Saffron - wikipedia Saffron For other uses, see Saffron ( disambiguation ). Saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, with its vivid crimson stigmas and styles Delicate saffron threads, plucked from crocus flowers and dried Saffron ( pronounced / ˈsæfrən / or / ˈsæfrɒn / ) is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the `` saffron crocus ''. The vivid crimson stigmas and styles, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food. Saffron, long among the world 's most costly spices by weight, was probably first cultivated in or near Greece. C. sativus is probably a form of C. cartwrightianus, that emerged by human cultivators selectively breeding plants for unusually long stigmas in late Bronze Age Crete. It slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania. Saffron 's taste and iodoform or hay - like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal. It also contains a carotenoid pigment, crocin, which imparts a rich golden - yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th - century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal, and it has been traded and used for over four millennia. Iran now accounts for approximately 90 % of the world production of saffron. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Species 2.1 Description 2.2 Cultivation 3 Spice 3.1 Chemistry 3.2 Grades and ISO 3632 categories 3.3 Adulteration 3.4 Types 4 Trade 5 Uses 5.1 Nutrition 5.2 Research 6 History 6.1 Eastern 6.2 Wider Near East 6.3 Western Europe 6.4 The Americas 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Etymology Further information : History of saffron A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word `` saffron ''. It might stem from the 12th - century Old French term safran, which comes from the Latin word safranum or from Arabic, az - za'faran, having unknown origin. Species Main article : Crocus sativus Description Köhler 's Medicinal Plants : corolla stamens corm stigma C. sativus. The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn - flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. It probably descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn - flowering Crocus cartwrightianus, which is also known as `` wild saffron '' and originated in Crete or Greece. An origin in Southwest Asia, although often suspected, has been disapproved by botanical research. The saffron crocus probably resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources. As a genetically monomorphic clone, it slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia. It is a sterile triploid form, which means that three homologous sets of chromosomes compose each specimen 's genetic complement ; C. sativus bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total. Being sterile, the purple flowers of C. sativus fail to produce viable seeds ; reproduction hinges on human assistance : clusters of corms, underground, bulb - like, starch - storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten `` cormlets '' that can grow into new plants in the next season. The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as 5 cm ( 2 in ) in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres ; this coat is referred to as the `` corm tunic ''. Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net - like, that grow up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) above the plant 's neck. The plant sprouts 5 -- 11 white and non-photosynthetic leaves known as cataphylls. These membrane - like structures cover and protect the crocus 's 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade - like green foliage leaves, which are 1 -- 3 mm ( 0.04 -- 0.12 in ), in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ( `` hysteranthous '' ) or do so simultaneously with their blooming ( `` synanthous '' ). C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower - bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems ; the latter are known as pedicels. After aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop ; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve. The flowers possess a sweet, honey - like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are 20 -- 30 cm ( 8 -- 12 in ) in height and bear up to four flowers. A three - pronged style 25 -- 30 mm ( 1.0 -- 1.2 in ) in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma, which are the distal end of a carpel. Cultivation Saffron bulbs for vegetative reproduction The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from Crocus cartwrightianus. It is a triploid that is `` self - incompatible '' and male sterile ; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction -- all propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual `` divide - and - set '' of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation. Crocus sativus thrives in the Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype superficially resembling the North American chaparral, and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) and short periods of snow cover. Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000 -- 1,500 mm ( 39 -- 59 in ) ; saffron - growing regions in Greece ( 500 mm or 20 in annually ) and Spain ( 400 mm or 16 in ) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons ; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields ; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops, and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. Nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot pose other threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield. Saffron harvesting, Torbat - e Heydarieh, Iran The plants fare poorly in shady conditions ; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal ( i.e., south - sloping in the Northern Hemisphere ). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7 -- 15 cm ( 3 -- 6 in ) deep ; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February. Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher - quality saffron, though form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm ( 6 in ) deep and in rows 2 -- 3 cm ( 0.8 -- 1.2 in ) apart ; depths of 8 -- 10 cm ( 3 -- 4 in ) optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales. C. sativus prefers friable, loose, low - density, well - watered, and well - drained clay - calcareous soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20 -- 30 tonnes ( 20 -- 30 long tons ; 22 -- 33 short tons ) of manure per hectare. