Blood transfusion - wikipedia Blood transfusion Blood transfusion Plastic bag with 0.5 -- 0.7 liters containing packed red blood cells in citrate, phosphate, dextrose, and adenine ( CPDA ) solution ICD - 9 - CM 99.0 MeSH D001803 OPS - 301 code 8 - 80 MedlinePlus 000431 ( edit on Wikidata ) Blood transfusion is generally the process of receiving blood or blood products into one 's circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood. Early transfusions used whole blood, but modern medical practice commonly uses only components of the blood, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, clotting factors, and platelets. Contents 1 Medical uses 2 Procedure 2.1 Blood donation 2.2 Processing and testing 2.3 Compatibility testing 2.3. 1 Compatibility of ABO and Rh system 3 Adverse effects 3.1 Immunologic reaction 3.2 Infection 3.3 Inefficacy 3.4 Other 4 Frequency of use 5 History 5.1 Early attempts 5.1. 1 Animal blood 5.1. 2 Human blood 5.2 Modern era 5.2. 1 Blood banks in WWI 5.2. 2 Expansion 5.2. 3 Medical advances 6 Special populations 6.1 Neonate 6.2 Significant blood loss 6.3 Unknown blood type 6.4 Religious objections 7 Research into alternatives 8 Other uses 9 Veterinary use 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Blood Transfusion Societies 13.2 Blood Establishment Alliances 13.3 Books 13.4 National Blood Transfusion Guidelines 13.5 Haemovigilance 13.6 Blood Transfusion Journals Medical uses Historically, red blood cell transfusion was considered when the hemoglobin level fell below 100 g / L or hematocrit falls below 30 %. Because each unit of blood given carries risks, a trigger level lower than that at 70 to 80 g / L is now usually used as it has been shown to have better patient outcomes. The administration of a single unit of blood is the standard for hospitalized people who are not bleeding, with this treatment then followed with re-assessment and consideration of symptoms and hemoglobin concentration. Patients with poor oxygen saturation may need more blood. The advisory caution to use blood transfusion only with more severe anemia is in part due to evidence that outcomes are worsened if larger amounts are given. One may consider transfusion for people with symptoms of cardiovascular disease such as chest pain or shortness of breath. In cases where patients have low levels of hemoglobin but are cardiovascularly stable, parenteral iron is a preferred option based on both efficacy and safety. Other blood products are given where appropriate, such as clotting deficiencies. Procedure Illustration depicting intravenous blood transfusion Before a blood transfusion is given, there are many steps taken to ensure quality of the blood products, compatibility, and safety to the recipient. In 2012, a national blood policy was in place in 70 % of countries and 62 % of countries had specific legislation that covers the safety and quality of blood transfusion. Blood donation Main article : Blood donation Blood transfusions typically use sources of blood : one 's own ( autologous transfusion ), or someone else 's ( allogeneic or homologous transfusion ). The latter is much more common than the former. Using another 's blood must first start with donation of blood. Blood is most commonly donated as whole blood intravenously and collecting it with an anticoagulant. In developed countries, donations are usually anonymous to the recipient, but products in a blood bank are always individually traceable through the whole cycle of donation, testing, separation into components, storage, and administration to the recipient. This enables management and investigation of any suspected transfusion related disease transmission or transfusion reaction. In developing countries the donor is sometimes specifically recruited by or for the recipient, typically a family member, and the donation occurs immediately before the transfusion. Processing and testing A bag containing one unit of fresh frozen plasma Donated blood is usually subjected to processing after it is collected, to make it suitable for use in specific patient populations. Collected blood is then separated into blood components by centrifugation : red blood cells, plasma, platelets, albumin protein, clotting factor concentrates, cryoprecipitate, fibrinogen concentrate, and immunoglobulins ( antibodies ). Red cells, plasma and platelets can also be donated individually via a more complex process called apheresis. The World Health Organization ( WHO ) recommends that all donated blood be tested for transfusion transmissible infections. These include HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Treponema pallidum ( syphilis ) and, where relevant, other infections that pose a risk to the safety of the blood supply, such as Trypanosoma cruzi ( Chagas disease ) and Plasmodium species ( malaria ). According to the WHO, 25 countries are not able to screen all donated blood for one or more of : HIV ; Hepatitis B ; Hepatitis C ; or syphilis. One of the main reasons for this is because testing kits are not always available. However the prevalence of transfusion - transmitted infections is much higher in low income countries compared to middle and high income countries. All donated blood should also be tested for the ABO blood group system and Rh blood group system to ensure that the patient is receiving compatible blood. In addition, in some countries platelet products are also tested for bacterial infections due to its higher inclination for contamination due to storage at room temperature. Presence of Cytomegalovirus ( CMV ) may also be tested because of the risk to certain immunocompromised recipients if given, such as those with organ transplant or HIV. However, not all blood is tested for CMV because only a certain amount of CMV - negative blood needs to be available to supply patient needs. Other than positivity for CMV, any products tested positive for infections are not used. Leukocyte reduction is the removal of white blood cells by filtration. Leukoreduced blood products are less likely to cause HLA alloimmunization ( development of antibodies against specific blood types ), febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction, cytomegalovirus infection, and platelet - transfusion refractoriness. Pathogen Reduction treatment that involves, for example, the addition of riboflavin with subsequent exposure to UV light has been shown to be effective in inactivating pathogens ( viruses, bacteria, parasites and white blood cells ) in blood products. By inactivating white blood cells in donated blood products, riboflavin and UV light treatment can also replace gamma - irradiation as a method to prevent graft - versus - host disease ( TA - GvHD ). Compatibility testing Illustration of labeled blood bag. Main articles : ABO blood group system, Rh blood group system, and Cross-matching Before a recipient receives a transfusion, compatibility testing between donor and recipient blood must be done. The first step before a transfusion is given is to type and screen the recipient 's blood. Typing of recipient 's blood determines the ABO and Rh status. The sample is then screened for any alloantibodies that may react with donor blood. It takes about 45 minutes to complete ( depending on the method used ). The blood bank scientist also checks for special requirements of the patient ( e.g. need for washed, irradiated or CMV negative blood ) and the history of the patient to see if they have previously identified antibodies and any other serological anomalies. A positive screen warrants an antibody panel / investigation to determine if it is clinically significant. An antibody panel consists of commercially prepared group O red cell suspensions from donors that have been phenotyped for antigens that correspond to commonly encountered and clinically significant alloantibodies. Donor cells may have homozygous ( e.g. K + k+ ), heterozygous ( K + k - ) expression or no expression of various antigens ( K − k − ). The phenotypes of all the donor cells being tested are shown in a chart. The patient 's serum is tested against the various donor cells. Based on the reactions of the patient 's serum against the donor cells, a pattern will emerge to confirm the presence of one or more antibodies. Not all antibodies are clinically significant ( i.e. cause transfusion reactions, HDN, etc. ). Once the patient has developed a clinically significant antibody it is vital that the patient receive antigen - negative red blood cells to prevent future transfusion reactions. A direct antiglobulin test ( Coombs test ) is also performed as part of the antibody investigation. If there is no antibody present, an immediate spin crossmatch or computer assisted crossmatch is performed where the recipient serum and donor rbc are incubated. In the immediate spin method, two drops of patient serum are tested against a drop of 3 -- 5 % suspension of donor cells in a test tube and spun in a serofuge. Agglutination or hemolysis ( i.e., positive Coombs test ) in the test tube is a positive reaction and the unit should not be transfused. If an antibody is suspected, potential donor units must first be screened for the corresponding antigen by phenotyping them. Antigen negative units are then tested against the patient plasma using an antiglobulin / indirect crossmatch technique at 37 degrees Celsius to enhance reactivity and make the test easier to read. In urgent cases where crossmatching can not be completed, and the risk of dropping hemoglobin outweighs the