived from the original on February 6, 2008. Retrieved August 14, 2007. Jump up ^ `` Fifty Years for the Peace Memorial Museum ''. Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 17. Jump up ^ `` Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park ''. Japan Deluxe Tours. Retrieved May 23, 2017. Jump up ^ `` Nagasaki History Facts and Timeline ''. World Guides. Retrieved February 22, 2017. Jump up ^ Walker 2005, p. 334. Jump up ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002, pp. 23 -- 24. Jump up ^ Selden & Selden 1990, pp. xxx -- xxxi. Jump up ^ Walker 1990, pp. 97 -- 114. Jump up ^ `` Historians : Soviet offensive, key to Japan 's WWII surrender, was eclipsed by A-bombs ''. Fox News. Retrieved September 18, 2013. Jump up ^ Orr 2008, pp. 521 -- 529. Jump up ^ Stohl 1979, p. 279 ). Jump up ^ Gunter, Linda ( August 30, 2016 ). `` The Racism of the Nagasaki and Hiroshima Bombings ''. Counter Punch. Retrieved February 28, 2017. Jump up ^ Ellsberg 2017, pp. 266 -- 267. Jump up ^ Rhodes 1995, pp. 212 -- 213. Jump up ^ Khan, Shahedul Anam ( August 6, 2017 ). `` Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki '' `` An ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages '' ``. The Daily Star. Retrieved February 23, 2018. ^ Jump up to : Ellsberg 2017, p. 267. Jump up ^ Ellsberg 2017, p. 291. Jump up ^ Ellsberg 2017, p. 269. Jump up ^ Ellsberg 2017, p. 144. Jump up ^ Quester 1970, p. 765. Jump up ^ Ellsberg 2017, pp. 80 -- 82. Jump up ^ Hewlett & Holl 1989, p. 272. Jump up ^ Ellsberg 2017, pp. 319 -- 322. ^ Jump up to : `` 70 years after Hiroshima, opinions have shifted on use of atomic bomb ''. Pew Research Center. 2015 - 08 - 04. Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 24. ^ Jump up to : Inc., Gallup,. `` Gallup Vault : Americans ' Mindset After Hiroshima ''. Gallup.com. Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 24. Jump up ^ University, Stanford ( 2017 - 08 - 08 ). `` Americans weigh in on nuclear war Stanford News ''. Stanford News. Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 24. Jump up ^ Sagan, Scott D. ; Valentino, Benjamin A. ( 2017 - 08 - 10 ). `` Revisiting Hiroshima in Iran : What Americans Really Think about Using Nuclear Weapons and Killing Noncombatants ''. International Security. 42 ( 1 ) : 41 -- 79. ISSN 1531 - 4804. Jump up ^ `` Section 4 : Foreign Policy ''. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2010 - 04 - 28. Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 24. References Allen, Louis ( 1969 ). `` The Nuclear Raids ''. In Hart, Basil Liddell. History of the Second World War. Volume 6. London : Purnell. pp. 2566 -- 2576. OCLC 2466051. Appleman, Roy E. ; Burns, James M. ; Gugeler, Russell A. ; Stevens, John ( 1948 ). Okinawa : The Last Battle. The United States Army in World War II : The War in the Pacific. Washington, D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History. OCLC 226537810. Asada, Sadao ( 1996 ). `` The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan 's Decision to Surrender : A Reconsideration ''. In Maddox, Robert James. Hiroshima in History. Columbia, Missouri : University of Missouri Press. pp. 24 -- 58. ISBN 978 - 0 - 8262 - 1962 - 6. OCLC 720831424. Bernstein, Barton J. ( Spring 1991 ). `` Eclipsed by Hiroshima and Nagasaki : Early Thinking about Tactical Nuclear Weapons ''. International Security. 15 ( 4 ) : 149 -- 173. doi : 10.2307 / 2539014. ISSN 0162 - 2889. JSTOR 2539014. Bix, Herbert ( 1996 ). `` Japan 's Delayed Surrender : A Reinterpretation ''. In Hogan, Michael J. Hiroshima in History and Memory. New York : Cambridge University Press. pp. 80 -- 115. ISBN 0 - 521 - 56682 - 7. Bodden, Valerie ( 2007 ). The Bombing of Hiroshima & Nagasaki. Mankato, Minnesota : The Creative Company. ISBN 1 - 58341 - 545 - 9. Brooks, Risa ; Stanley, Elizabeth A. ( 2007 ). Creating Military Power : the Sources of Military Effectiveness. Stanford, California : Stanford University Press. ISBN 0 - 8047 - 5399 - 7. Bungei, Shunjū Senshi Kenkyūkai ( 1981 ). The Day Man Lost : Hiroshima. Tokyo : Kodansha International. ISBN 0 - 87011 - 471 - 9. Burchett, Wilfred ( 2004 ). `` The Atomic Plague ''. In Pilger, John. Tell me No Lies. New York : Thunder 's Mouth Press. pp. 10 -- 25. ISBN 0 - 224 - 06288 - 3. OCLC 61395938. Campbell, Richard H. ( 2005 ). The Silverplate Bombers : A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B - 29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs. Jefferson, North Carolina : McFarland & Company. ISBN 0 - 7864 - 2139 - 8. OCLC 58554961. Carroll, James ( 2007 ). House of War : The Pentagon and the Disastrous Rise of American Power. Boston : Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0 - 618 - 87201 - 9. Christman, Albert B. ( 1998 ). Target Hiroshima : Deak Parsons and the Creation of the Atomic Bomb. Annapolis, Maryland : Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1 - 55750 - 120 - 3. OCLC 38257982. Chun, Clayton K.S. ( 2008 ). Japan, 