Frederick Sanger - wikipedia Frederick Sanger Frederick Sanger OM CH CBE FAA ( 1918 - 08 - 13 ) 13 August 1918 Rendcomb, Gloucestershire, England 19 November 2013 ( 2013 - 11 - 19 ) ( aged 95 ) Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England Nationality British Alma mater University of Cambridge ( PhD ) Known for Amino acid sequence of insulin Sanger sequencing Sanger Centre Awards Nobel Prize in Chemistry ( 1958 ) Royal Medal ( 1969 ) Gairdner Foundation International Award ( 1971 ) William Bate Hardy Prize ( 1976 ) Copley Medal ( 1977 ) Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize ( 1979 ) Nobel Prize in Chemistry ( 1980 ) Scientific career Fields Biochemistry Institutions University of Cambridge Laboratory of Molecular Biology Thesis The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body ( 1943 ) Doctoral advisor Albert Neuberger Doctoral students George Brownlee Elizabeth Blackburn Rodney Porter Frederick Sanger OM CH CBE FAA ( / ˈsæŋər / ; 13 August 1918 -- 19 November 2013 ) was a British biochemist who twice won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, one of only two people to have done so in the same category ( the other is John Bardeen in physics ), the fourth person over all with two Nobel Prizes, and the third person over all with two Nobel Prizes in the sciences. In 1958, he was awarded a Nobel Prize in chemistry `` for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin ''. In 1980, Walter Gilbert and Sanger shared half of the chemistry prize `` for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids ''. The other half was awarded to Paul Berg `` for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant DNA ''. Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Research and career 2.1 Sequencing insulin 2.2 Sequencing RNA 2.3 Sequencing DNA 2.4 Postgraduate students 2.5 Awards and honours 3 Personal life 3.1 Marriage and family 3.2 Later life 4 Selected publications 5 References 6 Further reading Early life and education Frederick Sanger was born on 13 August 1918 in Rendcomb, a small village in Gloucestershire, England, the second son of Frederick Sanger, a general practitioner, and his wife, Cicely Sanger ( née Crewdson ). He was one of three children. His brother, Theodore, was only a year older, while his sister May ( Mary ) was five years younger. His father had worked as an Anglican medical missionary in China but returned to England because of ill health. He was 40 in 1916 when he married Cicely who was four years younger. Sanger 's father converted to Quakerism soon after his two sons were born and brought up the children as Quakers. Sanger 's mother was the daughter of a wealthy cotton manufacturer and had a Quaker background, but was not a Quaker. When Sanger was around five years old the family moved to the small village of Tanworth - in - Arden in Warwickshire. The family was reasonably wealthy and employed a governess to teach the children. In 1927, at the age of nine, he was sent to the Downs School, a residential preparatory school run by Quakers near Malvern. His brother Theo was a year ahead of him at the same school. In 1932, at the age of 14, he was sent to the recently established Bryanston School in Dorset. This used the Dalton system and had a more liberal regime which Sanger much preferred. At the school he liked his teachers and particularly enjoyed scientific subjects. Able to complete his School Certificate a year early, for which he was awarded seven credits, Sanger was able to spend most of his last year of school experimenting in the laboratory alongside his chemistry master, Geoffrey Ordish, who had originally studied at Cambridge University and been a researcher in the Cavendish Laboratory. Working with Ordish made a refreshing change from sitting and studying books and awakened Sanger 's desire to pursue a scientific career. In 1936 Sanger went to St John 's College, Cambridge to study natural sciences. His father had attended the same college. For Part I of his Tripos he took courses in physics, chemistry, biochemistry and mathematics but struggled with physics and mathematics. Many of the other students had studied more mathematics at school. In his second year he replaced physics with physiology. He took three years to obtain his Part I. For his Part II he studied biochemistry and obtained a 1st Class Honours. It was a relatively new department founded by Gowland Hopkins with enthusiastic lecturers who included Malcolm Dixon, Joseph Needham and Ernest Baldwin. Both his parents died from cancer during his first two years at Cambridge. His father was 60 and his mother was 58. As an undergraduate Sanger 's beliefs were strongly influenced by his Quaker upbringing. He was a pacifist and a member of the Peace Pledge Union. It was through his involvement with the Cambridge Scientists ' Anti-War Group that he met his future wife, Joan Howe, who was studying economics at Newnham College. They