Arctic - wikipedia Arctic For the ships, see MV Arctic, SS Arctic, USS Arctic. For other uses, see Arctic ( disambiguation ) See also : Arctic exploration, Arctic ice pack, and North Pole Location of the Arctic Artificially coloured topographical map of the Arctic region MODIS image of the Arctic Arctic countries based on countries or countries territories bordering the Arctic Circle The nations which comprise the Arctic region. The Arctic ( / ˈɑːrktɪk / or / ˈɑːrtɪk / ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska ( United States ), Northern Canada, Finland, Greenland ( Denmark ), Iceland, Norway, Russia and Sweden. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost - containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places. The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. In recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. Contents 1 Definition and etymology 2 Climate 3 Flora and fauna 3.1 Plants 3.2 Animals 4 Natural resources 5 Palaeontology 6 Indigenous population 7 International cooperation and politics 7.1 Territorial claims 7.2 Exploration 7.3 Pollution 7.4 Preservation 8 Global warming 9 Arctic waters 10 Arctic lands 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 16 External links Definition and Etymology The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός ( arktikos ), `` near the Bear, northern '' and that from the word ἄρκτος ( arktos ), meaning bear. The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the `` Great Bear '', which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the `` Little Bear '', which contains Polaris, the Pole star, also known as the North Star. There are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle ( 66 ° 33'N ), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic is the region where the average temperature for the warmest month ( July ) is below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) ; the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region. Climate Main articles : Climate of the Arctic and Global warming in the Arctic The Arctic 's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm ( 20 in ). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can be as low as − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately − 68 ° C ( − 90 ° F ). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the poleward migration of the planet 's isotherms ( about 35 mi ( 56 km ) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming ), the Arctic region ( as defined by tree line and temperature ) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near - complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near - complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Flora and fauna Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and to cold, dark, snow - covered winter conditions. Plants Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees can not grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) in height ; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare ; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs ( like the Arctic poppy ). Animals Muskox A snowy owl Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear, and wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other land animals include wolverines, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and several species of cetacean -- baleen whales and also narwhals, killer whales, and belugas. An excellent and famous example of a ring species exists and has been described around the arctic circle in the form of the Larus gulls. Natural resources See also : Natural resources of the Arctic and Petroleum exploration in the Arctic The Arctic includes sizable natural resources ( oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is included, forest ) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase. The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1 / 5 of the Earth 's water supply. Palaeontology Marine fossils in Canadian Arctic During the Cretaceous time period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia. However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year - round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70 ° N but at the time ( 70 million years ago ) was 10 ° further north. Indigenous population Circumpolar coastal human population distribution c. 2009 ( includes indigenous and non-indigenous ). Main article : Circumpolar peoples Further information : Indigenous peoples of Siberia and Inuit Circumpolar Council The earliest inhabitants of North America 's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition ( AST ) and existed c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several Paleo - Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture. The Dorset culture ( Inuktitut : Tuniit or Tunit ) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050 -- 550 BC. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 AD. Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century. The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the 9th -- 10th centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture. Others believe the Thule displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present - day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia, and the United States. Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Buryat, Chukchi, Evenks, Inupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, Gwich'in, and Yupik. The Yupik still refer to themselves as Eskimo, which means `` snowshoe netters '', not `` raw meat eaters '' as it is sometimes mistakenly translated. International cooperation and politics Main article : Arctic cooperation and politics Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole. USS Honolulu pictured. The eight Arctic nations ( Canada, Denmark ( Greenland & The Faroe Islands ), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA ) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes. Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty / defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters. Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro - Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research. Territorial claims Main article : Territorial claims in the Arctic No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean -- Canada, Denmark ( via Greenland ), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States -- are limited to a 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) exclusive economic zone ( EEZ ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states ( Finland and Sweden ) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean. Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway ( which ratified the convention in 1996 ), Russia ( ratified in 1997 ), Canada ( ratified in 2003 ) and Denmark ( ratified in 2004 ) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories. On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR - 1 and MIR - 2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust - proof titanium alloy. The mission was a scientific expedition, but the flag - placing during Arktika 2007 generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic 's vast hydrocarbon resources. Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration, blocking any `` new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean, '' and pledging `` the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims. '' As of 2012, Denmark is claiming the continental shelf between Greenland and the North Pole. The Russian Federation is claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but confined to its sector of the Arctic. Exploration Main article : Arctic exploration See also : Petroleum exploration in the Arctic Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian - side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow. Pollution Long - range pollution pathways to the Arctic The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people 's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long - range transport pollutants, and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long - range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB 's ( polychlorinated biphenyls ) in Arctic wildlife and people. Preservation Main article : Save the Arctic There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at the Rio Earth Summit, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic protection. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic. Global warming Main article : Global warming in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification. Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and compared to 1979 -- 2000 average The development of Arctic sea ice area as measured with satellites. The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide. The current Arctic warming is leading to fears of ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases. Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on Tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens. Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route. One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic. Eidsfjord in Vesterålen, Norway is 250 km ( 160 mi ) inside the Arctic Circle, but the comparatively temperate Norwegian sea gives a mean annual temperature of 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) and a three - month summer above 10 ° C. Arctic waters Arctic Ocean Baffin Bay Beaufort Sea Barents Sea Bering Sea Bering Strait Chukchi Sea Davis Strait Denmark Strait East Siberian Sea Greenland Sea Hudson Bay Kara Sea Laptev Sea Nares Strait Norwegian Sea Arctic lands This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( July 2014 ) Geographic Designation National Affiliation Designation Alaska United States State Aleutian Islands United States Alaskan Archipelago Arkhangelsk Oblast Russia Federal subject Canadian Arctic Archipelago Canada Canadian Archipelago Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject Diomede Island ( Big ) Russia Island Diomede Island ( Little ) United States Island Finnmark Norway County Franz Josef Land Russia Federal subject archipelago Greenland Denmark Autonomous country Grímsey Iceland Island Jan Mayen Norway Island Krasnoyarsk Krai Russia Federal subject Lapland Sweden Province Murmansk Oblast Russia Federal subject Nenets Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject New Siberian Islands Russia Archipelago Nordland Norway County Norrbotten Sweden Province Northwest Territories Canada Territory Novaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago Nunavik Canada Northern part of Quebec Nunavut Canada Territory Russian Arctic islands Russia Islands Sápmi Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia Fennoscandia region Sakha Republic Russia Federal subject Severnaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago Siberia Russia Region Svalbard Norway Governor of Svalbard archipelago Troms Norway County Yukon Canada Territory Yamalo - Nenets Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject Wrangel Island Russia Zapovednik ( nature reserve ) See also Arctic portal Antarctica portal Geography portal List of countries by northernmost point Poverty in the Arctic Ring species Antarctic Notes Jump up ^ The word was originally pronounced without the / k / sound, but the pronunciation with the k sound is nowadays very common. The `` c '' was added to the spelling for etymological reasons and then began to be pronounced, but ( as with other spelling pronunciations ) at first only by less educated people. References ^ Jump up to : American Heritage Dictionary Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. `` Antarctic ''. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 16 November 2011. ^ Jump up to : Serreze, Mc ; Holland, Mm ; Stroeve, J ( Mar 2007 ). `` Perspectives on the Arctic 's shrinking sea - ice cover ''. Science. 315 ( 5818 ) : 1533 -- 6. Bibcode : 2007Sci... 315.1533 S. PMID 17363664. doi : 10.1126 / science. 1139426. Jump up ^ `` Global Sea Ice Extent and Concentration : What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice. '' National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 1 May 2009. Jump up ^ Christopher Krembs and Jody Deming. `` Organisms that thrive in Arctic sea ice. '' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 18 November 2006. Jump up ^ Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. `` Arktikos. '' A Greek - English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. Jump up ^ Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. `` Arktos. '' A Greek - English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. Jump up ^ `` The Great Bear Constellation Ursa Major ''. Archived from the original on 30 November 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010. Jump up ^ `` arctic. '' Dictionary.com Unabridged ( v 1.1 ). Random House, Inc. Retrieved 2 May 2009. Jump up ^ Addison, Kenneth ( 2002 ). Fundamentals of the physical environment. Routledge. p. 482. ISBN 0 - 415 - 23293 - 7. Jump up ^ Hansen, Jim ( 19 October 2006 ). `` The Planet in Peril -- Part I ''. Yale Center for the Study of Globalization. Archived from the original on 15 October 2009. Jump up ^ `` A palaeontologist 's Alaskan adventure ''. New Scientist. 