1945 : From Operation Downfall to Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Oxford : Osprey. ISBN 978 - 1 - 84603 - 284 - 4. OCLC 191922849. Compton, Arthur ( 1956 ). Atomic Quest. New York : Oxford University Press. OCLC 173307. Coox, Alvin D. ( 1969 ). `` Japan at the End of Her Tether ''. In Hart, Basil Liddell. History of the Second World War. Volume 6. London : Purnell. pp. 2536 -- 2544. OCLC 2466051. Coox, Alvin D. ( 1994 ). `` Air War Against Japan ''. In Cooling, B. Franklin. Case Studies in the Achievement of Air Superiority. Washington, D.C. : Center for Air Force History. pp. 383 -- 452. ISBN 0 - 912799 - 63 - 3. OCLC 842361345. Retrieved March 2, 2014. Coster - Mullen, John ( 2012 ). Atom Bombs : The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man. Waukesha, Wisconsin : J. Coster - Mullen. OCLC 298514167. Craven, Wesley ; Cate, James, eds. ( 1953 ). The Pacific : Matterhorn to Nagasaki. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press. OCLC 256469807. Retrieved March 2, 2014. Dietz, Suzanne Simon ; Van Kirk, Theodore Jerome ( 2012 ). My true course : Dutch Van Kirk, Northumberland to Hiroshima. Lawrenceville, Georgia : Red Gremlin Press. ISBN 978 - 0 - 692 - 01676 - 3. OCLC 797975707. Dower, John W. ( 1996 ). `` The Bombed ''. In Hogan, Michael J. Hiroshima in History and Memory. New York : Cambridge University Press. pp. 116 -- 142. ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 56682 - 7. OCLC 466874831. Drea, Edward J. ( 1992 ). MacArthur 's ULTRA : Codebreaking and the War Against Japan, 1942 -- 1945. Lawrence, Kansas : University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0 - 7006 - 0504 - 5. OCLC 23651196. Edwards, Pail N. ( 1996 ). The Closed World : Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America. Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press. ISBN 0 - 262 - 55028 - 8. OCLC 807140394. Ellsberg, Daniel ( 2017 ). The Doomsday Machine : Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner. New York ; London : Bloomsbury USA. ISBN 978 - 1 - 60819 - 670 - 8. OCLC 968158870. Fiévé, Nicolas ; Waley, Paul ( 2003 ). Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective : Place, Power and Memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo. London : RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0 - 7007 - 1409 - X. Frank, Richard B. ( 1999 ). Downfall : The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York : Random House. ISBN 0 - 679 - 41424 - X. Fujiwara, Akira ( 1991 ). Tettei kenshō Shōwa Tennō `` dokuhakuroku ''. Tōkyō : Ōtsuki Shoten. ISBN 4 - 272 - 52022 - 9. Giangreco, D.M. ( 2009 ). Hell to Pay : Operation Downfall and the Invasion of Japan 1945 -- 1947. Annapolis, Maryland : Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978 - 1 - 59114 - 316 - 1. OCLC 643381863. Glasstone, Samuel ; Dolan, Philip J., eds. ( 1977 ). The Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Washington, D.C. : United States Department of Defense and the Energy Research and Development Administration. OCLC 4016678. Retrieved December 5, 2016. Goldstein, Donald ; Dillon, Katherine V ; Wenger, J Michael ( 1995 ). Rain of Ruin : a Photographic History of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Washington, D.C. : Brassey 's. ISBN 1 - 57488 - 033 - 0. OCLC 31969557. Gowing, Margaret ( 1964 ). Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935 -- 1945. London : Macmillan Publishing. OCLC 3195209. Groves, Leslie ( 1983 ) ( 1962 ). Now it Can be Told : The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York : Da Capo Press. ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 80189 - 1. OCLC 932666584. Gruhl, Werner ( 2007 ). Imperial Japan 's World War II, 1931 -- 1945. New Brunswick, New Jersey : Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978 - 0 - 7658 - 0352 - 8. OCLC 76871604. Grunden, Walter E. ( 1998 ). `` Hungnam and the Japanese atomic bomb : Recent Historiography of a Postwar Myth ''. Intelligence and National Security. 13 ( 2 ) : 32 -- 60. doi : 10.1080 / 02684529808432475. ISSN 0268 - 4527. Ham, Paul ( 2011 ). Hiroshima Nagasaki. Sydney : HarperCollins. ISBN 978 - 0 - 7322 - 8845 - 7. OCLC 746754306. Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi ( 2006 ). Racing the Enemy : Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan. Cambridge, Massachusetts : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 01693 - 4. Hein, Laura ; Selden, Mark, eds. ( 1997 ). Living with the Bomb : American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nuclear Age. New York : M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978 - 1 - 56324 - 967 - 9. Hewlett, Richard G. ; Anderson, Oscar E. ( 1962 ). The New World, 1939 -- 1946 ( PDF ). A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park : Pennsylvania State University Press. OCLC 493738019. Retrieved March 26, 2013. Hewlett, Richard G. ; Holl, Jack M. ( 1989 ). Atoms for Peace and War, 1953 -- 1961 : Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission ( PDF ). A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania : Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0 - 520 - 06018 - 0. OCLC 82275622. Retrieved May 31, 2017. Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation ( 2003 ). Eyewitness Testimonies : Appeals from the A-Bomb Survivors ( 3rd ed. ). Hiroshima, Japan : Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation. OCLC 853288543. Hixson, Walter L. ( 2002 ). The American Experience in World War II : The Atomic Bomb in History and Memory. New York : Routledge. ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 94035 - 1. OCLC 59464269. Hoddeson, Lillian ; Henriksen, Paul W. ; Meade, Roger A. ; Westfall, Catherine L. ( 1993 ). Critical Assembly : A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943 -- 1945. New York : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0 - 521 - 44132 - 3. OCLC 26764320. Hoyt, Edwin P. ( 2001 ). Japan 's War : The Great Pacific Conflict. New York : McGraw - Hill. ISBN 0 - 8154 - 1118 - 9. OCLC 12722494. Hubbell, Harry ; Cheka, Joseph ; Jones, Throyce ( 1969 ). The Epicenters of the Atomic Bombs. Reevaluation of All Available Physical Data With Recommended Values. Hiroshima : Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission. OCLC 404745043. Ishikawa, Eisei ; Swain, David L. ( 1981 ). Hiroshima and Nagasaki : The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings. New York : Basic Books. ISBN 978 - 0 - 465 - 02985 - 3. OCLC 715904227. Japanese Broadcasting Corporation ( NHK ) ( 1977 ). Unforgettable Fire : Pictures Drawn by Atomic Bomb Survivors. New York : Pantheon Books. ISBN 978 - 0394748238. Johnston, Barbara Rose ( 2008 ). The Consequential Damages of Nuclear War : The Rongelap Report. Walnutt Creek : Left Coast Press. ISBN 978 - 1 - 59874 - 346 - 3. Jones, Vincent ( 1985 ). Manhattan : The Army and the Atomic Bomb. The United States Army in World War II : Special Studies. Washington, D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History. OCLC 10913875. Jowett, Philip S. ; Andrew, Stephen ( 2002 ). The Japanese Army 1931 -- 45 : 2 1942 -- 45. Oxford : Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 354 - 5. OCLC 59395824. Kelly, Jason M. ( 2012 ). `` Why Did Henry Stimson Spare Kyoto from the Bomb ? : Confusion in Postwar Historiography ''. Journal of American - East Asian Relations. 19 ( 2 ) : 183 -- 203. doi : 10.1163 / 18765610 - 01902004. ISSN 1058 - 3947. Kerr, E. Bartlett ( 1991 ). Flames Over Tokyo : the US Army Air Forces ' Incendiary Campaign against Japan 1944 -- 1945. New York : Donald I. Fine Inc. ISBN 1 - 55611 - 301 - 3. Kerr, George D. ; Young, Robert W. ; Cullings, Harry M. ; Christy, Robert F. ( 2005 ). `` Bomb Parameters ''. In Young, Robert W. ; Kerr, George D. Reassessment of the Atomic Bomb Radiation Dosimetry for Hiroshima and Nagasaki -- Dosimetry System 2002 ( PDF ). Hiroshima : The Radiation Effects Research Foundation. pp. 42 -- 61. OCLC 271477587. Kido, Kōichi ; Yoshitake, Oka ( 1966 ). 木 戶 幸一 日記 ( Kido Kōichi Diary ) ( in Japanese ). Tōkyō : Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai. ISBN 4 - 13 - 030012 - 1. OCLC 959675458. Knebel, Fletcher ; Bailey, Charles W. ( 1960 ). No High Ground. New York : Harper and Row. OCLC 1212857. Krimsky, Sheldon ; Shorett, Peter ( 2005 ). Rights and Liberties in the Biotech Age : Why We Need a Genetic Bill of Rights. Lantham : Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0 - 7425 - 4341 - 2. Lewis, Robert A. ; Tolzer, Eliot ( August 1957 ). `` How We Dropped the A-Bomb ''. Popular Science. pp. 71 -- 75, 209 -- 210. ISSN 0161 - 7370. Lifton, Robert Jay ( 1991 ). Death in Life : Survivors of Hiroshima. Chapel Hill, North Carolina : University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0 - 8078 - 4344 - X. OCLC 490493399. Long, Gavin ( 1963 ). The Final Campaigns. Australia in the War of 1939 -- 1945. Series 1 -- Army. Volume 7. Canberra : Australian War Memorial. OCLC 1297619. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 2, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2011. McNelly, Theodore H. ( 2000 ). `` The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb ''. In Jacob Neufeld. Pearl to V-J Day : World War II in the Pacific. New York : Diane Publishing Co. pp. 131 -- 170. ISBN 1 - 4379 - 1286 - 9. Moore, Mike ( July -- August 1995 ). `` Troublesome Imagery ''. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science. 54 ( 4 ) : 73 -- 74. ISSN 0096 - 3402. Newman, Robert P. ( 1995 ). Truman and the Hiroshima Cult. East Lansing, Michigan : Michigan State University Press. ISBN 0 - 87013 - 403 - 5. OCLC 32625518. Orr, James J. ( 2008 ). `` Review of Hiroshima in History : The Myths of Revisionism and The End of the Pacific War ''. Journal of Japanese Studies. 