courted while he was studying for his Part II exams and married after he had graduated in December 1940. Under the Military Training Act 1939 he was provisionally registered as a conscientious objector, and again under the National Service ( Armed Forces ) Act 1939, before being granted unconditional exemption from military service by a tribunal. In the meantime he undertook training in social relief work at the Quaker centre, Spicelands, Devon and served briefly as a hospital orderly. Sanger began studying for a PhD in October 1940 under N.W. `` Bill '' Pirie. His project was to investigate whether edible protein could be obtained from grass. After little more than a month Pirie left the department and Albert Neuberger became his adviser. Sanger changed his research project to study the metabolism of lysine and a more practical problem concerning the nitrogen of potatoes. His thesis had the title, `` The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body ''. He was examined by Charles Harington and Albert Charles Chibnall and awarded his doctorate in 1943. Research and career Amino acid sequence of bovine insulin Sequencing insulin Neuberger moved to the National Institute for Medical Research in London, but Sanger stayed in Cambridge and in 1943 joined the group of Charles Chibnall, a protein chemist who had recently taken up the chair in the Department of Biochemistry. Chibnall had already done some work on the amino acid composition of bovine insulin and suggested that Sanger look at the amino groups in the protein. Insulin could be purchased from the pharmacy chain Boots and was one of the very few proteins that were available in a pure form. Up to this time Sanger had been funding himself. In Chibnall 's group he was initially supported by the Medical Research Council and then from 1944 until 1951 by a Beit Memorial Fellowship for Medical Research. Sanger 's first triumph was to determine the complete amino acid sequence of the two polypeptide chains of bovine insulin, A and B, in 1952 and 1951, respectively. Prior to this it was widely assumed that proteins were somewhat amorphous. In determining these sequences, Sanger proved that proteins have a defined chemical composition. To get to this point, Sanger refined a partition chromatography method first developed by Richard Laurence Millington Synge and Archer John Porter Martin to determine the composition of amino acids in wool. Sanger used a chemical reagent 1 - fluoro - 2, 4 - dinitrobenzene ( now, also known as Sanger 's reagent, fluorodinitrobenzene, FDNB or DNFB ), sourced from poisonous gas research by Bernhard Charles Saunders at the Chemistry Department at Cambridge University. Sanger 's reagent proved effective at labelling the N - terminal amino group at one end of the polypeptide chain. He then partially hydrolysed the insulin into short peptides, either with hydrochloric acid or using an enzyme such as trypsin. The mixture of peptides was fractionated in two dimensions on a sheet of filter paper, first by electrophoresis in one dimension and then, perpendicular to that, by chromatography in the other. The different peptide fragments of insulin, detected with ninhydrin, moved to different positions on the paper, creating a distinct pattern that Sanger called `` fingerprints ''. The peptide from the N - terminus could be recognised by the yellow colour imparted by the FDNB label and the identity of the labelled amino acid at the end of the peptide determined by complete acid hydrolysis and discovering which dinitrophenyl - amino acid was there. By repeating this type of procedure Sanger was able to determine the sequences of the many peptides generated using different methods for the initial partial hydrolysis. These could then be assembled into the longer sequences to deduce the complete structure of insulin. Finally, because the A and B chains are physiologically inactive without the three linking disulfide bonds ( two interchain, one intrachain on A ), Sanger and coworkers determined their assignments in 1955. Sanger 's principal conclusion was that the two polypeptide chains of the protein insulin had precise amino acid sequences and, by extension, that every protein had a unique sequence. It was this achievement that earned him his first Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1958. This discovery was crucial for the later sequence hypothesis of Crick for developing ideas of how DNA codes for proteins. Sequencing RNA From 1951 Sanger was a member of the external staff of the Medical Research Council and when they opened the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in 1962, he moved from his laboratories in the Biochemistry Department of the university to the top floor of the new building. He became head of the Protein Chemistry division. Prior to his move, Sanger began exploring the possibility of sequencing RNA molecules and began developing methods for separating ribonucleotide