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted. After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair : after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes. All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks. Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and ( preferably ) sealed in airtight containers. One freshly picked flower yields an average 30 mg ( 0.0011 oz ) of fresh saffron or 7 mg ( 0.00025 oz ) dried ; roughly 150 flowers yield 1 g ( 0.035 oz ) of dry saffron threads ; to produce 12 g ( 0.42 oz ) of dried saffron, 1 kg ( 2.2 lb ) of flowers are needed ; 1 lb ( 0.45 kg ) yields 0.2 oz ( 5.7 g ) of dried saffron. To glean 1 lb ( 450 g ) of dry saffron requires the harvest of 50,000 -- 75,000 flowers ; a kilogram requires 110,000 -- 170,000 flowers. Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers. Spice Chemistry Structure of picrocrocin : β -- D - glucopyranose derivative safranal moiety Esterification reaction between crocetin and gentiobiose. Components of α -- crocin : β -- D - gentiobiose crocetin Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma - yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components, many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α - and β - carotenes. However, saffron 's golden yellow - orange colour is primarily the result of α - crocin. This crocin is trans - crocetin di - ( β - D - gentiobiosyl ) ester ; it bears the systematic ( IUPAC ) name 8, 8 - diapo - 8, 8 - carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron 's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin. Crocins themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin. Crocetin is a conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid that is hydrophobic, and thus oil - soluble. When crocetin is esterified with two water - soluble gentiobioses, which are sugars, a product results that is itself water - soluble. The resultant α - crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10 % of dry saffron 's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α - crocin ideal for colouring water - based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes. The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron 's flavour. Picrocrocin ( chemical formula : C 16 H 26 O 7 ; systematic name : 4 - ( β - D - glucopyranosyloxy ) - 2, 6, 6 - trimethylcyclohex - 1 - ene - 1 - carboxaldehyde ) is a union of an aldehyde sub-molecule known as safranal ( systematic name : 2, 6, 6 - trimethylcyclohexa - 1, 3 - diene - 1 - carboxaldehyde ) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4 % of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid zeaxanthin that is produced via oxidative cleavage, and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield D -- glucose and a free safranal molecule. Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma. Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70 % of dry saffron 's volatile fraction in some samples. A second molecule underlying saffron 's aroma is 2 - hydroxy - 4, 4, 6 - trimethyl - 2, 5 - cyclohexadien - 1 - one, which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay - like. Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron 's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal. Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and oxidising agents. It must, therefore, be stored away in air - tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat. Grades and ISO 3632 categories Red threads and yellow styles from Iran. High quality red threads from Austrian saffron. Pure Kashmiri saffron package Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram, because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron from Iran, Spain and Kashmir is classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are : `` sargol '' ( red stigma tips only, strongest grade ), `` pushal '' or `` pushali '' ( red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength ), `` bunch '' saffron ( red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf ) and `` konge '' ( yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential ). Grades of Spanish saffron are `` coupé '' ( the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol ), `` mancha '' ( like Iranian pushal ), and in order of further decreasing strength `` rio '', `` standard '' and `` sierra '' saffron. The word `` mancha '' in the Spanish classification can have two meanings : a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish - grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish - grown La Mancha saffron has PDO protected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as `` Spanish Mancha saffron '' were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand. Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high grade saffron. In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard ISO 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin ( responsible for saffron 's colour ), picrocrocin ( taste ), and safranal ( fragrance or aroma ) content. However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron. Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ( `` floral waste content '' ) and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ( `` ash '' ) are also key. Grading standards are set by the International Organization for Standardization, a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories : III ( poorest quality ), II, and I ( finest quality ). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice 's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric absorbance. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20 -- 50 for all categories. These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the `` colouring strength '' of that saffron. Saffron 's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 ( for all category IV saffron ) up to 200 or greater ( for category I ). The world 's finest samples ( the selected, most red - maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers ) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength ( the measurement of crocin content ) is displayed. However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced wine tasters. However, ISO 3632 grade and colouring strength information allow consumers to make instant comparisons between the quality of different saffron brands, without needing to purchase and sample the saffron. In particular, consumers can work out value for money based on price per unit of colouring strength rather than price per gram, given the wide possible range of colouring strengths that different kinds of saffron can have. Adulteration Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration, particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe 's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code. Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beetroot, pomegranate fibres, red - dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus 's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, in India, high - grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports ; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income. Safflower is a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited with horse hair, corn silk, or shredded paper. Tartrazine or sunset yellow have been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron. Types Saffron from different producer countries, picked and dried in different ways gives rise to different end qualities. The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties ( not varieties in the botanical sense ) from Spain, including the tradenames `` Spanish Superior '' and `` Creme '', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma ; they are graded by government - imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. The most intense varieties tend to be Iranian. Various `` boutique '' crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries -- some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron -- known for its `` earthy '' notes -- is marketed in small quantities. Consumers may regard certain cultivars as `` premium '' quality. The `` Aquila '' saffron, or zafferano dell'Aquila, is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour ; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy 's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition - era Spain. But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60 % of Italian production ; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the `` Mongra '' or `` Lacha '' saffron of Kashmir ( Crocus sativus ' Cashmirianus ' ), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combine with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its dark maroon - purple hue ; it is among the world 's darkest, which hints at strong flavour, aroma, and colouring effect. Trade Main article : Saffron ( trade ) Sale of saffron in Iran Almost all saffron grows in a belt from Spain in the west to India in the east. The other continents, except Antarctica, produce smaller amounts. In 2014, 250 t ( 250,000 kg ) were produced worldwide. Iran is responsible for around 90 -- 93 % of global production, and much of their produce is exported. A few of Iran 's drier eastern and southeastern provinces, including Fars, Kerman, and those in the Khorasan region, glean the bulk of modern global production. In 2005, the second - ranked Greece produced 5.7 t ( 5,700 kg ), while Morocco ( the Berber region of Taliouine ), and India ( Kashmir ), tied for third rank, each producing 2.3 t ( 2,300 kg ). `` India and İspanya ( Spain ) saffron '' at market in Turkey. In recent years, Afghan cultivation has risen. Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy are, in decreasing order, lesser producers. Prohibitively high labour costs and abundant Iranian imports mean that only select locales continue the tedious harvest in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland -- among them the Swiss village of Mund, whose annual output is a few kilograms. Microscale production of saffron can be found in Australia ( mainly the state of Tasmania ), China, Egypt, parts of England France, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden ( Gotland ), Turkey ( mainly around the town of Safranbolu ), the United States ( California and Pennsylvania ), and Central Africa. Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US $500 to US $5,000 per pound, or US $1,100 -- 11,000 / kg. In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was $1,000 per pound, or US $2,200 per kilogram. In February 2013, a retail bottle containing 0.06 ounces could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of $4,336 per pound or as little as about $2,000 / pound in larger quantities. A pound contains between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken - off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron. Uses Saffron threads are soaked in hot -- but not boiling -- water for several minutes prior to use in cuisine. This helps release the aromatic components. Main article : Saffron ( use ) Dried Saffron Nutritional value per 1 tbsp ( 2.1 g ) Energy 27 kJ ( 6.5 kcal ) Carbohydrates 1.37 g Dietary fibre 0.10 g Fat 0.12 g Saturated 0.03 g Trans 0.00 g Monounsaturated 0.01 g Polyunsaturated 0.04 g Protein 0.24 g Vitamins Vitamin A 11 IU Thiamine ( B1 ) ( 0 % ) 0 mg Riboflavin ( B2 ) ( 1 % ) 0.01 mg Niacin ( B3 ) ( 0 % ) 0.03 mg Vitamin B6 ( 2 % ) 0.02 mg Folate ( B9 ) ( 1 % ) 2 μg Vitamin B12 ( 0 % ) 0 μg Vitamin C ( 2 % ) 1.7 mg Vitamin D ( 0 % ) 0 μg Vitamin D ( 0 % ) 0 IU Minerals Calcium ( 0 % ) 2 mg Copper ( 1 % ) 0.01 mg Iron ( 2 % ) 0.23 mg Magnesium ( 2 % ) 6 mg Manganese ( 29 % ) 0.6 mg Phosphorus ( 1 % ) 5 mg Potassium ( 1 % ) 36 mg Selenium ( 0 % ) 0.1 μg Sodium ( 0 % ) 3 mg Zinc ( 0 % ) 0.02 mg Other constituents Water 0.25 g Kaempferol 4.3 mg Ash 0.11 g Link to USDA database entry Units μg = micrograms mg = milligrams IU = International units Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source : USDA Nutrient Database Saffron 's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay - like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay - like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow - orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian, Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. It is used in cooking in many cuisines, ranging from the Milanese risotto of Italy, the paella of Spain, the bouillabaisse of France, to the biryani with various meat accompaniments in South Asia. One of the most esteemed use for saffron is in the preparation of the Golden Ham, a precious dry - cured ham made with saffron from San Gimignano. Common saffron substitutes include safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as `` Portuguese saffron '' or `` açafrão '' ), annatto, and turmeric ( Curcuma longa ). Saffron has a long history of use in traditional medicine. Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery. It is used for religious purposes in India. Nutrition Dried saffron is composed of 12 % water, 65 % carbohydrates, 6 % fat and 11 % protein ( table ). In comparison to other spices or dried foods, the nutrient content of dried saffron shows richness of nutritional value across B vitamins and dietary minerals ( table ). In a typical serving of one tablespoon ( 2 grams ), manganese is present as 28 % of the Daily Value while other nutrients are negligible ( table ). Research One limited meta - analysis concluded that saffron supplementation improved symptoms in patients with major depressive disorders and a review indicated that it helped with mild to moderate depression. History Main article : History of saffron A detail from the `` Saffron Gatherers '' fresco of the `` Xeste 3 '' building. It is one of many depicting saffron ; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini. The documented history of saffron cultivation spans more than three millennia. The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus is probably Crocus cartwrightianus. If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged by human cultivators selectively breeding specimens for unusually long stigmas in late Bronze Age Crete. It slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania. Eastern Buddhist adepts wearing saffron - coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum, Singapore. Saffron was detailed in a 7th - century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal. Documentation of saffron 's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered. Saffron - based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000 - year - old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran. The Sumerians later used wild - growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions. Saffron was an article of long - distance trade before the Minoan palace culture 's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron ( Crocus sativus ' Hausknechtii ' ) in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles, ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes. Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians ' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac. During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander 's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron - bathing to Greece. Conflicting theories explain saffron 's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 -- 900 years ago. Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC, attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks. Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron - coloured robes ; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit. Monks ' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. Gamboge is now used to dye the robes. Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia. Yet saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty - volume pharmacopoeia titled Shennong Bencaojing ( 神農 本草 經 : `` Shennong 's Great Herbal '', also known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao ), a tome dating from 300 -- 200 BC. Traditionally credited to the fabled Yan ( `` Fire '' ) Emperor ( 炎帝 ) Shennong, it discusses 252 phytochemical - based medical treatments for various disorders. Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to Chinese herbalist Wan Zhen, `` ( t ) he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha. '' Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time : `` The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine. '' Wider near east The Minoans portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600 -- 1500 BC ; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug. Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia, where adventurers sought what they believed were the world 's most valuable threads. Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus. Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes, and the Greek hetaerae courtesans used saffron in their scented waters, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments. In late Ptolemaic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable. Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments. Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levantine cities as Sidon and Tyre in Lebanon. Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium. Western Europe Preserved `` Safran '', Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany. Such was the Romans ' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome 's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th - century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th century AD. European saffron cultivation plummeted after the Roman Empire went into eclipse. As with France, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy. The 14th - century Black Death caused demand for saffron - based medicaments to peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen - week - long Saffron War. The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in Basel ; it thereby grew prosperous. The crop then spread to Nuremberg, where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the Safranschou code -- whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed. Cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain did the clone significantly endure. The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its new speciality crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre but cultivation there was abandoned ; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK ( Cheshire ). The Americas Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder Church left Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe. By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch cultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron 's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold. Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron - bearing merchant vessels were destroyed. Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes. American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. References Jump up ^ `` Saffron -- Definition and More ''. Merriam - Webster. Retrieved 21 November 2012. Jump up ^ Rau 1969, p. 53. ^ Jump up to : Hill 2004, p. 272. Jump up ^ `` World 's COSTLIEST spice blooms in Kashmir ''. Rediff. 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Jump up ^ Lak, D. ( 23 November 1998 ). `` Gathering Kashmir 's Saffron ''. BBC News. Retrieved 12 September 2011. Jump up ^ Fotedar, S. ( 1999 ). `` Cultural Heritage of India : The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution ''. Vitasta. Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata. 32 ( 1 ) : 128. Retrieved 15 September 2011. ^ Jump up to : Dalby 2002, p. 95. Jump up ^ Dalby 2003, p. 256. Jump up ^ Finlay 2003, p. 224. Jump up ^ Hanelt 2001, p. 1352. Jump up ^ Fletcher 2005, p. 11. Jump up ^ Hayes 2001, p. 6. Jump up ^ Ferrence & Bendersky 2004, p. 1. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 58. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 55. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, pp. 34 -- 35. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 59. Jump up ^ Celsus 1989. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 63. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 70. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 99. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 101. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, pp. 103 -- 104. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 133. Jump up ^ `` Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years ''. BBC News. 7 November 2014. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, p. 138. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, pp. 138 -- 139. Jump up ^ Willard 2002, pp. 142 -- 146. Bibliography Books Celsus, Aulus Cornelius ( 1989 ), De Medicina, Loeb Classical Library, L292 ( 1 -- 4 ), translated by Spencer, W.G., Harvard University Press, ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 99322 - 8, retrieved 15 September 2011 Dalby, A. ( 2002 ), Dangerous Tastes : The Story of Spices ( 1st ed. ), University of California Press, ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 23674 - 5 Dalby, A. ( 2003 ), Food in the Ancient World from A to Z, Routledge, ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 23259 - 3 Finlay, V. ( 2003 ), Colour : A Natural History of the Palette, Random House, ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 7142 - 2 Fletcher, N. ( 2005 ), Charlemagne 's Tablecloth : A Piquant History of Feasting ( 1st ed. ), Saint Martin 's Press, ISBN 978 - 0 - 312 - 34068 - 1 Francis, S. ( 2011 ), Saffron : The Story of England 's Red Gold, With Delicious Saffron Recipes that Family and Friends will Love, Norfolk Saffron, ISBN 978 - 0 - 955 - 04667 - 4 Grigg, D.B. ( 1974 ), The Agricultural Systems of the World ( 1st ed. ), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 09843 - 4 Hayes, A.W. ( 2001 ), Principles and Methods of Toxicology ( 4th ed. ), Taylor and Francis, ISBN 978 - 1 - 56032 - 814 - 8 Hill, T. ( 2004 ), The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices : Seasonings for the Global Kitchen ( 1st ed. ), Wiley, ISBN 978 - 0 - 471 - 21423 - 6 Humphries, J. ( 1998 ), The Essential Saffron Companion, Ten Speed Press, ISBN 978 - 1 - 58008 - 024 - 8 Kafi, M. ; Koocheki, A. ; Rashed, M.H. ; Nassiri, M., eds. ( 2006 ), Saffron ( Crocus sativus ) Production and Processing ( 1st ed. ), Science Publishers, ISBN 978 - 1 - 57808 - 427 - 2 Hanelt, P., ed. ( 2001 ), Mansfeld 's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops ( 1st ed. ), Springer, ISBN 978 - 3 - 540 - 41017 - 1 McGee, H. ( 2004 ), On Food and Cooking : The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, Scribner, ISBN 978 - 0 - 684 - 80001 - 1 Negbi, M., ed. ( 1999 ), Saffron : Crocus sativus L., CRC Press, ISBN 978 - 90 - 5702 - 394 - 1 Rau, S.R. ( 1969 ), The Cooking of India, Foods of the World, Time - Life Books, ISBN 978 - 0 - 8094 - 0069 - 0 Russo, E. ; Dreher, M.C. ; Mathre, M.L. ( 2003 ), Women and Cannabis : Medicine, Science, and Sociology ( 1st ed. ), Psychology Press, ISBN 978 - 0 - 7890 - 2101 - 4 Willard, P. ( 2002 ), Secrets of Saffron : The Vagabond Life of the World 's Most Seductive Spice, Beacon Press, ISBN 978 - 0 - 8070 - 5009 - 5 Journal articles Abdullaev, F.I. ( 2002 ), `` Cancer Chemopreventive and Tumoricidal Properties of Saffron ( Crocus sativus L. ) '', Experimental Biology and Medicine, 227 ( 1 ), PMID 11788779, retrieved 11 September 2011 Deo, B. ( 2003 ), `` Growing Saffron -- The World 's Most Expensive Spice '' ( PDF ), Crop and Food Research, New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research ( 20 ), archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 December 2005, retrieved 10 January 2006 Dharmananda, S. ( 2005 ), `` Saffron : An Anti-Depressant Herb '', Institute for Traditional Medicine, archived from the original on 26 September 2006, retrieved 10 January 2006 Ferrence, S.C. ; Bendersky, G. ( 2004 ), `` Therapy with Saffron and the Goddess at Thera '', Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 47 ( 2 ), pp. 199 -- 226, PMID 15259204, doi : 10.1353 / pbm. 2004.0026 Ghorbani, M. ( 2008 ), `` The Efficiency of Saffron 's Marketing Channel in Iran '' ( PDF ), World Applied Sciences Journal, 4 ( 4 ), pp. 523 -- 527, ISSN 1818 - 4952, retrieved 3 October 2011 Grilli Caiola, M. ( 2003 ), `` Saffron Reproductive Biology '', Acta Horticulturae, ISHS, 650, pp. 25 -- 37, doi : 10.17660 / ActaHortic. 2004.650. 