9 June 2012. Jump up ^ Hoffecker, John F. ( 2005 ). A prehistory of the north : human settlement of the higher latitudes. Rutgers University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0 - 8135 - 3469 - 0. Jump up ^ Gibbon, pp. 28 -- 31 Jump up ^ Gibbon, pp. 216 -- 217 Jump up ^ McGhee, Robert ( 2005 ). The last imaginary place : a human history of the Arctic world ( Digitized 7 October 2008 ed. ). Oxford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 0 - 19 - 518368 - 1. Jump up ^ Gibbon, p. 218 Jump up ^ `` First Nations Culture Areas Index ''. the Canadian Museum of Civilization. Jump up ^ `` Arctic Peoples ''. British Museum. ^ Jump up to : Buixadé Farré, Albert ; Stephenson, Scott R. ; Chen, Linling ; Czub, Michael ; Dai, Ying ; Demchev, Denis ; Efimov, Yaroslav ; Graczyk, Piotr ; Grythe, Henrik ; Keil, Kathrin ; Kivekäs, Niku ; Kumar, Naresh ; Liu, Nengye ; Matelenok, Igor ; Myksvoll, Mari ; O'Leary, Derek ; Olsen, Julia ; Pavithran. A.P., Sachin ; Petersen, Edward ; Raspotnik, Andreas ; Ryzhov, Ivan ; Solski, Jan ; Suo, Lingling ; Troein, Caroline ; Valeeva, Vilena ; van Rijckevorsel, Jaap ; Wighting, Jonathan ( 16 October 2014 ). `` Commercial Arctic shipping through the Northeast Passage : Routes, resources, governance, technology, and infrastructure '' ( PDF ). Polar Geography. 37 ( 4 ) : 298. doi : 10.1080 / 1088937X. 2014.965769. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 5 December 2015. Jump up ^ Berkman, Paul ( 23 June 2014 ). `` Stability and Peace in the Arctic Ocean through Science Diplomacy ''. Science & Diplomacy. 3 ( 2 ). Jump up ^ `` United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( Annex 2, Article 4 ) ''. Archived from the original on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007. ^ Jump up to : `` Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements ''. United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. 22 April 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2009. Jump up ^ Yenikeyeff, S.M. and Fenton Krysiek, Timothy ( August 2007 ). The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier : The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. Jump up ^ `` Conference in Ilulissat, Greenland : Landmark political declaration on the future of the Arctic ''. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark. 28 May 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2009. Jump up ^ `` The Ilulissat Declaration '' ( PDF ). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark. 28 May 2008. Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. Jump up ^ Boswell, Randy ( 28 May 2008 ). `` Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle ''. canada.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2008. Jump up ^ `` Dansker vil dokumentere territorialkrav i Arktis '' ( in Norwegian ). NRK. 28 July 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2015. Jump up ^ `` North Pole drifting stations ( 1930s -- 1980s ) ''. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 30 April 2009. Jump up ^ Stars launch campaign to save the Arctic. Greenpeace ( 21 June 2012 ). Jump up ^ Study links 2015 melting Greenland ice to faster Arctic warming 9 June 2016 University of Georgia Jump up ^ `` Arctic cut - off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record ''. Nature Communications. 7 : 11723. doi : 10.1038 / ncomms11723. Jump up ^ Fetterer, F., K. Knowles, W. Meier, and M. Savoie. 2002, updated 2009. Sea Ice Index. Boulder, Colorado USA : National Snow and Ice Data Center. Digital media. Jump up ^ `` Impacts of a warming Arctic : Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ''. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press. February 2005. ISBN 0 - 521 - 61778 - 2. doi : 10.2277 / 0521617782 ( inactive 2017 - 01 - 31 ). Jump up ^ Grinberg, Emanuella ( 17 December 2008 ). `` Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says. '' CNN. Jump up ^ Lenton, T.M. ; Held, H. ; Kriegler, E. ; Hall, J.W. ; Lucht, W. ; Rahmstorf, S. ; Schellnhuber, H.J. ( 2008 ). `` Inaugural Article : Tipping elements in the Earth 's climate system ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 ( 6 ) : 1786. Bibcode : 2008PNAS... 105.1786 L. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0705414105. Jump up ^ `` Abrupt Climate Change Focus Of U.S. National Laboratories ''. Science Daily. 23 September 2008. Jump up ^ Myers - Smith, Isla H. ; Forbes, Bruce C. ; Wilmking, Martin ; Hallinger, Martin ; Lantz, Trevor ; Blok, Daan ; Tape, Ken D. ; Macias - Fauria, Marc ; Sass - Klaassen, Ute ( 2011 - 01 - 01 ). `` Shrub expansion in tundra ecosystems : dynamics, impacts and research priorities ''. Environmental Research Letters. 6 ( 4 ) : 045509. ISSN 1748 - 9326. doi : 10.1088 / 1748 - 9326 / 6 / 4 / 045509. Jump up ^ Alatalo, Juha M. ; Jägerbrand, Annika K. ; Molau, Ulf ( 2015 - 11 - 01 ). `` Testing reliability of short - term responses to predict longer - term responses of bryophytes and lichens to environmental change ''. Ecological Indicators. 58 : 77 -- 85. doi : 10.1016 / j. ecolind. 2015.05. 