fragments generated with specific nucleases. This work he did while trying to refine the sequencing techniques he had developed during his work on insulin. The key challenge in the work was finding a pure piece of RNA to sequence. In the course of the work he discovered in 1964, with Kjeld Marcker, the formylmethionine tRNA which initiates protein synthesis in bacteria. He was beaten in the race to be the first to sequence a tRNA molecule by a group led by Robert Holley from Cornell University, who published the sequence of the 77 ribonucleotides of alanine tRNA from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1965. By 1967 Sanger 's group had determined the nucleotide sequence of the 5S ribosomal RNA from Escherichia coli, a small RNA of 120 nucleotides. Sequencing DNA Main article : DNA sequencing He then turned to sequencing DNA, which would require an entirely different approach. He looked at different ways of using DNA polymerase I from E. coli to copy single stranded DNA. In 1975, together with Alan Coulson, he published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the `` Plus and Minus '' technique. This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3 ' termini. These could be fractionated by electrophoresis on a polyacrylamide gel and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement on what had gone before, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, his group were able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single - stranded bacteriophage φX174. This was the first fully sequenced DNA - based genome. To their surprise they discovered that the coding regions of some of the genes overlapped with one another. In 1977 Sanger and colleagues introduced the `` dideoxy '' chain - termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, also known as the `` Sanger method ''. This was a major breakthrough and allowed long stretches of DNA to be rapidly and accurately sequenced. It earned him his second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1980, which he shared with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg. The new method was used by Sanger and colleagues to sequence human mitochondrial DNA ( 16,569 base pairs ) and bacteriophage λ ( 48,502 base pairs ). The dideoxy method was eventually used to sequence the entire human genome. Postgraduate students During the course of his career Sanger supervised more than ten PhD students, two of whom went on to also win Nobel Prizes. His first graduate student was Rodney Porter who joined the research group in 1947. Porter later shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Gerald Edelman for his work on the chemical structure of antibodies. Elizabeth Blackburn studied for a PhD in Sanger 's laboratory between 1971 and 1974. She shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak for her work on telomeres and the action of telomerase. Awards and Honours As of 2015, Sanger is the only person to have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice, and one of only four two - time Nobel laureates : The other three were Marie Curie ( Physics, 1903 and Chemistry, 1911 ), Linus Pauling ( Chemistry, 1954 and Peace, 1962 ) and John Bardeen ( twice Physics, 1956 and 1972 ). Elected Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1954 Commander of the Order of the British Empire -- 1963 Order of the Companions of Honour -- 1981 Order of Merit -- 1986 Corresponding Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science -- 1982 William Bate Hardy Prize -- 1976 Nobel Prize in Chemistry -- 1958, 1980 Corday -- Morgan Medal -- 1951 Royal Medal -- 1969 Gairdner Foundation International Award -- 1971 Copley Medal -- 1977 G.W. Wheland Award -- 1978 Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize of Columbia University -- 1979 Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research -- 1979 Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities Award -- 1994 Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society -- 2016 The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute ( formerly the Sanger Centre ) is named in his honour. Personal life Marriage and family Sanger married Margaret Joan Howe in 1940. She died in 2012. They had three children -- Robin, born in 1943, Peter born in 1946 and Sally Joan born in 1960. He said that his wife had `` contributed more to his work than anyone else by providing a peaceful and happy home. '' Later life The Sanger Institute Sanger retired in 1983, aged 65, to his home, `` Far Leys '', in Swaffham Bulbeck outside Cambridge. In 1992, the Wellcome Trust and the Medical Research Council founded the Sanger Centre ( now the Sanger Institute ), named after him. The Institute is located on the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus near Hinxton, only a few miles from Sanger 's home. He agreed to having the Centre named after him when asked by John Sulston, the founding