1 Leffingwell, J.C. ( 2002 ), `` Saffron '' ( PDF ), Leffingwell Reports, Leffingwell & Associates, 2 ( 5 ), retrieved 15 September 2011 Rubio - Moraga, A. ; Castillo - López, R. ; Gómez - Gómez, L. ; Ahrazem, O. ( 2009 ), `` Saffron is a Monomorphic Species as Revealed by RAPD, ISSR and Microsatellite Analyses '', BMC Research Notes, 2, p. 189, PMC 2758891, PMID 19772674, doi : 10.1186 / 1756 - 0500 - 2 - 189 Sharaf - Eldin, M. ; Elkholy, S. ; Fernández, J.A. ; Junge, H. ; Cheetham, R. ; Guardiola, J. ; Weathers, P. ( 2008 ), `` Bacillus subtilis FZB24 Affects Flower Quantity and Quality of Saffron ( Crocus sativus ) '', Planta Med, 74 ( 10 ) : 1316 -- 1320, PMC 3947403, PMID 18622904, doi : 10.1055 / s - 2008 - 1081293 Verma, R.S. ; Middha, D. ( 2010 ), `` Analysis of Saffron ( Crocus sativus L. Stigma ) Components by LC -- MS -- MS '', Chromatographia, 71 ( 1 -- 2 ), pp. 117 -- 123, doi : 10.1365 / s10337 - 009 - 1398 - z External links Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Saffron. `` Saffron '', Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA `` Crocus sativus '', Germplasm Resources Information Network, USDA Related articles Dyeing Techniques Batik Dyeing Ikat Kalamkari Katazome Leheria Mordant Reactive dye printing Resist Ring dyeing Rōketsuzome Shibori Tie - dye Tsutsugaki Types of dyes Dyes Natural Acid Reactive Solvent Substantive Sulfur Vat Disperse Traditional textile dyes Armenian cochineal Black walnut Bloodroot Brazilin Cochineal Cudbear Cutch Dyewoods Fustic Gamboge Henna Indigo Kermes Logwood Madder Polish cochineal Saffron Turmeric Tyrian purple Weld Woad History Use of saffron In Scottish Highlands Craft dyes Dylon Inkodye Procion Rit Reference Glossary of dyeing terms List of dyes Culinary herbs and spices Herbs Angelica Basil holy Thai Bay leaf Indian bay leaf ( tejpat ) Boldo Borage Chervil Chives garlic / Chinese Cicely Coriander leaf / Cilantro Bolivian Vietnamese ( rau răm ) Culantro Cress Curry leaf Dill Epazote Hemp Hoja santa Houttuynia cordata ( giấp cá ) Hyssop Jimbu Kinh gioi ( Vietnamese balm ) Kkaennip Lavender Lemon balm Lemon grass Lemon myrtle Lemon verbena Limnophila aromatica ( rice - paddy herb ) Lovage Marjoram Mint Mugwort Mitsuba Oregano Parsley Perilla Rosemary Rue Sage Savory Sanshō leaf Shiso Sorrel Tarragon Thyme Woodruff Spices Aonori ( ground seaweed ) Ajwain Allspice Amchoor ( mango powder ) Anise star Asafoetida Camphor Caraway Cardamom black Cassia Celery powder Celery seed Charoli Chenpi Cinnamon Clove Coriander seed Cubeb Cumin Nigella sativa Bunium persicum Deulkkae Dill / Dill seed Fennel Fenugreek blue Fingerroot ( krachai ) Galangal greater lesser Garlic Ginger Aromatic ginger ( kencur ) Golpar Grains of Paradise Grains of Selim Horseradish Juniper berry Kokum Korarima Dried lime Liquorice Litsea cubeba Mace Mango - ginger Mastic Mahleb Mustard black brown white Nigella ( kalonji ) Njangsa Nutmeg Pomegranate seed ( anardana ) Poppy seed Radhuni Rose Saffron Salt Sarsaparilla Sassafras Sesame Shiso seeds / berries Sumac Tamarind Tonka bean Turmeric Uzazi Vanilla Voatsiperifery Wasabi Yuzu zest Zedoary Zereshk Zest Peppers Alligator Brazilian Chili Cayenne Paprika Long Peruvian Sichuan ( huājiāo ) Japanese pricklyash Tasmanian Peppercorn ( black / green / white ) Mixtures Adjika Advieh Baharat Beau monde seasoning Berbere Bouquet garni Buknu Chaat masala Chaunk Chili powder Cinnamon sugar Crab boil Curry powder Doubanjiang Douchi Duqqa Fines herbes Five - spice powder Garam masala Garlic powder Garlic salt Gochujang Harissa Hawaij Herbes de Provence Idli podi Jamaican jerk spice Khmeli suneli Lemon pepper Mitmita Mixed spice Montreal steak seasoning Mulling spices Old Bay Seasoning Onion powder Panch phoron Persillade Powder - douce Pumpkin pie spice Qâlat daqqa Quatre épices Ras el hanout Recado rojo Sharena sol Shichimi Tabil Tandoori masala Vadouvan Yuzukoshō Za'atar Lists and related topics Lists of herbs and spices Culinary Australian Bangladeshi Indian Pakistani Related topics Chinese herbology Herbal tea Marination Spice rub Pharmacodynamics Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators AMPAR Agonists : Main site agonists : 5 - Fluorowillardiine Acromelic acid ( acromelate ) AMPA BOAA Domoic acid Glutamate Ibotenic acid Proline Quisqualic acid Willardiine ; Positive allosteric modulators : Aniracetam Cyclothiazide CX - 516 CX - 546 CX - 614 Farampator ( CX - 691, ORG - 24448 ) CX - 717 CX - 1739 CX - 1942 Diazoxide Hydrochlorothiazide ( HCTZ ) IDRA - 21 LY - 392098 LY - 395153 LY - 404187 LY - 451646 LY - 503430 Mibampator ( LY - 451395 ) Nooglutyl ORG - 26576 Oxiracetam PEPA PF - 04958242 Piracetam Pramiracetam S - 18986 Tulrampator ( S - 47445, CX - 1632 ) Antagonists : ACEA - 1011 ATPO Becampanel Caroverine CNQX Dasolampanel DNQX Fanapanel ( MPQX ) GAMS Kaitocephalin Kynurenic acid Kynurenine Licostinel ( ACEA - 1021 ) NBQX PNQX Selurampanel Tezampanel Theanine Topiramate YM90K Zonampanel ; Negative allosteric modulators : Barbiturates ( e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental ) Cyclopropane Enflurane Ethanol ( alcohol ) Evans blue GYKI - 52466 GYKI - 53655 Halothane Irampanel Isoflurane Perampanel Pregnenolone sulfate Sevoflurane Talampanel ; Unknown / unsorted antagonists : Minocycline KAR Agonists : Main site agonists : 5 - Bromowillardiine 5 - Iodowillardiine Acromelic acid ( acromelate ) AMPA ATPA Domoic acid Glutamate Ibotenic acid Kainic acid LY - 339434 Proline Quisqualic acid SYM - 2081 ; Positive allosteric modulators : Cyclothiazide Diazoxide Enflurane Halothane Isoflurane Antagonists : ACEA - 1011 CNQX Dasolampanel DNQX GAMS Kaitocephalin Kynurenic acid Licostinel ( ACEA - 1021 ) LY - 382884 NBQX NS102 Selurampanel Tezampanel Theanine Topiramate UBP - 302 ; Negative allosteric modulators : Barbiturates ( e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental ) Enflurane Ethanol ( alcohol ) Evans blue NS - 3763 Pregnenolone sulfate NMDAR Agonists : Main site agonists : AMAA Aspartate Glutamate Homocysteic acid ( L - HCA ) Homoquinolinic acid Ibotenic acid NMDA Proline Quinolinic acid Tetrazolylglycine Theanine ; Glycine site agonists : β - Fluoro - D - alanine ACBD ACC ( ACPC ) ACPD AK - 51 Apimostinel ( NRX - 1074 ) B6B21 CCG D - Alanine D - Cycloserine D - Serine DHPG Dimethylglycine Glycine HA - 966 L - 687414 L - Alanine L - Serine Milacemide Neboglamine ( nebostinel ) Rapastinel ( GLYX - 13 ) Sarcosine ; Polyamine site agonists : Neomycin Spermidine Spermine ; Other positive allosteric modulators : 24S - Hydroxycholesterol DHEA ( prasterone ) DHEA sulfate ( prasterone sulfate ) Epipregnanolone sulfate Pregnenolone sulfate SAGE - 718 Antagonists : Competitive antagonists : AP5 ( APV ) AP7 CGP - 37849 CGP - 39551 CGP - 39653 CGP - 40116 CGS - 19755 CPP Kaitocephalin LY - 233053 LY - 235959 LY - 274614 MDL - 100453 Midafotel ( d - CPPene ) NPC - 12626 NPC - 17742 PBPD PEAQX Perzinfotel PPDA SDZ - 220581 Selfotel ; Glycine site antagonists : 4 - Cl - KYN ( AV - 101 ) 5, 7 - DCKA 7 - CKA ACC ACEA - 1011 ACEA - 1328 Apimostinel ( NRX - 1074 ) AV - 101 Carisoprodol CGP - 