risk of transfusing uncrossmatched blood, O - negative blood is used, followed by crossmatch as soon as possible. O - negative is also used for children and women of childbearing age. It is preferable for the laboratory to obtain a pre-transfusion sample in these cases so a type and screen can be performed to determine the actual blood group of the patient and to check for alloantibodies. Compatibility of ABO and Rh system This chart shows possible matches in blood transfusion between donor and receiver using ABO and Rh system. Donor O - O+ B - B+ A - A+ AB - AB+ Recipient AB+ AB - A+ A - B+ B - O+ O - Adverse effects In the same way that the safety of pharmaceutical products is overseen by pharmacovigilance, the safety of blood and blood products is overseen by haemovigilance. This is defined by the World Health Organization ( WHO ) as a system ``... to identify and prevent occurrence or recurrence of transfusion related unwanted events, to increase the safety, efficacy and efficiency of blood transfusion, covering all activities of the transfusion chain from donor to recipient. '' The system should include monitoring, identification, reporting, investigation and analysis of adverse events near - misses and reactions related to transfusion and manufacturing. In the UK this data is collected by an independent organisation called SHOT ( Serious Hazards Of Transfusion ). Transfusions of blood products are associated with several complications, many of which can be grouped as immunological or infectious. There is controversy on potential quality degradation during storage. Immunologic reaction Acute hemolytic reactions are defined according to Serious Hazards of Transfusion ( SHOT ) as `` fever and other symptoms / signs of haemolysis within 24 hours of transfusion ; confirmed by one or more of the following : a fall of Hb, rise in lactate dehydrogenase ( LDH ), positive direct antiglobulin test ( DAT ), positive crossmatch '' This is due to destruction of donor red blood cells by preformed recipient antibodies. Most often this occurs due to clerical errors or improper ABO blood typing and crossmatching resulting in a mismatch in ABO blood type between the donor and the recipient. Symptoms include fever, chills, chest pain, back pain, hemorrhage, increased heart rate, shortness of breath, and rapid drop in blood pressure. When suspected, transfusion should be stopped immediately, and blood sent for tests to evaluate for presence of hemolysis. Treatment is supportive. Kidney injury may occur due to the effects of the hemolytic reaction ( pigment nephropathy ). The severity of the transfusion reaction is depended upon amount of donor 's antigen transfused, nature of the donor 's antigens, the nature and the amount of recipient antibodies. Delayed hemolytic reactions occur more than 24 hours until 14 days after a transfusion. This is due to low amount of antibodies available during the start of the transfusion. Therefore, acute haemolytic reaction does not manifests until after 24 hours when enough amount of antibodies are available to cause a reaction. The red blood cells are removed by macrophages from the blood circulation into liver and spleen to be destroyed, which leads to extravascular haemolysis. This process usually mediated by anti-Rh and anti-Kidd antibodies. However, this type of transfusion reaction is less severe when compared to acute haemolytic transfusion reaction Febrile nonhemolytic reactions are the most common type of blood transfusion reaction and occur due to the release of inflammatory chemical signals released by white blood cells in stored donor blood or attack on donor 's white blood cells by recipient 's antibodies. This type of reaction occurs in about 7 % of transfusions. Fever is generally short lived and is treated with antipyretics, and transfusions may be finished as long as an acute hemolytic reaction is excluded. This is a reason for the now - widespread use of leukoreduction -- the filtration of donor white cells from red cell product units. Allergic reactions is caused by IgE anti-allergen antibodies. When antibodies are bound to its antigens, histamine is released from mast cells and basophils. Either IgE antibodies from the donor 's or recipient 's side can cause the allergic reaction. It is more common in patients who has allergic conditions such as hay fever. Patient may feel itchy or having hives but the symptoms are usually mild and can be controlled by stopping the transfusion and giving antihistamines. Anaphylactic reactions is a rare by life - threatening allergic condition caused by IgA anti-plasma protein antibodies. For patient who has selective immunoglobulin A deficiency, the reaction is presumed to be caused by IgA antibodies in the donor 's plasma. The patient may presented with symptoms of fever, wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and circulatory shock. Urgent treatment with epinephrine is needed. Post-transfusion purpura is a complication that occurs after transfusion of platelets and is associated with the presence of antibodies in the patient 's blood directed against both the donor 's and recipient 's platelets HPA ( human platelet antigen ). Recipients who lack this protein develop sensitization to this protein from prior transfusions or previous pregnancies, can develop thrombocytopenia, bleeding into the skin, and causes purplish discolouration of skin which is known as purpura. Intravenous immunoglobulin is the treatment of choice to neutralise such antibodies. Transfusion - associated acute lung injury ( TRALI ) is a syndrome that is similar to Acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ), which develops within 6 hours during a plasma - product containing blood products transfusion. Fever, hypotension, shortness of breath, and tachycardia often occurs in this type of reaction. It occurs in 15 % of the transfused patient with mortality rate of 5 to 10 %. Recipient risk factors includes : end - stage liver disease, sepsis, haematological malignancies, sepsis, and ventilated patients. Human Neutrophil Antigen ( HNA ) has been associated with this type of transfusion reaction. Donor 's antibodies would interact with recipient 's neutrophils and monocytes, releasing inflammatory cytokines and causes pulmonary capillary leakage. The treatment is supportive. Transfusion - associated graft versus host disease frequently occurs in immunodeficient patients where recipient 's body failed to eliminate donor 's T cells. Instead, donor 's T cells attack the recipient 's cells. It occurs one week after transfusion. Fever, rash, diarrhoea are often associated with this type of transfusion reaction. Mortality rate is high, with 89.7 % of the patients died after 24 days. Immunosuppressive treatment is the most common way of treatment. Irradiation and leukoreduction of blood products is necessary for high risk patients for prevent T cells from attacking recipient cells. Infection The use of greater amount of red blood cells is associated with a high risk of infections. In those who were given red blood only with significant anemia infection rates were 12 % while in those who were given red blood at milder levels of anemia infection rates were 17 %. On rare occasions, blood products are contaminated with bacteria. This can result in a life - threatening infection known as transfusion - transmitted bacterial infection. The risk of severe bacterial infection is estimated, as of 2002, at about 1 in 50,000 platelet transfusions, and 1 in 500,000 red blood cell transfusions. Blood product contamination, while rare, is still more common than actual infection. The reason platelets are more often contaminated than other blood products is that they are stored at room temperature for short periods of time. Contamination is also more common with longer duration of storage, especially if that means more than 5 days. Sources of contaminants include the donor 's blood, donor 's skin, phlebotomist 's skin, and containers. Contaminating organisms vary greatly, and include skin flora, gut flora, and environmental organisms. There are many strategies in place at blood donation centers and laboratories to reduce the risk of contamination. A definite diagnosis of transfusion - transmitted bacterial infection includes the identification of a positive culture in the recipient ( without an alternative diagnosis ) as well as the identification of the same organism in the donor blood. Since the advent of HIV testing of donor blood in the mid / later 1980s, ex. 1985 's ELISA, the transmission of HIV during transfusion has dropped dramatically. Prior testing of donor blood only included testing for antibodies to HIV. However, due to latent infection ( the `` window period '' in which an individual is infectious, but has not had time to develop antibodies ) many cases of HIV seropositive blood were missed. The development of a nucleic acid test for the HIV - 1 RNA has dramatically lowered the rate of donor blood seropositivity to about 1 in 3 million units. As transmittance of HIV does not necessarily mean HIV infection, the latter could still occur at an even lower rate. The transmission of hepatitis C via transfusion currently stands at a rate of about 1 in 2 million units. As with HIV, this low rate has been attributed to the ability to screen for both antibodies as well as viral RNA nucleic acid testing in donor blood. Other rare transmissible infections include hepatitis B, syphilis, Chagas disease, cytomegalovirus infections ( in immunocompromised