director, but warned, `` It had better be good. '' It was opened by Sanger in person on 4 October 1993, with a staff of fewer than 50 people, and went on to take a leading role in the sequencing of the human genome. The Institute now has over 900 people and is one of the world 's largest genomic research centres. Sanger said he found no evidence for a God so he became an agnostic. In an interview published in the Times newspaper in 2000 Sanger is quoted as saying : `` My father was a committed Quaker and I was brought up as a Quaker, and for them truth is very important. I drifted away from those beliefs -- one is obviously looking for truth, but one needs some evidence for it. Even if I wanted to believe in God I would find it very difficult. I would need to see proof. '' He declined the offer of a knighthood, as he did not wish to be addressed as `` Sir ''. He is quoted as saying, `` A knighthood makes you different, does n't it, and I do n't want to be different. '' In 1986, he accepted the award of an Order of Merit, which can have only 24 living members. In 2007 the British Biochemical Society was given a grant by the Wellcome Trust to catalogue and preserve the 35 laboratory notebooks in which Sanger recorded his research from 1944 to 1983. In reporting this matter, Science noted that Sanger, `` the most self - effacing person you could hope to meet '', was spending his time gardening at his Cambridgeshire home. Sanger died in his sleep at Addenbrooke 's Hospital in Cambridge on 19 November 2013. As noted in his obituary, he had described himself as `` just a chap who messed about in a lab '', and `` academically not brilliant ''. Selected publications Neuberger, A. ; Sanger, F. ( 1942 ), `` The nitrogen of the potato '', Biochemical Journal, 36 ( 7 -- 9 ) : 662 -- 671, PMC 1266851, PMID 16747571. Neuberger, A. ; Sanger, F. ( 1944 ), `` The metabolism of lysine '', Biochemical Journal, 38 ( 1 ) : 119 -- 125, PMC 1258037, PMID 16747737. Sanger, F. ( 1945 ), `` The free amino groups of insulin '', Biochemical Journal, 39 ( 5 ) : 507 -- 515, doi : 10.1042 / bj0390507, PMC 1258275, PMID 16747948. Sanger, F. ( 1947 ), `` Oxidation of insulin by performic acid '', Nature, 160 ( 4061 ) : 295 -- 296, Bibcode : 1947Natur. 160... 295S, doi : 10.1038 / 160295b0, PMID 20344639. Porter, R.R. ; Sanger, F. ( 1948 ), `` The free amino groups of haemoglobins '', Biochemical Journal, 42 ( 2 ) : 287 -- 294, PMC 1258669, PMID 16748281. Sanger, F. ( 1949a ), `` Fractionation of oxidized insulin '', Biochemical Journal, 44 ( 1 ) : 126 -- 128, PMC 1274818, PMID 16748471. Sanger, F. ( 1949b ), `` The terminal peptides of insulin '', Biochemical Journal, 45 ( 5 ) : 563 -- 574, PMC 1275055, PMID 15396627. Sanger, F. ; Tuppy, H. ( 1951a ), `` The amino - acid sequence in the phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates '', Biochemical Journal, 49 ( 4 ) : 463 -- 481, doi : 10.1042 / bj0490463, PMC 1197535, PMID 14886310. Sanger, F. ; Tuppy, H. ( 1951b ), `` The amino - acid sequence in the phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 2. The investigation of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates '', Biochemical Journal, 49 ( 4 ) : 481 -- 490, doi : 10.1042 / bj0490481, PMC 1197536, PMID 14886311. Sanger, F. ; Thompson, E.O.P. ( 1953a ), `` The amino - acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates '', Biochemical Journal, 53 ( 3 ) : 353 -- 366, doi : 10.1042 / bj0530353, PMC 1198157, PMID 13032078. Sanger, F. ; Thompson, E.O.P. ( 1953b ), `` The amino - acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 2. The investigation of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates '', Biochemical Journal, 53 ( 3 ) : 366 -- 374, doi : 10.1042 / bj0530366, PMC 1198158, PMID 13032079. Sanger, F. ; Thompson, E.O.P. ; Kitai, R. ( 1955 ), `` The amide groups of insulin '', Biochemical Journal, 59 ( 3 ) : 509 -- 518, PMC 1216278, PMID 14363129. Ryle, A.P. ; Sanger, F. ; Smith, L.F. ; Kitai, R. ( 1955 ), `` The disulphide bonds of insulin '', Biochemical Journal, 60 ( 4 ) : 541 -- 556, PMC 1216151, PMID 13249947. Brown, H. ; Sanger, F. ; Kitai, R. ( 1955 ), `` The structure of pig and sheep insulins '', Biochemical Journal, 60 ( 4 ) : 556 -- 565, PMC 1216152, PMID 13249948. Sanger, F. ( 1959 ), `` Chemistry of Insulin : determination of the structure of insulin opens the way to greater understanding of life processes '', Science, 129 ( 3359 ) : 1340 -- 1344, Bibcode : 1959Sci... 129.1340 G, doi : 10.1126 / science. 129.3359. 