34 ( 2 ) : 521 -- 529. ISSN 0095 - 6848. JSTOR 27756604. Peterson, Leif E. ; Abrahamson, Seymour, eds. ( 1998 ). Effects of Ionizing Radiation : Atomic Bomb Survivors and Their Children. Washington, D.C. : Joseph Henry Press. OCLC 937289722. Preston, Diana ( 2005 ). Before The Fallout : From Marie Curie to Hiroshima. New York : Walker & Co. ISBN 0 - 8027 - 1445 - 5. Quester, George H. ( September 1970 ). `` Japan and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ''. Asian Survey. 10 ( 9 ) : 765 -- 778. doi : 10.2307 / 2643028. ISSN 0004 - 4687. JSTOR 2643028. Reischauer, Edwin O. ( 1986 ). My Life Between Japan And America. New York : Harper & Row. ISBN 0 - 06 - 039054 - 9. OCLC 13114344. Rhodes, Richard ( 1995 ). Dark Sun : The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York : Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0 - 684 - 80400 - X. OCLC 32509950. Rotter, Andrew J. ( 2008 ). Hiroshima : The World 's Bomb. Oxford : Oxford University Press. ISBN 0 - 19 - 280437 - 5. Russ, Harlow W. ( 1990 ). Project Alberta : The Preparation of Atomic Bombs For Use in World War II. Los Alamos, New Mexico : Exceptional Books. ISBN 978 - 0 - 944482 - 01 - 8. OCLC 24429257. Sandler, Stanley ( 2001 ). World War II in the Pacific : an Encyclopedia. New York : Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0 - 8153 - 1883 - 9. OCLC 44769066. Schaffer, Ronald ( 1985 ). Wings of Judgment : American Bombing in World War II. New York : Oxford University Press. ISBN 0 - 19 - 503629 - 8. OCLC 11785450. Scoenberger, Walter ( 1969 ). Decision of Destiny. Athens : Ohio University Press. OCLC 959500725. Selden, Kyoko Iriye ; Selden, Mark ( 1990 ). The Atomic Bomb : Voices from Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Armonk, New York : M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0 - 87332 - 773 - X. OCLC 20057103. Sharp, Patrick B. ( 2000 ). `` From Yellow Peril to Japanese Wasteland : John Hersey 's ' Hiroshima ' ''. Twentieth Century Literature. 46 : 434 -- 452. ISSN 0041 - 462X. JSTOR 827841. Sherwin, Martin J. ( 2003 ). A World Destroyed : Hiroshima and its Legacies. Stanford, California : Stanford University Press. ISBN 0 - 8047 - 3957 - 9. OCLC 52714712. Sklar, Morty, ed. ( 1984 ). Nuke - rebuke : Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons. Iowa City, Iowa : The Spirit That Moves Us Press. ISBN 0 - 930370 - 16 - 3. OCLC 10072916. Slavinskiĭ, Boris Nikolaevich ( 2004 ). The Japanese - Soviet Neutrality Pact : A Diplomatic History, 1941 -- 1945. Nissan Institute / Routledge Japanese Studies Series. London ; New York : RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 32292 - 8. Stohl, Michael ( 1979 ). The Politics of Terrorism. New York : M. Dekker. ISBN 978 - 0 - 8247 - 6764 - 8. OCLC 4495087. Sweeney, Charles ; Antonucci, James A. ; Antonucci, Marion K. ( 1997 ). War 's End : An Eyewitness Account of America 's Last Atomic Mission. New York : Quill Publishing. ISBN 0 - 380 - 78874 - 8. Tanaka, Yuki ; Young, Marilyn B. ( 2009 ). Bombing Civilians : A Twentieth Century History. New York : New Press. ISBN 978 - 1 - 59558 - 547 - 9. OCLC 624416971. Thomas, Gordon ; Morgan - Witts, Max ( 1977 ). Ruin from the Air. London : Hamilton. ISBN 0 - 241 - 89726 - 2. OCLC 252041787. Tibbets, Paul W. ( 1998 ). Return Of The Enola Gay. New Hope, Pennsylvania : Enola Gay Remembered. ISBN 0 - 9703666 - 0 - 4. OCLC 69423383. Toon, O.B. ; Turco, R.P. ; Robock, A. ; Bardeen, C. ; Oman, L. ; Stenchikov, G.L. ( 2007 ). `` Atmospheric Effects and Societal Consequences of Regional Scale Nuclear Conflicts and Acts of Individual Nuclear Terrorism '' ( PDF ). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 7 : 1973 -- 2002. ISSN 1680 - 7316. Retrieved December 4, 2016. United States Department of State ( 1960 ). Foreign Relations of the United States : Diplomatic Papers : the Conference of Berlin ( the Potsdam Conference ), 1945. Foreign Relations of the United States. 2. Washington, DC : U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 22435734. Wainstock, Dennis D. ( 1996 ). The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb. Westport, Connecticut : Praeger. ISBN 0 - 275 - 95475 - 7. OCLC 33243854. Walker, J. Samuel ( January 1990 ). `` The Decision to Use the Bomb : A Historiographical Update ''. Diplomatic History. 14 ( 1 ) : 97 -- 114. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 7709.1990. tb00078. x. ISSN 1467 - 7709. Walker, J. Samuel ( April 2005 ). `` Recent Literature on Truman 's Atomic Bomb Decision : A Search for Middle Ground ''. Diplomatic History. 29 ( 2 ) : 311 -- 334. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 7709.2005. 00476. x. ISSN 1467 - 7709. Werrell, Kenneth P. ( 1996 ). Blankets of Fire : U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1 - 56098 - 665 - 4. OCLC 32921746. White, Geoffrey. M. ( July 1995 ). `` Memory Wars : The Politics of Remembering the Asia - Pacific War '' ( PDF ). Asia - Pacific Issues ( 21 ). ISSN 1522 - 0966. Retrieved June 30, 2013. Williams, M.H. ( 1960 ). Chronology, 1941 -- 1945. Washington, D.C. : Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 1358166. Yamada, Michiko ; Izumi, Shizue ( 2002 ). `` Psychiatric Sequelae in Atomic Bomb Survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki Two Decades After the Explosions ''. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 37 ( 9 ) : 409 -- 415. doi : 10.1007 / s00127 - 002 - 0572 - 5. ISSN 0933 - 7954. Zaloga, Steven J. ; Noon, Steve ( 2010 ). Defense of Japan 1945. Fortress. Oxford : Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1 - 84603 - 687 - 9. OCLC 503042143. Further reading Allen, Thomas ; Polmar, Norman ( 1995 ). Code - Name Downfall. New York : Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0 - 684 - 80406 - 9. Alperovitz, Gar ; Tree, Sanho ( 1996 ). The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb. New York : Vintage. ISBN 0 - 679 - 76285 - X. The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki ( 1981 ). Hiroshima and Nagasaki : The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings. New York : Basic Books. ISBN 0 - 465 - 02985 - X. Delgado, James P. ( 2009 ). Nuclear Dawn : the Atomic Bomb, from the Manhattan Project to the Cold War. New York : Osprey. ISBN 978 - 1 - 84603 - 396 - 4. OCLC 297147193. Gordin, Michael D. ( 2007 ). Five Days in August : How World War II Became a Nuclear War. Princeton, New Jersey : Princeton University Press. ISBN 0 - 691 - 12818 - 9. OCLC 70630623. Gosling, Francis George ( 1994 ). The Manhattan Project : Making the Atomic Bomb. Washington, D.C. : United States Department of Energy, History Division. OCLC 637052193. Krauss, Robert ; Krauss, Amelia ( 2005 ). The 509th Remembered : A History of the 509th Composite Group as Told by the Veterans Themselves. Buchanan, Michigan : 509th Press. ISBN 0 - 923568 - 66 - 2. OCLC 59148135. Merton, Thomas ( 1962 ). Original Child Bomb : Points for Meditation to be Scratched on the Walls of a Cave. New York : New Directions. OCLC 4527778. Murakami, Chikayasu ( 2007 ). Hiroshima no shiroi sora ( The White Sky in Hiroshima ). Tokyo : Bungeisha. ISBN 4 - 286 - 03708 - 8. Ogura, Toyofumi ( 2001 ). Letters from the End of the World : A Firsthand Account of the Bombing of Hiroshima. Tokyo : Kodansha International. ISBN 4 - 7700 - 2776 - 1. Sekimori, Gaynor ( 1986 ). Hibakusha : Survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Tokyo : Kosei Publishing Company. ISBN 4 - 333 - 01204 - X. Ward, Wilson ( Spring 2007 ). `` The Winning Weapon ? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima ''. International Security. 31 ( 4 ) : 162 -- 179. doi : 10.1162 / isec. 2007.31. 4.162. ISSN 1531 - 4804. Warren, Stafford L. ( 1966 ). `` Manhattan Project ''. In Ahnfeldt, Arnold Lorentz. Radiology in World War II. Washington, D.C. : Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. pp. 831 -- 922. OCLC 630225. External links Find more aboutAtomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasakiat Wikipedia 's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Present day Are Nagasaki and Hiroshima still radioactive ? -- No. Includes explanation. The decision `` Order from General Thomas Handy to General Carl Spaatz authorizing the dropping of the first atomic bomb ''. Wikisource. 2015. `` Documents on the Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb ''. Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved January 3, 2012. `` President Truman Defends Use of Atomic Bomb, 1945 : Original Letters ''. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Retrieved February 8, 2014. `` Correspondence Regarding Decision to Drop the Bomb ''. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Retrieved January 3, 2012. The effects `` The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey. Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum. 1946. Retrieved January 3, 2012. `` Scientific Data of the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Disaster ''. Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University. Retrieved January 3, 2012. `` Tale of Two Cities : The Story of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. National Science Digital Library. Retrieved January 3, 2012. `` The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. Atomic Archive. 1946. Retrieved January 3, 2012. `` The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II '' ( PDF ). National Security Archive. Retrieved January 3, 2012. The short film Children of Hiroshima ( Reel 1 of 2 ) ( 1952 ) is available for free download at the Internet Archive The short film Children of Hiroshima ( Reel 2 of 2 ) ( 1952 ) is available for free download at the Internet Archive `` Photo gallery of aftermath pictures ''. Time - Life. Archived from the original on July 19, 2012. Retrieved February 8, 2014. Video footage of the bombing of Nagasaki ( silent ) on YouTube Video footage of the bombing of Hiroshima on YouTube The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima & Nagasaki public domain audiobook at LibriVox Archives `` Nagasaki Archive ''. Google Earth mapping of Nagasaki bombing archives. Retrieved January 3, 2012. `` Hiroshima Archive ''. Google Earth mapping of Hiroshima bombing archives. Retrieved January 3, 2012. Bibliographies `` Annotated bibliography for atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ''. Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues. Retrieved January 3, 2012. Commemoration Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum Hiroshima and Nagasaki : A Look Back at the US Atomic Bombing 64 Years Later -- video by Democracy Now ! Hiroshima & Nagasaki Remembered 2005 website commemorating 60th anniversary Manhattan Project Timeline Sites Ames Berkeley Chicago Dayton Hanford Inyokern Los Alamos Montreal New York Oak Ridge Trinity Wendover Heavy water sites Administrators Vannevar Bush Arthur Compton James Conant Priscilla Duffield Thomas Farrell Leslie Groves John Lansdale Ernest Lawrence James Marshall Franklin Matthias Dorothy McKibbin Kenneth Nichols Robert Oppenheimer Deak Parsons William Purnell Frank Spedding Charles Thomas Paul Tibbets Bud Uanna Harold Urey Stafford Warren Ed Westcott Roscoe Wilson Scientists Luis Alvarez Robert Bacher Hans Bethe Aage Bohr Niels Bohr Norris Bradbury James Chadwick John Cockcroft Harry Daghlian Enrico Fermi Richard Feynman Val Fitch James Franck Klaus Fuchs Maria Goeppert - Mayer George Kistiakowsky George Koval Willard Libby Edwin McMillan Mark Oliphant Norman Ramsey Isidor Isaac Rabi James Rainwater Bruno Rossi Glenn Seaborg Emilio Segrè Louis Slotin Henry DeWolf Smyth Leo Szilard Edward Teller Stanisław Ulam John von Neumann John Wheeler Eugene Wigner Robert Wilson Leona Woods Operations Alsos Mission Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Operation Crossroads Operation Peppermint Project Alberta Silverplate 509th Composite Group Enola Gay Bockscar The Great Artiste Weapons Fat Man Little Boy Pumpkin bomb Thin Man Related topics Atomic Energy Act of 1946 British contribution Chicago Pile - 1 Demon core Einstein -- Szilárd letter Interim Committee Oppenheimer security hearing Plutonium Quebec Agreement RaLa Experiment S - 1 Executive Committee S - 50 Project Smyth Report Uranium X-10 Graphite Reactor Manhattan Project Empire of Japan Overview Agriculture Censorship Demographics Economy Economic history Education Eugenics Foreign commerce and shipping Industrial production Militarism Nationalism Statism Internal politics State Shinto Kazoku Emperors Meiji ( Mutsuhito ) Taishō ( Yoshihito ) Shōwa ( Hirohito ) Symbols Flag of Japan Rising Sun Flag Imperial Seal of Japan Government Seal of Japan State Seal of Japan Privy Seal of Japan Kimigayo Policies Constitution Charter Oath Foreign relations Imperial Rescript on Education Kokutai National Spiritual Mobilization Movement Peace Preservation Law Political parties Supreme Court of Judicature Taisei Yokusankai Tokkō Tonarigumi Greater East Asia Conference Government Administration ( Ministries ) Imperial Household Home Ministry War Army Navy Treasury Foreign Affairs Agriculture and Commerce Commerce and Industry Munitions Colonial Affairs Greater East Asia East Asia Development Board ( Kōain ) Legislative & Deliberative Bodies Daijō - kan Privy Council Gozen Kaigi Imperial Diet Peers Representatives Military Armed Forces Imperial General Headquarters Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors Senjinkun military code Nuclear weapons program Kamikaze War crimes Supreme War Council Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Air Service Railways and Shipping Imperial Guard Imperial Way Faction ( Kōdōha ) Japanese holdout Tōseiha Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff Air Service Land Forces Fleet Faction Treaty Faction History Meiji period Meiji Restoration Boshin War Satsuma Rebellion First Sino - Japanese War Triple Intervention Boxer Rebellion Anglo - Japanese Alliance Russo - Japanese War Taishō period World War I Siberian Intervention General Election Law Washington Naval Treaty Shōwa period Shōwa financial crisis Pacification of Manchukuo Anti-Comintern Pact Second Sino - Japanese War Soviet -- Japanese border conflicts Tripartite Pact Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact Pacific War Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Soviet -- Japanese War Surrender ( Potsdam Declaration, Gyokuon - hōsō ) Occupation Territories Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Karafuto Korea Kwantung Manchukuo South Pacific Taiwan Occupied territories Borneo Burma Hong Kong Dutch East Indies Malaya Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Other topics Sonnō jōi Fukoku kyōhei Hakkō ichiu Internment camps German pre -- World War II industrial co-operation Racial Equality Proposal Shinmin no Michi Shōwa Modan Socialist thought Yasukuni Shrine International Military Tribunal for the Far East Japanese dissidence during the Shōwa period Harry S. Truman 33rd President of the United