050. Jump up ^ `` Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage ? '' Archived 9 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine. CNN. 29 August 2002. Jump up ^ `` Largest Cruise Ship Ever To Sail Northwest Passage Docks In NYC ''. Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 24. Jump up ^ Demos, Telis. `` The great Arctic Circle oil rush. '' CNN. 8 August 2007. Jump up ^ Shaw, Rob. `` New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty : PM ''. Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007. Jump up ^ Halpin, Tony. `` Russia stakes its claim on North Pole in underwater search for oil ''. The Times. 28 July 2007. Jump up ^ `` Arctic melt stuns scientists ''. CBS News. 9 October 2007. Jump up ^ `` Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle ''. Canada.com. 28 May 2008. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Jump up ^ Stokmarknes in Vesterålen 1961 -- 1990 average. Retro.met.no ( 28 January 2008 ). Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 18. Bibliography Gibbon, Guy E. ; Kenneth M. Ames ( 1998 ). Archaeology of prehistoric native America : an encyclopedia. Volume 1537 of Garland reference library of the humanities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0 - 8153 - 0725 - X. Further reading `` Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic '' -- 24 - page special journal issue ( fall 2009 ), Swords and Ploughshares, Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security ( ACDIS ), University of Illinois GLOBIO Human Impact maps Report on human impacts on the Arctic Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, eds. Smithsonian at the Poles : Contributions to International Polar Year Science. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009. Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander : The Arctic at the Crossroads of Geopolitical Interests Russian Politics and Law, 2012, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 34 -- 54 Käpylä, Juha & Mikkola, Harri : The Global Arctic : The Growing Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the United States and the European Union FIIA Briefing Paper 133, August 2013, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs. Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. The Arctic at the crossroads of geopolitical interests / / Russian Politics and Law, 2012. -- Vol. 50, -- No 2. -- P. 34 - 54 Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander : Is Russia a revisionist military power in the Arctic ? Defense & Security Analysis, September 2014. Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy : between hard and soft power ? Polar Journal, April 2014. Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander : Russia 's Policies on the Territorial Disputes in the Arctic Journal of International Relations and Foreign Policy, March 2014, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 55 -- 83. O'Rourke, Ronald ( 14 October 2016 ). Changes in the Arctic : Background and Issues for Congress ( PDF ). Washington, DC : Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 20 October 2016. Sperry, Armstrong ( 1957 ). All About the Arctic and Antarctic. Random House. LCCN 57007518. http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/energy/great-energy-challenge/arctic/ External links Find more aboutArcticat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Arctic Report Card International Arctic Research Center Arctic Theme Page Comprehensive Arctic Resource from NOAA. WWF International Arctic Programme Arctic environment and conservation information Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem Current state of the Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem. Comprehensive resource on the Bering Sea with viewable oceanographic, atmospheric, climatic, biological and fisheries data with ecosystem relevance, recent trends, essays on key Bering Sea issues, maps, photos, animals and more. From NOAA. Toxoplasma gondii in the Subarctic and Arctic Protecting U.S. Sovereignty : Coast Guard Operations in the Arctic : Hearing before the Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session, 1 December 2011 Maps Arctic Environmental Atlas Circum - Arctic interactive map, with multiple layers of information Interactive Satellite Map with daily update ( true color / infrared ) Media The Emerging Arctic An Infoguide from the Council on Foreign Relations `` Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic '' -- streaming video of November 2009 symposium at the University of Illinois Implications of an Ice - Free Arctic for Global Security -- November 2009 radio