1340, PMID 13658959. Milstein, C. ; Sanger, F. ( 1961 ), `` An amino acid sequence in the active centre of phosphoglucomutase '', Biochemical Journal, 79 ( 3 ) : 456 -- 469, PMC 1205670, PMID 13771000. Marcker, K. ; Sanger, F. ( 1964 ), `` N - formyl - methionyl - S - RNA '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 8 ( 6 ) : 835 -- 840, doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 2836 ( 64 ) 80164 - 9, PMID 14187409. Sanger, F. ; Brownlee, G.G. ; Barrell, B.G. ( 1965 ), `` A two - dimensional fractionation procedure for radioactive nucleotides '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 13 ( 2 ) : 373 -- 398, doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 2836 ( 65 ) 80104 - 8, PMID 5325727. Brownlee, G.G. ; Sanger, F. ; Barrell, B.G. ( 1967 ), `` Nucleotide sequence of 5S - ribosomal RNA from Escherichia coli '', Nature, 215 ( 5102 ) : 735 -- 736, Bibcode : 1967Natur. 215... 735B, doi : 10.1038 / 215735a0, PMID 4862513. Brownlee, G.G. ; Sanger, F. ( 1967 ), `` Nucleotide sequences from the low molecular weight ribosomal RNA of Escherichia coli '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 23 ( 3 ) : 337 -- 353, doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 2836 ( 67 ) 80109 - 8, PMID 4291728. Brownlee, G.G. ; Sanger, F. ; Barrell, B.G. ( 1968 ), `` The sequence of 5S ribosomal ribonucleic acid '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 34 ( 3 ) : 379 -- 412, doi : 10.1016 / 0022 - 2836 ( 68 ) 90168 - X, PMID 4938553. Adams, J.M. ; Jeppesen, P.G. ; Sanger, F. ; Barrell, B.G. ( 1969 ), `` Nucleotide sequence from the coat protein cistron of R17 bacteriophage RNA '', Nature, 223 ( 5210 ) : 1009 -- 1014, Bibcode : 1969Natur. 223.1009 A, doi : 10.1038 / 2231009a0, PMID 5811898. Barrell, B.G. ; Sanger, F. ( 1969 ), `` The sequence of phenylalanine tRNA from E. coli '', FEBS Letters, 3 ( 4 ) : 275 -- 278, doi : 10.1016 / 0014 - 5793 ( 69 ) 80157 - 2, PMID 11947028. Jeppesen, P.G. ; Barrell, B.G. ; Sanger, F. ; Coulson, A.R. ( 1972 ), `` Nucleotide sequences of two fragments from the coat - protein cistron of bacteriophage R17 ribonucleic acid '', Biochemical Journal, 128 ( 5 ) : 993 -- 1006, doi : 10.1042 / bj1280993h, PMC 1173988, PMID 4566195. Sanger, F. ; Donelson, J.E. ; Coulson, A.R. ; Kössel, H. ; Fischer, D. ( 1973 ), `` Use of DNA Polymerase I Primed by a Synthetic Oligonucleotide to Determine a Nucleotide Sequence in Phage f1 DNA '', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 70 ( 4 ) : 1209 -- 1213, Bibcode : 1973PNAS... 70.1209 S, doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 70.4. 1209, PMC 433459, PMID 4577794. Sanger, F. ; Coulson, A.R. ( 1975 ), `` A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 94 ( 3 ) : 441 -- 448, doi : 10.1016 / 0022 - 2836 ( 75 ) 90213 - 2, PMID 1100841. Sanger, F. ; Nicklen, S. ; Coulson, A.R. ( 1977 ), `` DNA sequencing with chain - terminating inhibitors '', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 74 ( 12 ) : 5463 -- 5467, Bibcode : 1977PNAS... 74.5463 S, doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 74.12. 5463, PMC 431765, PMID 271968. According to the Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) database, by October 2010 this paper had been cited over 64,000 times. Sanger, F. ; Air, G.M. ; Barrell, B.G. ; Brown, N.L. ; Coulson, A.R. ; Fiddes, C.A. ; Hutchinson, C.A. ; Slocombe, P.M. ; Smith, M. ( 1977 ), `` Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage φX174 DNA '', Nature, 265 ( 5596 ) : 687 -- 695, Bibcode : 1977Natur. 265... 687S, doi : 10.1038 / 265687a0, PMID 870828. Sanger, F. ; Coulson, A.R. ( 1978 ), `` The use of thin acrylamide gels for DNA sequencing '', FEBS Letters, 87 ( 1 ) : 107 -- 110, doi : 10.1016 / 0014 - 5793 ( 78 ) 80145 - 8, PMID 631324. Sanger, F. ; Coulson, A.R. ; Barrell, B.G. ; Smith, A.J. ; Roe, B.A. ( 1980 ), `` Cloning in single - stranded bacteriophage as an aid to rapid DNA sequencing '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 143 ( 2 ) : 161 -- 178, doi : 10.1016 / 0022 - 2836 ( 80 ) 90196 - 5, PMID 6260957. Anderson, S. ; Bankier, A.T. ; Barrell, B.G. ; De Bruijn, M.H. ; Coulson, A.R. ; Drouin, J. ; Eperon, I.C. ; Nierlich, D.P. ; Roe, B.A. ; Sanger, F. ; Schreier, P.H. ; Smith, A.J. ; Staden, R. ; Young, I.G. ( 1981 ), `` Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome '', Nature, 290 ( 5806 ) : 457 -- 465, Bibcode : 1981Natur. 290... 457A, doi : 10.1038 / 290457a0, PMID 7219534. Anderson, S. ; De Bruijn, M.H. ; Coulson, A.R. ; Eperon, I.C. ; Sanger, F. ; Young, I.G. ( 1982 ), `` Complete sequence of bovine mitochondrial DNA. Conserved features of the mammalian mitochondrial genome '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 156 ( 4 ) : 683 -- 717, doi : 10.1016 / 0022 - 2836 ( 82 ) 90137 - 1, PMID 7120390. Sanger, F. ; Coulson, A.R. ; Hong, G.F. ; Hill, D.F. ; Petersen, G.B. ( 1982 ), `` Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage λ DNA '', Journal of Molecular Biology, 162 ( 4 ) : 729 -- 773, doi : 10.1016 / 0022 - 2836 ( 82 ) 90546 - 0, PMID 6221115. Sanger, F. ( 1988 ), `` Sequences, sequences, and sequences '', Annual Review of Biochemistry, 57 : 1 -- 28, doi : 10.1146 / annurev. bi. 57.070188. 000245, PMID 2460023. References Jump up ^ `` Seven days : 22 -- 28 November 2013 ''. Nature. 503 ( 7477 ) : 442 -- 443. 2013. Bibcode : 2013Natur. 503... 