States ( 1945 -- 1953 ) 34th Vice President of the United States ( 1945 ) U.S. Senator from Missouri ( 1935 -- 1945 ) Presidency 1945 inauguration 1949 inauguration Potsdam Conference Agreement on Europe Declaration to Japan Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Fair Deal Mental Health Act National Institute of Mental Health National School Lunch Act Employment Act of 1946 Council of Economic Advisers Truman Doctrine Marshall Plan Loyalty Order National Security Act of 1947 Joint Chiefs of Staff National Security Council Department of the Air Force Central Intelligence Agency Key West Agreement Joint Long Range Proving Grounds Revolt of the Admirals Committee on Civil Rights Integration of the Armed Forces Housing Act of 1949 North Atlantic Treaty NATO Assassination attempt Korean War U.N. Security Council Resolutions 82, 83 Relief of General MacArthur Office of Defense Mobilization Science Advisory Committee 1952 steel strike Puerto Rican constitutional referendum, 1952 National Security Agency State of the Union Address ( 1946 1950 1952 ) Judicial appointments Supreme Court Cabinet Truman Balcony `` The buck stops here '' Life Early life and career Presidential Library, Museum, and gravesite Missouri Office and Courtroom Truman Committee Democratic vice presidential nomination of 1944 Books Bibliography Homes Birthplace Harry S. Truman Farm Home Harry S. Truman home and National Historic Site Historic District Blair House Truman Little White House Elections United States Senate election in Missouri, 1934 1940 Democratic National Convention 1944 1948 United States presidential election, 1944 1948 `` Dewey Defeats Truman '' campaign song Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1952 Legacy Truman Day Harry S Truman Building Truman Dam and Reservoir Harry S. Truman Scholarship Truman Sports Complex U.S. Postage stamps Related Give ' em Hell, Harry ( 1975 play and film ) Truman ( 1995 film ) Family Bess Wallace Truman ( wife ) Margaret Truman ( daughter ) John Anderson Truman ( father ) Martha Ellen Young Truman ( mother ) Clifton Truman Daniel ( grandson ) ← Franklin D. Roosevelt Dwight D. Eisenhower → Category United States in World War II Home front American music during World War II United States aircraft production during World War II Arizona during World War II Nevada during World War II New Mexico during World War II Greatest Generation American women Women Airforce Service Pilots Women 's Army Corps Woman 's Land Army of America Rosie the Riveter Minorities Hispanic Americans in World War II Native Americans and World War II Puerto Ricans in World War II Military participation Army ( Uniforms ) Army Air Force Marine Corps Navy Service medals ( Medal of Honor recipients ) Events List of battles Attack on Pearl Harbor Normandy landings Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Minorities African Americans ( Tuskegee Airmen ) Asian Americans ( Japanese Americans ) Jewish Americans Diplomatic participation Lend - Lease Destroyers for Bases Agreement Project Hula World War II Asia and the Pacific China South - East Asia North and Central Pacific South - West Pacific Europe Western Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic North America South America Casualties Military engagements Conferences Commanders Participants Allies ( leaders ) Australia Belgium Brazil Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia France Free France ( from June 1940 ) Greece India Italy ( from September 1943 ) Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Norway Philippines ( Commonwealth ) Poland South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union United Kingdom United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis and Axis - aligned ( leaders ) Albania Bulgaria Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China Independent State of Croatia Finland Germany Hungary Free India Iraq Italy ( until September 1943 ) Italian Social Republic Japan Manchukuo Philippines ( Second Republic ) Romania Slovakia Thailand Vichy France Armed neutrality Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jewish Korea Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Anti-communist Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Yugoslavia Monarchists Timeline Prelude Africa Asia Europe 1939 Poland Phoney War Winter War Atlantic Changsha China 1940 Weserübung Netherlands Belgium France Armistice of 22 June 1940 Britain North Africa West Africa British Somaliland North China Baltic States Moldova Indochina Greece Compass 1941 East Africa Yugoslavia Shanggao Greece Crete Iraq Soviet Union ( Barbarossa ) Finland Lithuania Syria and Lebanon Kiev Iran Leningrad Gorky Moscow Sevastopol Pearl Harbor The outbreak of the Pacific War Hong Kong Philippines Changsha Malaya Borneo ( 1941 -- 42 ) 1942 Burma Changsha Java Sea Coral Sea Gazala Dutch Harbor Attu ( occupation ) Kiska Zhejiang - Jiangxi Midway Rzhev Blue Stalingrad Singapore Dieppe El Alamein