recipients ), HTLV, and Babesia. Inefficacy Transfusion inefficacy or insufficient efficacy of a given unit ( s ) of blood product, while not itself a `` complication '' per se, can nonetheless indirectly lead to complications -- in addition to causing a transfusion to fully or partly fail to achieve its clinical purpose. This can be especially significant for certain patient groups such as critical - care or neonatals. For red blood cells ( RBC ), by far the most commonly transfused product, poor transfusion efficacy can result from units damaged by the so - called storage lesion -- a range of biochemical and biomechanical changes that occur during storage. With red cells, this can decrease viability and ability for tissue oxygenation. Although some of the biochemical changes are reversible after the blood is transfused, the biomechanical changes are less so, and rejuvenation products are not yet able to adequately reverse this phenomenon. There has been controversy about whether a given product unit 's age is a factor in transfusion efficacy, specifically about whether `` older '' blood directly or indirectly increases risks of complications. Studies have not been consistent on answering this question, with some showing that older blood is indeed less effective but with others showing no such difference ; these developments are being closely followed by hospital blood bankers -- who are the physicians, typically pathologists, who collect and manage inventories of transfusable blood units. Certain regulatory measures are in place to minimize RBC storage lesion -- including a maximum shelf life ( currently 42 days ), a maximum auto - hemolysis threshold ( currently 1 % in the US, 0.8 % in Europe ), and a minimum level of post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo ( currently 75 % after 24 hours ). However, all of these criteria are applied in a universal manner that does not account for differences among units of product. For example, testing for the post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo is done on a sample of healthy volunteers, and then compliance is presumed for all RBC units based on universal ( GMP ) processing standards ( of course, RBC survival by itself does not guarantee efficacy, but it is a necessary prerequisite for cell function, and hence serves as a regulatory proxy ). Opinions vary as to the `` best '' way to determine transfusion efficacy in a patient in vivo. In general, there are not yet any in vitro tests to assess quality or predict efficacy for specific units of RBC blood product prior to their transfusion, though there is exploration of potentially relevant tests based on RBC membrane properties such as erythrocyte deformability and erythrocyte fragility ( mechanical ). Physicians have adopted a so - called `` restrictive protocol '' -- whereby transfusion is held to a minimum -- due in part to the noted uncertainties surrounding storage lesion, in addition to the very high direct and indirect costs of transfusions. Of course, restrictive protocol is not an option with some especially vulnerable patients who may require the best possible efforts to rapidly restore tissue oxygenation. Although transfusions of platelets are far less numerous ( relative to RBC ), platelet storage lesion and resulting efficacy loss is also a concern. Other This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( June 2018 ) A known relationship between intra-operative blood transfusion and cancer recurrence has been established in colorectal cancer. In lung cancer intra-operative blood transfusion has been associated with earlier recurrence of cancer, worse survival rates and poorer outcomes after lung resection. Also studies shown to us, failure of the immune system caused by blood transfusion can be categorized as one of the main factors leading to more than 10 different cancer types that are fully associated with blood transfusion and the innate and adaptive immune system. Allogeneic blood transfusion, through five major mechanisms including the lymphocyte - T set, myeloid - derived suppressor cells ( MDSCs ), tumor - associated macrophages ( TAMs ), natural killer cells ( NKCs ), and dendritic cells ( DCs ) can help the recipient 's defense mechanisms. On the other hand, the role for each of the listed items includes activation of the antitumor CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes ( CD8+ / CTL ), temporal inactivation of Tregs, inactivation of the STAT3 signaling pathway, the use of bacteria to enhance the antitumor immune response and cellular Immunotherapy. Transfusion - associated volume overload is a common complication simply due to the fact that blood products have a certain amount of volume. This is especially the case in recipients with underlying cardiac or kidney disease. Red cell transfusions can lead to volume overload when they must be repeated due to insufficient efficacy ( see above ). Plasma transfusion is especially prone to causing volume overload due to its hypertonicity. Hypothermia can occur with transfusions with large quantities of blood products which normally are stored at cold temperatures. Core body temperature can go down as low as 32 ° C and can produce physiologic disturbances. Prevention should be done with warming the blood to ambient temperature prior to transfusions. Transfusions with large amounts of red blood cells, whether due to severe hemorrhaging and / or transfusion inefficacy ( see above ), can lead to an inclination for bleeding. The mechanism is thought to be due to disseminated intravascular coagulation, along with dilution of recipient platelets and coagulation factors. Close monitoring and transfusions with platelets and plasma is indicated when necessary. Metabolic alkalosis can occur with massive blood transfusions due to the breakdown of citrate stored in blood into bicarbonate. Hypocalcemia can also occur with massive blood transfusions due to the complex of citrate with serum calcium. Blood doping is often used by athletes, drug addicts or military personnel for reasons such as to increase physical stamina, to fake a drug detection test or simply to remain active and alert during the duty - times respectively. However a lack of knowledge and insufficient experience can turn a blood transfusion into a sudden death. For example, when individuals run the frozen blood sample directly in their veins this cold blood rapidly reaches the heart, where it disturbs the heart 's original pace leading to cardiac arrest and sudden death. Frequency of use Globally around 85 million units of red blood cells are transfused in a given year. In the United States, blood transfusions were performed nearly 3 million times during hospitalizations in 2011, making it the most common procedure performed. The rate of hospitalizations with a blood transfusion nearly doubled from 1997, from a rate of 40 stays to 95 stays per 10,000 population. It was the most common procedure performed for patients 45 years of age and older in 2011, and among the top five most common for patients between the ages of 1 and 44 years. According to the New York Times : `` Changes in medicine have eliminated the need for millions of blood transfusions, which is good news for patients getting procedures like coronary bypasses and other procedures that once required a lot of blood. '' And, `` Blood bank revenue is falling, and the decline may reach $1.5 billion a year this year ( 2014 ) from a high of $5 billion in 2008. '' Job losses will reach as high as 12,000 within the next three to five years, roughly a quarter of the total in the industry, according to the Red Cross. History Beginning with William Harvey 's experiments on the circulation of blood, research into blood transfusion began in the 17th century, with successful experiments in transfusion between animals. However, successive attempts by physicians to transfuse animal blood into humans gave variable, often fatal, results. Pope Innocent VIII is sometimes said to have been given `` the world 's first blood transfusion '' by his Jewish physician Giacomo di San Genesio, who had him drink ( by mouth ) the blood of three 10 - year - old boys. The boys subsequently died. The evidence for this story, however, is unreliable and may have been motivated by anti-semitism. Early attempts Animal blood Richard Lower pioneered the first blood transfusion from animal to human in 1665 at the Royal Society. Working at the Royal Society in the 1660s, the physician Richard Lower began examining the effects of changes in blood volume on circulatory function and developed methods for cross-circulatory study in animals, obviating clotting by closed arteriovenous connections. The new instruments he was able to devise enabled him to perform the first reliably documented successful transfusion of blood in front of his distinguished colleagues from the Royal Society. According to Lower 's account, ``... towards the end of February 1665 ( I ) selected one dog of medium size, opened its jugular vein, and drew off blood, until its strength was nearly gone. Then, to make up for the great loss of this dog by the blood of a second, I introduced blood from the cervical artery of a fairly large mastiff, which had been fastened alongside the first, until this latter animal showed... it was overfilled... by the inflowing blood. '' After he `` sewed up the jugular veins, '' the animal recovered `` with no sign of discomfort or of displeasure. '' Lower had performed the first blood transfusion between