442... doi : 10.1038 / 503442a. Jump up ^ Allen, A.K. ; Muir, H.M. ( 2001 ). `` Albert Neuberger. 15 April 1908 -- 14 August 1996 ''. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 47 : 369 -- 382. doi : 10.1098 / rsbm. 2001.0021. JSTOR 770373. PMID 15124648. ^ Jump up to : Brownlee, George G. ( 2015 ). `` Frederick Sanger CBE CH OM. 13 August 1918 -- 19 November 2013 ''. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 61 : 437 -- 466. doi : 10.1098 / rsbm. 2015.0013. ^ Jump up to : `` Nobel Prize Facts ''. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 1 September 2015. ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980 : Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, Frederick Sanger ''. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 8 October 2010. ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958 : Frederick Sanger -- biography ''. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 10 October 2010. `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980 : Frederick Sanger -- autobiography ''. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 10 October 2010. ^ Jump up to : `` A Life of Research on the Sequences of Proteins and Nucleic Acids : Fred Sanger in conversation with George Brownlee ''. Biochemical Society, Edina -- Film & Sound Online. 9 October 1992... Subscription required. A 200 min interview divided into 44 segments. Notes give the content of each segment. Jump up ^ Marks, Lara. `` Sanger 's early life : From the cradle to the laboratory ''. The path to DNA sequencing : The life and work of Fred Sanger. What is Biotechnology. Retrieved 1 September 2015. Jump up ^ Sanger, Frederick ( 1944 ). The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body ( PhD thesis ). University of Cambridge. Jump up ^ Neuberger & Sanger 1942 ; Neuberger & Sanger 1944 Jump up ^ Chibnall, A.C. ( 1942 ). `` Bakerian Lecture : Amino - Acid Analysis and the Structure of Proteins ''. Proceedings of the Royal Society B : Biological Sciences. 131 ( 863 ) : 136 -- 160. Bibcode : 1942RSPSB. 131... 136C. doi : 10.1098 / rspb. 1942.0021. Section on insulin starts on page 153. Jump up ^ Sanger & Tuppy 1951a ; Sanger & Tuppy 1951b ; Sanger & Thompson 1953a ; Sanger & Thompson 1953b Jump up ^ Sanger, F. ( 1958 ), Nobel lecture : The chemistry of insulin ( PDF ), Nobelprize.org, retrieved 18 October 2010. Sanger 's Nobel lecture was also published in Science : Sanger 1959 Jump up ^ Marks, Lara. `` Sequencing proteins : Insulin ''. The path to DNA sequencing : The life and work of Fred Sanger. What is Biotechnology. Retrieved 1 September 2015. Jump up ^ Ryle et al. 1955. Jump up ^ Stretton, A.O. ( 2002 ). `` The first sequence. Fred Sanger and insulin ''. Genetics. 162 ( 2 ) : 527 -- 532. PMC 1462286. PMID 12399368. Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958 : Frederick Sanger ''. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 8 October 2010. ^ Jump up to : Marks, Lara. `` The path to sequencing nucleic acids ''. The path to DNA sequencing : The life and work of Fred Sanger. What is Biotechnology. Retrieved 1 September 2015. Jump up ^ Marcker & Sanger 1964 Jump up ^ Holley, R.W. ; Apgar, J. ; Everett, G.A. ; Madison, J.T. ; Marquisee, M. ; Merrill, S.H. ; Penswick, J.R. ; Zamir, A. ( 1965 ). `` Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid ''. Science. 147 ( 3664 ) : 1462 -- 1465. Bibcode : 1965Sci... 147.1462 H. doi : 10.1126 / science. 147.3664. 1462. PMID 14263761. Jump up ^ Brownlee, Sanger & Barrell 1967 ; Brownlee, Sanger & Barrell 1968 Jump up ^ Sanger et al. 1973 Jump up ^ Sanger & Coulson 1975 ^ Jump up to : Sanger, F. ( 1980 ). `` Nobel lecture : Determination of nucleotide sequences in DNA '' ( PDF ). Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 18 October 2010. Jump up ^ Sanger et al. 1977 Jump up ^ Sanger, Nicklen & Coulson 1977 Jump up ^ Anderson et al. 1981 Jump up ^ Sanger et al. 1982 Jump up ^ Walker, John ( 2014 ). `` Frederick Sanger ( 1918 -- 2013 ) Double Nobel - prizewinning genomics pioneer ''. Nature. 505 ( 7481 ) : 27. Bibcode : 2014Natur. 505... 27W. doi : 10.1038 / 505027a. PMID 24380948. Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1972 ''. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 1 September 2015. Jump up ^ Blackburn, E.H. ( 1974 ). Sequence studies on bacteriophage ØX174 DNA by transcription ( PhD thesis ). University of Cambridge. Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009 ''. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 1 September 2015. Jump up ^ `` 2016 Awardees ''. American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry. University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign School of Chemical Sciences. 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2017. Jump up ^ `` Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award '' ( PDF ). American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry. University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign School of Chemical Sciences. 