interview with Professor Klaus Dodds ( Royal Holloway, University of London ) The Canadian Museum of Civilization -- The Story of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913 -- 1918 UNEP / GRID - Arendal Maps and Graphics library Information resources from the UN Environment programme Arctic Institute of North America Digital Library Over 8000 photographs dating from the late 19th century through the 20th century. euroarctic.com News service from the Barents region provided by Norwegian Broadcasting Corp ( NRK ), Swedish Radio ( SR ) and STBC Murman. arcticfocus.com Independent News service covering Arctic region with daily updates on environment, Arctic disputes and business Vital Arctic Graphics Overview and case studies of the Arctic environment and the Arctic Indigenous Peoples. 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Larsen Sea Ross Sea Scotia Sea Somov Sea Weddell Sea Endorheic basins Aral Sea Caspian Sea Dead Sea Sea of Galilee Salton Sea Book Category World deserts Desert Desertification List of deserts List of deserts by area Africa Algerian Bayuda Blue Chalbi Danakil Djurab Eastern Ferlo Farafra ( White ) Kalahari Libyan Moçâmedes Namib Nubian Nyiri Owami Richtersveld Sahara Tanezrouft Ténéré Western Asia Ad - Dahna Akshi Arabian Aral Karakum Aralkum Badain Jaran Betpak - Dala Cholistan Dasht - e Kavir Dasht - e Khash Dasht - e Leili Dasht - e Loot Dasht - e Margo Dasht - e Naomid Gurbantünggüt Gobi Hami Indus Valley Judaean Karakum Katpana Kharan Kumtag Kyzylkum Liwa Lop Maranjab Muyunkum Nefud Negev Polond Ordos Qaidam Ramlat al - Sab'atayn Rub ' al Khali Russian Arctic Registan Saryesik - Atyrau Syrian Taklamakan Tengger Thal Thar Ustyurt Plateau Wahiba Sands Australia Gibson Great Sandy Great Victoria Little Sandy Nullarbor Plain Painted Pedirka Simpson Strzelecki Sturt 's Stony Tanami Tirari Europe Accona Bardenas Reales Błędów Cabo de Gata Deliblatska Peščara Hálendi Monegros Oleshky Oltenian Sahara Ryn Stranja Tabernas North America Alvord Amargosa Baja California Black Rock Carcross Carson Channeled scablands Chihuahuan Colorado Escalante Forty Mile Gran Desierto de Altar Great Basin Great Salt Lake Great Sandy Jornada del Muerto Kaʻū Lechuguilla Mojave North American Arctic Owyhee Painted Desert Red Desert Sevier Smoke Creek Sonoran Tonopah Desert Tule ( Arizona ) Tule ( Nevada ) Yp Yuha Yuma South America Atacama La Guajira Los Médanos de Coro Monte Patagonian Sechura Tatacoa Oceania Zealandia : Rangipo Desert Polar regions Antarctica Arctic Greenland North American Arctic Russian Arctic Project Category Commons Arctic topics History Arctic research Exploration of the Arctic History of whaling Government Arctic Council Arctic cooperation and politics Arctic Ocean Conference Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Ilulissat Declaration Inuit Circumpolar Council Saami Council Territorial claims in the Arctic Geography Arctic Circle Arctic ecology Arctic Ocean Arctic Cyclone Arctic geography terminology Greenland ice sheet Impact craters of the Arctic North Pole Populated places in the Arctic Tundra Nordicity Regions Arctic Alaska British Arctic Territories Canadian Arctic Archipelago Finnmark Greenland Northern Canada Northwest Territories Nunavik Nunavut Russian Arctic Sakha Sápmi Yukon North American Arctic Climate Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Arctic dipole anomaly Arctic sea ice ecology and history Arctic ice pack Arctic sea ice decline Climate of Alaska Polar climate Effects of global warming on marine mammals Polar amplification Global warming in the Arctic Fauna Walrus Narwhal Bowhead whale Polar bear Arctic fox Snowy owl Reindeer Caribou Beluga whale Lemming Muskox Ribbon seal Bearded seal Hooded seal Harp seal Ringed seal Flora Arctic ecology Arctic vegetation Tundra Culture Arctic peoples Subarctic peoples Northern Indigenous Peoples of Russia Evenks Inuit Chukotka Koryaks Nenets Khanty Chukchi Selkup Sami Yukaghir Gwich'in Yakuts Arctic Winter Games Tsagaan Sar ( New Year 's Day ) Economy Arctic Refuge drilling controversy Parks, reserves and refuges Transportation in the Arctic Petroleum exploration in the Arctic Natural resources of the Arctic Transport Arctic shipping routes Arctic Bridge Northeast Passage Northwest Passage Northern Sea Route Transpolar Sea Route Polar air route Search and rescue Category Portal WikiProject Polar exploration Arctic Ocean History Expeditions Research stations Farthest North North Pole Barentsz Hudson Marmaduke Carolus Parry North Magnetic Pole J. Ross J.C. Ross Abernethy Kane Hayes Polaris Polaris C.F. Hall British Arctic Expedition HMS Alert