Human brain - wikipedia Human brain This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 26 August 2018. This article is about the human brain. For information about brains in general, see Brain. Human brain Human brain and skull Cerebral lobes : the frontal lobe ( pink ), parietal lobe ( green ) and occipital lobe ( blue ) Details Precursor Neural tube System Central nervous system Neuroimmune system Artery Internal carotid arteries, vertebral arteries Vein Internal jugular vein, internal cerebral veins ; external veins : ( superior, middle, and inferior cerebral veins ), basal vein, and cerebellar veins Identifiers Latin Cerebrum Greek ἐγκέφαλος ( enképhalos ) MeSH D001921 TA A14. 1.03. 001 FMA 50801 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system. The brain consists of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum. It controls most of the activities of the body, processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the sense organs, and making decisions as to the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the skull bones of the head. The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain. It is divided into two cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is an outer layer of grey matter, covering the core of white matter. The cortex is split into the neocortex and the much smaller allocortex. The neocortex is made up of six neuronal layers, while the allocortex has three or four. Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into four lobes -- the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. The frontal lobe is associated with executive functions including self - control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought, while the occipital lobe is dedicated to vision. Within each lobe, cortical areas are associated with specific functions, such as the sensory, motor and association regions. Although the left and right hemispheres are broadly similar in shape and function, some functions are associated with one side, such as language in the left and visual - spatial ability in the right. The hemispheres are connected by commissural nerve tracts, the largest being the corpus callosum. The cerebrum is connected by the brainstem to the spinal cord. The brainstem consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem by pairs of tracts. Within the cerebrum is the ventricular system, consisting of four interconnected ventricles in which cerebrospinal fluid is produced and circulated. Underneath the cerebral cortex are several important structures, including the thalamus, the epithalamus, the pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the subthalamus ; the limbic structures, including the amygdala and the hippocampus ; the claustrum, the various nuclei of the basal ganglia ; the basal forebrain structures, and the three circumventricular organs. The cells of the brain include neurons and supportive glial cells. There are more than 86 billion neurons in the brain, and a more or less equal number of other cells. Brain activity is made possible by the interconnections of neurons and their release of neurotransmitters in response to nerve impulses. Neurons connect to form neural pathways, neural circuits, and elaborate network systems. The whole circuitry is driven by the process of neurotransmission. The brain is protected by the skull, suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood -- brain barrier. However, the brain is still susceptible to damage, disease, and infection. Damage can be caused by trauma, or a loss of blood supply known as a stroke. The brain is susceptible to degenerative disorders, such as Parkinson 's disease, dementias including Alzheimer 's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Psychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia and clinical depression, are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions. The brain can also be the site of tumours, both benign and malignant ; these mostly originate from other sites in the body. The study of the anatomy of the brain is neuroanatomy, while the study of its function is neuroscience. A number of techniques are used to study the brain. Specimens from other animals, which may be examined microscopically, have traditionally provided much information. Medical imaging technologies such as functional neuroimaging, and electroencephalography ( EEG ) recordings are important in studying the brain. The medical history of people with brain injury has provided insight into the function of each part of the brain. In culture, the philosophy of mind has for centuries attempted to address the question of the nature of consciousness and the mind - body problem. The pseudoscience of phrenology attempted to localise personality attributes to regions of the cortex in the 19th century. In science fiction, brain transplants are imagined in tales such as the 1942 Donovan 's Brain. Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Gross anatomy 1.1. 1 Cerebrum 1.1. 2 Cerebellum 1.1. 3 Brainstem 1.2 Microanatomy 1.3 Cerebrospinal fluid 1.4 Blood supply 1.4. 1 Blood drainage 1.4. 2 The blood -- brain barrier 2 Development 3 Function 3.1 Motor control 3.2 Sensory 3.3 Regulation 3.4 Language 3.5 Lateralisation 3.6 Emotion 3.7 Cognition 4 Physiology 4.1 Neurotransmission 4.2 Metabolism 5 Research 5.1 Methods 5.2 Imaging 5.3 Gene and protein expression 6 Clinical significance 6.1 General 6.2 Stroke 6.3 Brain death 7 Society and culture 7.1 The mind 7.2 Brain size 7.3 In popular culture 8 History 8.1 Early history 8.2 Renaissance 8.3 Modern period 9 Comparative anatomy 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Notes 14 External links Structure See also : List of regions in the human brain and Outline of the human brain Gross Anatomy The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.2 -- 1.4 kg ( 2.6 -- 3.1 lb ) which is about 2 % of the total body weight, with a volume of around 1260 cm in men and 1130 cm in women, although there is substantial individual variation. Neurological differences between the sexes have not been shown to correlate in any simple way with IQ or other measures of cognitive performance. The cerebrum, consisting of the cerebral hemispheres, forms the largest part of the brain and is situated above the other brain structures. The outer region of the hemispheres, the cerebral cortex, is grey matter, consisting of cortical layers of neurons. Each hemisphere is divided into four main lobes, although Terminologia Anatomica ( 1998 ) and Terminologia Neuroanatomica ( 2017 ) also include a limbic lobe and treat the insular cortex as a lobe. The brainstem, resembling a stalk, attaches to and leaves the cerebrum at the start of the midbrain area. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. Behind the brainstem is the cerebellum ( Latin : little brain ). The cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord are covered by three membranes called meninges. The membranes are the tough dura mater ; the middle arachnoid mater and the more delicate inner pia mater. Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the subarachnoid space, which contains the cerebrospinal fluid. In the cerebral cortex, close to the basement membrane of the pia mater, is a limiting membrane called the glia limitans ; this is the outermost membrane of the cortex. The living brain is very soft, having a gel - like consistency similar to soft tofu. The cortical layers of neurons constitute much of the brain 's grey matter, while the deeper subcortical regions of myelinated axons, make up the white matter. Structural and functional areas of the human brain Human brain bisected in the sagittal plane, showing the white matter of the corpus callosum Functional areas of the human brain. Dashed areas shown are commonly left hemisphere dominant Cerebrum Main articles : Cerebrum and Cerebral cortex Major gyri and sulci on the lateral surface of the cortex Lobes of the brain The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain, and is divided into nearly symmetrical left and right hemispheres by a deep groove, the longitudinal fissure. The outer part of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, made up of grey matter arranged in layers. It is 2 to 4 millimetres ( 0.079 to 0.157 in ) thick, and deeply folded to give a convoluted appearance. Beneath the cortex is the white matter of the brain. The largest part of the cerebral cortex is the neocortex, which has six neuronal layers. The rest of the cortex is of allocortex, which has three or four layers. The hemispheres are connected by five commissures that span the longitudinal fissure, the largest of these is the corpus callosum. The surface of the brain is folded into ridges ( gyri ) and grooves ( sulci ), many of which are named, usually according to their position, such as the frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe or the central sulcus separating the central regions of the hemispheres. There are many small variations in the secondary and tertiary folds. Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into four lobes ; the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe, named according to the skull bones that overlie them. Each lobe is associated with one or two specialised functions though there is some functional overlap between them. The cortex is mapped by divisions into about fifty different functional areas known as Brodmann 's areas. These areas are distinctly different when seen under a microscope. The cortex is divided into two main functional areas -- a motor cortex and a sensory cortex. The primary motor cortex, which sends axons down to motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord, occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory area. The primary sensory areas receive signals from the sensory nerves and tracts by way of relay nuclei in the thalamus. Primary sensory areas include the visual cortex of the occipital lobe, the auditory cortex in parts of the temporal lobe and insular cortex, and the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe. The remaining parts of the cortex, are called the association areas. These areas receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the complex cognitive processes of perception, thought, and decision - making. The main functions of the frontal lobe are to control attention, abstract thinking, behaviour, problem solving tasks, and physical reactions and personality. The occipital lobe is the smallest lobe ; its main functions are visual reception, visual - spatial processing, movement, and colour recognition. There is a smaller occipital lobule in the lobe known as the cuneus. The temporal lobe controls auditory and visual memories, language, and some hearing and speech. Cortical folds and white matter in horizontal bisection of head The cerebrum contains the ventricles where the cerebrospinal fluid is produced and circulated. Below the corpus callosum is the septum pellucidum, a membrane that separates the lateral ventricles. Beneath the lateral ventricles is the thalamus and to the front and below this is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus leads on to the pituitary gland. At the back of the thalamus is the brainstem. The basal ganglia, also called basal nuclei, are a set of structures deep within the hemispheres involved in behaviour and movement regulation. The largest component is the striatum, others are the globus pallidus, the substantia nigra and the subthalamic nucleus. Part of the dorsal striatum, the putamen, and the globus pallidus, lie separated from the lateral ventricles and thalamus by the internal capsule, whereas the caudate nucleus stretches around and abuts the lateral ventricles on their outer sides. At the deepest part of the lateral sulcus between the insular cortex and the striatum is a thin neuronal sheet called the claustrum. Some sources include this with the basal ganglia. Below and in front of the striatum are a number of basal forebrain structures. These include the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, diagonal band of Broca, substantia innominata, and the medial septal nucleus. These structures are important in producing the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain, in particular the nucleus basalis, is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system to the striatum and neocortex. Cerebellum Main article : Cerebellum Human brain viewed from below, showing cerebellum and brainstem The cerebellum is divided into an anterior lobe, a posterior lobe, and the flocculonodular lobe. The anterior and posterior lobes are connected in the middle by the vermis. The cerebellum has a much thinner outer cortex that is narrowly furrowed horizontally. Viewed from underneath between the two lobes is the third lobe the flocculonodular lobe. The cerebellum rests at the back of the cranial cavity, lying beneath the occipital lobes, and is separated from these by the cerebellar tentorium, a sheet of fibre. It is connected to the midbrain of the brainstem by the superior cerebellar peduncles, to the pons by the middle cerebellar peduncles, and to the medulla by the inferior cerebellar peduncles. The cerebellum consists of an inner medulla of white matter and an outer cortex of richly folded grey matter. The cerebellum 's anterior and posterior lobes appear to play a role in the coordination and smoothing of complex motor movements, and the flocculonodular lobe in the maintenance of balance although debate exists as to its cognitive, behavioural and motor functions. Brainstem Main article : Brainstem The brainstem lies beneath the cerebrum and consists of the midbrain, pons and medulla. It lies in the back part of the skull, resting on the part of the base known as the clivus, and ends at the foramen magnum, a large opening in the occipital bone. The brainstem continues below this as the spinal cord, protected by the vertebral column. Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge directly from the brainstem. The brainstem also contains many cranial nerve nuclei and nuclei of peripheral nerves, as well as nuclei involved in the regulation of many essential processes including breathing, control of eye movements and balance. The reticular formation, a network of nuclei of ill - defined formation, is present within and along the length of the brainstem. Many nerve tracts, which transmit information to and from the cerebral cortex to the rest of the body, pass through the brainstem. Microanatomy The human brain is primarily composed of neurons, glial cells, neural stem cells, and blood vessels. Types of neuron include interneurons, pyramidal cells including Betz cells, motor neurons ( upper and lower motor neurons ), and cerebellar Purkinje cells. Betz cells are the largest cells ( by size of cell body ) in the nervous system. The adult human brain is estimated to contain 86 ± 8 billion neurons, with a roughly equal number ( 85 ± 10 billion ) of non-neuronal cells. Out of these neurons, 16 billion ( 19 % ) are located in the cerebral cortex, and 69 billion ( 80 % ) are in the cerebellum. Types of glial cell are astrocytes ( including Bergmann glia ), oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells ( including tanycytes ), radial glial cells and microglia. Astrocytes are the largest of the glial cells. They are stellate cells with many processes radiating from their cell bodies. Some of these processes end as perivascular end - feet on capillary walls. The glia limitans of the cortex is made up of astrocyte foot processes that serve in part to contain the cells of the brain. Mast cells are white blood cells that interact in the neuroimmune system in the brain. Mast cells in the central nervous system are present in a number of brain structures and in the meninges ; they mediate neuroimmune responses in inflammatory conditions and help to maintain the blood -- brain barrier, particularly in brain regions where the barrier is absent. Across systems, mast cells serve as the main effector cell through which pathogens can affect the gut -- brain axis. Some 400 genes are shown to be brain - specific. In all neurons ELAVL3 is expressed, and in pyramidal neurons NRGN and REEP2 are also expressed. GAD1 essential for the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter GABA is expressed in interneurons. Proteins expressed in glial cells are astrocyte markers GFAP, and S100B. Myelin basic protein and the transcription factor OLIG2 are expressed in oligodendrocytes. Cerebrospinal fluid Cerebrospinal fluid circulates in spaces around and within the brain Main article : Cerebrospinal fluid Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colourless transcellular fluid that circulates around the brain in the subarachnoid space, in the ventricular system, and in the central canal of the spinal cord. It also fills some gaps in the subarachnoid space, known as subarachnoid cisterns. The four ventricles, two lateral, a third, and a fourth ventricle, all contain choroid plexus that produces cerebrospinal fluid. The third ventricle lies in the midline and is connected to the lateral ventricles. A single duct, the cerebral aqueduct between the pons and the cerebellum, connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle. Three separate openings, the middle and two lateral apertures, drain the cerebrospinal fluid from the fourth ventricle to the cisterna magna one of the major cisterns. From here, cerebrospinal fluid circulates around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and pia mater. At any one time, there is about 150mL of cerebrospinal fluid -- most within the subarachnoid space. It is constantly being regenerated and absorbed, and replaces about once every 5 -- 6 hours. In other parts of the body, circulation in the lymphatic system clears extracellular waste products from the cell tissue. For the tissue of the brain, such a system has not yet been identified. However, the presence of a glymphatic or paravascular system has been proposed. Newer studies ( 2015 ) from two laboratories have shown the presence of meningeal lymphatic vessels running alongside the blood vessels, and these have been shown with lymph valves, to be more extensive at the base of the brain where they exit with the cranial nerves. Blood supply Main article : Cerebral circulation Two circulations joining at the circle of Willis Diagram showing features of cerebral outer membranes and supply of blood vessels The internal carotid arteries supply oxygenated blood to the front of the brain and the vertebral arteries supply blood to the back of the brain. These two circulations join together in the circle of Willis, a ring of connected arteries that lies in the interpeduncular cistern between the midbrain and pons. The internal carotid arteries are branches of the common carotid arteries. They enter the cranium through the carotid canal, travel through the cavernous sinus and enter the subarachnoid space. They then enter the circle of Willis, with two branches, the anterior cerebral arteries emerging. These branches travel forward and then upward along the longitudinal fissure, and supply the front and midline parts of the brain. One or more small anterior communicating arteries join the two anterior cerebral arteries shortly after they emerge as branches. The internal carotid arteries continue forward as the middle cerebral arteries. They travel sideways along the sphenoid bone of the eye socket, then upwards through the insula cortex, where final branches arise. The middle cerebral arteries send branches along their length. The vertebral arteries emerge as branches of the left and right subclavian arteries. They travel upward through transverse foramina -- spaces in the cervical vertebrae and then emerge as two vessels, one on the left and one on the right of the medulla. They give off one of the three cerebellar branches. The vertebral arteries join in front of the middle part of the medulla to form the larger basilar artery, which sends multiple branches to supply the medulla and pons, and the two other anterior and superior cerebellar branches. Finally, the basilar artery divides into two posterior cerebral arteries. These travel outwards, around the superior cerebellar peduncles, and along the top of the cerebellar tentorium, where it sends branches to supply the temporal and occipital lobes. Each posterior cerebral artery sends a small posterior communicating artery to join with the internal carotid arteries. Blood drainage Cerebral veins drain deoxygenated blood from the brain. The brain has two main networks of veins : an exterior or superficial network, on the surface of the cerebrum that has three branches, and an interior network. These two networks communicate via anastomosing ( joining ) veins. The veins of the brain drain into larger cavities the dural venous sinuses usually situated between the dura mater and the covering of the skull. Blood from the cerebellum and midbrain drains into the great cerebral vein. Blood from the medulla and pons of the brainstem have a variable pattern of drainage, either into the spinal veins or into adjacent cerebral veins. The blood in the deep part of the brain drains, through a venous plexus into the cavernous sinus at the front, and the superior and inferior petrosal sinuses at the sides, and the inferior sagittal sinus at the back. Blood drains from the outer brain into the large superior saggital sinus, which rests in the midline on top of the brain. Blood from here joins with blood from the straight sinus at the confluence of sinuses. Blood from here drains into the left and right transverse sinuses. These then drain into the sigmoid sinuses, which receive blood from the cavernous sinus and superior and inferior petrosal sinuses. The sigmoid drains into the large internal jugular veins. The blood -- brain barrier The larger arteries throughout the brain supply blood to smaller capillaries. These smallest of blood vessels in the brain, are lined with cells joined by tight junctions and so fluids do not seep in or leak out to the same degree as they do in other capillaries, thereby creating the blood -- brain barrier. Pericytes play a major role in the formation of the tight junctions. The barrier is less permeable to larger molecules, but is still permeable to water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and most fat - soluble substances ( including anaesthetics and alcohol ). The blood -- brain barrier is not present in areas of the brain that may need to respond to changes in body fluids, such as the pineal gland, area postrema, and some areas of the hypothalamus. There is a similar blood -- cerebrospinal fluid barrier, which serves the same purpose as the blood -- brain barrier, but facilitates the transport of different substances into the brain due to the distinct structural characteristics between the two barrier systems. Development Main article : Neural development in humans Further information : Human brain development timeline Neurulation and neural crest cells Primary and secondary vesicle stages of development in the early embryo to the fifth week Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development At the beginning of the third week of development, the embryonic ectoderm forms a thickened strip called the neural plate. By the fourth week of development the neural plate has widened to give a broad cephalic end, a less broad middle part and a narrow caudal end. These swellings represent the beginnings of the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Neural crest cells ( derived from the ectoderm ) populate the lateral edges of the plate at the neural folds. In the fourth week in the neurulation stage the neural plate folds and closes to form the neural tube, bringing together the neural crest cells at the neural crest. The neural crest runs the length of the tube with cranial neural crest cells at the cephalic end and caudal neural crest cells at the tail. Cells detach from the crest and migrate in a craniocaudal ( head to tail ) wave inside the tube. Cells at the cephalic end give rise to the brain, and cells at the caudal end give rise to the spinal cord. The tube flexes as it grows, forming the crescent - shaped cerebral hemispheres at the head. The cerebral hemispheres first appear on day 32. Early in the fourth week the cephalic part bends sharply forward in a cephalic flexure. This flexed part becomes the forebrain ( prosencephalon ) ; the adjoining curving part becomes the midbrain ( mesencephalon ) and the part caudal to the flexure becomes the hindbrain ( rhombencephalon ). These three areas are formed as swellings known as the primitive vesicles. In the fifth week of developmement five brain vesicles have formed. The forebrain separates into two vesicles an anterior telencephalon and a posterior diencephalon. The telencephalon gives rise to the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures. The diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus and hypothalamus. The hindbrain also splits into two areas -- the metencephalon and the mylencephalon. The metencephalon gives rise to the cerebellum and pons. The myelencephalon gives rise to the medulla oblongata. Also during the fifth week, the brain divides into repeating segments called neuromeres. These are known as rhombomeres seen in the hindbrain. A characteristic of the brain is gyrification ( wrinkling of the cortex ). In the womb, the cortex starts off as smooth but starts to form fissures that begin to mark out the different lobes of the brain. Scientists do not have a clear answer as to why the cortex later wrinkles and folds, but the wrinkling and folding is associated with intelligence and neurological disorders. The fissures form as a result of the growing hemispheres that increase in size due to a sudden growth in cells of the grey matter. The underlying white matter does not grow at the same rate and the hemispheres are crowded into the small cranial vault. The first cleft to appear in the fourth month is the lateral cerebral fossa. The expanding caudal end of the hemisphere has to curve over in a forward direction to fit into the restricted space. This covers the fossa and turns it into a much deeper ridge known as the lateral sulcus and this marks out the temporal lobe. By the sixth month other sulci have formed that demarcate the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes. A gene present in the human genome ( ArhGAP11B ) may play a major role in gyrification and encephalisation. Brain of human embryo at 4.5 weeks, showing interior of forebrain Brain interior at 5 weeks Brain viewed at midline at 3 months Function Motor and sensory regions of the brain Motor control The motor system of the brain is responsible for the generation and control of movement. Generated movements pass from the brain through nerves to motor neurons in the body, which control the action of muscles. The corticospinal tract carries movements from the brain, through the spinal cord, to the torso and limbs. The cranial nerves carry movements related to the eyes, mouth and face. Gross movement -- such as locomotion and the movement of arms and legs -- is generated in the motor cortex, divided into three parts : the primary motor cortex, found in the prefrontal gyrus and has sections dedicated to the movement of different body parts. These movements are supported and regulated by two other areas, lying anterior to the primary motor cortex : the premotor area and the supplementary motor area. The hands and mouth have a much larger area dedicated to them than other body parts, allowing finer movement ; this has been visualised in a motor cortical homunculus. Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the corticospinal tract along the front of the medulla and cross over ( decussate ) at the medullary pyramids. These then travel down the spinal cord, with most connecting to interneurons, in turn connecting to lower motor neurons within the grey matter that then transmit the impulse to move to muscles themselves. The cerebellum and basal ganglia, play a role in fine, complex and coordinated muscle movements. Connections between the cortex and the basal ganglia control muscle tone, posture and movement initiation, and are referred to as the extrapyramidal system. Sensory Cortical areas Routing of neural signals from the two eyes to the brain The sensory nervous system is involved with the reception and processing of sensory information. This information is received through the cranial nerves, through tracts in the spinal cord, and directly at centres of the brain exposed to the blood. The brain also receives and interprets information from the special senses ( vision, smell, hearing, and taste ). Mixed motor and sensory signals are also integrated. From the skin, the brain receives information about fine touch, pressure, pain, vibration and temperature. From the joints, the brain receives information about joint position. The sensory cortex is found just near the motor cortex, and, like the motor cortex, has areas related to sensation from different body parts. Sensation collected by a sensory receptor on the skin is changed to a nerve signal, that is passed up a series of neurons through tracts in the spinal cord. The dorsal column -- medial lemniscus pathway contains information about fine touch, vibration and position of joints. Neurons travel up the back part of the spinal cord to the back part of the medulla, where they connect with `` second order '' neurons that immediately swap sides. These neurons then travel upwards into the ventrobasal complex in the thalamus where they connect with `` third order '' neurons, and travel up to the sensory cortex. The spinothalamic tract carries information about pain, temperature, and gross touch. Neurons travel up the spinal cord and connect with second - order neurons in the reticular formation of the brainstem for pain and temperature, and also at the ventrobasal complex of the medulla for gross touch. Vision is generated by light that hits the retina of the eye. Photoreceptors in the retina transduce the sensory stimulus of light into an electrical nerve signal that is sent to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Vision from the left visual field is received on the right side of each retina ( and vice versa ) and passes through the optic nerve until some information changes