Water chlorination - wikipedia Water chlorination For swimming pool chlorination, see Swimming pool sanitation. Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine ( Cl ) or hypochlorite to water. This method is used to kill certain bacteria and other microbes in tap water as chlorine is highly toxic. In particular, chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. Contents 1 History 2 Biochemistry 2.1 Principles 2.2 Shock chlorination 3 Drawbacks 4 Alternative methods for water disinfection 4.1 Chlorine dioxide 4.2 Ozonation 4.3 Chloramination 4.4 Bromination and iodinization 4.5 Home filtration 4.6 UV radiation 4.7 Ionizing radiation 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History In a paper published in 1894, it was formally proposed to add chlorine to water to render it `` germ - free ''. Two other authorities endorsed this proposal and published it in many other papers in 1895. Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany. In 1897 the town of Maidstone, England was the first to have its entire water supply treated with chlorine. Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand filter and a contaminated water supply caused a serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, England. Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the water to stop the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of so - called chloride of lime to the water being treated. This was not simply modern calcium chloride, but contained chlorine gas dissolved in lime - water ( dilute calcium hydroxide ) to form calcium hypochlorite ( chlorinated lime ). The chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted. Manual Control Chlorinator for the liquefaction of chlorine for water purification, early 20th century. From Chlorination of Water by Joseph Race, 1918. The first continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir ( on the Rockaway River ), which served as the supply for Jersey City, New Jersey. Chlorination was achieved by controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime ( calcium hypochlorite ) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal, and the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren Fuller. Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime ( calcium hypochlorite ) were rapidly installed in drinking water systems around the world. The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed by a British officer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Nesfield, in 1903. According to his own account, `` It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory... if suitable means could be found for using it... The next important question was how to render the gas portable. This might be accomplished in two ways : By liquefying it, and storing it in lead - lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts. '' Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910. This work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purification. Shortly after Darnall 's demonstration, Major William J.L. Lyster of the Army Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water. For many decades, Lyster 's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag ( also spelled Lister Bag ). The canvas `` bag, water, sterilizing '' was a common component of field kitchens, issued one per 100 persons, of a standard 36 - gallon capacity that hung from an often - improvised tripod in the field. In use from World War I through the Vietnam War, it has been replaced by reverse osmosis systems that produce potable water by pressure straining local water through microscopic - level filters : the Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit ( 1980 ) and the Tactical Water Purification System ( 2007 ) for large - scale production, and the Light Water Purifier unit for smaller - scale needs that includes ultrafiltration technology to produce potable water from any source and uses automated backwash cycles every 15 minutes to simplify cleaning operations. Chlorine gas was first used on a continuing basis to disinfect the water supply at the Belmont filter plant, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by using a machine invented by Charles Frederick Wallace who dubbed it the Chlorinator. It was manufactured by the Wallace & Tiernan company beginning in 1913. By 1941, disinfection of U.S. drinking water by chlorine gas had largely replaced the use of chloride of lime. Chlorination can also be practiced using sodium hypochlorite or various other chemicals. Biochemistry As a halogen, chlorine is a highly efficient disinfectant, and is added to public water supplies to kill disease - causing pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoans, that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks. The microscopic agents of many diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery killed countless people annually before disinfection methods were employed routinely. Chlorine is manufactured from salt by electrolysis or other methods. It is a gas at atmospheric pressures but liquefies under pressure. The liquefied gas is transported and used as such. As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills via the oxidation of organic molecules. Chlorine and hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid are neutrally charged and therefore easily penetrate the negatively charged surface of pathogens. It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react with intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional. Microorganisms then either die or are no longer able to multiply. Principles When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous acid ( HOCl ), and hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) : Cl + H O ⇌ HOCl + HCl In acidic solution, the major species are Cl and HOCl, whereas in alkaline solution, effectively only ClO ( hypochlorite ion ) is present. Very small concentrations of ClO, ClO, ClO are also found. Shock chlorination Shock chlorination is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and other water sources to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water. Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount of hypochlorite into the water. The hypochlorite can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach ( solution of sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in water ). Water that is being shock chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium hypochlorite count in the water goes down to three parts per million ( PPM ) or until the calcium hypochlorite count goes down to 0.2 to 0.35 PPM. Drawbacks Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known as disinfection by - products ( DBPs ). The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes ( THMs ) and haloacetic acids ( HAAs ). Trihalomethanes are the main disinfectant by - products created from chlorination with two different types, bromoform and dibromochloromethane, which are mainly responsible for health hazards. Their effects depend strictly on the duration of their exposure to the chemicals and the amount ingested into the body. In high doses, bromoform mainly slows down regular brain activity, which is manifested by symptoms such as sleepiness or sedation. Chronic exposure of both bromoform and dibromochloromethane can cause liver and kidney cancer, as well as heart disease, unconsciousness, or death in high doses. Due to the potential carcinogenicity of these compounds, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems. The World Health Organization has stated that `` the risks to health from these by - products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection ''. There are also other concerns regarding chlorine, including its volatile nature which causes it to disappear too quickly from the water system, and organoleptic concerns such as taste and odor. Alternative methods for water disinfection Chlorine dioxide The use of chlorine dioxide as an alternative to chlorine is now widespread in both municipal and industrial applications. It eliminates potential of harmful DBPs and is a highly efficient disinfectant. Ozonation Ozonation is used by many European countries and also in a few municipalities in the United States and Canada. This alternative is more cost effective but energy intensive. It involves ozone being bubbled through the water, breaking down all parasites, bacteria, and all other harmful organic substances. However, this method leaves no residual ozone to control contamination of the water after the process has been completed. The advantage of chlorine in comparison to ozone is that the residual persists in the water for an extended period of time. This feature allows the chlorine to travel through the water supply system, effectively controlling pathogenic backflow contamination. In a large system this may not be adequate, and so chlorine levels may be boosted at points in the distribution system, or chloramine may be used, which remains in the water for longer before reacting or dissipating. Chloramination Chloramination is also becoming increasingly common. Disinfection with chloramine produces less undesirable byproducts than chlorine ( gas or hypochlorite ). Chloramine has a longer half - life in the distribution system, and maintains effective protection against pathogens. Chloramines persist in the distribution because of their lower redox potential in comparison to free chlorine. Chloramine is formed by adding ammonia and chlorine into drinking water to form monochloramine and / or dichloramine. Whereas Helicobacter pylori can be many times more resistant to chlorine than Escherichia coli, both organisms are about equally susceptible to the disinfecting effect of chloramine. Bromination and iodinization Chlorine in water is over three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and over six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine. Home filtration Water treated by filtration and home filtration may not need further disinfection ; a very high proportion of pathogens are removed by materials in the filter bed. Filtered water must be used soon after it is filtered, as the low amount of remaining microbes may proliferate over time. In general, these home filters remove over 90 % of the chlorine available to a glass of treated water. These filters must be periodically replaced otherwise the bacterial content of the water may actually increase due to the growth of bacteria within the filter unit. UV radiation UV disinfection is gaining popularity. UV treatment leaves minimal residue in the water. In water UV generates ozone in situ and thus has many of the advantages of ozone disinfection. However, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation alone ( as well as chlorination alone ) will not remove toxins from bacteria, pesticides, heavy metals, etc. from water. Ionizing radiation Like UV, ionizing radiation ( X-rays, gamma rays, and electron beams ) has been used to sterilize water. See also Drinking water Safe Drinking Water Act Sodium hypochlorite Sterilization ( microbiology ) Trichloroisocyanuric acid a.k.a. Symclosene, the chemical in chlorination tablets Water filter Water fluoridation Water industry Water pollution Water purification Water supply network Water treatment References Jump up ^ F.E. Turneaure ; and H.L. Russell ( 1901 ). Public Water - Supplies : Requirements, Resources, and the Construction of Works ( 1st ed. ). New York : John Wiley & Sons. p. 493. Jump up ^ `` Typhoid Epidemic at Maidstone ''. Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 18 : 388. October 1897. Jump up ^ `` A miracle for public health ? ''. Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17. Jump up ^ Reece, R.J. ( 1907 ). `` Report on the Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904 - 5. '' In Thirty - Fifth Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1905 - 6 : Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1905 - 6. London : Local Government Board. Jump up ^ Leal, John L. ( 1909 ). `` The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N.J. '' Proceedings American Water Works Association. pp. 100 - 9. Jump up ^ Fuller, George W. ( 1909 ). `` Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir. '' Proceedings AWWA. pp. 110 - 34. Jump up ^ Hazen, Allen. ( 1916 ). Clean Water and How to Get It. New York : Wiley. p. 102. Jump up ^ V.B. Nesfield ( 1902 ). `` A Chemical Method of Sterilizing Water Without Affecting Potability ''. Public Health : 601 -- 3. doi : 10.1016 / s0033 - 3506 ( 02 ) 80142 - 1. Jump up ^ Darnall CR ( November 1911 ). `` The purification of water by anhydrous chlorine ''. Am J Public Health. 1 ( 11 ) : 783 -- 97. doi : 10.2105 / ajph. 1.11. 783. PMC 2218881. PMID 19599675. Jump up ^ http://library.rit.edu/findingaids/Inventories/WallaceAndTiernanCompanyRecords.pdf Jump up ^ Hodges, L. ( 1977 ). Environmental Pollution ( 2nd ed. ). New York : Rinehart and Winston. p. 189. Jump up ^ Baker, Moses N. ( 1981 ). The Quest for Pure Water : the History of Water Purification from the Earliest Records to the Twentieth Century. 2nd Edition. Vol. 1. Denver : American Water Works Association. p. 341 - 342. ^ Jump up to : Calderon, R.L. ( 2000 ). `` The Epidemiology of Chemical Contaminants of Drinking Water ''. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 38 ( 1 Suppl ) : S13 -- S20. doi : 10.1016 / S0278 - 6915 ( 99 ) 00133 - 7. PMID 10717366. Jump up ^ Kleijnen, R.G. ( December 16, 2011 ). The Chlorine Dilemma ( PDF ). Eindhoven University of Technology. Retrieved January 18, 2014. Jump up ^ Shunji Nakagawara, Takeshi Goto, Masayuki Nara, Youichi Ozaqa, Kunimoto Hotta and Yoji Arata ( 1998 ). `` Spectroscopic Characterization and the pH Dependence of Bactericidal Activity of the Aqueous Chlorine Solution ''. Analytical Sciences. 14 ( 4 ) : 691 -- 698. doi : 10.2116 / analsci. 14.691. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Public Health Statement : Bromoform & Dibromochloromethane ''. ATSDR. 2011. Jump up ^ Guidelines for Drinking - water Quality ( PDF ). Volume 1, Recommendations ( third edition incorporating the first and second addenda ed. ). World Health Organization. 2008. p. 5. ^ Jump up to : Neumann, H. ( 1981 ). `` Bacteriological safety of hot tap water in developing countries. '' Public Health Rep. 84 : 812 - 814. Jump up ^ Baker KH, Hegarty JP, Redmond B, Reed NA, Herson DS ( 2002 ). `` Effect of Oxidizing Disinfectants ( Chlorine, Monochloramine, and Ozone ) on Helicobacter pylori '' ( PDF ). Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 68 ( 2 ) : 981 -- 984. doi : 10.1128 / AEM. 68.2. 981 - 984.2002. PMC 126689. PMID 11823249. Jump up ^ Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF ( 1 March 1966 ). `` Comparison of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine as Disinfectants for Swimming Pool Water ''. Applied Microbiology. 14 ( 2 ) : 276 -- 279. PMC 546668. PMID 4959984. External links City of Milwaukee, Wisconsin Water Works Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water ( US EPA ) National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine Chlorinated Drinking Water ( IARC Monograph ) NTP Study Report TR - 392 : Chlorinated & Chloraminated Water ( US NIH ) American Chemistry Council 's Chlorine Chemistry Division Disinfection Practices http://ukwta.org/ Wastewater Sources Acid mine drainage Ballast water Bathroom Blackwater ( coal ) Blackwater ( waste ) Boiler blowdown Brine Combined sewer Cooling tower Cooling water Fecal sludge Greywater Infiltration / Inflow Industrial effluent Ion exchange Leachate Manure Papermaking Produced water Return flow Reverse osmosis Sanitary sewer Septage Sewage Sewage sludge Toilet Urban runoff Quality indicators Adsorbable organic halides Biochemical oxygen demand Chemical oxygen demand Coliform index Oxygen saturation Heavy metals pH Salinity Temperature Total dissolved solids Total suspended solids Turbidity Treatment options Activated sludge Aerated lagoon Agricultural wastewater treatment API oil -- water separator Carbon filtering Chlorination Clarifier Constructed wetland Decentralized wastewater system Extended aeration Facultative lagoon Fecal sludge management Filtration Imhoff tank Industrial wastewater treatment Ion exchange Membrane bioreactor Reverse osmosis Rotating biological contactor Secondary treatment Sedimentation Septic tank Settling basin Sewage sludge treatment Sewage treatment Sewer mining Stabilization pond Trickling filter Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation UASB Vermifilter Wastewater treatment plant Disposal options Combined sewer Evaporation pond Groundwater recharge Infiltration basin Injection well Irrigation Marine dumping Marine outfall Reclaimed water Sanitary sewer Septic drain field Sewage farm Storm drain Surface runoff Vacuum sewer Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_chlorination&oldid=848694853 '' Categories : Water treatment Chlorine Scottish inventions Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2014 CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Articles needing more detailed references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Қазақша 日本 語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Português Русский Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 3 July 2018, at 17 : 27 ( UTC ). 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Question: when was chlorine first used in drinking water
Answer: 1893