animals. He was then `` requested by the Honorable ( Robert ) Boyle... to acquaint the Royal Society with the procedure for the whole experiment, '' which he did in December 1665 in the Society 's Philosophical Transactions. The first blood transfusion from animal to human was administered by Dr. Jean - Baptiste Denys, eminent physician to King Louis XIV of France, on June 15, 1667. He transfused the blood of a sheep into a 15 - year - old boy, who survived the transfusion. Denys performed another transfusion into a labourer, who also survived. Both instances were likely due to the small amount of blood that was actually transfused into these people. This allowed them to withstand the allergic reaction. Denys ' third patient to undergo a blood transfusion was Swedish Baron Gustaf Bonde. He received two transfusions. After the second transfusion Bonde died. In the winter of 1667, Denys performed several transfusions on Antoine Mauroy with calf 's blood. On the third account Mauroy died. Six months later in London, Lower performed the first human transfusion of animal blood in Britain, where he `` superintended the introduction in ( a patient 's ) arm at various times of some ounces of sheep 's blood at a meeting of the Royal Society, and without any inconvenience to him. '' The recipient was Arthur Coga, `` the subject of a harmless form of insanity. '' Sheep 's blood was used because of speculation about the value of blood exchange between species ; it had been suggested that blood from a gentle lamb might quiet the tempestuous spirit of an agitated person and that the shy might be made outgoing by blood from more sociable creatures. Coga received 20 shillings ( equivalent to £ 158 in 2016 ) to participate in the experiment. Lower went on to pioneer new devices for the precise control of blood flow and the transfusion of blood ; his designs were substantially the same as modern syringes and catheters. Shortly after, Lower moved to London, where his growing practice soon led him to abandon research. These early experiments with animal blood provoked a heated controversy in Britain and France. Finally, in 1668, the Royal Society and the French government both banned the procedure. The Vatican condemned these experiments in 1670. Blood transfusions fell into obscurity for the next 150 years. Human blood James Blundell, successfully transfused human blood in 1818. The science of blood transfusion dates to the first decade of the 20th century, with the discovery of distinct blood types leading to the practice of mixing some blood from the donor and the receiver before the transfusion ( an early form of cross-matching ). In the early 19th century, British obstetrician Dr. James Blundell made efforts to treat hemorrhage by transfusion of human blood using a syringe. In 1818 following experiments with animals, he performed the first successful transfusion of human blood to treat postpartum hemorrhage. Blundell used the patient 's husband as a donor, and extracted four ounces of blood from his arm to transfuse into his wife. During the years 1825 and 1830, Blundell performed 10 transfusions, five of which were beneficial, and published his results. He also invented a number of instruments for the transfusion of blood. He made a substantial amount of money from this endeavour, roughly $2 million ( $50 million real dollars ). In 1840, at St George 's Hospital Medical School in London, Samuel Armstrong Lane, aided by Dr. Blundell, performed the first successful whole blood transfusion to treat haemophilia. However, early transfusions were risky and many resulted in the death of the patient. By the late 19th century, blood transfusion was regarded as a risky and dubious procedure, and was largely shunned by the medical establishment. Work to emulate James Blundell continued in Edinburgh. In 1845 the Edinburgh Journal described the successful transfusion of blood to a woman with severe uterine bleeding. Subsequent transfusions were successful with patients of Professor James Young Simpson after whom the Simpson Memorial Hospital in Edinburgh was named. The largest series of early successful transfusions took place at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary between 1885 and 1892. Edinburgh later became the home of the first blood donation and blood transfusion services. Modern era William Stewart Halsted, M.D., performed one of the first blood transfusions in the United States. It was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered three human blood groups ( O, A, and B ), that blood transfusion was put onto a scientific basis and became safer. Landsteiner discovered that adverse effects arise from mixing blood from two incompatible individuals. He found that when incompatible types are mixed, an immune response is triggered and the red blood cells clump. The immunological reaction occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells. The destruction of red blood cells releases free hemoglobin into the bloodstream, which can have fatal consequences. Landsteiner 's work made it possible to determine blood group and allowed a way for blood transfusions to be carried out much more safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1930, and many other blood groups have been discovered since. George Washington Crile is credited with performing the first surgery using a direct blood transfusion in 1906 at St. Alexis Hospital in Cleveland while a professor of surgery at Case Western Reserve University. Jan Janský also discovered the human blood groups in 1907 which he classified blood into four groups I, II, III, IV. Titled in Czech `` Hematologická studie u psychotiků ''. His nomenclature is still used in Russia and states of the former USSR, in which blood types O, A, B, and AB are respectively designated I, II, III, and IV. Dr. William Lorenzo Moss 's ( 1876 -- 1957 ) Moss - blood typing technique of 1910 was widely used until World War II. William Stewart Halsted, M.D. ( September 23, 1852 -- September 7, 1922 ) was an American surgeon who emphasized strict aseptic technique during surgical procedures, was an early champion of newly discovered anesthetics, and introduced several new operations, including the radical mastectomy for breast cancer. Halsted returned to New York in 1880 and for the next six years led an extraordinarily vigorous and energetic life. He operated at multiple hospitals, including Roosevelt Hospital, the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Charity Hospital, Emigrant Hospital, Bellevue Hospital and Chambers Street Hospital. He was an extremely popular, inspiring and charismatic teacher. In 1882 he performed one of the first gallbladder operations in the United States ( a cholecystotomy performed on his mother on the kitchen table at 2 am ). Halsted also performed one of the first blood transfusions in the United States. He had been called to see his sister after she had given birth. He found her moribund from blood loss, and in a bold move withdrew his own blood, transfused his blood into his sister, and then operated on her to save her life. Blood banks in WWI Main article : Blood bank Dr. Luis Agote ( 2nd from right ) overseeing one of the first safe and effective blood transfusions in 1914 While the first transfusions had to be made directly from donor to receiver before coagulation, it was discovered that by adding anticoagulant and refrigerating the blood it was possible to store it for some days, thus opening the way for the development of blood banks. John Braxton Hicks was the first to experiment with chemical methods to prevent the coagulation of blood at St Mary 's Hospital, London in the late 19th century. His attempts, using phosphate of soda, however, were unsuccessful. The first non-direct transfusion was performed on March 27, 1914 by the Belgian doctor Albert Hustin, though this was a diluted solution of blood. The Argentine doctor Luis Agote used a much less diluted solution in November of the same year. Both used sodium citrate as an anticoagulant. The First World War acted as a catalyst for the rapid development of blood banks and transfusion techniques. Canadian doctor and Lieutenant Lawrence Bruce Robertson was instrumental in persuading the Royal Army Medical Corps to adopt the use of blood transfusion at the Casualty Clearing Stations for the wounded. In October 1915, Robertson performed his first wartime transfusion with a syringe to a patient suffering from multiple shrapnel wounds. He followed this up with four subsequent transfusions in the following months and his success was reported to Sir Walter Morley Fletcher, director of the Medical Research Committee. World War II Russian syringe for direct inter-human blood transfusion. Robertson published his findings in the British Medical Journal in 1916 and, with the help of a few like minded individuals ( including the eminent physician Edward William Archibald who introduced the citrate anticoagulant method ), was able to persuade the British authorities of the merits of blood transfusion. Robertson went on to establish the first blood transfusion apparatus at a Casualty Clearing Station on the Western Front in the spring of 1917. Oswald Hope Robertson, a medical researcher and U.S. Army officer was attached to the RAMC in 1917, where he was instrumental in establishing the first blood banks, in preparation for the anticipated Third Battle of Ypres. He used sodium citrate as the anticoagulant and the blood was extracted from punctures in the vein and was