Respiratory center - wikipedia Respiratory center It has been suggested that Dorsal respiratory group be merged into this article. ( Discuss ) Proposed since January 2018. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( June 2016 ) Respiratory center Respiratory groups in the respiratory center and their influence Identifiers MeSH D012125 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and one in the pons. In the medulla they are the dorsal respiratory group, and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes two areas known as the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. The respiratory centre is responsible for generating and maintaining the rhythm of respiration, and also of adjusting this in homeostatic response to physiological changes. The respiratory center receives input from chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, the cerebral cortex, and the hypothalamus in order to regulate the rate and depth of breathing. Input is stimulated by altered levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH, by hormonal changes relating to stress, and anxiety from the hypothalamus, and also by signals from the cerebral cortex to give a conscious control of respiration. Injury to respiratory groups can cause various breathing disorders that may require mechanical ventilation, and is usually associated with a poor prognosis. Contents 1 Respiratory groups 1.1 Dorsal respiratory group 1.2 Ventral respiratory group 1.3 Pontine respiratory group 1.3. 1 Pneumotaxic center 1.3. 2 Apneustic center 2 Respiratory rhythm 3 Clinical significance 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Respiratory groups The respiratory centre is divided into three major groups, two in the medulla and one in the pons. The two groups in the medulla are the dorsal respiratory group and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group is made up of two areas -- the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. The dorsal and ventral medullary groups control the basic rhythm of respiration. Dorsal respiratory group In the medulla, the dorsal respiratory group makes up the inhalation area of respiratory control. Location : Dorsal portion of medulla Nucleus : Solitary nucleus Ventral respiratory group In the medulla, the ventral respiratory group make up the exhalation area of respiratory control. Location : Antero - lateral part of medulla, about 5 mm anterior and lateral to dorsal respiratory group Nucleus : Nucleus ambiguus and nucleus retro ambiguus. Function : It generally causes expiration but can cause either expiration or inspiration depending upon which neuron in the group is stimulated. It sends inhibitory impulse to the apneustic center. Pontine respiratory group In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers. These have connections between them, and from both to the solitary nucleus. Pneumotaxic center The pneumotaxic center is located in the upper part of the pons. Its nuclei are the subparabrachial nucleus and the medial parabrachial nucleus. The pneumotaxic center controls both the rate and the pattern of breathing. The pneumotaxic center is considered an antagonist to the apneustic center, ( which produces abnormal breathing during inhalation ) cyclically inhibiting inhalation. The pneumotaxic center is responsible for limiting inspiration, providing an inspiratory off - switch ( IOS ). It limits the burst of action potentials in the phrenic nerve, effectively decreasing the tidal volume and regulating the respiratory rate. Absence of the center results in an increase in depth of respiration and a decrease in respiratory rate. The pneumotaxic center regulates the amount of air that can be taken into the body in each breath. The dorsal respiratory group has rhythmic bursts of activity that are constant in duration and interval. When a faster rate of breathing is needed the pneumotaxic center signals the dorsal respiratory group to speed up. When longer breaths are needed the bursts of activity are elongated. All the information that the body uses to help respiration happens in the pneumotaxic center. If this was damaged or in any way harmed it would make breathing almost impossible. One study on this subject was on anesthetized paralyzed cats before and after bilateral vagotomy. Ventilation was monitored in awake and anesthetized cats breathing air or CO2. Ventilation was monitored both before and after lesions to the pneumotaxic center region and after subsequent bilateral vagotomy. Cats with pontine lesions had a prolonged inhalation duration. In cats, after anaesthesia and bivagotomy, pontine transection has been described as evoking a long sustained inspiratory discharges interrupted by short expiratory pauses. In rats on the other hand, after anaesthesia, bivagotomy and pontine transection, this breathing pattern was not observed, either in vivo or in vitro. These results suggest interspecies differences between rat and cat in the pontine influences on the medullary respiratory center. Apneustic center