39653 CNQX D - Cycloserine DNQX Felbamate Gavestinel GV - 196771 Harkoseride Kynurenic acid Kynurenine L - 689560 L - 701324 Licostinel ( ACEA - 1021 ) LU - 73068 MDL - 105519 Meprobamate MRZ 2 / 576 PNQX Rapastinel ( GLYX - 13 ) ZD - 9379 ; Polyamine site antagonists : Arcaine Co 101676 Diaminopropane Diethylenetriamine Huperzine A Putrescine ; Uncompetitive pore blockers ( mostly dizocilpine site ) : 2 - MDP 3 - HO - PCP 3 - MeO - PCE 3 - MeO - PCMo 3 - MeO - PCP 4 - MeO - PCP 8A - PDHQ 18 - MC α - Endopsychosin Alaproclate Alazocine ( SKF - 10047 ) Amantadine Aptiganel Argiotoxin - 636 Arketamine ARL - 12495 ARL - 15896 - AR ARL - 16247 Budipine Coronaridine Delucemine ( NPS - 1506 ) Dexoxadrol Dextrallorphan Dextromethadone Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Dieticyclidine Diphenidine Dizocilpine Ephenidine Esketamine Etoxadrol Eticyclidine Fluorolintane Gacyclidine Ibogaine Ibogamine Indantadol Ketamine Ketobemidone Lanicemine Levomethadone Levomethorphan Levomilnacipran Levorphanol Loperamide Memantine Methadone Methorphan Methoxetamine Methoxphenidine Milnacipran Morphanol NEFA Neramexane Nitromemantine Noribogaine Norketamine Orphenadrine PCPr PD - 137889 Pethidine ( meperidine ) Phencyclamine Phencyclidine Propoxyphene Remacemide Rhynchophylline Rimantadine Rolicyclidine Sabeluzole Tabernanthine Tenocyclidine Tiletamine Tramadol ; Ifenprodil ( NR2B ) site antagonists : Besonprodil Buphenine ( nylidrin ) CO-101244 ( PD - 174494 ) Eliprodil Haloperidol Isoxsuprine Radiprodil ( RGH - 896 ) Rislenemdaz ( CERC - 301, MK - 0657 ) Ro 8 - 4304 Ro 25 - 6981 Safaprodil Traxoprodil ( CP - 101606 ) ; NR2A - selective antagonists : MPX - 004 MPX - 007 TCN - 201 TCN - 213 ; Cations : Hydrogen Magnesium Zinc ; Alcohols / volatile anesthetics / related : Benzene Butane Chloroform Cyclopropane Desflurane Diethyl ether Enflurane Ethanol ( alcohol ) Halothane Hexanol Isoflurane Methoxyflurane Nitrous oxide Octanol Sevoflurane Toluene Trichloroethane Trichloroethanol Trichloroethylene Urethane Xenon Xylene ; Unknown / unsorted antagonists : ARR - 15896 Bumetanide Caroverine D - αAA Dexanabinol Flufenamic acid Flupirtine FPL - 12495 FR - 115427 Furosemide Hodgkinsine Ipenoxazone ( MLV - 6976 ) MDL - 27266 Metaphit Minocycline MPEP Niflumic acid Pentamidine Pentamidine isethionate Piretanide Psychotridine Transcrocetin ( saffron ) See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators Glutamate metabolism / transport modulators Monoamine reuptake inhibitors DAT ( DRIs ) Piperazines : DBL - 583 GBR - 12783 GBR - 12935 GBR - 13069 GBR - 13098 Nefazodone Vanoxerine Piperidines : 4 - Fluoropethidine Benocyclidine ( BTCP ) Desoxypipradrol Dexmethylphenidate Difemetorex Ethylphenidate HDMP - 28 Methylphenidate Pethidine ( meperidine ) Phencyclidine Pipradrol Tenocyclidine Pyrrolidines : Diphenylprolinol MDPV Naphyrone Prolintane Pyrovalerone Tropanes : Altropane Benzatropine ( benztropine ) Brasofensine CFT Cocaine Dichloropane Difluoropine Etybenzatropine ( ethybenztropine ) FE - β - CPPIT FP - β - CPPIT Ioflupane ( I ) RTI - 55 RTI - 112 RTI - 113 RTI - 121 RTI - 126 RTI - 150 RTI - 177 RTI - 229 RTI - 336 Tesofensine Troparil Tropoxane WF - 11 WF - 23 WF - 31 WF - 33 Others : Adrafinil Amifitadine Armodafinil Amfonelic acid Amineptine Ansofaxine BTQ BTS 74,398 Bupropion Chaenomeles speciosa Ciclazindol Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine Dimethocaine Diphenylpyraline Dizocilpine ( MK - 801 ) DOV - 102,677 DOV - 216,303 Efavirenz Ephenidine Esketamine EXP - 561 Fencamfamin Fezolamine Fluorenol GYKI - 52895 Indatraline Ketamine Lefetamine Levophacetoperane Liafensine LR - 5182 Manifaxine Mazindol Medifoxamine Mesocarb Metaphit MIN - 117 ( WF - 516 ) Modafinil Nefopam Nomifensine NS - 2359 O - 2172 Oroxylin A Perafensine Pridefine Radafaxine Rimcazole Sertraline Sibutramine Solriamfetol Tametraline Tedatioxetine Tripelennamine Venlafaxine NET ( NRIs ) Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors : Amedalin Alseroxylon Ciclazindol Daledalin Edivoxetine Esreboxetine Lortalamine Mazindol Nisoxetine Reboxetine Talopram Talsupram Tandamine Teniloxazine Viloxazine Norepinephrine -- dopamine reuptake inhibitors : Amineptine Bupropion Fencamine Fencamfamin Hydroxybupropion Lefetamine Levophacetoperane LR - 5182 Manifaxine Methylphenidate Nomifensine O - 2172 Radafaxine Solriamfetol Serotonin -- norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors : Atomoxetine ( tomoxetine ) BTS - 54505 CP - 39,332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN - 5652 Milnacipran N - Methyl - PPPA PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine WY - 45233 Serotonin -- norepinephrine -- dopamine reuptake inhibitors : 3, 3 - Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine DOV - 102677 DOV - 216303 EXP - 561 Fezolamine HDMP - 28 Indatraline JNJ - 7925476 JZ - IV - 10 Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS - 2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP - 228431 SEP - 228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Tropanes ( e.g., cocaine ) Tricyclic antidepressants : Amitriptyline Butriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Desipramine Dosulepin ( dothiepin ) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Melitracen Nortriptyline Protriptyline Trimipramine Tetracyclic antidepressants : Amoxapine Maprotiline Mianserin Oxaprotiline Setiptiline Others : Antihistamines ( e.g., brompheniramine, chlorphenamine, pheniramine, tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics ( e.g., loxapine, ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines ( e.g., ketamine, phencyclidine ) Dopexamine Ephenidine Ginkgo biloba Indeloxazine Nefazodone Opioids ( e.g., desmetramadol, methadone, pethidine ( meperidine ), tapentadol, tramadol, levorphanol ) SERT ( SRIs ) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors : Alaproclate Centpropazine Cericlamine Citalopram Dapoxetine Desmethylcitalopram Didesmethylcitalopram Escitalopram Femoxetine Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Indalpine Ifoxetine Norfluoxetine Omiloxetine Panuramine Paroxetine PIM - 35 Pirandamine RTI - 353 Seproxetine Sertraline Zimelidine Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin receptor modulators : Etoperidone Litoxetine Lubazodone LY - 393558 SB - 649915 TGBA01AD Trazodone Vilazodone Vortioxetine Serotonin -- norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors : Atomoxetine ( tomoxetine ) Bicifadine BTS - 54505 CP - 39332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN - 5652 Milnacipran N - Methyl - PPPA PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine WY - 45233 Serotonin -- norepinephrine -- dopamine reuptake inhibitors : 3, 3 - Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine DOV - 102677 DOV - 216303 EXP - 561 Fezolamine HDMP - 28 Indatraline JNJ - 7925476 JZ - IV - 10 Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS - 2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP - 228431 SEP - 228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Tropanes ( e.g., cocaine ) Tricyclic antidepressants : Amitriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Cyanodothiepin Desipramine Dosulepin ( dothiepin ) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Nortriptyline Pipofezine Protriptyline Others : A-80426 Amoxapine Antihistamines ( e.g., brompheniramine, chlorphenamine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, mepyramine ( pyrilamine ), pheniramine, tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics ( e.g., loxapine, ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines ( e.g., 3 - MeO - PCP, esketamine, ketamine, methoxetamine, phencyclidine ) Cyclobenzaprine Delucemine Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Efavirenz Medifoxamine Mesembrine Mifepristone MIN - 117 ( WF - 516 ) N - Me - 5 - HT Opioids ( e.g., dextropropoxyphene, methadone, pethidine ( meperidine ), levorphanol, tapentadol, tramadol ) Roxindole VMATs Amiodarone Amphetamines ( e.g., amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA ) APP AZIK Bietaserpine Deserpidine Deutetrabenazine Dihydrotetrabenazine Efavirenz GBR - 12935 GZ - 793A Ibogaine Ketanserin Lobeline Methoxytetrabenazine Reserpine Rose bengal Tetrabenazine Valbenazine Vanoxerine ( GBR - 12909 ) Others DAT enhancers : Luteolin DAT modulators : Agonist - like : SoRI - 9804 SoRI - 20040 ; Antagonist - like : SoRI - 20041 See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Monoamine releasing agents Adrenergics Dopaminergics Serotonergics Monoamine metabolism modulators Monoamine neurotoxins Sigma receptor modulators σ Agonists : 3 - PPP 4 - PPBP 5 - MeO - DMT Alazocine ( SKF - 10047 ) Amantadine ANAVEX2 - 73 Arketamine BD - 737 BD - 1052 Captodiame Citalopram CGRP Cloperastine Cocaine Cutamesine ( SA - 4503 ) Cyclazocine Dehydroepiandrosterone ( DHEA ) ( prasterone ) Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate ( DHEA - S ) ( prasterone sulfate ) Dextrallorphan Dextromethorphan ( DXM ) Dextrorphan ( DXO ) Dimemorfan Dimethyltryptamine ( DMT ) Ditolylguanidine ( DTG ) Donepezil Eliprodil Escitalopram Fabomotizole ( afobazole ) Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Ifenprodil Igmesine ( JO - 1784 ) IPAB Ketamine L - 687384 MDMA ( midomafetamine ) Memantine Methamphetamine Methoxetamine Methylphenidate Nepinalone Neuropeptide Y Noscapine OPC - 14523 Opipramol Pentazocine Pentoxyverine ( carbetapentane ) PRE-084 Pregnenolone Pregnenolone sulfate Pridopidine Racemethorphan ( methorphan ) Racemorphan ( morphanol ) UMB - 23 UMB - 82 Antagonists : 3 - PPP AC - 927 BD - 1008 BD - 1031 BD - 1047 BD - 1060 BD - 1063 BD - 1067 BMY - 14802 ( BMS - 181100 ) CM - 156 Dup - 734 E-5842 E-52862 ( S1RA ) Haloperidol LR - 132 LR - 172 MS - 377 NE - 100 NPC - 16377 Panamesine ( EMD - 57455 ) PD - 144418 Pentazocine Progesterone Rimcazole ( BW - 234U ) Sertraline SR - 31742A Allosteric modulators : Phenytoin ; Positive : Methylphenylpiracetam SOMCL - 668 Unknown / unsorted : 3 - Methoxydextrallorphan 3 - MeO - PCP 4C - T - 2 4 - IBP 4 - IPBS 4 - MeO - PCP 5 - MeO - DALT 5 - MeO - DiPT Amitriptyline Azidopamil Chlorpromazine Clemastine Clomipramine Clorgiline D - Deprenyl DiPT DPT Ibogaine Imipramine KCR - 12 - 83.1 Nemonapride Noribogaine RHL - 033 RS - 67,333 RTI - 55 Saffron Safinamide Selegiline Spipethiane Trifluoperazine W - 18 YKP10A σ Agonists : 3 - PPP Arketamine BD - 1047 BD1063 Ditolylguanidine ( DTG ) DKR - 1005 DKR - 1051 Haloperidol Ifenprodil Ketamine MDMA ( midomafetamine ) Methamphetamine OPC - 14523 Opipramol PB - 28 Phencyclidine Siramesine ( Lu 28 - 179 ) UKH - 1114 Antagonists : AC - 927 BD - 1008 BD - 1067 CM - 156 CT - 1812 LR - 172 MIN - 101 Panamesine ( EMD - 57455 ) SAS - 0132 Unknown / unsorted : 3 - Methoxydextrallorphan 3 - MeO - PCE 4 - MeO - PCP 5 - MeO - DALT 5 - MeO - DiPT Clemastine DiPT DPT Ibogaine Nemonapride Nepinalone Noribogaine Pentazocine RS - 67,333 Safinamide TMA UMB - 23 UMB - 82 W - 18 Unsorted Agonists : Berberine Ethylketazocine Fourphit Metaphit Nalbuphine Naluzotan Tapentadol Tenocyclidine Antagonists : AHD1 AZ66 Lamotrigine Naloxone SM - 21 UMB - 100 UMB - 101 UMB - 103 UMB - 116 YZ - 011 YZ - 069 YZ - 185 Allosteric modulators : SKF - 83959 Unknown / unsorted : 18 - Methoxycoronaridine BMY - 13980 Butaclamol Caramiphen Carvotroline Chlorphenamine ( chlorpheniramine ) Chlorpromazine Cinnarizine Cinuperone Clocapramine Dezocine EMD - 59983 Hypericin ( St. John 's wort ) Fluphenazine Gevotroline ( WY - 47384 ) Mepyramine ( pyrilamine ) Molindone Perphenazine Pimozide Proadifen Promethazine Propranolol Quinidine Remoxipride SL 82.0715 SR - 31747A Tiospirone ( BMY - 13859 ) Venlafaxine See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Find out more on Wikipedia 's Sister projects Media from Commons News stories from Wikinews Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Learning resources from Wikiversity Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&oldid=801453245 '' Categories : Saffron Crocus Flowers Food colorings Incense material Arab cuisine Indian spices Iranian cuisine Iraqi cuisine Spices Hidden categories : EngvarB from August 2015 Use dmy dates from July 2017 Articles containing Latin - language text All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from October 2016 Articles containing Chinese - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Dansk ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Ladino Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots සිංහල Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 September 2017, at 19 : 29. 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Question: what part of saffron is used to make the spice
Answer: stigmas and styles, called threads