stored in bottles at British and American Casualty Clearing Stations along the Front. He also experimented with preserving separated red blood cells in iced bottles. Geoffrey Keynes, a British surgeon, developed a portable machine that could store blood to enable transfusions to be carried out more easily. Expansion Alexander Bogdanov established a scientific institute to research the effects of blood transfusion in Moscow, 1925. The world 's first blood donor service was established in 1921 by the secretary of the British Red Cross, Percy Oliver. In that year, Oliver was contacted by King 's College Hospital, where they were in urgent need of a blood donor. After providing a donor, Oliver set about organizing a system for the voluntary registration of blood donors at clinics around London, with Sir Geoffrey Keynes appointed as a medical adviser. Volunteers were subjected to a series of physical tests to establish their blood group. The London Blood Transfusion Service was free of charge and expanded rapidly in its first few years of operation. By 1925, it was providing services for almost 500 patients and it was incorporated into the structure of the British Red Cross in 1926. Similar systems were established in other cities including Sheffield, Manchester and Norwich, and the service 's work began to attract international attention. Similar services were established in France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Australia and Japan. An academic institution devoted to the science of blood transfusion was founded by Alexander Bogdanov in Moscow in 1925. Bogdanov was motivated, at least in part, by a search for eternal youth, and remarked with satisfaction on the improvement of his eyesight, suspension of balding, and other positive symptoms after receiving 11 transfusions of whole blood. Bogdanov died in 1928 as a result of one of his experiments, when the blood of a student suffering from malaria and tuberculosis was given to him in a transfusion. Following Bogdanov 's lead, Vladimir Shamov and Sergei Yudin in the USSR pioneered the transfusion of cadaveric blood from recently deceased donors. Yudin performed such a transfusion successfully for the first time on March 23, 1930 and reported his first seven clinical transfusions with cadaveric blood at the Fourth Congress of Ukrainian Surgeons at Kharkiv in September. However, this method was never used widely, even in Russia. British poster encouraging people to donate blood for the war effort. One of the earliest blood banks was established by Frederic Durán - Jordà during the Spanish Civil War in 1936. Duran joined the Transfusion Service at the Barcelona Hospital at the start of the conflict, but the hospital was soon overwhelmed by the demand for blood and the paucity of available donors. With support from the Department of Health of the Spanish Republican Army, Duran established a blood bank for the use of wounded soldiers and civilians. The 300 -- 400 mL of extracted blood was mixed with 10 % citrate solution in a modified Duran Erlenmeyer flask. The blood was stored in a sterile glass enclosed under pressure at 2 ° C. During 30 months of work, the Transfusion Service of Barcelona registered almost 30,000 donors, and processed 9,000 liters of blood. In 1937 Bernard Fantus, director of therapeutics at the Cook County Hospital in Chicago, established the first hospital blood bank in the United States. In creating a hospital laboratory that preserved, refrigerated and stored donor blood, Fantus originated the term `` blood bank ''. Within a few years, hospital and community blood banks were established across the United States. Frederic Durán - Jordà fled to Britain in 1938, and worked with Dr Janet Vaughan at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School at Hammersmith Hospital to create a system of national blood banks in London. With the outbreak of war looking imminent in 1938, the War Office created the Army Blood Supply Depot ( ABSD ) in Bristol headed by Lionel Whitby and in control of four large blood depots around the country. British policy through the war was to supply military personnel with blood from centralized depots, in contrast to the approach taken by the Americans and Germans where troops at the front were bled to provide required blood. The British method proved to be more successful at adequately meeting all requirements and over 700,000 donors were bled over the course of the war. This system evolved into the National Blood Transfusion Service established in 1946, the first national service to be implemented. Medical advances Wounded soldier is given blood plasma in Sicily, 1943. A blood collection program was initiated in the US in 1940 and Edwin Cohn pioneered the process of blood fractionation. He worked out the techniques for isolating the serum albumin fraction of blood plasma, which is essential for maintaining the osmotic pressure in the blood vessels, preventing their collapse. The use of blood plasma as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes was proposed as early as 1918, in the correspondence columns of the British Medical Journal, by Gordon R. Ward. At the onset of World War II, liquid plasma was used in Britain. A large project, known as ' Blood for Britain ' began in August 1940 to collect blood in New York City hospitals for the export of plasma to Britain. A dried plasma package was developed, which reduced breakage and made the transportation, packaging, and storage much simpler. Charles R. Drew oversaw the production of blood plasma for shipping to Britain during WW2. The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 mL bottles. One bottle contained enough distilled water to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours. Dr. Charles R. Drew was appointed medical supervisor, and he was able to transform the test tube methods into the first successful technique for mass production. Another important breakthrough came in 1939 -- 40 when Karl Landsteiner, Alex Wiener, Philip Levine, and R.E. Stetson discovered the Rhesus blood group system, which was found to be the cause of the majority of transfusion reactions up to that time. Three years later, the introduction by J.F. Loutit and Patrick L. Mollison of acid -- citrate -- dextrose ( ACD ) solution, which reduced the volume of anticoagulant, permitted transfusions of greater volumes of blood and allowed longer term storage. Carl Walter and W.P. Murphy Jr. introduced the plastic bag for blood collection in 1950. Replacing breakable glass bottles with durable plastic bags made from PVC allowed for the evolution of a collection system capable of safe and easy preparation of multiple blood components from a single unit of whole blood. In the field of cancer surgery replacement of massive blood loss became a major problem. The cardiac arrest rate was high. In 1963, C. Paul Boyan and William S. Howland discovered that the temperature of the blood and the rate of infusion greatly affected survival rates, and introduced blood warming to surgery. Further extending the shelf life of stored blood was an anticoagulant preservative, CPDA - 1, introduced in 1979, which increased the blood supply and facilitated resource - sharing among blood banks. As of 2006, there were about 15 million units of blood products transfused per year in the United States. By 2013, the number had declined to about 11 million units, due to the shift towards laparoscopic surgery and other surgical advances and studies that have shown that many transfusions were unnecessary. For example, the standard of care reduced that amount of blood transfused from 750 to 200 ml. Special populations Neonate To ensure the safety of blood transfusion to pediatric patients, hospitals are taking additional precaution to avoid infection and prefer to use specially tested pediatric blood units that are guaranteed negative for Cytomegalovirus. Most guidelines recommend the provision of CMV - negative blood components and not simply leukoreduced components for newborns or low birthweight infants in whom the immune system is not fully developed. These specific requirements place additional restrictions on blood donors who can donate for neonatal use. vnv Neonatal transfusions typically fall into one of two categories : `` Top - up '' transfusions, to replace losses due to investigational losses and correction of anemia. Exchange ( or partial exchange ) transfusions are done for removal of bilirubin, removal of antibodies and replacement of red cells ( e.g., for anemia secondary to thalassemias and other hemoglobinopathies ). Significant blood loss A massive transfusion protocol is used when significant blood loss is present such as in major trauma, when more than ten units of blood are needed. Packed red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, and platelets are generally administered. Typically higher ratios of fresh frozen plasma and platelets are given relative to packed red blood cells. Unknown blood type Because blood type O negative is compatible with anyone, it is often overused and in short supply. According to the American Association of Blood Banks, the use of this blood should be restricted to persons with O negative blood, as nothing else is compatible with them, and women who might be pregnant and for whom it would be impossible to do blood group testing before giving them emergency treatment. Whenever possible, the AABB recommends that O negative blood be conserved by using blood type testing to identify a less scarce