The apneustic center of the lower pons appears to promote inhalation by a constant stimulation of the neurons in the medulla oblongata. The apneustic center sends signals to the dorsal group in the medulla to delay the ' switch off ', the inspiratory off switch ( IOS ) signal of the inspiratory ramp provided by the pneumotaxic centre. It controls the intensity of breathing, giving positive impulses to the neurons involved with inhalation. The apneustic center is inhibited by pulmonary stretch receptors and also by the pneumotaxic center. It also discharges an inhibitory impulse to the pneumotaxic center. Respiratory rhythm Further information : Central pattern generator Breathing is the repetitive process of bringing air into the lungs and taking waste products out. The oxygen brought in from the air is a constant, on - going need of an organism to maintain life. This need is still there during sleep so that the functioning of this process has to be automatic and be part of the autonomic nervous system. The in - breath is followed by the out - breath, giving the respiratory cycle of inhalation and exhalation. The number of cycles per minute is the respiratory rate. The respiratory rate is set in the respiratory center by the dorsal respiratory group, in the medulla, and these neurons are mostly concentrated in the solitary nucleus that extends the length of the medulla. The basic rhythm of respiration is that of quiet, restful breathing known as eupnea. Quiet breathing only requires the activity of the dorsal group which activates the diaphragm, and the external intercostal muscles. Exhalation is passive and relies on the elastic recoil of the lungs. When the metabolic need for oxygen increases, inspiration becomes more forceful and the neurons in the ventral group are activated to bring about forceful exhalation. Clinical significance Depression of the respiratory centre can be caused by : brain trauma, brain damage, a brain tumour, or ischemia. A depression can also be caused by drugs including opioids, and sedatives. The respiratory centre can be stimulated by amphetamine, to produce faster and deeper breaths. Normally at therapeutic doses, this effect is not noticeable, but may be evident when respiration is already compromised. See also Control of respiration Cough center Gag reflex Pre-Bötzinger complex References Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard ( 2008 ). Principles of anatomy and physiology ( 12. ed. ). Hoboken, N.J. : Wiley. p. 905. ISBN 978 - 0470 - 23347 - 4. Jump up ^ Pocock, Gillian ; Richards, Christopher D. ( 2006 ). Human physiology : the basis of medicine ( 3rd ed. ). Oxford : Oxford University Press. p. 332. ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 856878 - 0. Jump up ^ Song, G ; Poon, CS ( 15 November 2004 ). `` Functional and structural models of pontine modulation of mechanoreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes ''. Respiratory physiology & neurobiology. 143 ( 2 - 3 ) : 281 -- 92. doi : 10.1016 / j. resp. 2004.05. 009. PMID 15519561. Jump up ^ Song, Gang ; Yu, Yunguo ; Poon, Chi - Sang ( 2006 ). `` Cytoarchitecture of Pneumotaxic Integration of Respiratory and Nonrespiratory Information in the Rat ''. Journal of Neuroscience. 26 ( 1 ) : 300 -- 10. doi : 10.1523 / JNEUROSCI. 3029 - 05.2006. PMID 16399700. Jump up ^ Dutschmann, M ; Dick, TE ( October 2012 ). `` Pontine mechanisms of respiratory control ''. Comprehensive Physiology. 2 ( 4 ) : 2443 -- 69. doi : 10.1002 / cphy. c100015. PMC 4422496. PMID 23720253. Jump up ^ Dutschmann, Mathias ( 2011 ). Comprehensive Physiology. ( Bethesda, Md. ) : John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 65071 - 4. Jump up ^ Gautier, H ; Bertrand, F ( 1975 ). `` Respiratory effects of pneumotaxic center lesions and subsequent vagotomy in chronic cats ''. Respiration Physiology. 23 ( 1 ) : 71 -- 85. doi : 10.1016 / 0034 - 5687 ( 75 ) 90073 - 0. PMID 1129551. Jump up ^ Monteau, R. ; Errchidi, S. ; Gauthier, P. ; Hilaire, G. ; Rega, P. ( 1989 ). `` Pneumotaxic centre and apneustic breathing : Interspecies differences between rat and cat ''. Neuroscience Letters. 99 ( 3 ) : 311 -- 6. doi : 10.1016 / 0304 - 3940 ( 89 ) 90465 - 5. PMID 2725956. Jump up ^ Hall, John ( 2011 ). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology ( 12th ed. ). Philadelphia, Pa. : Saunders / Elsevier. pp. 505 -- 510. ISBN 978 - 1 - 4160 - 4574 - 8. Jump up ^ Derrickson, Bryan ( 2008 ). Principles of anatomy and physiology ( 12th ed. ). Hoboken, N.J. : John Wiley. pp. 905 -- 909. ISBN 978 - 0470 - 39234 - 8. ^ Jump up to : Westfall DP, Westfall TC ( 2010 ). `` Miscellaneous Sympathomimetic Agonists ''. In Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC. Goodman & Gilman 's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics ( 12th ed. ). New York, USA : McGraw - Hill. ISBN 9780071624428. Further reading Levitzky, Michael G. ( 2002 ). Pulmonary Physiology ( 6th ed. ). McGraw - Hill Professional. pp. 193 -- 4. ISBN 0 - 07 - 138765 - X. Costanzo, Linda S. ( 2006 ). Physiology ( 3rd ed. ). Philadelphia, PA : Elsevier. p. 224. ISBN 978 - 1 - 4160 - 2320 - 3. Shannon, Roger ; Baekey, David M. ; Morris, Kendall F. ; Nuding, Sarah C. ; Segers, Lauren S. ; Lindsey, Bruce G. ( 2004 ). `` Pontine respiratory group neuron discharge is altered during fictive cough in the decerebrate cat ''. Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology. 142 ( 1 ) : 43 -- 54. doi : 10.1016 / j. resp. 2004.05. 002. PMID 15351303. Respiratory physiology Respiration breath inhalation exhalation respiratory rate respirometer pulmonary surfactant compliance elastic recoil hysteresivity airway resistance bronchial hyperresponsiveness constriction dilatation mechanical ventilation Control pons pneumotaxic center apneustic center medulla dorsal respiratory group ventral respiratory group chemoreceptors central peripheral pulmonary stretch receptors Hering -- Breuer reflex Lung volumes VC FRC Vt dead space CC PEF calculations respiratory minute volume FEV1 / FVC ratio Lung function tests spirometry body plethysmography peak flow meter nitrogen washout Circulation pulmonary circulation hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction pulmonary shunt Interactions ventilation ( V ) Perfusion ( Q ) Ventilation / perfusion ratio V / Q scan zones of the lung gas exchange pulmonary gas pressures alveolar gas equation alveolar -- arterial gradient hemoglobin oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ( Oxygen saturation 2, 3 - BPG Bohr effect Haldane effect ) carbonic anhydrase ( chloride shift ) oxyhemoglobin respiratory quotient arterial blood gas diffusion capacity ( DLCO ) Insufficiency high altitude oxygen toxicity hypoxia Anatomy of the medulla Grey matter Cranial nuclei afferent : Solitary nucleus tract Dorsal respiratory group Gustatory nucleus Vestibular nuclei Lateral Medial Inferior efferent : Hypoglossal nucleus Nucleus ambiguus Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve Inferior salivatory nucleus Dorsal Gracile nucleus Cuneate nucleus Accessory cuneate nucleus Ventral Ventral respiratory group Arcuate nucleus of medulla Rostral ventromedial medulla Botzinger complex Pre-Bötzinger complex White matter Dorsal Sensory Sensory decussation Medial lemniscus Juxtarestiform body Ascending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus Medial longitudinal fasciculus Motor Descending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus Medial longitudinal fasciculus Ventral Descending tracts Olivocerebellar tract Rubro - olivary tract Surface Front Pyramid Anterior median fissure Anterolateral sulcus Olive Inferior olivary nucleus Back Posterior median sulcus Posterolateral sulcus Area postrema Vagal trigone Hypoglossal trigone Medial eminence Inferior cerebellar peduncle Grey Reticular formation Gigantocellular Parvocellular Ventral Lateral Paramedian Raphe nuclei Obscurus Magnus Pallidus Perihypoglossal nuclei Anatomy of the pons Dorsal / ( tegmentum ) Surface Cerebellopontine angle Superior medullary velum Sulcus limitans Medial eminence Facial colliculus White : Sensory Trapezoid body Trigeminal lemniscus Dorsal trigeminal tract Ventral trigeminal tract Medial lemniscus Lateral lemniscus Medial longitudinal fasciculus Vestibulo - oculomotor fibers Anterior trigeminothalamic tract Central tegmental tract White : Motor Inferior cerebellar peduncle Vestibulocerebellar tract Medial longitudinal fasciculus Vestibulospinal tract Medial vestibulospinal tract Lateral vestibulospinal tract Grey : Cranial nuclei afferent : GSA Trigeminal Principal Spinal Cochlear nucleus Dorsal Anterior Vestibular nuclei Superior efferent : SVE : Trigeminal motor nucleus Facial motor nucleus GSE : Abducens nucleus GVE : Superior salivary nucleus Inferior salivary nucleus Other Apneustic center Pneumotaxic center Parabrachial nuclei Subparabrachial nucleus Medial parabrachial nucleus Lateral parabrachial nucleus Superior olivary nucleus Locus coeruleus Ventral / ( base ) Grey Pontine nuclei White : Motor / descending Corticospinal tract Corticobulbar tract Corticopontine fibers MCP Pontocerebellar fibers Surface Basilar sulcus Other grey : Raphe / reticular Reticular formation Caudal Oral Tegmental Paramedian Raphe nuclei Median Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Respiratory_center&oldid=840768354 '' Categories : Brainstem Medulla oblongata Pons Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties Articles to be merged from January 2018 All articles to be merged Articles needing additional references from June 2016 All articles needing additional references All articles that are too technical Wikipedia articles that are too technical from August 2014 All articles needing expert attention Articles needing expert attention from August 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Eesti Español Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 12 May 2018, at 01 : 32. 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Question: where are the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers located
Answer: the pons