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2017. Jump up ^ Sanger, F. ; Nicklen, S. ; Coulson, A.R. ( 1977 ), `` DNA sequencing with chain - terminating inhibitors '', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 74 ( 12 ) : 5463 -- 5467, Bibcode : 1977PNAS... 74.5463 S, doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 74.12. 5463, PMC 431765, PMID 271968 ^ Jump up to : `` Frederick Sanger, OM ''. The Telegraph. Retrieved 20 November 2013. ^ Jump up to : `` Frederick Sanger ''. Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2010. ^ Jump up to : Hargittai, István ( April 1999 ). `` Interview : Frederick Sanger ''. The Chemical Intelligencer. New York : Springer - Verlag. 4 ( 2 ) : 6 -- 11... This interview, which took place on 16 September 1997, was republished in Hargittai, István ( 2002 ). `` Chapter 5 : Frederick Sanger ''. Candid science II : conversations with famous biomedical scientists. London : Imperial College Press. pp. 73 -- 83. ISBN 1 - 86094 - 288 - 1. ^ Jump up to : Ahuja, Anjana ( 12 January 2000 ), `` The double Nobel laureate who began the book of life '', The Times, London, p. 40 Jump up ^ Bhattachjee, Yudhijit, ed. ( 2007 ). `` Newsmakers : A Life in Science ''. Science. 317 : 879. doi : 10.1126 / science. 317.5840. 879e. Jump up ^ `` Frederick Sanger : Nobel Prize winner dies at 95 ''. BBC.co.uk. 20 November 2013. Retrieved 20 November 2013. Jump up ^ `` Frederick Sanger : Unassuming British biochemist whose pivotal and far - reaching discoveries made him one of a handful of double Nobel prizewinners ''. The Times. London. 21 November 2013. p. 63. Jump up ^ Frederick Sanger 's achievements can not be overstated, The Conversation, 21 November 2013 Further reading Biography portal Molecular and cellular biology portal Viruses portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Frederick Sanger. Brownlee, George G. ( 2014 ). Fred Sanger, double Nobel laureate : a biography. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978 - 1 - 107 - 08334 - 9. Chapters 4 - 6 contain the 1992 interview that the author conducted with Sanger. Finch, John ( 2008 ), A Nobel Fellow on every floor : a history of the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge : Medical Research Council, ISBN 978 - 1 - 84046 - 940 - 0. García - Sancho, Miguel ( 2010 ). `` A new insight into Sanger 's development of sequencing : from proteins to DNA, 1943 -- 1977 ''. Journal of the History of Biology. 43 : 265 -- 323. doi : 10.1007 / s10739 - 009 - 9184 - 1. Sanger, F. ; Dowding, M. ( 1996 ), Selected Papers of Frederick Sanger : with commentaries, Singapore : World Scientific, ISBN 981 - 02 - 2430 - 3. The Sanger Institute About the 1958 Nobel Prize About the 1980 Nobel Prize Fred Sanger 2001 Video Documentary by The Vega Science Trust National Portrait Gallery Frederick Sanger interviewed by Alan Macfarlane, 24 August 2007 ( film ), also available on Video on YouTube. Duration 57 minutes. Interviews with Nobel Prize -- winning scientists : Dr Frederick Sanger, British Broadcasting Corporation, c. 1985. Interviewed by Lewis Wolpert. Duration 1 hour. Frederick Sanger archive collection - Wellcome Library finding aid for the digitised collection. Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1901 -- 1925 1901 Jacobus van ' t Hoff 1902 Emil Fischer 1903 Svante Arrhenius 1904 William Ramsay 1905 Adolf von Baeyer 1906 Henri Moissan 1907 Eduard Buchner 1908 Ernest Rutherford 1909 Wilhelm Ostwald 1910 Otto Wallach 1911 Marie Curie 1912 Victor Grignard / Paul Sabatier 1913 Alfred Werner 1914 Theodore Richards 1915 Richard Willstätter 1916 1917 1918 Fritz Haber 1919 1920 Walther Nernst 1921 Frederick Soddy 1922 Francis Aston 1923 Fritz Pregl 1924 1925 Richard Zsigmondy 1926 -- 1950 1926 Theodor Svedberg 1927 Heinrich Wieland 1928 Adolf Windaus 1929 Arthur Harden / Hans von Euler - Chelpin 1930 Hans Fischer 1931 Carl Bosch / Friedrich Bergius 1932 Irving Langmuir 1933 1934 Harold Urey 1935 Frédéric Joliot - Curie / Irène Joliot - Curie 1936 Peter Debye 1937 Norman Haworth / Paul Karrer 1938 Richard Kuhn 1939 Adolf Butenandt / Leopold Ružička 1940 1941 1942 1943 George de Hevesy 1944 Otto Hahn 1945 Artturi Virtanen 1946 James B. Sumner / John Northrop / Wendell Meredith Stanley 1947 Robert Robinson 1948 Arne Tiselius 1949 William Giauque 1950 Otto Diels / Kurt Alder 1951 -- 1975 1951 Edwin McMillan / Glenn T. Seaborg 1952 Archer Martin / Richard Synge 1953 Hermann Staudinger 1954 Linus Pauling 1955 Vincent du Vigneaud 1956 Cyril Hinshelwood / Nikolay Semyonov 1957 Alexander Todd 1958 Frederick Sanger 1959 Jaroslav Heyrovský 1960 Willard Libby 1961 Melvin Calvin 1962 Max Perutz / John Kendrew 1963 Karl Ziegler / Giulio Natta 1964 Dorothy Hodgkin 1965 Robert Woodward 1966 Robert S. Mulliken 1967 Manfred Eigen / Ronald Norrish / George Porter 1968 Lars Onsager 1969 Derek Barton / Odd