alternative. Religious objections Jehovah 's Witnesses object to blood transfusions due to their belief that blood is sacred. Research into alternatives See also : Blood substitutes Although there are clinical situations where transfusion with red blood cells is the only clinically appropriate option, clinicians look at whether alternatives as feasible. This can be due to several reasons, such as patient safety, economic burden or scarcity of blood. Guidelines recommend blood transfusions should be reserved for patients with or at risk of cardiovascular instability due to the degree of their anaemia. In these cases parenteral iron is recommended. Thus far, there are no available oxygen - carrying blood substitutes, which is the typical objective of a blood ( RBC ) transfusion ; however, there are widely available non-blood volume expanders for cases where only volume restoration is required. These are helping doctors and surgeons avoid the risks of disease transmission and immune suppression, address the chronic blood donor shortage, and address the concerns of Jehovah 's Witnesses and others who have religious objections to receiving transfused blood. A number of blood substitutes have been explored ( and still are ), but thus far they all suffer from many challenges. Most attempts to find a suitable alternative to blood thus far have concentrated on cell - free hemoglobin solutions. Blood substitutes could make transfusions more readily available in emergency medicine and in pre-hospital EMS care. If successful, such a blood substitute could save many lives, particularly in trauma where massive blood loss results. Hemopure, a hemoglobin - based therapy, is approved for use in South Africa. Other uses Minor blood transfusions are used by a minority of nyaope drug addicts in South Africa to economically share the high the drug induces in a practice colloquially known as Bluetoothing, named after the wireless technology of the same name. Veterinary use Main article : Blood type ( non-human ) Veterinarians also administer transfusions to other animals. Various species require different levels of testing to ensure a compatible match. For example, cats have 3 known blood types, cattle have 11, dogs have 12, pigs 16 and horses have 34. However, in many species ( especially horses and dogs ), cross matching is not required before the first transfusion, as antibodies against non-self cell surface antigens are not expressed constitutively -- i.e. the animal has to be sensitized before it will mount an immune response against the transfused blood. The rare and experimental practice of inter-species blood transfusions is a form of xenograft. See also Arnault Tzanck Blood transfusion in Sri Lanka Blood type ( non-human ) Xenotransfusion AIDS References Jump up ^ Adams RC, Lundy JS ( 1942 ). `` Anesthesia in cases of poor surgical risk. Some suggestions for decreasing risk ''. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 74 : 1011 -- 1019. ^ Jump up to : Carson JL, Grossman BJ, Kleinman S, Tinmouth AT, Marques MB, Fung MK, Holcomb JB, Illoh O, Kaplan LJ, Katz LM, Rao SV, Roback JD, Shander A, Tobian AA, Weinstein R, Swinton M, Djulbegovic B ( Mar 26, 2012 ). Clinical Transfusion Medicine Committee of the, AABB. `` Red Blood Cell Transfusion : A Clinical Practice Guideline From the AABB ''. Annals of Internal Medicine. 157 : 49 -- 58. doi : 10.7326 / 0003 - 4819 - 157 - 1 - 201206190 - 00429. PMID 22751760. ^ Jump up to : American Association of Blood Banks ( 24 April 2014 ), `` Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question '', Choosing Wisely : an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, American Association of Blood Banks, retrieved 25 July 2014 Jump up ^ Carson, Jeffrey L. ; Stanworth, Simon J. ; Roubinian, Nareg ; Fergusson, Dean A. ; Triulzi, Darrell ; Doree, Carolyn ; Hebert, Paul C. ( 2016 - 10 - 12 ). `` Transfusion thresholds and other strategies for guiding allogeneic red blood cell transfusion ''. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 10 : CD002042. doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD002042. pub4. ISSN 1469 - 493X. PMC 4171966. PMID 27731885. Jump up ^ Villanueva, C ; Colomo, A ; Bosch, A ; Concepción, M ; Hernandez - Gea, V ; Aracil, C ; Graupera, I ; Poca, M ; Alvarez - Urturi, C ; Gordillo, J ; Guarner - Argente, C ; Santaló, M ; Muñiz, E ; Guarner, C ( 2013 ). `` Transfusion strategies for acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding ''. The New England Journal of Medicine. 368 ( 1 ) : 11 -- 21. doi : 10.1056 / NEJMoa1211801. PMID 23281973. Jump up ^ Gasche, C ; Berstad, A ; Befrits, R ; Beglinger, C ; Dignass, A ; Erichsen, K ; Gomollon, F ; Hjortswang, H ; Koutroubakis, I ; Kulnigg, S ; Oldenburg, B ; Rampton, D ; Schroeder, O ; Stein, J ; Travis, S ; Van Assche, G ( 2007 ). `` Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of iron deficiency and anemia in inflammatory bowel diseases '' ( PDF ). Inflammatory bowel diseases. 13 ( 12 ) : 1545 -- 53. doi : 10.1002 / ibd. 20285. PMID 17985376. Jump up ^ `` Blood safety and availability ''. World Health Organisation. June 2014. Retrieved 22 August 2014. Jump up ^ Screening donated blood for transfusion - transmissible infections : recommendations ( PDF ). World Health Organization. 2009. ISBN 978 92 4 154788 8. ^ Jump up to : `` Blood safety and availability Fact sheet 279 ''. World Health Organization. Retrieved 21 January 2016. Jump up ^ `` Testing of donated blood ''. World Health Organization. Retrieved 21 January 2016. Jump up ^ `` Bacterial Detection Testing by Blood and Blood Collection Establishments and Transfusion Services to Enhance the Safety and Availability of Platelets for Transfusion ''. FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 21 January 2016. Jump up ^ Benjamin, Richard J. ; McDonald, Carl P. ; ISBT Transfusion Transmitted Infectious Disease Bacterial Workgroup ( 2014 - 04 - 01 ). `` The international experience of bacterial screen testing of platelet components with an automated microbial detection system : a need for consensus testing and reporting guidelines ''. Transfusion Medicine Reviews. 28 ( 2 ) : 61 -- 71. doi : 10.1016 / j. tmrv. 2014.01. 001. ISSN 1532 - 9496. PMID 24636779. Jump up ^ Ziemann, Malte ; Hennig, Holger ( 2014 - 02 - 01 ). `` Prevention of Transfusion - Transmitted Cytomegalovirus Infections : Which is the Optimal Strategy ? ''. Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy : Offizielles Organ Der Deutschen Gesellschaft Fur̈ Transfusionsmedizin Und Immunham̈atologie. 41 ( 1 ) : 40 -- 44. doi : 10.1159 / 000357102. ISSN 1660 - 3796. PMC 3949610. PMID 24659946. ^ Jump up to : Bassuni, Wafaa Y. ; Blajchman, Morris A. ; Al - Moshary, May A. ( 2008 ). `` Why implement universal leukoreduction ? ''. Hematology / Oncology and Stem Cell Therapy. 1 ( 2 ) : 106 -- 123. doi : 10.1016 / s1658 - 3876 ( 08 ) 50042 - 2. Jump up ^ Hardwick, CC ; Herivel, TR ; Hernandez, SC ; Ruane, PH ; Goodrich, RP ( 2004 ). `` Separation, Identification and Quantification of Riboflavin and Its Photoproducts in Blood Products Using High - Performance Liquid Chromatography With Fluorescence Detection : A Method to Support Pathogen Reduction Technology ''. Photochemistry and Photobiology. 80 ( 3 ) : 609 -- 615. doi : 10.1562 / 0031 - 8655 ( 2004 ) 080 < 0609 : TNSIAQ > 2.0.CO ; 2. ISSN 0031 - 8655. PMID 15382964. Jump up ^ Mirasol Clinical Evaluation Study Group ; Folléa, G. ; Bardiaux, L. ; Boiron, J. - M. ; Lafeuillade, B. ; Debost, M. ; Lioure, B. ; Harousseau, J. - L. ; Tabrizi, R. ; Cahn, J. - Y. ; Michallet ; Ambruso, D. ; Schots, R. ; Tissot, J. - D. ; Sensebé, L. ; Kondo, T. ; McCullough, J. ; Rebulla, Paolo ; Escolar, Gines ; Mintz, P. ; Heddle ; Goodrich, R.P. ; Bruhwyler, J. ; Le, C. ; Cook, R.J. ; Stouch, B. ( 2010 ). `` A randomized controlled clinical trial evaluating the performance and safety of platelets treated with MIRASOL pathogen reduction technology ''. Transfusion. 50 ( 11 ) : 2362 -- 75. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1537 - 2995.2010. 02694. x. PMID 20492615. Jump up ^ Goodrich, RP ; Edrich, RA ; Li, J ; Seghatchian, J ( 2006 ). `` The Mirasol PRT system for pathogen reduction of platelets and plasma : An overview of current status and future trends ''. Transfusion and Apheresis Science. 35 ( 1 ) : 5 -- 17. doi : 10.1016 / j. transci. 2006.01. 007. PMID 16935562. Jump up ^ Fast, LD ; Dileone, G ; Cardarelli, G ; Li, J ; Goodrich, R ( 2006 ). `` Mirasol PRT Treatment of Donor White Blood Cells Prevents the Development of Xenogeneic Graft - Versus - Host Disease in Rag2 - / - γc - / - Double Knockout Mice ''. Transfusion. 46 ( 9 ) : 1553 -- 1560. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1537 - 2995.2006. 00939. x. PMID 16965583. Jump up ^ Fast, LD ; Dileone, G ; Marschner, S ( 2011 ). `` Inactivation of human white blood cells in platelet products after pathogen reduction technology treatment in comparison to gamma irradiation ''. Transfusion. 51 ( 7 ) : 1397 -- 404. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1537 - 2995.2010. 02984. x. PMID 21155832. Jump up ^ Reddy, Heather L. ; Dayan, Anthony D. ; Cavagnaro, Joy ; Gad, Shayne ; Li, Junzhi ; Goodrich, Raymond P. ( 2008 ). `` Toxicity Testing of a Novel Riboflavin - Based Technology for Pathogen Reduction and White Blood Cell Inactivation ''. Transfusion Medicine Reviews. 22 ( 2 ) : 133 -- 53. doi : 10.1016 / j. tmrv. 2007.12. 