Oil spill - wikipedia Oil spill Kelp after an oil spill Oil slick from the Montara oil spill in the Timor Sea, September 2009 An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products ( such as gasoline, diesel ) and their by - products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water ( affecting evaporation and biodegradation ), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up. Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society ; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening. Contents 1 Largest oil spills 2 Human impact 3 Environmental effects 4 Sources and rate of occurrence 5 Cleanup and recovery 5.1 Prevention 6 Environmental Sensitivity Index ( ESI ) mapping 6.1 Shoreline type 6.2 Biological resources 6.3 Human - use resources 7 Estimating the volume of a spill 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading Largest oil spills Main article : List of oil spills Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged vulnerable ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France, the Sundarbans, Ogoniland, and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons ( e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz ), but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response. Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily. Largest oil spills Spill / Tanker Location Date Tonnes of crude oil ( thousands ) Barrels ( thousands ) US Gallons ( thousands ) References Kuwaiti Oil Fires Kuwait 000000001991 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16, 1991 -- 000000001991 - 11 - 06 - 0000 November 6, 1991 7005136000000000000 ♠ 136,000 7006100000000000000 ♠ 1,000,000 7007420000000000000 ♠ 42,000,000 Kuwaiti Oil Lakes Kuwait 000000001991 - 01 - 01 - 0000 January 1991 -- 000000001991 - 11 - 01 - 0000 November 1991 7003340900000000000 ♠ 3,409 -- 6,818 7004250000000000000 ♠ 25,000 -- 50,000 7006105000000000000 ♠ 1,050,000 -- 2,100,000 Lakeview Gusher United States, Kern County, California 000000001910 - 03 - 14 - 0000 March 14, 1910 -- 000000001911 - 09 - 01 - 0000 September 1911 7003120000000000000 ♠ 1,200 7003900000000000000 ♠ 9,000 7005378000000000000 ♠ 378,000 Gulf War oil spill Kuwait, Iraq, and the Persian Gulf 000000001991 - 01 - 19 - 0000 January 19, 1991 -- 000000001991 - 01 - 28 - 0000 January 28, 1991 7002818000000000000 ♠ 818 -- 1,091 7003600000000000000 ♠ 6,000 -- 8,000 7005252000000000000 ♠ 252,000 -- 336,000 Deepwater Horizon United States, Gulf of Mexico 000000002010 - 04 - 20 - 0000 April 20, 2010 -- 000000002010 - 07 - 15 - 0000 July 15, 2010 7002560000000000000 ♠ 560 -- 585 7003410000000000000 ♠ 4,100 -- 4,900 7005172000000000000 ♠ 172,000 -- 180,800 Ixtoc I Mexico, Gulf of Mexico 000000001979 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1979 -- 000000001980 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23, 1980 7002454000000000000 ♠ 454 -- 480 7003332900000000000 ♠ 3,329 -- 3,520 7005139818000000000 ♠ 139,818 -- 147,840 Atlantic Empress / Aegean Captain Trinidad and Tobago 000000001979 - 07 - 19 - 0000 July 19, 1979 7002287000000000000 ♠ 287 7003210500000000000 ♠ 2,105 7004883960000000000 ♠ 88,396 Fergana Valley Uzbekistan 000000001992 - 03 - 02 - 0000 March 2, 1992 7002285000000000000 ♠ 285 7003209000000000000 ♠ 2,090 7004877800000000000 ♠ 87,780 Nowruz Field Platform Iran, Persian Gulf 000000001983 - 02 - 04 - 0000 February 4, 1983 7002260000000000000 ♠ 260 7003190700000000000 ♠ 1,907 7004800800000000000 ♠ 80,080 ABT Summer Angola, 700 nmi ( 1,300 km ; 810 mi ) offshore 000000001991 - 05 - 28 - 0000 May 28, 1991 7002260000000000000 ♠ 260 7003190700000000000 ♠ 1,907 7004800800000000000 ♠ 80,080 Castillo de Bellver South Africa, Saldanha Bay 000000001983 - 08 - 06 - 0000 August 6, 1983 7002252000000000000 ♠ 252 7003184800000000000 ♠ 1,848 7004776160000000000 ♠ 77,616 Amoco Cadiz France, Brittany 000000001978 - 03 - 16 - 0000 March 16, 1978 7002223000000000000 ♠ 223 7003163500000000000 ♠ 1,635 7004686840000000000 ♠ 68,684 Jump up ^ One metric ton ( tonne ) of crude oil is roughly equal to 308 US gallons or 7.33 barrels approx. ; 1 oil barrel ( bbl ) is equal to 35 imperial or 42 US gallons. Approximate conversion factors. Archived 2014 - 06 - 21 at the Wayback Machine. Jump up ^ Estimates for the amount of oil burned in the Kuwaiti Oil Fires range from 500,000,000 barrels ( 79,000,000 m ) to nearly 2,000,000,000 barrels ( 320,000,000 m ). Between 605 and 732 wells were set ablaze, while many others were severely damaged and gushed uncontrolled for several months. It took over ten months to bring all of the wells under control. The fires alone were estimated to consume approximately 6,000,000 barrels ( 950,000 m ) of oil per day at their peak. Jump up ^ Oil spilled from sabotaged fields in Kuwait during the 1991 Persian Gulf War pooled in approximately 300 oil lakes, estimated by the Kuwaiti Oil Minister to contain approximately 25,000,000 to 50,000,000 barrels ( 7,900,000 m ) of oil. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, this figure does not include the amount of oil absorbed by the ground, forming a layer of `` tarcrete '' over approximately five percent of the surface of Kuwait, fifty times the area occupied by the oil lakes. Jump up ^ Estimates for the Gulf War oil spill range from 4,000,000 to 11,000,000 barrels ( 1,700,000 m ). The figure of 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 barrels ( 1,300,000 m ) is the range adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the United Nations in the immediate aftermath of the war, 1991 -- 1993, and is still current, as cited by NOAA and The New York Times in 2010. This amount only includes oil discharged directly into the Persian Gulf by the retreating Iraqi forces from January 19 to 28, 1991. However, according to the U.N. report, oil from other sources not included in the official estimates continued to pour into the Persian Gulf through June, 1991. The amount of this oil was estimated to be at least several hundred thousand barrels, and may have factored into the estimates above 8,000,000 barrels ( 1,300,000 m ). Human impact An oil spill represents an immediate fire hazard. The Kuwaiti oil fires produced air pollution that caused respiratory distress. The Deepwater Horizon explosion killed eleven oil rig workers. The fire resulting from the Lac - Mégantic derailment killed 47 and destroyed half of the town 's centre. Spilled oil can also contaminate drinking water supplies. For example, in 2013 two different oil spills contaminated water supplies for 300,000 in Miri, Malaysia ; 80,000 people in Coca, Ecuador,. In 2000, springs were contaminated by an oil spill in Clark County, Kentucky. Contamination can have an economic impact on tourism and marine resource extraction industries. For example, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacted beach tourism and fishing along the Gulf Coast, and the responsible parties were required to compensate economic victims. Environmental effects Further information : Oil pollution toxicity to marine fish A surf scoter covered in oil as a result of the 2007 San Francisco Bay oil spill A bird covered in oil from the Black Sea oil spill In general, spilled oil can affect animals and plants in two ways : dirесt from the oil and from the response or cleanup process. There is no clear relationship between the amount of oil in the aquatic environment and the likely impact on biodiversity. A smaller spill at the wrong time / wrong season and in a sensitive environment may prove much more harmful than a larger spill at another time of the year in another or even the same environment. Oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Animals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers can not due to the strong scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve and eventually die. Oil can impair a bird 's ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. As they preen, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating the digestive tract, altering liver function, and causing kidney damage. Together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result in dehydration and metabolic imbalance. Some birds exposed to petroleum also experience changes in their hormonal balance, including changes in their luteinizing protein. The majority of birds affected by oil spills die from complications without human intervention. Some studies have suggested that less than one percent of oil - soaked birds survive, even after cleaning, although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent, as in the case of the Treasure oil spill. Heavily furred marine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in similar ways. Oil coats the fur of sea otters and seals, reducing its insulating effect, and leading to fluctuations in body temperature and hypothermia. Oil can also blind an animal, leaving it defenseless. The ingestion of oil causes dehydration and impairs the digestive process. Animals can be poisoned, and may die from oil entering the lungs or liver. There are three kinds of oil - consuming bacteria. Sulfate - reducing bacteria ( SRB ) and acid - producing bacteria are anaerobic, while general aerobic bacteria ( GAB ) are aerobic. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain. The chemicals from the oil which dissolve in water, and hence are available to bacteria, are those in the water associated fraction of the oil. In addition, oil spills can also harm air quality. The chemicals in crude oil are mostly hydrocarbons that contains toxic chemicals such as benzenes, toluene, poly - aromatic hydrocarbon and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These chemicals can introduce adverse health effects when being inhaled into human body. In addition, these chemicals can be oxidized by oxidants in the atmosphere to form fine particulate matter after they evaporate into the atmosphere. These particulates can penetrate lungs and carry toxic chemicals into the human body. Burning surface oil can also be a source for pollution such as soot particles. During the cleanup and recovery process, it will also generate air pollutants such as nitric oxides and ozone from ships. Lastly, bubble bursting can also be a generation pathway for particulate matter during an oil spill. During the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, significant air quality issues were found on the Gulf Coast, which is the downwind of DWH oil spill. Air quality monitoring data showed that criteria pollutants had exceeded the health - based standard in the coastal regions. Sources and rate of occurrence A VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels ( 320,000 m ) of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez oil spill. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 260,000 barrels ( 41,000 m ) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners ' organisations often argue that the industry 's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that `` accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels -- one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s -- at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s. '' Oil tankers are just one of the many sources of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7 % of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels ( ships / barges ), 27.6 % from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9 % from non-tank vessels, and 9.3 % from pipelines ; 7.4 % from mystery spills. On the other hand, only 5 % of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8 % came from other kinds of vessels. The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974. According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil. 91 % of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84 % of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons. Cleanup and recovery A U.S. Air Force Reserve plane sprays Corexit dispersant over the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Clean - up efforts after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. A US Navy oil spill response team drills with a `` Harbour Buster high - speed oil containment system ''. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water ( affecting evaporation and biodegradation ), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. See also : Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X Challenge Methods for cleaning up include : Bioremediation : use of microorganisms or biological agents to break down or remove oil ; such as the bacteria Alcanivorax or Methylocella Silvestris. Bioremediation Accelerator : Oleophilic, hydrophobic chemical, containing no bacteria, which chemically and physically bonds to both soluble and insoluble hydrocarbons. The bioremediation accelerator acts as a herding agent in water and on the surface, floating molecules to the surface of the water, including solubles such as phenols and BTEX, forming gel - like agglomerations. Undetectable levels of hydrocarbons can be obtained in produced water and manageable water columns. By overspraying sheen with bioremediation accelerator, sheen is eliminated within minutes. Whether applied on land or on water, the nutrient - rich emulsion creates a bloom of local, indigenous, pre-existing, hydrocarbon - consuming bacteria. Those specific bacteria break down the hydrocarbons into water and carbon dioxide, with EPA tests showing 98 % of alkanes biodegraded in 28 days ; and aromatics being biodegraded 200 times faster than in nature they also sometimes use the hydrofireboom to clean the oil up by taking it away from most of the oil and burning it. Controlled burning can effectively reduce the amount of oil in water, if done properly. But it can only be done in low wind, and can cause air pollution. Oil slicks on Lake Maracaibo Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the Prestige oil spill Dispersants can be used to dissipate oil slicks. A dispersant is