sides, so that all information about one side of the visual field passes through tracts in the opposite side of the brain. The nerves reach the brain at the lateral geniculate nucleus, and travel through the optic radiation to reach the visual cortex. Hearing and balance are both generated in the inner ear. The movement of liquids within the inner ear is generated by motion ( for balance ) and transmitted vibrations generated by the ossicles ( for sound ). This creates a nerve signal that passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve. From here, it passes through to the cochlear nuclei, the superior olivary nucleus, the medial geniculate nucleus, and finally the auditory radiation to the auditory cortex. The sense of smell is generated by receptor cells in the epithelium of the olfactory mucosa in the nasal cavity. This information passes through a relatively permeable part of the skull to the olfactory nerve. This nerve transmits to the neural circuitry of the olfactory bulb from where information is passed to the olfactory cortex. Taste is generated from receptors on the tongue and passed along the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves into the solitary tract in the brainstem. Some taste information is also passed from the pharynx into this area via the vagus nerve. Information is then passed from here through the thalamus into the gustatory cortex. Regulation Autonomic functions of the brain include the regulation, or rhythmic control of the heart rate and rate of breathing, and maintaining homeostasis. Blood pressure and heart rate are influenced by the vasomotor centre of the medulla, which causes arteries and veins to be somewhat constricted at rest. It does this by influencing the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems via the vagus nerve. Information about blood pressure is generated by baroreceptors in aortic bodies in the aortic arch, and passed to the brain along the afferent fibres of the vagus nerve. Information about the pressure changes in the carotid sinus comes from carotid bodies located near the carotid artery and this is passed via a nerve joining with the glossopharyngeal nerve. This information travels up to the solitary nucleus in the medulla. Signals from here influence the vasomotor centre to adjust vein and artery constriction accordingly. The brain controls the rate of breathing, mainly by respiratory centres in the medulla and pons. The respiratory centres control respiration, by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. This is a mixed nerve that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to breathe in and receives sensory information directly from the body. Also in the medulla, the ventral respiratory group influences breathing out during exertion. In the pons the pneumotaxic centre influences the duration of each breath, and the apneustic centre seems to have an influence on inhalation. The respiratory centres directly senses blood carbon dioxide and pH. Information about blood oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH levels are also sensed on the walls of arteries in the peripheral chemoreceptors of the aortic and carotid bodies. This information is passed via the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the respiratory centres. High carbon dioxide, an acidic pH, or low oxygen stimulate the respiratory centres. The desire to breathe in is also affected by pulmonary stretch receptors in the lungs which, when activated, prevent the lungs from overinflating by transmitting information to the respiratory centres via the vagus nerve. The hypothalamus in the diencephalon, is involved in regulating many functions of the body. Functions include neuroendocrine regulation, regulation of the circadian rhythm, control of the autonomic nervous system, and the regulation of fluid, and food intake. The circadian rhythm is controlled by two main cell groups in the hypothalamus. The anterior hypothalamus includes the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus which through gene expression cycles, generates a roughly 24 hour circadian clock. In the circadian day an ultradian rhythm takes control of the sleeping pattern. Sleep is an essential requirement for the body and brain and allows the closing down and resting of the body 's systems. There are also findings that suggest that the daily build - up of toxins in the brain are removed during sleep. Whilst awake the brain consumes a fifth of the body 's total energy needs. Sleep necessarily reduces this use and gives time for the restoration of energy - giving ATP. The effects of sleep deprivation show the absolute need for sleep. The lateral hypothalamus contains orexinergic neurons that control appetite and arousal through their projections to the ascending reticular activating system. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland through the release of peptides such as oxytocin, and vasopressin, as well as dopamine into the median eminence. Through the autonomic projections, the hypothalamus is involved in regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, sweating, and other homeostatic mechanisms. The hypothalamus also plays a role in thermal regulation, and when stimulated by the immune system, is capable of generating a fever. The hypothalamus is influenced by the kidneys -- when blood pressure falls, the renin released by the kidneys stimulates a need to drink. The hypothalamus also regulates food intake through autonomic signals, and hormone release by the digestive system. Language Broca 's area and Wernicke 's area are linked by the arcuate fasciculus. Main article : Language processing in the brain See also : Two - streams hypothesis § Two auditory systems While language functions were traditionally thought to be localized to Wernicke 's area and Broca 's area, it is now mostly accepted that a wider network of cortical regions contributes to language functions. The study on how language is represented, processed, and acquired by the brain is called neurolinguistics, which is a large multidisciplinary field drawing from cognitive neuroscience, cognitive linguistics, and psycholinguistics. Lateralisation Main article : Lateralization of brain function Further information : Functional specialization ( brain ) The cerebrum has a contralateral organisation with each hemisphere of the brain interacting primarily with one half of the body : the left side of the brain interacts with the right side of the body, and vice versa. The developmental cause for this is uncertain. Motor connections from the brain to the spinal cord, and sensory connections from the spinal cord to the brain, both cross sides in the brainstem. Visual input follows a more complex rule : the optic nerves from the two eyes come together at a point called the optic chiasm, and half of the fibres from each nerve split off to join the other. The result is that connections from the left half of the retina, in both eyes, go to the left side of the brain, whereas connections from the right half of the retina go to the right side of the brain. Because each half of the retina receives light coming from the opposite half of the visual field, the functional consequence is that visual input from the left side of the world goes to the right side of the brain, and vice versa. Thus, the right side of the brain receives somatosensory input from the left side of the body, and visual input from the left side of the visual field. The left and right sides of the brain appear symmetrical, but they function asymmetrically. For example, the counterpart of the left - hemisphere motor area controlling the right hand is the right - hemisphere area controlling the left hand. There are, however, several important exceptions, involving language and spatial cognition. The left frontal lobe is dominant for language. If a key language area in the left hemisphere is damaged, it can leave the victim unable to speak or understand, whereas equivalent damage to the right hemisphere would cause only minor impairment to language skills. A substantial part of current understanding of the interactions between the two hemispheres has come from the study of `` split - brain patients '' -- people who underwent surgical transection of the corpus callosum in an attempt to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures. These patients do not show unusual behaviour that is immediately obvious, but in some cases can behave almost like two different people in the same body, with the right hand taking an action and then the left hand undoing it. These patients, when briefly shown a picture on the right side of the point of visual fixation, are able to describe it verbally, but when the picture is shown on the left, are unable to describe it, but may be able to give an indication with the left hand of the nature of the object shown. Emotion Main article : Emotion Further information : Affective neuroscience Emotions are generally defined as two - step multicomponent processes involving elicitation, followed by psychological feelings, appraisal, expression, autonomic responses, and action tendencies. Attempts to localize basic emotions to certain brain regions have been controversial, with some research finding no evidence for specific locations corresponding to emotions, and instead circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, mid and anterior insula cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex, appeared to be involved in generating the emotions, while weaker evidence was found for the ventral tegmental area, ventral pallidum and nucleus accumbens in incentive salience. Others, however, have found evidence of activation of specific regions, such as the basal ganglia in happiness, the subcallosal cingulate cortex in sadness, and amygdala in fear. Cognition Main article : Cognition Further information : Prefrontal cortex § Executive function The brain is responsible for cognition. The brain gives rise to countless cognitive processes that constitute cognition as a whole ; however, higher cognitive function is derived from the set of executive functions, which are a group of cognitive processes that allow the cognitive control of behaviour : selecting and successfully monitoring behaviours that facilitate the attainment of chosen goals. Executive functions include the ability to filter information and tune out irrelevant stimuli with attentional control and cognitive inhibition, the ability to process and manipulate information held in working memory, the ability to think about multiple concepts simultaneously and switch tasks with cognitive flexibility, the ability to inhibit impulses and prepotent responses with inhibitory control, and the ability to determine the relevance of information or appropriateness of an action. Higher order executive functions require the simultaneous use of multiple basic executive functions and include planning and fluid intelligence ( i.e., reasoning and problem solving ). The prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in mediating executive functions. Neuroimaging during neuropsychological tests of executive function, such as the stroop test and working memory tests, have found that cortical maturation of the prefrontal cortex correlates with executive function in children. Planning involves activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ), anterior cingulate cortex, angular prefrontal cortex, right prefrontal cortex, and supramarginal gyrus. Working memory manipulation involves the DLPFC, inferior frontal gyrus, and areas of the parietal cortex. Inhibitory control involves multiple areas of the prefrontal cortex as well as the caudate nucleus and subthalamic nucleus. Task shifting does n't involve specific regions of the brain, but instead involves multiple regions of the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe. Physiology Neurotransmission Main article : Neurotransmission Further information : Summation ( neurophysiology ) Brain activity is made possible by the interconnections of neurons that are linked together to reach their targets. A neuron consists of a cell body, axon, and dendrites. Dendrites are often extensive branches that receive information in the form of signals from the axon terminals of other neurons. The signals received may cause the neuron to initiate an action potential ( an electrochemical signal or nerve impulse ) which is sent along its axon to the axon terminal, to connect with the dendrites or with the cell body of another neuron. An action potential is initiated at the initial segment of an axon, which contains a complex of proteins. When an action potential, reaches the axon terminal it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter at a synapse that propagates a signal that acts on the target cell. These chemical neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and acetylcholine. GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, and glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter. Neurons link at synapses to form neural pathways, neural circuits, and large elaborate network systems such as the salience network and the default mode network, and the activity between them is driven by the process of neurotransmission. Metabolism PET image of the human brain showing energy consumption The brain consumes up to 20 % of the energy used by the human body, more than any other organ. In humans, blood glucose is the primary source of energy for most cells and is critical for normal function in a number of tissues, including the brain. The human brain consumes approximately 60 % of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals. Brain metabolism normally relies upon blood glucose as an energy source, but during times of low glucose ( such as fasting, endurance exercise, or limited carbohydrate intake ), the brain uses ketone bodies for fuel with a smaller need for glucose. The brain can also utilize lactate during exercise. The brain stores glucose in the form of glycogen, albeit in significantly smaller amounts than that found in the liver or skeletal muscle. Long - chain fatty acids can not cross the blood -- brain barrier, but the liver can break these down to produce ketone bodies. However, short - chain fatty acids ( e.g., butyric acid, propionic acid, and acetic acid ) and the medium - chain fatty acids, octanoic acid and heptanoic acid, can cross the blood -- brain barrier and be metabolized by brain cells. Although the human brain represents only 2 % of the body weight, it receives 15 % of the cardiac output, 20 % of total body oxygen consumption, and 25 % of total body glucose utilization. The brain mostly uses glucose for energy, and deprivation of glucose, as can happen in hypoglycemia, can result in loss of consciousness. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions : this fact forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET and fMRI. These functional imaging techniques provide a three - dimensional image of metabolic activity. The function of sleep is not fully understood ; however, there is evidence that sleep enhances the clearance of metabolic waste products, some of which are potentially neurotoxic, from the brain and may also permit repair. Evidence suggests that the increased clearance of metabolic waste during sleep occurs via increased functioning of the glymphatic system. Sleep may also have an effect on cognitive function by weakening unnecessary connections. Research The brain is not fully understood, and research is ongoing. Neuroscientists, along with researchers from allied disciplines, study how the human brain works. The boundaries between the specialties of neuroscience, neurology and other disciplines such as psychiatry have faded as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. Neuroscience research has expanded considerably in recent decades. The `` Decade of the Brain '', an initiative of the United States Government in the 1990s, is considered to have marked much of this increase in research, and was followed in 2013 by the BRAIN Initiative. The Human Connectome Project was a five - year study launched in 2009 to analyse the anatomical and functional connections of parts of the brain, and has provided much data. Methods Information about the structure and function of the human brain comes from a variety of experimental methods, including animals and humans. Information about brain trauma and stroke has provided information about the function of parts of the brain and the effects of brain damage. Neuroimaging is used to visualise the brain and record brain activity. Electrophysiology is used to measure, record and monitor the electrical activity of the cortex. Measurements may be of local field potentials of cortical areas, or of the activity of a single neuron. An electroencephalogram can record the electrical activity of the cortex using electrodes placed non-invasively on the scalp. Invasive measures include electrocorticography, which uses electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain. This method is used in cortical stimulation mapping, used in the study of the relationship between cortical areas and their systemic function. By using much smaller microelectrodes, single - unit recordings can be made from a single neuron that give a high spatial resolution and high temporal resolution. This has enabled the linking of brain activity to behaviour, and the creation of neuronal maps. Imaging Further information : Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain Functional neuroimaging techniques show changes in brain activity that relate to the function of specific brain areas. One technique is functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) which has the advantages over earlier methods of SPECT and PET of not needing the use of radioactive materials and of offering a higher resolution. Another technique is functional near - infrared spectroscopy. These methods rely on the haemodynamic response that shows changes in brain activity in relation to changes in blood flow, useful in mapping functions to brain areas. Resting state fMRI looks at the interaction of brain regions whilst the brain is not performing a specific task. This is also used to show the default mode network. Any electrical current generates a magnetic field ; neural oscillations induce weak magnetic fields, and in functional magnetoencephalography the current produced can show localised brain function in high resolution. Tractography uses MRI and image analysis to create 3D images of the nerve tracts of the brain. Connectograms give a graphical representation of the neural connections of the brain. Differences in brain structure can be measured in some disorders, notably schizophrenia and dementia. Different biological approaches using imaging have given more insight for example into the disorders of depression and obsessive - compulsive disorder. A key source of information about the function of brain regions is the effects of damage to them. Advances in neuroimaging have enabled objective insights into mental disorders, leading to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and better monitoring. Gene and protein expression Main article : Bioinformatics See also : List of neuroscience databases Bioinformatics is a field of study that includes the creation and advancement of databases, and computational and statistical techniques, that can be used in studies of the human brain, particularly in the areas of gene and protein expression. Bioinformatics and studies in genomics, and functional genomics, generated the need for DNA annotation, a transcriptome technology, identifying genes, and their and location and function. GeneCards is a major database. As of 2017, just under 20,000 protein - coding genes are seen to be expressed in the human, and some 400 of these genes are brain - specific. The data that has been provided on gene expression in the brain has fuelled further research into a number of disorders. The long term use of alcohol for example, has shown altered gene expression in the brain, and cell - type specific changes that may relate to alcohol use disorder. These changes have been noted in the synaptic transcriptome in the prefrontal cortex, and are seen as a factor causing the drive to alcohol dependence, and also to other substance abuses. Other related studies have also shown evidence of synaptic alterations and their loss, in the ageing brain. Changes in gene expression alter the levels of proteins in various pathways and this has been shown to be evident in synaptic contact dysfunction or loss. This dysfunction has been seen to affect many structures of the brain and has a marked effect on inhibitory neurons resulting in a decreased level of neurotransmission, and subsequent cognitive decline and disease. Clinical Significance General Brain damage or injury to the brain can manifest in many ways. Traumatic brain injury, for example received in contact sport, after a fall, or a traffic or work accident, can be associated with both immediate and longer - term problems. Immediate problems may include bleeding within the brain, this may compress the brain tissue or damage its blood supply. Bruising to the brain may occur. Bruising may cause widespread damage to the nerve tracts that can lead to a condition of diffuse axonal injury. A fractured skull, injury to a particular area, deafness, and concussion are also possible immediate developments. In addition to the site of injury, the opposite side of the brain may be affected, termed a contrecoup injury. Longer - term issues that may develop include posttraumatic stress disorder, and hydrocephalus. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy can develop following multiple head injuries. Neurodegenerative diseases result in progressive damage to different parts of the brain 's function, and worsen with age. Common examples include dementia such as Alzheimer 's disease, alcoholic dementia or vascular dementia ; Parkinson 's disease ; and other rarer infectious, genetic, or metabolic causes such as Huntington 's disease, motor neuron diseases, HIV dementia, syphilis - related dementia and Wilson 's disease. Neurodegenerative diseases can affect different parts of the brain, and can affect movement, memory, and cognition. The brain, although protected by the blood -- brain barrier, can be affected by infections including viruses, bacteria and fungi. Infection may be of the meninges ( meningitis ), the brain matter ( encephalitis ), or within the brain matter ( such as a cerebral abscess ). Rare prion diseases including Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease and its variant, and kuru may also affect the brain. Brain tumours can be either benign or cancerous. Most malignant tumours arise from another part of the body, most commonly from the lung, breast and skin. Cancers of brain tissue can also occur, and originate from any tissue in and around the brain. Meningioma, cancer of the meninges around the brain, is more common than cancers of brain tissue. Cancers within the brain may cause symptoms related to their size or position, with symptoms including headache and nausea, or the gradual development of focal symptoms such as gradual difficulty seeing, swallowing, talking, or as a change of mood. Cancers are in general investigated through the use of CT scans and MRI scans. A variety of other tests including blood tests and lumbar puncture may be used to investigate for the cause of the cancer and evaluate the type and stage of the cancer. The corticosteroid dexamethasone is often given to decrease the swelling of brain tissue around a tumour. Surgery may be considered, however given the complex nature of many tumours or based on tumour stage or type, radiotherapy or chemotherapy may be considered more suitable. Mental disorders, such as major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive - compulsive disorder, Tourette syndrome, and addiction, are known to relate to the functioning of the brain. Treatment for mental disorders may include psychotherapy, psychiatry, social intervention and personal recovery work or cognitive behavioural therapy ; the underlying issues and associated prognoses vary significantly between individuals. Epileptic seizures are thought to relate to abnormal electrical activity. Seizure activity can manifest as absence ( of consciousness ), focal effects such as limb movement or impediments of speech, or be generalized in nature. Status epilepticus refers to a seizure or series of seizures that have not terminated within 30 minutes, although this definition has recently been revised. Seizures have a large number of causes, however many seizures occur without a definitive cause being found. In a person with epilepsy, risk factors for further seizures may include sleeplessness, drug and alcohol intake, and stress. Seizures may be assessed using blood tests, EEG and various medical imaging techniques based on the medical history and exam findings. In addition to treating an underlying cause and reducing exposure to risk factors, anticonvulsant medications can play a role in preventing further seizures. Some brain disorders such as Tay -- Sachs disease are congenital, and linked to genetic and chromosomal mutations. A rare group of congenital cephalic disorders known as lissencephaly is characterised by the lack of, or inadequacy of, cortical folding. Normal development of the brain can be affected during pregnancy by nutritional deficiencies, teratogens, infectious diseases, and by the use of recreational drugs and alcohol. Stroke Main article : Stroke CT scan of a cerebral hemorrhage, showing an intraparenchymal bleed ( bottom arrow ) with surrounding edema ( top arrow ) A stroke is a decrease in blood supply to an area of the brain causing cell death and brain injury. This can lead to a wide range of symptoms, including the `` FAST '' symptoms of facial droop, arm weakness, and speech difficulties ( including with speaking and finding words or forming sentences ). Symptoms relate to the function of the affected area of the brain and can point to the likely site and cause of the stroke. Difficulties with movement, speech, or sight usually relate to the cerebrum, whereas imbalance, double vision, vertigo and symptoms affecting more than one side of the body usually relate to the brainstem or cerebellum. Most strokes result from loss of blood supply, typically because of an embolus, rupture of a fatty plaque or narrowing of small arteries. Strokes can also result from bleeding within the brain. Transient ischaemic attacks ( TIAs ) are strokes in which symptoms resolve within 24 hours. Investigation into the stroke will involve a medical examination ( including a neurological examination ) and the taking of a medical history, focusing on the duration of the symptoms and risk factors ( including high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and smoking ). Further investigation is needed in younger patients. An ECG and biotelemetry may be conducted to identify atrial fibrillation ; an ultrasound can investigate narrowing of the carotid arteries ; an echocardiogram can be used to look for clots within the heart, diseases of the heart valves or the presence of a patent foramen ovale. Blood tests are routinely done as part of the workup including diabetes tests and a lipid profile. Some treatments for stroke are time - critical. These include clot dissolution or surgical removal of a clot for ischaemic strokes, and decompression for haemorrhagic strokes. As stroke is time critical, hospitals and even pre-hospital care of stroke involves expedited investigations -- usually a CT scan to investigate for a haemorrhagic stroke and a CT or MR angiogram to evaluate arteries that supply the brain. MRI scans, not as widely available, may be able to demonstrate the affected area of the brain more accurately, particularly with ischaemic stroke. Having experienced a stroke, a person may be admitted to a stroke unit, and treatments may be directed as preventing future strokes, including ongoing anticoagulation ( such as aspirin or clopidogrel ), antihypertensives, and lipid - lowering drugs. A multidisciplinary team including speech pathologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, and psychologists plays a large role in supporting a person affected by a stroke and their rehabilitation. Brain death Main article : Brain death Brain death refers to an irreversible total loss of brain function. This is characterised by coma, loss of reflexes, and apnoea, however, the declaration of brain death varies geographically and is not always accepted. In some countries there is also a defined syndrome of brainstem death. Declaration of brain death can have profound implications as the declaration, under the principle of medical futility, will be associated with the withdrawal of life support, and as those with brain death often have organs suitable for organ donation. The process is often made more difficult by poor communication with patients ' families. When brain death is suspected, reversible differential diagnoses such as hypothermia - induced coma, electrolyte, neurological and drug - related cognitive suppression need to be excluded. Testing for reflexes can be of help in the decision, as can the absence of response and breathing. Clinical observations, including a total lack of responsiveness, a known diagnosis, and neural imaging evidence, may all play a role in the decision to pronounce brain death. Society and culture Neuroanthropology is the study of the relationship between culture and the brain. It explores how the brain gives rise to culture, and how culture influences brain development. Cultural differences and their relation to brain development and structure are researched in different fields. The mind Main articles : Cognition and Mind The skull of Phineas Gage, with the path of the iron rod that passed through it without killing him, but altering his cognition. The case helped to convince people that mental functions were localized in the brain. The philosophy of the mind studies such issues as the problem of understanding consciousness and the mind -- body problem. The relationship between the brain and the mind is a significant challenge both philosophically and scientifically. This is because of the difficulty in explaining how mental activities, such as thoughts