003. PMID 18353253. Jump up ^ Blood Processing. University of Utah. Available at : http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/TUTORIAL/BLDBANK/BBPROC.html. Accessed on : December 15, 2006. Jump up ^ Harmening, D. ( 1999 ). Modern Blood Banking and Transfusion Practices ( 4th ed. ). Philadelphia : F.A. Davis. ISBN 0 - 8036 - 0419 - X. Jump up ^ `` WHO Haemovigilance ''. Who.int. 2013 - 06 - 25. Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 11. Jump up ^ `` SHOT Terms of Reference ''. Shotuk.org. Retrieved 22 August 2014. Jump up ^ Wang SS. What 's the Shelf Life of Blood ? Focus on Whether Older Donations Impair Recovery of Transfusion Recipients. The Wall Street Journal. 2009 Dec. 1. Jump up ^ Bolton - Maggs, PHB ; Poles, D ; et al. ( Serious Hazards of Transfusion ( SHOT ) Steering Group ) ( 2015 ). The 2014 Annual SHOT Report ( 2015 ) ( PDF ). SHOT. ISBN 978 - 0 - 9558648 - 7 - 2. ^ Jump up to : Laura, Dean ( 2005 ). Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens. Bethesda, United States : National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 4 October 2017. Jump up ^ `` The 2011 National Blood Collection and Utilization Survey Report '' ( PDF ). Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 21 January 2016. Jump up ^ Murphy, M ( 2013 ). `` Post-transfusion purpura ''. In Murphy, M ; Pamphilon, D ; Heddle, N. Practical Transfusion Medicine ( 4th ed. ). Wiley - Blackwell. pp. 127 -- 30. Jump up ^ Kim, Jeongmin ; Na, Sungwon ( 30 March 2015 ). `` Transfusion - related acute lung injury ; clinical perspectives ''. Korean Journal of Anaesthesiology. 68 ( 2 ) : 101 -- 105. doi : 10.4097 / kjae. 2015.68. 2.101. PMC 4384395. PMID 25844126. Jump up ^ Kopolovic, Ilana ; Tsubota, Hideki ( 2015 ). `` A systematic review of transfusion - associated graft - versus - host disease ''. Blood. 126 : 406 -- 414. doi : 10.1182 / blood - 2015 - 01 - 620872. Jump up ^ Rohde, Jeffrey M. ; Dimcheff, Derek E. ; Blumberg, Neil ; Saint, Sanjay ; Langa, Kenneth M. ; Kuhn, Latoya ; Hickner, Andrew ; Rogers, Mary A.M. ( 2 April 2014 ). `` Health Care -- Associated Infection After Red Blood Cell Transfusion ''. JAMA. 311 ( 13 ) : 1317 -- 26. doi : 10.1001 / jama. 2014.2726. PMC 4289152. PMID 24691607. Jump up ^ Blajchman M ( 2002 ). `` Incidence and significance of the bacterial contamination of blood components ''. Dev Biol ( Basel ). 108 ( 2 ) : 59 -- 67. PMID 12220143. Jump up ^ Zubair, AC ( 2010 ). `` Clinical impact of blood storage lesions ''. American journal of hematology. 85 ( 2 ) : 117 -- 22. doi : 10.1002 / ajh. 21599. PMID 20052749. Jump up ^ Heaton, A ; Keegan, T ; Holme, S ( 1989 ). `` In vivo regeneration of red cell 2, 3 - diphosphoglycerate following transfusion of DPG - depleted AS - 1, AS - 3 and CPDA - 1 red cells ''. British Journal of Haematology. 71 ( 1 ) : 131 -- 6. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2141.1989. tb06286. x. PMID 2492818. Jump up ^ Frank, SM ; Abazyan, B ; Ono, M ; Hogue, CW ; Cohen, DB ; Berkowitz, DE ; Ness, PM ; Barodka, VM ( 2013 ). `` Decreased erythrocyte deformability after transfusion and the effects of erythrocyte storage duration ''. Anesthesia and Analgesia. 116 ( 5 ) : 975 -- 81. doi : 10.1213 / ANE. 0b013e31828843e6. PMC 3744176. PMID 23449853. Jump up ^ https://archive.is/20130415021739/http://www.isb-isch2012.org/Poster/P32.htm. Archived from the original on April 15, 2013. Retrieved April 3, 2013. Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ Bakalar, Nicholas ( 2013 - 03 - 11 ). `` The Shelf Life of Donor Blood ''. The New York Times. Jump up ^ Wang, Shirley S. ( 2009 - 12 - 01 ). `` What 's the Shelf Life of Blood ? ''. The Wall Street Journal. Jump up ^ Aubron, Cécile ; Nichol, Alistair ; Cooper, D Jamie ; Bellomo, Rinaldo ( 2013 ). `` Age of red blood cells and transfusion in critically ill patients ''. Annals of Intensive Care. 3 ( 1 ) : 2. doi : 10.1186 / 2110 - 5820 - 3 - 2. PMC 3575378. PMID 23316800. Jump up ^ Hod, EA ; Zhang, N ; Sokol, SA ; Wojczyk, BS ; Francis, RO ; Ansaldi, D ; Francis, KP ; Della - Latta, P ; Whittier, S ; Sheth, S ; Hendrickson, JE ; Zimring, JC ; Brittenham, GM ; Spitalnik, SL ( 2010 ). `` Transfusion of red blood cells after prolonged storage produces harmful effects that are mediated by iron and inflammation ''. Blood. 115 ( 21 ) : 4284 -- 92. doi : 10.1182 / blood - 2009 - 10 - 245001. PMC 2879099. PMID 20299509. Jump up ^ Hess, JR ; Biomedical Excellence for Safer Transfusion ( BEST ) Collaborative ( 2012 ). `` Scientific problems in the regulation of red blood cell products ''. Transfusion. 52 ( 8 ) : 1827 -- 35. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1537 - 2995.2011. 03511. x. PMID 22229278. Jump up ^ Pape, A ; Stein, P ; Horn, O ; Habler, O ( 2009 ). `` Clinical evidence of blood transfusion effectiveness ''. Blood Transfusion. 7 ( 4 ) : 250 -- 258. doi : 10.2450 / 2008.0072 - 08. PMC 2782802. PMID 20011636. Jump up ^ Burns, JM ; Yang, X ; Forouzan, O ; Sosa, JM ; Shevkoplyas, SS ( 2012 ). `` Artificial microvascular network : A new tool for measuring rheologic properties of stored red blood cells ''. Transfusion. 52 ( 5 ) : 1010 -- 23. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1537 - 2995.2011. 03418. x. PMID 22043858. Jump up ^ Raval, JS ; Waters, JH ; Seltsam, A ; Scharberg, EA ; Richter, E ; Daly, AR ; Kameneva, MV ; Yazer, MH ( 2010 ). `` The use of the mechanical fragility test in evaluating sublethal RBC injury during storage ''. Vox sanguinis. 99 ( 4 ) : 325 -- 31. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1423 - 0410.2010. 01365. x. PMID 20673245. Jump up ^ Shander, A ; Hofmann, A ; Gombotz, H ; Theusinger, OM ; Spahn, DR ( 2007 ). `` Estimating the cost of blood : Past, present, and future directions ''. Best practice & research. Clinical anaesthesiology. 21 ( 2 ) : 271 -- 89. doi : 10.1016 / j. bpa. 2007.01. 002. PMID 17650777. Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Easy does it -- showing caution with RBC transfusions ''. College of American Pathologists. April 2009. Retrieved 22 August 2014. Jump up ^ Devine, DV ; Serrano, K ( 2010 ). `` The platelet storage lesion ''. Clinics in laboratory medicine. 30 ( 2 ) : 475 -- 87. doi : 10.1016 / j. cll. 2010.02. 002. PMID 20513565. Jump up ^ Cata, JP ; Wang, H ; Gottumukkala, V ; Reuben, J ; Sessler, DI ( May 2013 ). `` Inflammatory response, immunosuppression, and cancer recurrence after perioperative blood transfusions ''. British journal of anaesthesia. 110 ( 5 ) : 690 -- 701. doi : 10.1093 / bja / aet068. PMC 3630286. PMID 23599512. Jump up ^ Wang, T ; Luo, L ; Huang, H ; Yu, J ; Pan, C ; Cai, X ; Hu, B ; Yin, X ( May 2014 ). `` Perioperative blood transfusion is associated with worse clinical outcomes in resected lung cancer ''. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 97 ( 5 ) : 1827 -- 37. doi : 10.1016 / j. athoracsur. 2013.12. 044. PMID 24674755. Jump up ^ Churchhouse, AM ; Mathews, TJ ; McBride, OM ; Dunning, J ( Jan 2012 ). `` Does blood transfusion increase the chance of recurrence in patients undergoing surgery for lung cancer ? ''. Interactive cardiovascular and thoracic surgery. 14 ( 1 ) : 85 -- 90. doi : 10.1093 / icvts / ivr025. PMC 3420304. PMID 22108935. Jump up ^ Kormi, Seyed Mohammad Amin ; Seghatchian, Jerard ( May 2017 ). `` Taming the Immune System Through Transfusion in Oncology Patients ''. Transfusion and Apheresis Science. 56 : 310 -- 316. doi : 10.1016 / j. transci. 2017.05. 017. Retrieved 26 May 2017. Jump up ^ Kormi, Seyed Mohammad Amin ; Seghatchian, Jerard ( May 2017 ). `` Taming the Immune System Through Transfusion in Oncology Patients ''. Transfusion and Apheresis Science. 56 : 310 -- 316. doi : 10.1016 / j. transci. 2017.05. 017. Jump up ^ Pfuntner A., Wier L.M., Stocks C. Most Frequent Procedures Performed in U.S. Hospitals, 2011. HCUP Statistical Brief # 165. October 2013. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. ( 2 ). Jump up ^ Wald, Matthew L. ( 2014 - 08 - 24 ). `` Blood Industry Shrinks as Transfusions Decline ''. New York Times Newspaper ( Web Edition ). New York Times. New York Times. Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 24. Jump up ^ Jacalyn Duffin, History of Medicine : A scandalously short introduction, University of Toronto Press, 1999, p. 171. ^ Jump up to : A.M. Rivera ; K.W.S. Trauss ; A. Van Zundert ; E. Mortier ( 2005 ). `` The history of peripheral intravenous catheters : How little plastic tubes revolutionized medicine '' ( PDF ). Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2014 - 07 - 15. Jump up ^ `` The First Blood Transfusion ? ''. Heart-valve-surgery.com. 2009 - 01 - 03. Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 09. Jump up ^ `` This Month in Anesthesia History ( archived ) ''. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 05. ^ Jump up to : `` Red Gold. Innovators & Pioneers. Jean - Baptiste Denis ''. PBS. Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 09. Jump up ^ Klein, Harvey G ; Anstee, David J, eds. ( 2005 ). Mollison 's Blood Transfusion in Clinical Medicine. doi : 10.1002 / 9780470986868. ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 98686 - 8 `` '' p. 406. Jump up ^ Yale, Elizabeth. `` First Blood Transfusion : A History ''. JSTOR. Retrieved 22 April 2015. Jump up ^ Felts, John H. ( 2000 ). `` Richard Lower : Anatomist and Physiologist ''. Annals of Internal Medicine. 