Nares HMS Discovery Stephenson Markham Lady Franklin Bay Expedition Greely Lockwood Brainard 1st Fram expedition Fram Nansen Johansen Sverdrup Jason Amedeo F. Cook Peary Sedov Byrd Airship Norge Amundsen Nobile Wisting Riiser - Larsen Ellsworth Airship Italia Nautilus Wilkins ANT - 25 Chkalov Baydukov Belyakov `` North Pole '' manned drifting ice stations NP - 1 Papanin Shirshov E. Fyodorov Krenkel NP - 36 NP - 37 Sedov Badygin Wiese USS Nautilus USS Skate Plaisted Herbert NS Arktika Barneo Arktika 2007 Mir submersibles Sagalevich Chilingarov Iceland Greenland Pytheas Brendan Papar Vikings Naddodd Svavarsson Arnarson Norse colonization of the Americas Ulfsson Galti Erik the Red Christian IV 's expeditions J. Hall Cunningham Lindenov C. Richardson Danish colonization Egede Scoresby Jason Nansen Sverdrup Peary Rasmussen Northwest Passage Northern Canada Cabot G. Corte - Real M. Corte - Real Frobisher Gilbert Davis Hudson Discovery Bylot Baffin Munk I. Fyodorov Gvozdev HMS Resolution J. Cook HMS Discovery Clerke Mackenzie Kotzebue J. Ross HMS Griper Parry HMS Hecla Lyon HMS Fury Hoppner Crozier J.C. Ross Coppermine Expedition Franklin Back Dease Simpson HMS Blossom Beechey Franklin 's lost expedition HMS Erebus HMS Terror Collinson Rae -- Richardson Expedition Rae J. Richardson Austin McClure Expedition HMS Investigator McClure HMS Resolute Kellett Belcher Kennedy Bellot Isabel Inglefield 2nd Grinnell Expedition USS Advance Kane Fox McClintock HMS Pandora Young Fram Sverdrup Gjøa Amundsen Rasmussen Karluk Stefansson Bartlett St. Roch H. Larsen Cowper North East Passage Russian Arctic Pomors Koch boats Willoughby Chancellor Barentsz Mangazeya Hudson Poole Siberian Cossacks Perfilyev Stadukhin Dezhnev Popov Ivanov Vagin Permyakov Great Northern Expedition Bering Chirikov Malygin Ovtsyn Minin V. Pronchishchev M. Pronchishcheva Chelyuskin Kh. Laptev D. Laptev Chichagov Lyakhov Billings Sannikov Gedenschtrom Wrangel Matyushkin Anjou Litke Lavrov Pakhtusov Tsivolko Middendorff Austro - Hungarian Expedition Weyprecht Payer Vega Expedition A.E. Nordenskiöld Palander USS Jeannette De Long Yermak Makarov Zarya Toll Kolomeitsev Matisen Kolchak Sedov Rusanov Kuchin Brusilov Expedition Sv. Anna Brusilov Albanov Konrad Wiese Nagórski Taymyr / Vaygach Vilkitsky Maud Amundsen AARI Samoylovich Begichev Urvantsev Sadko Ushakov Glavsevmorput Schmidt Aviaarktika Shevelev Sibiryakov Voronin Chelyuskin Krassin Gakkel Nuclear - powered icebreakers NS Lenin Arktika class Antarctic Continent History Expeditions Southern Ocean Roché Bouvet Kerguelen HMS Resolution J. Cook HMS Adventure Furneaux Smith San Telmo Vostok Bellingshausen Mirny Lazarev Bransfield Palmer Davis Weddell Morrell Astrolabe Dumont d'Urville United States Exploring Expedition USS Vincennes Wilkes USS Porpoise Ringgold Ross expedition HMS Erebus ( J.C. 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Ross HMS Terror Crozier Southern Cross Borchgrevink Discovery Barne Nimrod Shackleton Wild Marshall Adams South Magnetic Pole Mawson David Mackay Amundsen 's South Pole expedition Fram Amundsen Bjaaland Helmer Hassel Wisting Polheim Terra Nova Scott E. Evans Oates Wilson Bowers Byrd Balchen McKinley Dufek Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station Hillary V. Fuchs Pole of Cold Vostok Station Pole of inaccessibility Pole of Inaccessibility Station Tolstikov Crary A. Fuchs Messner VIAF : 247151216 GND : 4002924 - 4 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arctic&oldid=800292532 '' Categories : Arctic Polar regions of the Earth Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 CS1 Norwegian - language sources ( no ) Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017 Webarchive template wayback links Articles with dead external links from July 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use dmy dates from June 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2007 Articles needing additional references from July 2014 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikivoyage Acèh Afrikaans አማርኛ Ænglisc Авар Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ भोजपुरी Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 贛 語 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Patois Picard Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Lea faka - Tonga Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Vepsän kel ' Tiếng Việt Winaray Wolof ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 September 2017, at 16 : 35. 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Question: where is the arctic located in the world
Answer: at the northernmost part of Earth