and emotions, can be implemented by physical structures such as neurons and synapses, or by any other type of physical mechanism. This difficulty was expressed by Gottfried Leibniz in the analogy known as Leibniz 's Mill : One is obliged to admit that perception and what depends upon it is inexplicable on mechanical principles, that is, by figures and motions. In imagining that there is a machine whose construction would enable it to think, to sense, and to have perception, one could conceive it enlarged while retaining the same proportions, so that one could enter into it, just like into a windmill. Supposing this, one should, when visiting within it, find only parts pushing one another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. -- Leibniz, Monadology Doubt about the possibility of a mechanistic explanation of thought drove René Descartes, and most other philosophers along with him, to dualism : the belief that the mind is to some degree independent of the brain. There has always, however, been a strong argument in the opposite direction. There is clear empirical evidence that physical manipulations of, or injuries to, the brain ( for example by drugs or by lesions, respectively ) can affect the mind in potent and intimate ways. In the 19th century, the case of Phineas Gage, a railway worker who was injured by a stout iron rod passing through his brain, convinced both researchers and the public that cognitive functions were localised in the brain. Following this line of thinking, a large body of empirical evidence for a close relationship between brain activity and mental activity has led most neuroscientists and contemporary philosophers to be materialists, believing that mental phenomena are ultimately the result of, or reducible to, physical phenomena. Brain size Main article : Brain size The size of the brain and a person 's intelligence are not strongly related. Studies tend to indicate small to moderate correlations ( averaging around 0.3 to 0.4 ) between brain volume and IQ. The most consistent associations are observed within the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the hippocampi, and the cerebellum, but these only account for a relatively small amount of variance in IQ, which itself has only a partial relationship to general intelligence and real - world performance. Other animals, including whales and elephants have larger brains than humans. However, when the brain - to - body mass ratio is taken into account, the human brain is almost twice as large as that of a bottlenose dolphin, and three times as large as that of a chimpanzee. However, a high ratio does not of itself demonstrate intelligence : very small animals have high ratios and the treeshrew has the largest quotient of any mammal. In Popular culture Phrenology summarized in an 1883 chart Research has disproved some common misconceptions about the brain. These include both ancient and modern myths. It is not true that neurons are not replaced after the age of two ; nor that only ten per cent of the brain is used. Popular culture has also oversimplified the lateralisation of the brain, suggesting that functions are completely specific to one side of the brain or the other. Akio Mori coined the term game brain for the unreliably supported theory that spending long periods playing video games harmed the brain 's pre-frontal region and the expression of emotion and creativity. Historically, the brain featured in popular culture through phrenology, a pseudoscience that assigned personality attributes to different regions of the cortex. The cortex remains important in popular culture as covered in books and satire. The brain features in science fiction, with themes such as brain transplants and cyborgs ( beings with features like partly artificial brains ). The 1942 science fiction book ( adapted three times for cinema ) Donovan 's Brain tells the tale of an isolated brain kept alive in vitro, gradually taken over by a malign intelligence. History Main article : History of neuroscience Early history Hieroglyph for the word `` brain '' ( c. 1700 BC ) The Edwin Smith Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian medical treatise written in the 17th century BC, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain. The hieroglyph for brain, occurring eight times in this papyrus, describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of two traumatic injuries to the head. The papyrus mentions the external surface of the brain, the effects of injury ( including seizures and aphasia ), the meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid. In the fifth century BC, Alcmaeon of Croton in Magna Grecia, first considered the brain to be the seat of the mind. Also in the fifth century BC in Athens, Hippocrates believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence. Aristotle, in his biology initially believed the heart to be the seat of intelligence, and saw the brain as a cooling mechanism for the blood. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because, among other reasons, they have a larger brain to cool their hot - bloodedness. Aristotle did describe the meninges and distinguished between the cerebrum and cerebellum. Herophilus of Chalcedon in the fourth and third centuries BC distinguished the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and provided the first clear description of the ventricles ; and with Erasistratus of Ceos experimented on living brains. Their works are now mostly lost, and we know about their achievements due mostly to secondary sources. Some of their discoveries had to be re-discovered a millennium after their deaths. Anatomist physician Galen in the second century AD, during the time of the Roman Empire, dissected the brains of sheep, monkeys, dogs, and pigs. He concluded that, as the cerebellum was denser than the brain, it must control the muscles, while as the cerebrum was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorized that the brain functioned by movement of animal spirits through the ventricles. Renaissance In 1316, Mondino de Luzzi 's Anathomia began the modern study of brain anatomy. Niccolò Massa discovered in 1536 that the ventricles were filled with fluid. Archangelo Piccolomini of Rome was the first to distinguish between the cerebrum and cerebral cortex. In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published his seven - volume De humani corporis fabrica. The seventh book covered the brain and eye, with detailed images of the ventricles, cranial nerves, pituitary gland, meninges, structures of the eye, the vascular supply to the brain and spinal cord, and an image of the peripheral nerves. Vesalius rejected the common belief that the ventricles were responsible for brain function, arguing that many animals have a similar ventricular system to humans, but no true intelligence. René Descartes proposed the theory of dualism to tackle the issue of the brain 's relation to the mind. He suggested that the pineal gland was where the mind interacted with the body after recording the brain mechanisms responsible for circulating cerebrospinal fluid. This dualism likely provided impetus for later anatomists to further explore the relationship between the anatomical and functional aspects of brain anatomy. Thomas Willis is considered a second pioneer in the study of neurology and brain science. In 1664 in Cerebri Anatome ( Latin : Anatomy of the brain ), followed by Cerebral Pathology in 1667. In these he described the structure of the cerebellum, the ventricles, the cerebral hemispheres, the brainstem, and the cranial nerves, studied its blood supply ; and proposed functions associated with different areas of the brain. The circle of Willis was named after his investigations into the blood supply of the brain, and he was the first to use the word `` neurology. '' Willis removed the brain from the body when examining it, and rejected the commonly held view that the cortex only consisted of blood vessels and the view of the last two millennia that the cortex was only incidentally important. In the late 19th century, Emil du Bois - Reymond and Hermann von Helmholtz, following the work of their teacher Johannes Peter Müller showed the electrical inpulses which pass along nerves ; but unlike Müller 's views, that such impulses were able to be observed. Richard Caton in 1875 demonstrated electrical impulses in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys. In the 1820s, Jean Pierre Flourens pioneered the experimental method of damaging specific parts of animal brains describing the effects on movement and behavior. Drawing of the base of the brain, from Andreas Vesalius 's 1543 work De humani corporis fabrica One of Leonardo da Vinci 's sketches of the human skull Modern period Further information : Neuropsychiatry Drawing by Camillo Golgi of vertical section of rabbit hippocampus, from his `` Sulla fina anatomia degli organi centrali del sistema nervoso '', 1885 Drawing of cells in chick cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, from `` Estructura de los centros nerviosos de las aves '', Madrid, 1905 Studies of the brain became more sophisticated with the use of the microscope and the development of a silver staining method by Camillo Golgi during the 1880s. This was able to show the intricate structures of single neurons. This was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the then revolutionary hypothesis that the neuron is the functional unit of the brain. He used microscopy to uncover many cell types, and proposed functions for the cells he saw. For this, Golgi and Cajal are considered the founders of twentieth century neuroscience, both sharing the Nobel prize in 1906 for their studies and discoveries in this field. Charles Sherrington published his influential 1906 work The Integrative Action of the Nervous System examining the function of reflexes, evolutionary development of the nervous system, functional specialisation of the brain, and layout and cellular function of the central nervous system. John Farquhar Fulton, founded the Journal of Neurophysiology and published the first comprehensive textbook on the physiology of the nervous system during 1938. Neuroscience during the twentieth century began to be recognised as a distinct unified academic discipline, with David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler playing critical roles in establishing the field. Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established the Neuroscience Research Program, an inter-university and international organisation, bringing together biology, medicine, psychological and behavioural sciences. The word neuroscience itself arises from this program. Paul Broca associated regions of the brain with specific functions, in particular language in Broca 's area, following work on brain - damaged patients. John Hughlings Jackson described the function of the motor cortex by watching the progression of epileptic seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke described a region associated with language comprehension and production. Korbinian Brodmann divided regions of the brain based on the appearance of cells. By 1950, Sherrington, Papez, and MacLean had identified many of the brainstem and limbic system functions. The capacity of the brain to re-organise and change with age, and a recognised critical development period, were attributed to neuroplasticity, pioneered by Margaret Kennard, who experimented on monkeys during the 1930 - 40s. Harvey Cushing ( 1869 -- 1939 ) is recognised as the first proficient brain surgeon in the world. In 1937, Walter Dandy began the practice of vascular neurosurgery by performing the first surgical clipping of an intracranial aneurysm. Comparative Anatomy See also : Evolution of the brain The human brain has many properties that are common to all vertebrate brains. Many of its features are common to all mammalian brains, most notably a six - layered cerebral cortex and a set of associated structures, including the hippocampus and amygdala. The cortex is proportionally larger in greater mammals and humans than many other mammals. Humans have more association cortex, sensory and motor parts than smaller mammals such as the rat and the cat. As a primate brain, the human brain has a much larger cerebral cortex, in proportion to body size, than most mammals, and a highly developed visual system. As a hominid brain, the human brain is substantially enlarged even in comparison to the brain of a typical monkey. The sequence of human evolution from Australopithecus ( four million years ago ) to Homo sapiens ( modern humans ) was marked by a steady increase in brain size. As brain size increased, this altered the size and shape of the skull, from about 600 cm in Homo habilis to an average of about 1520 cm in Homo neanderthalensis. 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Jump up ^ Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition -- Tortora, Page 519. ^ Jump up to : Freberg, L. ( 2009 ). Discovering Biological Psychology. Cengage Learning. pp. 44 -- 46. ISBN 0547177798. Retrieved January 25, 2017. ^ Jump up to : Kolb, B. ; Whishaw, I. ( 2009 ). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Macmillan. pp. 73 -- 75. ISBN 0716795868. Retrieved January 25, 2017. CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Pocock 2006, p. 64. ^ Jump up to : Purves 2012, p. 399. Jump up ^ Gray 's Anatomy 2008, p. 325 - 6. Jump up ^ Goll, Y ; Atlan, G ; Citri, A ( August 2015 ). `` Attention : the claustrum ''. Trends in Neurosciences. 38 ( 8 ) : 486 -- 95. doi : 10.1016 / j. tins. 2015.05. 006. PMID 26116988. Jump up ^ Goard, M. ; Dan, Y. ( October 4, 2009 ). `` Basal forebrain activation enhances cortical coding of natural scenes ''. Nature Neuroscience. 12 ( 11 ) : 1444 -- 1449. doi : 10.1038 / nn. 2402. PMC 3576925. Jump up ^ Guyton & Hall 2011, p. 699. ^ Jump up to : Gray 's Anatomy 2008, p. 298. Jump up ^ Netter, F ( 2014 ). Atlas of Human Anatomy Including Student Consult Interactive Ancillaries and Guides ( 6th ed. ). Philadelphia, Penn. : WB Saunders Co. p. 114. ISBN 978 - 1 - 4557 - 0418 - 7. ^ Jump up to : Gray 's Anatomy 2008, p. 297. Jump up ^ Guyton & Hall 2011, pp. 698 -- 9. Jump up ^ Squire 2013, pp. 761 -- 763. ^ Jump up to : Gray 's Anatomy 2008, p. 275. Jump up ^ Guyton & Hall 2011, p. 691. Jump up ^ Purves 2012, p. 377. ^ Jump up to : Azevedo, F. ; et al. ( April 10, 2009 ). `` Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled - up primate brain ''. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 513 ( 5 ) : 532 -- 541. doi : 10.1002 / cne. 21974. PMID 19226510. despite the widespread quotes that the human brain contains 100 billion neurons and ten times more glial cells, the absolute number of neurons and glial cells in the human brain remains unknown. Here we determine these numbers by using the isotropic fractionator and compare them with the expected values for a human - sized primate. We find that the adult male human brain contains on average 86.1 ± 8.1 billion NeuN - positive cells ( `` neurons '' ) and 84.6 ± 9.8 billion NeuN - negative ( `` nonneuronal '' ) cells. CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ Pavel, Fiala ; Jiří, Valenta ( January 1, 2013 ). `` Central Nervous System ''. Karolinum Press. p. 79. ^ Jump up to : Polyzoidis, S. ; Koletsa, T. ; Panagiotidou, S. ; Ashkan, K. ; Theoharides, T.C. ( 2015 ). `` Mast cells in meningiomas and brain inflammation ''. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 12 ( 1 ) : 170. doi : 10.1186 / s12974 - 015 - 0388 - 3. PMC 4573939. PMID 26377554. MCs originate from a bone marrow progenitor and subsequently develop different phenotype characteristics locally in tissues. Their range of functions is wide and includes participation in allergic reactions, innate and adaptive immunity, inflammation, and autoimmunity ( 34 ). In the human brain, MCs can be located in various areas, such as the pituitary stalk, the pineal gland, the area postrema, the choroid plexus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and the median eminence ( 35 ). In the meninges, they are found within the dural layer in association with vessels and terminals of meningeal nociceptors ( 36 ). MCs have a distinct feature compared to other hematopoietic cells in that they reside in the brain ( 37 ). MCs contain numerous granules and secrete an abundance of prestored mediators such as corticotropin - releasing hormone ( CRH ), neurotensin ( NT ), substance P ( SP ), tryptase, chymase, vasoactive intestinal peptide ( VIP ), vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ), TNF, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and varieties of chemokines and cytokines some of which are known to disrupt the integrity of the blood - brain barrier ( BBB ) ( 38 -- 40 ). ( The ) key role of MCs in inflammation ( 34 ) and in the disruption of the BBB ( 41 -- 43 ) suggests areas of importance for novel therapy research. Increasing evidence also indicates that MCs participate in neuroinflammation directly ( 44 -- 46 ) and through microglia stimulation ( 47 ), contributing to the pathogenesis of such conditions such as headaches, ( 48 ) autism ( 49 ), and chronic fatigue syndrome ( 50 ). In fact, a recent review indicated that peripheral inflammatory stimuli can cause microglia activation ( 51 ), thus possibly involving MCs outside the brain. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Lindsberg, P.J. ; Strbian, D. ; Karjalainen - Lindsberg, ML ( April 2010 ). `` Mast cells as early responders in the regulation of acute blood - brain barrier changes after cerebral ischemia and hemorrhage ''. Journal of cerebral blood flow and metabolism : official journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 30 ( 4 ) : 689 -- 702. doi : 10.1038 / jcbfm. 2009.282. PMC 2949160. PMID 20087366. ^ Jump up to : Guyton & Hall 2011, pp. 748 -- 749. Jump up ^ Budzyński, J ; Kłopocka, M. ( 2014 ). `` Brain - gut axis in the pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori infection ''. World J. Gastroenterol. 20 ( 18 ) : 5212 -- 25. doi : 10.3748 / wjg. v20. i18. 5212. PMC 4017036. PMID 24833851. 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Jump up ^ Purves 2012, p. 742. Jump up ^ Gray 's Anatomy 2008, p. 243. ^ Jump up to : Iliff, J. ; Nedergaard, Maiken ( June 1, 2013 ). `` Is There a Cerebral Lymphatic System ? ''. Stroke. 44 ( 6 suppl 1 ) : S93 -- S95. doi : 10.1161 / STROKEAHA. 112.678698. PMC 3699410. PMID 23709744. Archived from the original on February 19, 2017. Jump up ^ Gaillard, F. `` Glymphatic pathway ''. radiopaedia.org. Archived from the original on October 30, 2017. ^ Jump up to : Bacyinski A, Xu M, Wang W, Hu J ( November 2017 ). `` The Paravascular Pathway for Brain Waste Clearance : Current Understanding, Significance and Controversy ''. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 11 : 101. doi : 10.3389 / fnana. 2017.00101. PMC 5681909. PMID 29163074. The paravascular pathway, also known as the `` glymphatic '' pathway, is a recently described system for waste clearance in the brain. According to this model, cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) enters the paravascular spaces surrounding penetrating arteries of the brain, mixes with interstitial fluid ( ISF ) and solutes in the parenchyma, and exits along paravascular spaces of draining veins... In addition to Aβ clearance, the glymphatic system may be involved in the removal of other interstitial solutes and metabolites. By measuring the lactate concentration in the brains and cervical lymph nodes of awake and sleeping mice, Lundgaard et al. ( 2017 ) demonstrated that lactate can exit the CNS via the paravascular pathway. Their analysis took advantage of the substantiated hypothesis that glymphatic function is promoted during sleep ( Xie et al., 2013 ; Lee et al., 2015 ; Liu et al., 2017 ). Jump up ^ Dissing - Olesen, L ; Hong, S ; Stevens, B ( August 2015 ). `` New Brain Lymphatic Vessels Drain Old Concepts ''. EBioMedicine. 2 ( 8 ) : 776 -- 7. doi : 10.1016 / j. ebiom. 2015.08. 019. PMC 4563157. PMID 26425672. 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Retrieved March 3, 2017. CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Armony, J ( 2013 ). The Cambridge handbook of human affective neuroscience ( 1. publ. ed. ). Cambridge ( u.a. ) : Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780521171557. Jump up ^ Lindquist, KA. ; Wager, TD. ; Kober, H ; Bliss - Moreau, E ; Barrett, LF ( May 23, 2012 ). `` The brain basis of emotion : A meta - analytic review ''. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 35 ( 03 ) : 121 -- 143. doi : 10.1017 / S0140525X11000446. PMC 4329228. Jump up ^ Phan, KL ; Wager, Tor ; Taylor, SF. ; Liberzon, l ( June 1, 2002 ). `` Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion : A Meta - Analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI ''. NeuroImage. 16 ( 2 ) : 331 -- 348. doi : 10.1006 / nimg. 2002.1087. PMID 12030820. Jump up ^ Malenka, RC ; Nestler, EJ ; Hyman, SE ( 2009 ). `` Preface ''. In Sydor, A ; Brown, RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology : A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience ( 2nd ed. ). New York : McGraw - Hill Medical. p. xiii. ISBN 9780071481274. Only with an awareness of the many steps in the process can we grasp how a drug changes complex nervous system functions such as movement, cognition, pain, or mood. ^ Jump up to : Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM ( 2015 ). `` Chapter 14 : Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control ''. Molecular Neuropharmacology : A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience ( 3rd ed. ). New York : McGraw - Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071827706. Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans... As organisms became more complex, an increasing number of neurons were interposed between sensory inputs and motor outputs, creating what has been called `` the great intermediate net. '' In the human nervous system, this net has reached remarkable levels of complexity, making possible diverse and subtle forms of cognition and behavioral control including many kinds of learning and memory, abstract thought, the creation of fiction, music, and visual art, and the ability to navigate flexibly in uncertain and changing social situations... These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is often called `` top - down '' control or cognitive control of behavior. Because behavioral responses in humans are not rigidly dictated by sensory inputs and drives, behavioral responses can instead be guided in accordance with short - or long - term goals, prior experience, and the environmental context. ^ Jump up to : Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM ( 2015 ). `` Chapter 6 : Widely Projecting Systems : Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin ''. Molecular Neuropharmacology : A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience ( 3rd ed. ). New York : McGraw - Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071827706. DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the `` cognitive control '' of behavior : the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information `` on line '' in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal - directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ^ Jump up to : Diamond, A ( 2013 ). `` Executive functions ''. Annual Review of Psychology. 64 : 135 -- 168. doi : 10.1146 / annurev - psych - 113011 - 143750. PMC 4084861. PMID 23020641. Core EFs are inhibition ( response inhibition ( self - control -- resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively ) and interference control ( selective attention and cognitive inhibition ) ), working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( including creatively thinking `` outside the box, '' seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances ). Figure 4 : Executive functions and related terms Archived May 9, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. ^ Jump up to : Chan, R.C. ; Shum, D. ; Toulopoulou, T. ; Chen, E.Y. ( March 2008 ). `` Assessment of executive functions : review of instruments and identification of critical issues ''. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 23 ( 2 ) : 201 -- 216. doi : 10.1016 / j. acn. 2007.08. 010. PMID 18096360. The term `` executive functions '' is an umbrella term comprising a wide range of cognitive processes and behavioral competencies which include verbal reasoning, problem - solving, planning, sequencing, the ability to sustain attention, resistance to interference, utilization of feedback, multitasking, cognitive flexibility, and the ability to deal with novelty ( Burgess, Veitch, de lacy Costello, & Shallice, 2000 ; Damasio, 1995 ; Grafman & Litvan, 1999 ; Shallice, 1988 ; Stuss & Benson, 1986 ; Stuss, Shallice, Alexander, & Picton, 1995 ). CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Souza, MJ ; Bunge, SA ( 2009 ). `` Executive Function and Higher - Order Cognition : Neuroimaging ''. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience ( 4 ) : 111 -- 116. ^ Jump up to : Hyun JC, Weyandt, LL, Swentosky, A ( 2014 ). `` Chapter 2 : The Physiology of Executive Functioning ''. In Goldstein S, Naglieri J. Handbook of Executive Functioning. New York : Springer. pp. 13 -- 23. ISBN 9781461481065. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM ( 2015 ). `` Chapter 14 : Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control ''. Molecular Neuropharmacology : A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience ( 3rd ed. ). New York : McGraw - Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071827706. In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking ( Chapter 16 ), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ; described below ), significant negative consequences can result... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function ; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli ( impaired response inhibition ) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli ( impaired interference suppression )... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus ( part of the dorsal striatum ) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior... Early results with structural MRI show a thinner cerebral cortex, across much of the cerebrum, in ADHD subjects compared with age - matched controls, including areas of ( the ) prefrontal cortex involved in working memory and attention. Jump up ^ Pocock 2006, p. 68. Jump up ^ Clark, B.D. ; Goldberg, E.M. ; Rudy, B. ( December 2009 ). `` Electrogenic tuning of the axon initial segment ''. The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry. 15 ( 6 ) : 651 -- 68. doi : 10.1177 / 1073858409341973. PMC 2951114. PMID 20007821. Jump up ^ Pocock 2006, pp. 70 -- 74. ^ Jump up to : `` NIMH '' Brain Basics ``. www.nimh.nih.gov. Archived from the original on March 26, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2017. Jump up ^ Purves, Dale ( 2011 ). Neuroscience ( 5. ed. ). Sunderland, Mass. : Sinauer. p. 139. ISBN 978 - 0 - 87893 - 695 - 3. Jump up ^ Swaminathan, N ( April 29, 2008 ). `` Why Does the Brain Need So Much Power ? ''. Scientific American. Scientific American, a Division of Nature America, Inc. Archived from the original on January 27, 2014. Retrieved November 19, 2010. ^ Jump up to : Wasserman DH ( January 2009 ). `` Four grams of glucose ''. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 296 ( 1 ) : E11 -- 21. doi : 10.1152 / ajpendo. 90563.2008. PMC 2636990. PMID 18840763. Four grams of glucose circulates in the blood of a person weighing 70 kg. This glucose is critical for normal function in many cell types. In accordance with the importance of these 4 g of glucose, a sophisticated control system is in place to maintain blood glucose constant. Our focus has been on the mechanisms by which the flux of glucose from liver to blood and from blood to skeletal muscle is regulated... The brain consumes ∼ 60 % of the blood glucose used in the sedentary, fasted person... The amount of glucose in the blood is preserved at the expense of glycogen reservoirs ( Fig. 2 ). In postabsorptive humans, there are ∼ 100 g of glycogen in the liver and ∼ 400 g of glycogen in muscle. Carbohydrate oxidation by the working muscle can go up by ∼ 10-fold with exercise, and yet after 1 h, blood glucose is maintained at ∼ 4 g... It is now well established that both insulin and exercise cause translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane. Except for the fundamental process of GLUT4 translocation, ( muscle glucose uptake ( MGU ) ) is controlled differently with exercise and insulin. Contraction - stimulated intracellular signaling ( 52, 80 ) and MGU ( 34, 75, 77, 88, 91, 98 ) are insulin independent. Moreover, the fate of glucose extracted from the blood is different in response to exercise and insulin ( 91, 105 ). For these reasons, barriers to glucose flux from blood to muscle must be defined independently for these two controllers of MGU. Jump up ^ Quistorff, B ; Secher, N ; Van Lieshout, J ( July 24, 2008 ). `` Lactate fuels the human brain during exercise ''. The FASEB Journal. 22 ( 10 ) : 3443 -- 3449. doi : 10.1096 / fj. 08 - 106104. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012. Retrieved May 9, 2011. Jump up ^ Obel, L.F. ; Müller, M.S. ; Walls, A.B. ; Sickmann, H.M. ; Bak, L.K. ; Waagepetersen, H.S. ; Schousboe, A. ( 2012 ). `` Brain glycogen - new perspectives on its metabolic function and regulation at the subcellular level ''. Frontiers in Neuroenergetics. 4 : 3. doi : 10.3389 / fnene. 2012.00003. PMC 3291878. PMID 22403540. Jump up ^ Marin - Valencia, I ; et al. ( February 2013 ). `` Heptanoate as a neural fuel : energetic and neurotransmitter precursors in normal and glucose transporter I - deficient ( G1D ) brain ''. Journal of cerebral blood flow and metabolism : official journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 33 ( 2 ) : 175 -- 82. doi : 10.1038 / jcbfm. 2012.151. PMC 3564188. PMID 23072752. CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ Tsuji, A. ( 2005 ). `` Small molecular drug transfer across the blood - brain barrier via carrier - mediated transport systems ''. NeuroRx. 2 ( 1 ) : 54 -- 62. doi : 10.1602 / neurorx. 2.1. 