Hassel 1970 Luis Federico Leloir 1971 Gerhard Herzberg 1972 Christian B. Anfinsen / Stanford Moore / William Stein 1973 Ernst Otto Fischer / Geoffrey Wilkinson 1974 Paul Flory 1975 John Cornforth / Vladimir Prelog 1976 -- 2000 1976 William Lipscomb 1977 Ilya Prigogine 1978 Peter D. Mitchell 1979 Herbert C. Brown / Georg Wittig 1980 Paul Berg / Walter Gilbert / Frederick Sanger 1981 Kenichi Fukui / Roald Hoffmann 1982 Aaron Klug 1983 Henry Taube 1984 Robert Merrifield 1985 Herbert A. Hauptman / Jerome Karle 1986 Dudley R. Herschbach / Yuan T. Lee / John Polanyi 1987 Donald J. Cram / Jean - Marie Lehn / Charles J. Pedersen 1988 Johann Deisenhofer / Robert Huber / Hartmut Michel 1989 Sidney Altman / Thomas Cech 1990 Elias Corey 1991 Richard R. Ernst 1992 Rudolph A. Marcus 1993 Kary Mullis / Michael Smith 1994 George Olah 1995 Paul J. Crutzen / Mario J. Molina / Frank Rowland 1996 Robert Curl / Harold Kroto / Richard Smalley 1997 Paul D. Boyer / John E. Walker / Jens Christian Skou 1998 Walter Kohn / John Pople 1999 Ahmed Zewail 2000 Alan J. Heeger / Alan MacDiarmid / Hideki Shirakawa 2001 -- present 2001 William Knowles / Ryoji Noyori / K. Barry Sharpless 2002 John B. Fenn / Koichi Tanaka / Kurt Wüthrich 2003 Peter Agre / Roderick MacKinnon 2004 Aaron Ciechanover / Avram Hershko / Irwin Rose 2005 Robert H. Grubbs / Richard R. Schrock / Yves Chauvin 2006 Roger D. Kornberg 2007 Gerhard Ertl 2008 Osamu Shimomura / Martin Chalfie / Roger Y. Tsien 2009 Venkatraman Ramakrishnan / Thomas A. Steitz / Ada E. Yonath 2010 Richard F. Heck / Akira Suzuki / Ei - ichi Negishi 2011 Dan Shechtman 2012 Robert Lefkowitz / Brian Kobilka 2013 Martin Karplus / Michael Levitt / Arieh Warshel 2014 Eric Betzig / Stefan Hell / William E. Moerner 2015 Tomas Lindahl / Paul L. Modrich / Aziz Sancar 2016 Jean - Pierre Sauvage / Fraser Stoddart / Ben Feringa 2017 Jacques Dubochet / Joachim Frank / Richard Henderson Copley Medallists of 1951 -- 2000 David Keilin ( 1951 ) Paul Dirac ( 1952 ) Albert Kluyver ( 1953 ) E.T. Whittaker ( 1954 ) Ronald Fisher ( 1955 ) Patrick Blackett ( 1956 ) Howard Florey ( 1957 ) John Edensor Littlewood ( 1958 ) Frank Macfarlane Burnet ( 1959 ) Harold Jeffreys ( 1960 ) Hans Adolf Krebs ( 1961 ) Cyril Norman Hinshelwood ( 1962 ) Paul Fildes ( 1963 ) Sydney Chapman ( 1964 ) Alan Lloyd Hodgkin ( 1965 ) William Lawrence Bragg ( 1966 ) Bernard Katz ( 1967 ) Tadeusz Reichstein ( 1968 ) Peter Medawar ( 1969 ) Alexander R. Todd ( 1970 ) Norman Pirie ( 1971 ) Nevill Francis Mott ( 1972 ) Andrew Huxley ( 1973 ) W.V.D. Hodge ( 1974 ) Francis Crick ( 1975 ) Dorothy Hodgkin ( 1976 ) Frederick Sanger ( 1977 ) Robert Burns Woodward ( 1978 ) Max Perutz ( 1979 ) Derek Barton ( 1980 ) Peter D. Mitchell ( 1981 ) John Cornforth ( 1982 ) Rodney Robert Porter ( 1983 ) Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar ( 1984 ) Aaron Klug ( 1985 ) Rudolf Peierls ( 1986 ) Robin Hill ( 1987 ) Michael Atiyah ( 1988 ) César Milstein ( 1989 ) Abdus Salam ( 1990 ) Sydney Brenner ( 1991 ) George Porter ( 1992 ) James D. Watson ( 1993 ) Frederick Charles Frank ( 1994 ) Frank Fenner ( 1995 ) Alan Cottrell ( 1996 ) Hugh Huxley ( 1997 ) James Lighthill ( 1998 ) John Maynard Smith ( 1999 ) Alan Battersby ( 2000 ) VIAF : 84811103 LCCN : n96003800 ISNI : 0000 0000 8398 1625 GND : 142077445 SUDOC : 084997761 BNF : cb13609989v ( data ) IATH : w63s3fsh Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&oldid=815458873 '' Categories : 1918 births 2013 deaths Alumni of St John 's College, Cambridge Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization Fellows of King 's College, Cambridge Academics of the University of Cambridge Commanders of the Order of the British Empire English biochemists English agnostics Fellows of the Royal Society Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Members of the Order of Merit Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour Nobel laureates in Chemistry Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards British Nobel laureates People educated at Bryanston School People educated at Malvern College Members of the French Academy of Sciences English pacifists English conscientious objectors Royal Medal winners Recipients of the Copley Medal English Nobel laureates People from Cotswold ( district ) Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy Hidden categories : EngvarB from November 2013 Use dmy dates from November 2013 Articles with hCards Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2015 All articles containing potentially dated statements All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from November 2013 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - ID identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پنجابی Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2017, at 23 : 15. 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Question: who discovered insulin which can be used for medical saver
Answer: Frederick Sanger