Guadalcanal Torch 1943 Tunisia Kursk Smolensk Gorky Solomon Islands Attu Sicily Cottage Lower Dnieper Italy Armistice of Cassibile Gilbert and Marshall Islands Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde 1944 Monte Cassino / Shingle Narva Korsun -- Cherkassy Tempest Ichi - Go Overlord Neptune Normandy Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Tannenberg Line Warsaw Eastern Romania Belgrade Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Lapland Hungary Leyte Ardennes Bodenplatte Philippines ( 1944 -- 1945 ) Burma ( 1944 -- 45 ) 1945 -- 1991 Vistula -- Oder Iwo Jima Western invasion of Germany Okinawa Italy ( Spring 1945 ) Borneo Syrmian Front Berlin Czechoslovakia Budapest West Hunan Guangxi Surrender of Germany Project Hula Manchuria Manila Borneo Taipei Atomic bombings Debate Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan End of World War II in Asia Aspects General Famines Bengal famine of 1943 Chinese famine of 1942 -- 43 Greek Famine of 1941 - 1944 Dutch famine of 1944 -- 45 Vietnamese Famine of 1945 Air warfare of World War II Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Diplomacy Home front United States Australian United Kingdom Lend - Lease Manhattan Project Military awards Military equipment Military production Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Aftermath Expulsion of Germans Operation Paperclip Operation Osoaviakhim Operation Keelhaul Occupation of Germany Territorial changes of Germany Soviet occupations Romania Poland Hungary Baltic States Occupation of Japan First Indochina War Indonesian National Revolution Cold War Decolonization Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany Popular culture War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes British war crimes United States war crimes German ( Forced labour ) / Wehrmacht war crimes Holocaust Aftermath Response Prosecution Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes against the Serbs against the Jews Romanian war crimes Wartime sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Japan Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Nanking Rape of Manila Rape during the occupation of Germany Rape during the liberation of France Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland Prisoners Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union German prisoners of war in the United States Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners of war in World War II German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war Polish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Soviet prisoners of war in Finland Bibliography Category Portal World War II city bombing Area bombardment Aerial bombing of cities Firestorm Strategic bombing V - weapons Acre Akita Aomori Augsburg Baedeker Bahrain Barrow - in - Furness Bath Bangkok Belfast Belgrade Berlin Birmingham Braunschweig Bremen Breslau Brighton Bristol Bucharest Caen Cardiff Chongqing Clydebank Cologne Coventry Darmstadt Darwin Dietzenbach Dresden Dublin Duisburg Essen Frampol Frankfurt Frascati Freiburg Friedrichshafen Foggia Gibraltar Gorky Greenock Haifa Hamamatsu Hamburg Hanau Heilbronn Helsinki Hildesheim Hiratsuka Hiroshima Hull Innsbruck Jaffa Kassel Kobe Kōfu Königsberg Kure Leeds Leipzig Leningrad Liverpool London Lübeck Malta Manchester Mandalay Mannheim Manila Milan Minsk Nagaoka Nagasaki Nagoya Naha Nanjing Naples Nexø Nijmegen Nottingham Numazu Okazaki Osaka Pearl Harbor Pforzheim Ploiești Plymouth Podgorica Prague Rabaul Allied Rangoon Rome Rønne Rotterdam Schaffhausen Schwäbisch Hall Sendai Shanghai Sheffield Shizuoka Allied Singapore Axis Singapore Sofia Southampton Stalingrad Stuttgart Swansea Taipei Tallinn Tel Aviv Tokyo Toyohashi Toyokawa Treviso Ulm Utsunomiya Vienna Warsaw Wesel Wieluń Wilhelmshaven Wuppertal Würzburg Yawata Zadar Zagreb Japan portal Nuclear technology portal United States portal World War II portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki&oldid=843434738 '' Categories : Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1945 in the environment 1945 in Japan August 1945 events History of the Manhattan Project 1945 in military history Hidden categories : CS1 uses Japanese - language script ( ja ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Good articles Use mdy dates from December 2014 Articles containing Japanese - language text Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017 All articles containing potentially dated statements Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2018 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2018 Articles with LibriVox links Articles containing video clips Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Latviešu Magyar मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 52 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018, at 04 : 08. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: who was president when the atomic bombs were dropped
Answer: Truman