54. PMC 539320. PMID 15717057. Uptake of valproic acid was reduced in the presence of medium - chain fatty acids such as hexanoate, octanoate, and decanoate, but not propionate or butyrate, indicating that valproic acid is taken up into the brain via a transport system for medium - chain fatty acids, not short - chain fatty acids... Based on these reports, valproic acid is thought to be transported bidirectionally between blood and brain across the BBB via two distinct mechanisms, monocarboxylic acid - sensitive and medium - chain fatty acid - sensitive transporters, for efflux and uptake, respectively. Jump up ^ Vijay, N. ; Morris, M.E. ( 2014 ). `` Role of monocarboxylate transporters in drug delivery to the brain ''. Curr. Pharm. Des. 20 ( 10 ) : 1487 -- 98. doi : 10.2174 / 13816128113199990462. PMC 4084603. PMID 23789956. Monocarboxylate transporters ( MCTs ) are known to mediate the transport of short chain monocarboxylates such as lactate, pyruvate and butyrate... MCT1 and MCT4 have also been associated with the transport of short chain fatty acids such as acetate and formate which are then metabolized in the astrocytes ( 78 ). CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Clark, D.D. ; Sokoloff. L. ( 1999 ). Siegel, G.J. ; Agranoff, B.W. ; Albers, R.W. ; Fisher, S.K. ; Uhler, M.D., eds. 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Fundamental Neuroscience. Waltham, MA : Elsevier. ISBN 978 - 0 - 12 - 385 - 870 - 2. Standring, Susan ( editor - in - chief ) ; Borley, Neil R. et al. ( section editors ) ( 2008 ). Gray 's Anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice ( 40th ed. ). London : Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2371 - 8. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Notes Jump up ^ Specifically the oculomotor, trochlear nerve, trigeminal nerve, abducens nerve, facial nerve, vestibulocochlear nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve, accessory nerve and hypoglossal nerves. Jump up ^ Including the vestibulo - ocular reflex, corneal reflex, gag reflex and dilation of the pupils in response to light, Jump up ^ Illustrated by architect Christopher Wren External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brain. Brain basics by NIMH Atlas of the Human Brain Brain Facts and Figures Brain Maps : Brain Anatomy, Functions and Disorders Anatomy of the human brain Anatomy of the medulla Grey matter Cranial nuclei afferent : Solitary nucleus tract Dorsal respiratory group Gustatory nucleus Vestibular nuclei Lateral Medial Inferior efferent : Hypoglossal nucleus Nucleus ambiguus Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve Inferior salivatory nucleus Dorsal Gracile nucleus Cuneate nucleus Accessory cuneate nucleus Ventral Ventral respiratory group Arcuate nucleus of medulla Rostral ventromedial medulla Botzinger complex Pre-Bötzinger complex White matter Dorsal Sensory Sensory decussation Medial lemniscus Juxtarestiform body Ascending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus Medial longitudinal fasciculus Motor Descending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus Medial longitudinal fasciculus Ventral Descending tracts Olivocerebellar tract Rubro - olivary tract Surface Front Pyramid Anterior median fissure Anterolateral sulcus Olive Inferior olivary nucleus Back Posterior median sulcus Posterolateral sulcus Area postrema Vagal trigone Hypoglossal trigone Medial eminence Inferior cerebellar peduncle Grey Reticular formation Gigantocellular Parvocellular Ventral Lateral Paramedian Raphe nuclei Obscurus Magnus Pallidus Perihypoglossal nuclei Anatomy of the pons Dorsal / ( tegmentum ) Surface Cerebellopontine angle Superior medullary velum Sulcus limitans Medial eminence Facial colliculus White : Sensory Trapezoid body Trigeminal lemniscus Dorsal trigeminal tract Ventral trigeminal tract Medial lemniscus Lateral lemniscus Medial longitudinal fasciculus Vestibulo - oculomotor fibers Anterior trigeminothalamic tract Central tegmental tract White : Motor Inferior cerebellar peduncle Vestibulocerebellar tract Medial longitudinal fasciculus Vestibulospinal tract Medial vestibulospinal tract Lateral vestibulospinal tract Grey : Cranial nuclei afferent : GSA Trigeminal Principal Spinal Cochlear nucleus Dorsal Anterior Vestibular nuclei Superior efferent : SVE : Trigeminal motor nucleus Facial motor nucleus GSE : Abducens nucleus GVE : Superior salivary nucleus Inferior salivary nucleus Other Apneustic center Pneumotaxic center Parabrachial nuclei Subparabrachial nucleus Medial parabrachial nucleus Lateral parabrachial nucleus Superior olivary nucleus Locus coeruleus Ventral / ( base ) Grey Pontine nuclei White : Motor / descending Corticospinal tract Corticobulbar tract Corticopontine fibers MCP Pontocerebellar fibers Surface Basilar sulcus Other grey : Raphe / reticular Reticular formation Caudal Oral Tegmental Paramedian Raphe nuclei Median Anatomy of the midbrain Tectum ( Dorsal ) Surface Corpora quadrigemina : Inferior colliculus Brachium Superior colliculus Brachium Grey matter Pretectal area White : Sensory / ascending Spinotectal tract Central tegmental tract White : Motor / descending Tectospinal tract Peduncle ( Ventral ) Tegmentum White : Sensory / ascending Lemnisci Medial Lateral Ascending MLF Vestibulo - oculomotor fibers Spinothalamic tract Anterior trigeminothalamic tract Dentatothalamic tract White : Motor / descending Rubrospinal tract Rubro - olivary tract Descending MLF Grey : cranial nuclei GSA Mesencephalic - GSE Oculomotor nucleus, Trochlear nucleus - GVE Edinger -- Westphal nucleus Grey : other Periaqueductal gray Raphe nuclei dorsal Ventral tegmental area Rostromedial tegmental nucleus Pedunculopontine nucleus Red nucleus Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus Parabrachial area Interpeduncular nucleus Midbrain reticular formation Ventricular system Cerebral aqueduct Base White : Motor / descending Cerebral crus : Corticospinal tract Corticobulbar tract Corticopontine tract / Frontopontine fibers / Temporopontine fibers Grey : Substantia nigra Pars compacta Pars reticulata Surface Superior cerebellar peduncle Decussation Interpeduncular fossa Anatomy of the cerebellum Surface Lobes Anterior lobe Posterior lobe Horizontal fissure Flocculonodular lobe Flocculus Nodule Primary fissure Medial / lateral Vermis : anterior Central lobule Culmen Lingula posterior Folium Tuber Uvula Vallecula of cerebellum Hemisphere : anterior Alar central lobule posterior Biventer lobule Cerebellar tonsil Grey matter Deep cerebellar nuclei Dentate interposed Emboliform Globose Fastigial Cerebellar cortex Molecular layer Stellate cell Basket cell Purkinje cell layer Purkinje cell Bergmann glia cell = Golgi epithelial cell Fañanas cell Granule cell layer Golgi cell Granule cell Unipolar brush cell Fibers : Mossy fibers Climbing fiber Parallel fiber White matter Internal Arbor vitae Peduncles Inferior ( medulla ) : Dorsal spinocerebellar tract Olivocerebellar tract Cuneocerebellar tract Juxtarestiform body ( Vestibulocerebellar tract ) Trigeminocerebellar fibers Middle ( pons ) : Pontocerebellar fibers Superior ( midbrain ) : Ventral spinocerebellar tract Dentatothalamic tract Anatomy of the diencephalon of the human brain Epithalamus Surface Pineal gland Habenula Habenular trigone Habenular commissure Grey matter Pretectal area Habenular nuclei Subcommissural organ Thalamus Surface Stria medullaris of thalamus Thalamic reticular nucleus Taenia thalami Grey matter / nuclei paired : AN Ventral VA / VL VP / VPM / VPL Lateral LD LP Pulvinar nuclei Metathalamus MG LG P cell M cell K cell midline : MD Intralaminar Centromedian Midline nuclear group Interthalamic adhesion White matter Mammillothalamic tract Pallidothalamic tracts Ansa lenticularis Lenticular fasciculus Thalamic fasciculus PCML Medial lemniscus Trigeminal lemniscus Spinothalamic tract Lateral lemniscus Dentatothalamic tract Acoustic radiation Optic radiation Subthalamic fasciculus Anterior trigeminothalamic tract Medullary laminae Hypothalamus Surface Median eminence / Tuber cinereum Mammillary body Infundibulum Grey matter Autonomic zones Anterior ( parasympathetic / heat loss ) Posterior ( sympathetic / heat conservation ) Endocrine posterior pituitary : Paraventricular Magnocellular neurosecretory cell Parvocellular neurosecretory cell Supraoptic oxytocin / vasopressin other : Arcuate ( dopamine / GHRH ) Preoptic ( GnRH ) Suprachiasmatic ( melatonin ) Emotion Lateral Ventromedial Dorsomedial White matter afferent Medial forebrain bundle Retinohypothalamic tract efferent Mammillothalamic tract Stria terminalis Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus Pituitary Posterior is diencephalon, but anterior is glandular Subthalamus Subthalamic nucleus Zona incerta Nuclei campi perizonalis ( Fields of Forel ) Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain Frontal lobe Superolateral Prefrontal Superior frontal gyrus 6 8 Middle frontal gyrus 9 10 46 Inferior frontal gyrus : 11 47 - Pars orbitalis Broca 's area 44 - Pars opercularis 45 - Pars triangularis Superior frontal sulcus Inferior frontal sulcus Precentral Precentral gyrus Precentral sulcus Medial / inferior Prefrontal Superior frontal gyrus 6 Medial frontal gyrus 8 9 Paraterminal gyrus / Paraolfactory area 12 Straight gyrus 11 Orbital gyri / Orbitofrontal cortex 10 11 12 Ventromedial prefrontal cortex 10 Subcallosal area 25 Olfactory sulcus Orbital sulcus Precentral Paracentral lobule Paracentral sulcus Both Primary motor cortex Premotor cortex 6 Supplementary motor area 6 Supplementary eye field 6 Frontal eye fields 8 Parietal lobe Superolateral Superior parietal lobule 5 7 Inferior parietal lobule 40 - Supramarginal gyrus 39 - Angular gyrus Parietal operculum 43 Intraparietal sulcus Medial / inferior Paracentral lobule 5 Precuneus 7 Marginal sulcus Both Postcentral gyrus / Primary somatosensory cortex Secondary somatosensory cortex 5 Posterior parietal cortex 7 Occipital lobe Superolateral Occipital pole of cerebrum Lateral occipital gyrus 18 19 Lunate sulcus Transverse occipital sulcus Medial / inferior Visual cortex 17 Cuneus Lingual gyrus Calcarine sulcus Temporal lobe Superolateral Transverse temporal gyrus / Auditory cortex 41 42 Superior temporal gyrus 38 22 / Wernicke 's area Middle temporal gyrus 21 Superior temporal sulcus Medial / inferior Fusiform gyrus 37 Medial temporal lobe 27 28 34 35 36 Inferior temporal gyrus 20 Inferior temporal sulcus Interlobar sulci / fissures Superolateral Central ( frontal + parietal ) Lateral ( frontal + parietal + temporal ) Parieto - occipital Preoccipital notch Medial / inferior Longitudinal fissure Cingulate ( frontal + cingulate ) Collateral ( temporal + occipital ) Callosal sulcus Limbic lobe Parahippocampal gyrus anterior Entorhinal cortex Perirhinal cortex Postrhinal cortex Posterior parahippocampal gyrus Prepyriform area Cingulate cortex / gyrus Subgenual area 25 Anterior cingulate 24 32 33 Posterior cingulate 23 31 Isthmus of cingulate gyrus : Retrosplenial cortex 26 29 30 Hippocampal formation Hippocampal sulcus Fimbria of hippocampus Dentate gyrus Rhinal sulcus Other Supracallosal gyrus Uncus Amygdala Insular cortex Insular cortex General Operculum Poles of cerebral hemispheres Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri. Rostral basal ganglia of the human brain and associated structures Basal ganglia Grey matter Striatum Dorsal striatum Putamen Caudate nucleus Ventral striatum Nucleus accumbens Olfactory tubercle Globus pallidus GPe GPi Other Amygdala Claustrum White matter Centrum semiovale Internal capsule Anterior limb Genu Posterior limb Optic radiation Corona radiata External capsule Extreme capsule Pallidothalamic tracts : Thalamic fasciculus Ansa lenticularis Lenticular fasciculus Subthalamic fasciculus Rhinencephalon Grey matter Anterior olfactory nucleus Anterior perforated substance Olfactory bulb White matter Olfactory tract Medial olfactory stria Lateral olfactory stria Olfactory trigone Other basal forebrain Grey matter Substantia innominata Nucleus basalis Nucleus of diagonal band White matter Diagonal band of Broca Stria terminalis Archicortex : Hippocampal formation / Hippocampus anatomy Grey matter Hippocampus proper CA1 CA2 CA3 CA4 Dentate gyrus Fascia dentata Subiculum White matter Alveus Fimbria Perforant path Schaffer collateral Meninges of the brain and spinal cord Layers Dura mater Falx cerebri Tentorium cerebelli Falx cerebelli Diaphragma sellae Trigeminal cave Arachnoid mater Arachnoid granulation Arachnoid trabeculae Subarachnoid cisterns : Cisterna magna Pontine cistern Interpeduncular cistern Chiasmatic cistern Of lateral cerebral fossa Superior cistern Of lamina terminalis Pia mater Denticulate ligaments Tela choroidea Choroid plexus Perivascular space Combined Filum terminale Leptomeninges Spaces Epidural space Subdural space Subarachnoid space Cerebrospinal fluid Ventricular system of the human brain Lateral ventricles Body Lamina affixa Stria terminalis Collateral eminence Occipital horn Calcar avis Septum pellucidum Third ventricle Recesses Optic recess Infundibular recess Suprapineal recess Pineal recess Hypothalamic sulcus Tela choroidea Subfornical organ Posterior commissure Fourth ventricle Roof Superior medullary velum Frenulum Inferior medullary velum Taenia Floor Upper Facial colliculus Locus coeruleus Lower Vagal trigone Hypoglossal trigone Area postrema Obex Medial eminence Sulcus limitans Fastigium Apertures Median / Magendie Lateral recess to Lateral / Luschka Other Rhomboid fossa Tela choroidea Cerebrospinal fluid Blood -- brain barrier Cerebral aqueduct Interventricular foramina Perilymphatic duct Commissural fibers in the human brain Corpus callosum Genu Splenium Tapetum Rostrum Archicortex Supracallosal gyrus Lamina terminalis Vascular organ of lamina terminalis Anterior commissure Fornix Fornix Septum pellucidum Septal nuclei Medial septal nucleus Subfornical organ Cave of septum pellucidum Other Posterior commissure The cranial nerves Terminal Nuclei septal nuclei Course no significant branches Olfactory Nuclei anterior olfactory nucleus Course olfactory bulb olfactory tract Optic Nuclei lateral geniculate nucleus Course optic chiasm optic tract Oculomotor Nuclei oculomotor nucleus Edinger -- Westphal nucleus Branches superior parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion inferior Trochlear Nucleus Branches no significant branches Trigeminal Nuclei PSN spinal trigeminal nucleus MN TMN Course trigeminal ganglion Branches ophthalmic maxillary mandibular Abducens Nucleus Branches no significant branches Facial Near origin Intermediate nerve Geniculate Inside facial canal Greater petrosal pterygopalatine ganglion Nerve to the stapedius Chorda tympani lingual nerve submandibular ganglion At stylomastoid foramen Posterior auricular Suprahyoid digastric stylohyoid Parotid plexus temporal zygomatic buccal mandibular cervical Nuclei Facial motor nucleus Solitary nucleus Superior salivary nucleus Vestibulocochlear Nuclei vestibular nuclei cochlear nuclei Cochlear nerve striae medullares lateral lemniscus Vestibular Scarpa 's ganglion Glossopharyngeal Before jugular fossa Ganglia superior inferior After jugular fossa Tympanic tympanic plexus lesser petrosal otic ganglion Stylopharyngeal branch Pharyngeal