132 ( 5 ) : 420 -- 3. doi : 10.7326 / 0003 - 4819 - 132 - 5 - 200003070 - 00023. PMID 10691601. Jump up ^ Ellis, H. Surgical Anniversaries : James Blundell, pioneer of blood transfusion British Journal of Hospital Medicine, August 2007, Vol 68, No 8. Jump up ^ Madbak, Firas ( 2008 ). Bridge Across the Abyss : Medical Myths and Misconceptions. Universal - Publishers. p. 22. ISBN 1 - 58112 - 987 - 4. ^ Jump up to : Masson, Alastair ( 1993 ). The History of the Blood Transfusion Service In Edinburgh. Edinburgh. Jump up ^ Nathoo, N ; Lautzenheiser, FK ; Barnett, GH ( 2009 ). `` The first direct human blood transfusion : The forgotten legacy of George W. Crile ''. Neurosurgery. 64 ( 3 Suppl ) : ons20 -- 6 ; discussion ons26 -- 7. doi : 10.1227 / 01. NEU. 0000334416.32584. 97. PMID 19240569. Jump up ^ Dr. William Lorenzo Moss Jump up ^ ( `` Studies on isoagglutinins and isohemolysins ''. Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital 21 : 63 -- 70. ) Jump up ^ Gordon, Murray B. ( 1940 ). `` Effect of External Temperature on Sedimentation Rate of Red Blood Corpuscles ''. Journal of the American Medical Association. 114 ( 16 ). doi : 10.1001 / jama. 1940.02810160078030. ^ Jump up to : `` A Canadian kept blood flowing in WWI. An American got credit ''. Toronto Star. July 9, 2016. Katie Daubs ^ Jump up to : Kim Pelis ( 2001 ). `` Taking Credit : The Canadian Army Medical Corps and the British Conversion to Blood Transfusion in WWI ''. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 56 ( 3 ) : 238 -- 277. doi : 10.1093 / jhmas / 56.3. 238. PMID 11552401. Jump up ^ `` Red Gold : the Epic Story of Blood ''. PBS. Jump up ^ Susan Macqueen ; Elizabeth Bruce ; Faith Gibson ( 2012 ). The Great Ormond Street Hospital Manual of Children 's Nursing Practices. John Wiley & Sons,. p. 75. ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 27422 - 4. Jump up ^ `` Percy Oliver ''. Red Gold : The Eipc Story of Blood. Jump up ^ Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal. New Myth, New World : From Nietzsche to Stalinism, Pennsylvania State University, 2002, ISBN 0 - 271 - 02533 - 6, pp. 161 -- 162. Jump up ^ Christopher D. Hillyer ( 2007 ). Blood Banking and Transfusion Medicine : Basic Principles & Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 0 - 443 - 06981 - 6. Jump up ^ Kilduffe R, DeBakey M ( 1942 ). The blood bank and the technique and therapeutics of transfusion. St. Louis : The C.V. Mosby Company. pp. 196 -- 197. Jump up ^ Starr, D ( 1998 ). Blood : An Epic History of Medicine and Commerce. Little, Brown and company. pp. 84 -- 87. ISBN 0 316 91146 1. Jump up ^ Giangrande, Paul L.F. ( 2001 ). `` THE HISTORY OF BLOOD TRANSFUSION ''. British Journal of Haematology. 110 ( 4 ) : 758 -- 67. doi : 10.1046 / j. 1365 - 2141.2000. 02139. x. PMID 11054057. Jump up ^ Transfusion before World War I Jump up ^ Plasma Equipment and Packaging, and Transfusion Equipment Jump up ^ Boyan, CP ; Howland, WS ( 1963 ). `` Cardiac arrest and temperature of bank blood ''. JAMA : The Journal of the American Medical Association. 183 : 58 -- 60. doi : 10.1001 / jama. 1963.63700010027020. PMID 14014662. Jump up ^ Rupreht, J ; van Lieburg, MJ ; Lee, JA ; Erdman, W ( 1985 ). Anaesthesia : essays on its history. Springer - Verlag. pp. 99 -- 101. ISBN 3 - 540 - 13255 - 4. Jump up ^ Laura Landro ( 2007 - 01 - 10 ). `` New rules may shrink ranks of blood donors ''. Wall Street Journal. Jump up ^ WALD, MATTHEW L. ( August 22, 2014 ). `` Blood Industry Shrinks as Transfusions Decline ''. New York Times. Retrieved October 10, 2014. Jump up ^ `` Red blood cell transfusions in newborn infants : Revised guidelines ''. Canadian Paediatric Society ( CPS ). Archived from the original on 2007 - 02 - 03. Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 02. Jump up ^ KM Radhakrishnan ; Srikumar Chakravarthi ; S Pushkala ; J Jayaraju ( August 2003 ). `` Component therapy ''. Indian J Pediatr. 70 ( 8 ) : 661 -- 6. doi : 10.1007 / BF02724257. PMID 14510088. ^ Jump up to : Cherkas, David ( Nov 2011 ). `` Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock : Advances In Fluid Management ''. Emergency Medicine Practice. 13 ( 11 ). Archived from the original on 2012 - 01 - 18. ^ Jump up to : American Association of Blood Banks ( 24 April 2014 ), `` Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question '', Choosing Wisely : an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, American Association of Blood Banks, retrieved 25 July 2014, which cites The Chief Medical Officer 's National Blood Transfusion Committee ( c. 2008 ). `` The appropriate use of group O RhD negative red cells '' ( PDF ). National Health Service. Retrieved 25 July 2014. Jump up ^ Hillyer, Christopher D. ; Shaz, Beth H. ; Zimring, James C. ; Abshire, Thomas C. ( 2009 - 06 - 09 ). Transfusion Medicine and Hemostasis : Clinical and Laboratory Aspects. Elsevier. p. 279. ISBN 9780080922300. Jump up ^ Goddard, A.F. ; James, M.W. ; McIntyre, A.S. ; Scott, B.B. ; British Society of Gastroenterology ( 2011 ). `` Guidelines for the management of iron deficiency anaemia ''. Gut. 60 ( 10 ) : 1309 -- 16. doi : 10.1136 / gut. 2010.228874. PMC 1728199. PMID 21561874. Jump up ^ Shander, Aryeh ; Fink, Arlene ; Javidroozi, Mazyar ; Erhard, Jochen ; Farmer, Shannon L. ; Corwin, Howard ; Goodnough, Lawrence Tim ; Hofmann, Axel ; Isbister, James ; Ozawa, Sherri ; Spahn, Donat R. ( 2011 ). International Consensus Conference on Transfusion Outcomes Group. `` Appropriateness of Allogeneic Red Blood Cell Transfusion : The International Consensus Conference on Transfusion Outcomes ''. Transfusion Medicine Reviews. 25 ( 3 ) : 232 -- 246. e53. doi : 10.1016 / j. tmrv. 2011.02. 001. PMID 21498040. Jump up ^ Tshipe, Lerato ( 1 February 2017 ). `` ' Bluetooth ' drug craze sweeps townships IOL ''. Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 02 -- via Pretoria News. Further reading Tucker, Holly ( 2012 ). Blood Work : A Tale of Medicine and Murder in the Scientific Revolution. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978 - 0393342239. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Blood transfusion. Cochrane Injuries Group, publishes systematic reviews of interventions for traumatic injury, which include evaluations of blood and blood substitute transfusions Cochrane Haematological Malignancies Group, publishes systematic reviews of interventions for haematological disorders and evaluations of blood and blood substitute transfusions. Transfusion Evidence Library searchable source of evidence for transfusion medicine. Blood Transfusion Societies American Association of Blood Banks ( AABB ) British Blood Transfusion Society ( BBTS ) International Society of Blood Transfusion ( ISBT ) Blood establishment alliances Alliance of Blood Operators, an association of not for profit Blood Establishments. European Blood Alliance, an association of not for profit Blood Establishments. Books Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens. Free online book at NCBI Bookshelf ID : NBK2261 Handbook of Transfusion Medicine Free book published in the UK 5th edition. National blood transfusion guidelines American Association of Blood Banks Clinical Practice Guidelines Australian National Blood Authority Patient Blood Management Guidelines British Committee for Standards in Haematology National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Blood Transfusion Guidance UK Guidance for transfusion. Canadian Blood Transfusion Guidelines German Medical Association Guidelines ( English ), published 2014. Haemovigilance Serious Hazards of Transfusion UK Haemovigilance Scheme. Australian Haemovigilance Deaths due to transfusion in the USA Blood transfusion journals Transfusion, ISSN 1537 - 2995 ( electronic ) ISSN 0041 - 1132 ( paper ). The official journal of the American Association of Blood Banks ( AABB ). Vox Sanguinis, ISSN 1423 - 0410 ( electronic ). The official journal of the International Society of Blood Transfusion ( ISBT ). Transfusion Medicine, ISSN 1365 - 3148 ( electronic ). The official journal of the British Blood Transfusion Society ( BBTS ). ISBT Science Series, ISSN 1751 - 2824 ( electronic ) Blood Transfusion, ISSN 1723 - 2007. The Official Journal of Italian Society of Transfusion Medicine and Immunohaematology ( SIMTI ) Transfusion medicine General concepts Apheresis ( plasmapheresis, plateletpheresis, leukapheresis ) Blood transfusion Coombs test ( direct and indirect ) Cross-matching Exchange transfusion International Society of Blood Transfusion Intraoperative blood salvage ISBT 128 Transfusion reactions Blood group systems / blood types ABO Chido - Rodgers Colton Cromer Diego Dombrock Duffy Er FORS Gerbich GIL GLOB Hh Ii Indian JR JMH Kell ( Xk ) Kidd Knops Lan Lewis Lutheran LW MNS OK Raph Rh and RHAG Scianna T - Tn Vel Xg Yt Other Blood products / blood donation Whole blood Platelets Red blood cells Plasma / Fresh frozen plasma / PF24 ( Cryoprecipitate + Cryosupernatant ) Blood substitutes GND : 4007293 - 9 NDL : 00574459 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blood_transfusion&oldid=855009213 '' Categories : Transfusion medicine Hematology Blood Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2013 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2017 Articles needing additional references from June 2018 All articles needing additional references All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from May 2013 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Asturianu বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 48 more Edit links This page was last edited on 15 August 2018, at 08 : 59 ( UTC ). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: when did blood transfusions become safer and why
Answer: 1901