either a non-surface active polymer or a surface - active substance added to a suspension, usually a colloid, to improve the separation of particles and to prevent settling or clumping. They may rapidly disperse large amounts of certain oil types from the sea surface by transferring it into the water column. They will cause the oil slick to break up and form water - soluble micelles that are rapidly diluted. The oil is then effectively spread throughout a larger volume of water than the surface from where the oil was dispersed. They can also delay the formation of persistent oil - in - water emulsions. However, laboratory experiments showed that dispersants increased toxic hydrocarbon levels in fish by a factor of up to 100 and may kill fish eggs. Dispersed oil droplets infiltrate into deeper water and can lethally contaminate coral. Research indicates that some dispersants are toxic to corals. A 2012 study found that Corexit dispersant had increased the toxicity of oil by up to 52 times. Watch and wait : in some cases, natural attenuation of oil may be most appropriate, due to the invasive nature of facilitated methods of remediation, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands. Dredging : for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water. Skimming : Requires calm waters at all times during the process. Solidifying : Solidifiers are composed of tiny, floating, dry ice pellets, and hydrophobic polymers that both adsorb and absorb. They clean up oil spills by changing the physical state of spilled oil from liquid to a solid, semi-solid or a rubber - like material that floats on water. Solidifiers are insoluble in water, therefore the removal of the solidified oil is easy and the oil will not leach out. Solidifiers have been proven to be relatively non-toxic to aquatic and wild life and have been proven to suppress harmful vapors commonly associated with hydrocarbons such as Benzene, Xylene, Methyl Ethyl, Acetone and Naphtha. The reaction time for solidification of oil is controlled by the surface area or size of the polymer or dry pellets as well as the viscosity and thickness of the oil layer. Some solidifier product manufactures claim the solidified oil can be thawed and used if frozen with dry ice or disposed of in landfills, recycled as an additive in asphalt or rubber products, or burned as a low ash fuel. A solidifier called C.I. Agent ( manufactured by C.I. Agent Solutions of Louisville, Kentucky ) is being used by BP in granular form, as well as in Marine and Sheen Booms at Dauphin Island and Fort Morgan, Alabama, to aid in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill cleanup. Vacuum and centrifuge : oil can be sucked up along with the water, and then a centrifuge can be used to separate the oil from the water - allowing a tanker to be filled with near pure oil. Usually, the water is returned to the sea, making the process more efficient, but allowing small amounts of oil to go back as well. This issue has hampered the use of centrifuges due to a United States regulation limiting the amount of oil in water returned to the sea. Beach Raking : coagulated oil that is left on the beach can be picked up by machinery. Bags of oily waste from the Exxon Valdez oil spill Equipment used includes : Booms : large floating barriers that round up oil and lift the oil off the water Skimmers : skim the oil Sorbents : large absorbents that absorb oil Chemical and biological agents : helps to break down the oil Vacuums : remove oil from beaches and water surface Shovels and other road equipment : typically used to clean up oil on beaches Prevention Further information : Offshore oil spill prevention and response Secondary containment - methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into environment. Oil Spill Prevention Containment and Countermeasures ( SPCC ) program by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Double - hulling - build double hulls into vessels, which reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding. Existing single - hull vessels can also be rebuilt to have a double hull. Thick - hulled railroad transport tanks. Spill response procedures should include elements such as ; A listing of appropriate protective clothing, safety equipment, and cleanup materials required for spill cleanup ( gloves, respirators, etc. ) and an explanation of their proper use ; Appropriate evacuation zones and procedures ; Availability of fire suppression equipment ; Disposal containers for spill cleanup materials ; and The first aid procedures that might be required. Environmental Sensitivity Index ( ESI ) Mapping Environmental Sensitivity Index ( ESI ) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies. By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented. Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories : shoreline type, and biological and human - use resources. Shoreline type Shoreline type is classified by rank depending on how easy the target site would be to clean up, how long the oil would persist, and how sensitive the shoreline is. The floating oil slicks put the shoreline at particular risk when they eventually come ashore, covering the substrate with oil. The differing substrates between shoreline types vary in their response to oiling, and influence the type of cleanup that will be required to effectively decontaminate the shoreline. In 1995, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration extended ESI maps to lakes, rivers, and estuary shoreline types. The exposure the shoreline has to wave energy and tides, substrate type, and slope of the shoreline are also taken into account -- in addition to biological productivity and sensitivity. The productivity of the shoreline habitat is also taken into account when determining ESI ranking. Mangroves and marshes tend to have higher ESI rankings due to the potentially long - lasting and damaging effects of both the oil contamination and cleanup actions. Impermeable and exposed surfaces with high wave action are ranked lower due to the reflecting waves keeping oil from coming onshore, and the speed at which natural processes will remove the oil. Biological resources Habitats of plants and animals that may be at risk from oil spills are referred to as `` elements '' and are divided by functional group. Further classification divides each element into species groups with similar life histories and behaviors relative to their vulnerability to oil spills. There are eight element groups : Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish, Invertebrates, Habitats and Plants, Wetlands, and Marine Mammals and Terrestrial Mammals. Element groups are further divided into sub-groups, for example, the ' marine mammals ' element group is divided into dolphins, manatees, pinnipeds ( seals, sea lions & walruses ), polar bears, sea otters and whales. Problems taken into consideration when ranking biological resources include the observance of a large number of individuals in a small area, whether special life stages occur ashore ( nesting or molting ), and whether there are species present that are threatened, endangered or rare. Human - use resources Human use resources are divided into four major classifications ; archaeological importance or cultural resource site, high - use recreational areas or shoreline access points, important protected management areas, or resource origins. Some examples include airports, diving sites, popular beach sites, marinas, natural reserves or marine sanctuaries. Estimating the volume of a spill By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated. Film thickness Quantity spread Appearance inches mm nm gal / sq mi L / ha Barely visible 0.0000015 0.0000380 38 25 0.370 Silvery sheen 0.0000030 0.0000760 76 50 0.730 First trace of color 0.0000060 0.0001500 150 100 1.500 Bright bands of color 0.0000120 0.0003000 300 200 2.900 Colors begin to dull 0.00004 0.0010000 1000 666 9.700 Colors are much darker 0.0000800 0.0020000 2000 1332 19.500 Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling ( WOSM ) program. Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source. This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present. Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being polyaromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of carbazole, quinoline, and pyridine, are present in many crude oils. As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine - tune source tracking of petroleum spills. Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills. See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oil spill. Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills Environmental issues with petroleum Environmental issues with shipping LNG spill Low - temperature thermal desorption National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan Ohmsett ( Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank ) Oil Pollution Act of 1990 ( in the US ) Oil well Penguin sweater Project Deep Spill, the first intentional deepwater oil and gas spill Pseudomonas putida ( used for degrading oil ) S - 200 ( fertilizer ) ShoreZone Spill containment Tarball References ^ Jump up to : `` Lingering Lessons of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill ''. Commondreams.org. 2004 - 03 - 22. Archived from the original on June 13, 2010. Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 27. Jump up ^ `` Hindsight and Foresight, 20 Years After the Exxon Valdez Spill ''. NOAA. 2010 - 03 - 16. 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Sci. : Processes Impacts. 16 ( 1 ) : 65 -- 73. doi : 10.1039 / C3EM00390F. Jump up ^ Nance, Earthea ; King, Denae ; Wright, Beverly ; Bullard, Robert D. ( 13 November 2015 ). `` Ambient air concentrations exceeded health - based standards for fine particulate matter and benzene during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill ''. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 66 ( 2 ) : 224 -- 236. doi : 10.1080 / 10962247.2015. 1114044. Jump up ^ Panetta, L.E. ( Chair ) ( 2003 ). America 's living oceans : charting a course for sea change ( Electronic Version, CD ) Pew Oceans Commission. ^ Jump up to : United States Coast Guard ( 2007 ). `` Cumulative Spill Data and Graphics ''. United States Coast Guard. Archived from the original on 2008 - 10 - 08. Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 10. Jump up ^ International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation ( 2008 ). `` Oil Tanker Spill Information Pack ''. London : International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation. Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 08. Jump up ^ Oil spill cleanup technology Patents and patent applications Archived November 10, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Jump up ^ `` The Environmental Literacy Council - Oil Spills ''. Enviroliteracy.org. 2008 - 06 - 25. Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16. Jump up ^ `` Biological Agents -- Emergency Management -- US EPA ''. Jump up ^ Kasai, Y ; et al. ( 2002 ). `` Predominant Growth of Alcanivorax Strains in Oil - contaminated and Nutrient - supplemented Sea Water ''. Environmental Microbiology. 4 ( 3 ) : 141 -- 47. doi : 10.1046 / j. 1462 - 2920.2002. 00275. x. CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Oil and natural gas eating bacteria to clear - up spills ''. www.oilandgastechnology.net. April 30, 2014. Jump up ^ `` S - 200 NCP Product Schedule Emergency Management US EPA ''. Epa.gov. Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16. ^ Jump up to : `` Emergency Response : Responding to Oil Spills ''. Office of Response and Restoration. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007 - 06 - 20. Jump up ^ Mullin, Joseph V ; Champ, Michael A ( 2003 - 08 - 01 ). `` Introduction / Overview to In Situ Burning of Oil Spills ''. Spill Science & Technology Bulletin. In - Situ Burning of Spilled Oil. 8 ( 4 ) : 323 -- 330. doi : 10.1016 / S1353 - 2561 ( 03 ) 00076 - 8. Jump up ^ `` Oil Spills ''. Library.thinkquest.org. Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 27. Jump up ^ `` Spill Response - Dispersants ''. International Tanker Operators Pollution Federation Limited. Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03. Jump up ^ `` Spill Response - Dispersants Kill Fish Eggs ''. journal Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 21. Jump up ^ Barry Carolyn ( 2007 ). `` Slick Death : Oil - spill treatment kills coral ''. Science News. 172 : 67. Jump up ^ `` Dispersant makes oil 52 times more toxic - Technology & science - Science - LiveScience - NBC News ''. msnbc.com. Retrieved 20 April 2015. Jump up ^ Pezeshki, S.R. ; Hester, M.W. ; Lin, Q. ; Nyman, J.A. ( 2000 ). `` The effects of oil spill clean - up on dominant US Gulf coast marsh macrophytes : a review ''. Environmental Pollution. 108 : 129 -- 139. doi : 10.1016 / s0269 - 7491 ( 99 ) 00244 - 4. Jump up ^ `` A slick idea '' by Cara Murphy Beach Reporter Manhattan Beach section ll / 14 / 1992 Jump up ^ `` Zapping Oil Spills with Dry Ice and Ingenuity '' by Gordon Dillow Los Angeles Times South Bay section page 1 2 / 24 / 1994 Jump up ^ If only they 'd tried the chilled - soup solution in Alaska '' by John Bogert Daily Breeze ( Torrance CA ) local section page B1 2 / 17 / 1994 Jump up ^ Fountain, Henry ( 2010 - 06 - 24 ). `` Advances in Oil Spill Cleanup Lag Since Valdez ''. New York Times. Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 05. Jump up ^ `` Quebec tragedy unlikely to slow oil shipments via rail ''. BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 20 April 2015. Jump up ^ `` Oil Spill Response Procedure '' ( PDF ). Chemstore UK. Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 25. Jump up ^ `` Environmental Sensitivity Index ( ESI ) Maps ''. Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 27. Jump up ^ `` NOAA 's Ocean Service Office of Response and Restoration ''. Response.restoration.