branches Tonsillar branches Lingual branches Carotid sinus Nuclei Nucleus ambiguus Inferior salivatory nucleus Solitary nucleus Vagus Before jugular fossa Ganglia superior inferior After jugular fossa Meningeal branch Auricular branch Neck Pharyngeal branch pharyngeal plexus Superior laryngeal external internal Recurrent laryngeal Superior cervical cardiac Thorax Inferior cardiac Pulmonary Vagal trunks anterior posterior Abdomen Celiac Renal Hepatic Anterior gastric Posterior gastric Nuclei Nucleus ambiguus Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve Solitary nucleus Accessory Nuclei nucleus ambiguus spinal accessory nucleus Cranial Spinal Hypoglossal Nucleus Branches lingual Arteries of the head and neck CC EC sup. thyroid superior laryngeal sternocleidomastoid branch infrahyoid branch cricothyroid branch glandular branches asc. pharyngeal posterior meningeal pharyngeal branches inferior tympanic lingual suprahyoid dorsal lingual deep lingual sublingual facial cervical branches ( ascending palatine, tonsillar, submental, glandular ) facial branches ( inferior labial superior labial / nasal septum lateral nasal angular ) occipital sternocleidomastoid meningeal occipital auricular descending post. auricular stylomastoid stapedial auricular occipital Parotid sup. temporal transverse facial middle temporal ( zygomatico - orbital ) anterior auricular frontal parietal maxillary 1st part / mandibular anterior tympanic deep auricular middle meningeal ( superior tympanic, petrosal ) accessory meningeal inferior alveolar 2nd part / pterygoid to muscles of mastication ( deep temporal, pterygoid, masseteric ) buccal 3rd part / pterygopalatine posterior superior alveolar infraorbital ( anterior superior alveolar ) descending palatine ( greater palatine, lesser palatine ) artery of the pterygoid canal sphenopalatine ( posterior septal branches, posterior lateral nasal ) pharyngeal IC cervical carotid sinus petrous Vidian caroticotympanic cavernous / ophthalmic orbital group : anterior ethmoidal posterior ethmoidal lacrimal ( lateral palpebral ) medial palpebral terminal ( supraorbital, supratrochlear, dorsal nasal ) ocular group : central retinal ciliary ( short posterior, long posterior, anterior ) Circulus arteriosus major hypophysial ( superior, inferior ) brain Circle of Willis ACA ( anterior communicating, Recurrent artery of Heubner, Orbitofrontal artery ) MCA ( anterolateral central, Prefrontal artery, Superior terminal branch, Inferior terminal branch, Anterior temporal branch ) posterior communicating anterior choroidal SC vertebral artery meningeal spinal ( posterior, anterior ) basilar : pontine labyrinthine cerebellar ( AICA, SCA, PICA ) cerebral ( PCA ) thyrocervical trunk inferior thyroid inferior laryngeal tracheal esophageal ascending cervical pharyngeal glandular branches transverse cervical superficial branch deep branch / dorsal scapular scapular anastomosis suprascapular acromial branch scapular anastomosis costocervical trunk deep cervical Supreme Intercostal artery Veins of the head and neck External jugular Retromandibular maxillary pterygoid plexus superficial temporal anterior auricular Direct posterior auricular transverse cervical suprascapular anterior jugular jugular venous arch Internal jugular Diploic / brain Cerebral Superficial : superior superficial middle inferior inferior anastomotic ( Labbé ) superior anastomotic ( Trolard ) Deep : great internal basal deep middle superior thalamostriate Cerebellar superior inferior Sinuses To COS superior sagittal straight inferior sagittal occipital To CS sphenoparietal intercavernous superior ophthalmic ethmoidal central retinal nasofrontal vorticose veins inferior ophthalmic To IJV sigmoid : transverse petrosquamous superior petrosal inferior petrosal basilar plexus internal auditory veins condylar Facial / common facial frontal supraorbital angular superior labial inferior labial deep facial Direct lingual dorsal lingual deep lingual sublingual pharyngeal superior thyroid superior laryngeal middle thyroid Brachiocephalic Vertebral occipital occipital emissary suboccipital venous plexus deep cervical Direct inferior thyroid inferior laryngeal thymic Human systems and organs Musculoskeletal Skeletal system Bone Carpus Collar bone ( clavicle ) Thigh bone ( femur ) Fibula Humerus Mandible Metacarpus Metatarsus Ossicles Patella Phalanges Radius Skull Tarsus Tibia Ulna Rib Vertebra Pelvis Sternum Cartilage Joints Fibrous joint Cartilaginous joint Synovial joint Muscular system Muscle Tendon Diaphragm Circulatory system Cardiovascular system peripheral Artery Vein Lymphatic vessel Heart Lymphatic system primary Bone marrow Thymus secondary Spleen Lymph node CNS equivalent Glymphatic system Nervous system Brain Spinal cord Nerve Sensory system Ear Eye Integumentary system Skin Subcutaneous tissue Breast Mammary gland Immune system Myeloid Myeloid immune system Lymphoid Lymphoid immune system Respiratory system Upper Nose Nasopharynx Larynx Lower Trachea Bronchus Lung Digestive system Mouth Salivary gland Tongue upper GI Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Esophagus Stomach lower GI Small intestine Appendix Colon Rectum Anus accessory Liver Biliary tract Pancreas Urinary system Genitourinary system Kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra Reproductive system Male Scrotum Penis Prostate Testicle Seminal vesicle Female Uterus Vagina Vulva Ovary Placenta Endocrine system Pituitary Pineal Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Islets of Langerhans Nervous system Central nervous system Meninges Spinal cord Brain Hindbrain Medulla Pons Cerebellum Midbrain Forebrain Diencephalon Retina Optic nerve Cerebrum Limbic system Peripheral nervous system Somatic Sensory nerve Motor nerve Cranial nerve Spinal nerve Autonomic Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric Physiology of the nervous system Primarily CNS Arousal Wakefulness Intracranial pressure Lateralization of brain function Sleep Memory Primarily PNS Reflex Sensation Both Evoked potential Bereitschaftspotential P300 Auditory evoked potential Somatosensory evoked potentials Visual evoked potential Other short term Neurotransmission Chronaxie Membrane potential Action potential Postsynaptic potential Excitatory Inhibitory Long term Axoplasmic transport Neuroregeneration / Nerve regeneration Neuroplasticity / Synaptic plasticity Long - term potentiation Long - term depression Other Myelinogenesis Nervous tissue CNS Tissue Types Grey matter White matter Projection fibers Association fiber Commissural fiber Lemniscus Nerve tract Decussation Commissure Neuropil Meninges Cell Types Neuronal Pyramidal Purkinje Granule Glial insulating : Myelination : Oligodendrocyte other Astrocyte Radial glial cell Ependymal cells Tanycyte Microglia PNS General Dorsal Root Ganglion Ramus Ventral Root Ramus Ramus communicans Gray White Autonomic ganglion ( Preganglionic nerve fibers Postganglionic nerve fibers ) Nerve fascicle Funiculus Connective tissues Epineurium Perineurium Endoneurium Neuroglia Myelination : Schwann cell Neurilemma Myelin incisure Node of Ranvier Internodal segment Satellite glial cell Neurons / nerve fibers Parts Soma Axon hillock Axon Telodendron Axon terminals Axoplasm Axolemma Neurofibril / neurofilament Dendrite Nissl body Dendritic spine Apical dendrite / Basal dendrite Types Bipolar Unipolar Pseudounipolar Multipolar Interneuron Renshaw Afferent nerve fiber / Sensory neuron GSA GVA SSA SVA fibers Ia or Aα Ib or Golgi or Aα II or Aβ and Aγ III or Aδ or fast pain IV or C or slow pain Efferent nerve fiber / Motor neuron GSE GVE SVE Upper motor neuron Lower motor neuron α motorneuron β motorneuron γ motorneuron Termination Synapse Electrical synapse / Gap junction Chemical synapse Synaptic vesicle Active zone Postsynaptic density Autapse Ribbon synapse Neuromuscular junction Sensory receptors Meissner 's corpuscle Merkel nerve ending Pacinian corpuscle Ruffini ending Muscle spindle Free nerve ending Nociceptor Olfactory receptor neuron Photoreceptor cell Hair cell Taste bud Brain and spinal cord : neural tracts and fasciculi Sensory / ascending DCML 1 ° : Pacinian corpuscle / Meissner 's corpuscle → Posterior column ( Gracile fasciculus / Cuneate fasciculus ) → Gracile nucleus / Cuneate nucleus 2 ° : → sensory decussation / arcuate fibers ( Posterior external arcuate fibers, Internal arcuate fibers ) → Medial lemniscus / Trigeminal lemniscus → Thalamus ( VPL, VPM ) 3 ° : → Posterior limb of internal capsule → Postcentral gyrus Anterolateral / pain Fast / lateral 1 ° ( Free nerve ending → A delta fiber ) → 2 ° ( Anterior white commissure → Lateral and Anterior Spinothalamic tract → Spinal lemniscus → VPL of Thalamus ) → 3 ° ( Postcentral gyrus ) → 4 ° ( Posterior parietal cortex ) 2 ° ( Spinomesencephalic tract → Superior colliculus of Midbrain tectum ) Slow / medial 1 ° ( Group C nerve fiber → Spinoreticular tract → Reticular formation ) → 2 ° ( MD of Thalamus ) → 3 ° ( Cingulate cortex ) Motor / descending Pyramidal flexion : Primary motor cortex → Posterior limb of internal capsule → Decussation of pyramids → Corticospinal tract ( Lateral, Anterior ) → Neuromuscular junction Extrapyramidal flexion : Primary motor cortex → Genu of internal capsule → Corticobulbar tract → Facial motor nucleus → Facial muscles flexion : Red nucleus → Rubrospinal tract extension : Vestibulocerebellum → Vestibular nuclei → Vestibulospinal tract extension : Vestibulocerebellum → Reticular formation → Reticulospinal tract Midbrain tectum → Tectospinal tract → muscles of neck Basal ganglia direct : 1 ° ( Motor cortex → Striatum ) → 2 ° ( GPi ) → 3 ° ( Lenticular fasciculus / Ansa lenticularis → Thalamic fasciculus → VL of Thalamus ) → 4 ° ( Thalamocortical radiations → Supplementary motor area ) → 5 ° ( Motor cortex ) indirect : 1 ° ( Motor cortex → Striatum ) → 2 ° ( GPe ) → 3 ° ( Subthalamic fasciculus → Subthalamic nucleus ) → 4 ° ( Subthalamic fasciculus → GPi ) → 5 ° ( Lenticular fasciculus / Ansa lenticularis → Thalamic fasciculus → VL of Thalamus ) → 6 ° ( Thalamocortical radiations → Supplementary motor area ) → 7 ° ( Motor cortex ) nigrostriatal pathway : Pars compacta → Striatum Cerebellar Afferent Vestibular nuclei → Vestibulocerebellar tract → ICP → Cerebellum → Granule cell Pontine nuclei → Pontocerebellar fibers → MCP → Deep cerebellar nuclei → Granule cell Inferior olivary nucleus → Olivocerebellar tract → ICP → Hemisphere → Purkinje cell → Deep cerebellar nuclei Efferent Dentate nucleus in Lateral hemisphere / pontocerebellum → SCP → Dentatothalamic tract → Thalamus ( VL ) → Motor cortex Interposed nucleus in Intermediate hemisphere / spinocerebellum → SCP → Reticular formation, or → Cerebellothalamic tract → Red nucleus → Thalamus ( VL ) → Motor cortex Fastigial nucleus in Flocculonodular lobe / vestibulocerebellum → Vestibulocerebellar tract → Vestibular nuclei Bidirectional : Spinocerebellar Unconscious proprioception lower limb → 1 ° ( muscle spindles → DRG ) → 2 ° ( Posterior thoracic nucleus → Dorsal / posterior spinocerebellar tract → ICP → Cerebellar vermis ) upper limb → 1 ° ( muscle spindles → DRG ) → 2 ° ( Accessory cuneate nucleus → Cuneocerebellar tract → ICP → Anterior lobe of cerebellum ) Reflex arc lower limb → 1 ° ( Golgi tendon organ ) → 2 ° ( Ventral / anterior spinocerebellar tract → SCP → Cerebellar vermis ) upper limb → 1 ° ( Golgi tendon organ ) → 2 ° ( Rostral spinocerebellar tract → ICP → Cerebellum ) Neuroscience Outline of neuroscience Basic science Behavioral epigenetics Behavioral genetics Cellular neuroscience Computational neuroscience Connectomics Imaging genetics Integrative neuroscience Molecular neuroscience Neural engineering Neuroanatomy Neurochemistry Neuroendocrinology Neurogenetics Neuroinformatics Neurometrics Neuromorphology Neurophysics Neurophysiology Clinical neuroscience Behavioral neurology Clinical neurophysiology Neurocardiology Neuroepidemiology Neurogastroenterology Neuroimmunology Neurointensive care Neurology Neurooncology Neuro - ophthalmology Neuropathology Neuropharmacology Neuroprosthetics Neuropsychiatry Neuroradiology Neurorehabilitation Neurosurgery Neurotology Neurovirology Nutritional neuroscience Psychiatry Cognitive neuroscience Affective neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience Chronobiology Molecular cellular cognition Motor control Neurolinguistics Neuropsychology Sensory neuroscience Social neuroscience Systems neuroscience Interdisciplinary fields Consumer neuroscience Cultural neuroscience Educational neuroscience Evolutionary neuroscience Neuroanthropology Neurobioengineering Neurobiotics Neurocriminology Neuroeconomics Neuroepistemology Neuroesthetics Neuroethics Neuroethology Neurohistory Neurolaw Neuromarketing Neurophenomenology Neurophilosophy Neuropolitics Neurorobotics Neurotheology Paleoneurobiology Concepts Brain -- computer interface Neural development Neural network ( artificial ) Neural network ( biological ) Detection theory Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring Neurochip Neurodegeneration Neurodevelopmental disorder Neurodiversity Neurogenesis Neuroimaging Neuroimmune system Neuromanagement Neuromodulation Neuroplasticity Neurotechnology Neurotoxin Book Commons Portal Wikiproject Neuropsychology Topics Brain -- computer interface Brain regions Clinical neuropsychology Cognitive neuroscience Human brain Misconceptions Neuroanatomy Neurophysiology Phrenology Traumatic brain injury Brain functions Arousal Attention Consciousness Decision making Executive functions Learning Memory Motor coordination Natural language Perception Planning Problem solving Thought People Arthur Lester Benton David Bohm António Damásio Phineas Gage Norman Geschwind Elkhonon Goldberg Kurt Goldstein Donald O. Hebb Kenneth Heilman Edith Kaplan Muriel Lezak Benjamin Libet Rodolfo Llinás Alexander Luria Brenda Milner Karl H. Pribram Oliver Sacks Roger Wolcott Sperry H.M. K.C. Tests Bender - Gestalt Test Benton Visual Retention Test Clinical Dementia Rating Continuous Performance Task Glasgow Coma Scale Hayling and Brixton tests Johari window Lexical decision task Mini-mental state examination Stroop effect Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wisconsin card sorting Mind and Brain portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&oldid=856582591 '' Categories : Brain Human anatomy by organ Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Use British English from April 2017 Use mdy dates from June 2018 Articles containing Latin - language text Pages using multiple image with manual scaled images CS1 maint : Uses editors parameter Good articles Articles with images not understandable by color blind users Talk Contents About Wikipedia Aragonés অসমীয়া Български Čeština Cymraeg Español فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Interlingua Íslenska Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Kurdî Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro 中文 26 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 August 2018, at 07 : 12 ( UTC ). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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Question: where is the brain situated in the head
Answer: the skull bones of the head