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16. ^ Jump up to : NOAA ( 2002 ). Environmental Sensitivity Index Guidelines, version 3.0. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OR&R 11. Seattle : Hazardous Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 129p. Jump up ^ Gundlach, E.R. and M.O. Hayes ( 1978 ). Vulnerability of Coastal Environments to Oil Spill Impacts. Marine Technology Society. 12 ( 4 ) : 18 - 27. ^ Jump up to : NOAA ( 2008 ). Introduction to Environmental Sensitivity Index maps. NOAA Technical Manual. Seattle : Hazardous Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 56p. ^ Jump up to : IMO / IPIECA ( 1994 ). Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response. International Maritime Organization / International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association Report Series, Volume 1. 22p. Jump up ^ Metcalf & Eddy. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse. 4th ed. New York : McGraw - Hill, 2003. 98. Jump up ^ Anderson, E.L., E. Howlett, K. Jayko, V. Kolluru, M. Reed, and M. Spaulding. 1993. The worldwide oil spill model ( WOSM ) : an overview. Pp. 627 -- 646 in Proceedings of the 16th Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program, Technical Seminar. Ottawa, Ontario : Environment Canada. Jump up ^ Wang, Z. ; Fingas, M. ; Page, D.S. ( 1999 ). `` Oil spill identification ''. Journal of Chromatography A. 843 : 369 -- 411. doi : 10.1016 / S0021 - 9673 ( 99 ) 00120 - X. Further reading Nelson - Smith, Oil Pollution and Marine Ecology, Elek Scientific, London, 1972 ; Plenum, New York, 1973 Oil Spill Case Histories 1967 - 1991, NOAA / Hazardous Materials and Response Division, Seattle, WA, 1992 Oilspill Data set Ramseur, Jonathan L. Oil Spills : Background and Governance ), Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC, September 15, 2017 Marine pollution Algal bloom Anoxic event Anoxic waters Aquatic toxicology Cultural eutrophication Cyanotoxin Dead zone Environmental impact of shipping Eutrophication Fish diseases and parasites Fish kill Friendly Floatees Great Pacific garbage patch Hypoxia Indian Ocean garbage patch Invasive species Marine debris Mercury in fish Nonpoint source pollution North Atlantic garbage patch Nutrient pollution Ocean acidification Ocean deoxygenation Oil spill Particle Plastic particle water pollution Point source pollution Shutdown of thermohaline circulation Stormwater Surface runoff Upwelling Urban runoff Water pollution Pollution Air pollution Acid rain Air quality index Atmospheric dispersion modeling Chlorofluorocarbon Indoor air quality Global dimming Global distillation Global warming Ozone depletion Atmospheric particulate matter Smog Water pollution Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products Environmental impact of shipping Environmental monitoring Eutrophication Freshwater environmental quality parameters Groundwater pollution Hypoxia Marine debris Marine pollution Ocean acidification Oil spill Septic tank Surface runoff Thermal pollution Turbidity Urban runoff Wastewater Water quality Water stagnation Waterborne diseases Soil contamination Bioremediation Electrical resistance heating Herbicide Open defecation Pesticide Phytoremediation Soil Guideline Values ( SGVs ) Radioactive contamination Actinides in the environment Bioremediation of radioactive waste Environmental radioactivity Fission product Nuclear fallout Plutonium in the environment Radiation poisoning Radium in the environment Uranium in the environment Other types of pollution Land degradation Light pollution Pollution from nanomaterials Noise pollution Radio spectrum pollution Urban heat island Visual pollution Inter-government treaties Basel Convention CLRTAP Kyoto Protocol MARPOL Convention Montreal Protocol OSPAR Rotterdam Convention Stockholm Convention Major organizations Basel Action Network Central Pollution Control Board ( India ) DEFRA Environment Agency ( England and Wales ) Scottish Environment Protection Agency U.S. EPA European Environment Agency Greenpeace Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oil_spill&oldid=816020673 '' Categories : Oil spills Hazards Bird mortality Ocean pollution Product safety scandals Road hazards Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 errors : missing author or editor CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from June 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano עברית മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska తెలుగు Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2017, at 18 : 56. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: what is the worst oil spill in history
Answer: Kuwaiti Oil Fires