Cytokine - wikipedia Cytokine Not to be confused with Cytokinin. Cytokines ( cyto, from Greek `` κύτος '' kytos `` cavity, cell '' + kines, from Greek `` κίνηση '' kinisi `` movement '' ) are a broad and loose category of small proteins ( ~ 5 -- 20 kDa ) that are important in cell signaling. Their release has an effect on the behavior of cells around them. It can be said that cytokines are involved in autocrine signalling, paracrine signalling and endocrine signalling as immunomodulating agents. Their definite distinction from hormones is still part of ongoing research. Cytokines include chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, and tumour necrosis factors but generally not hormones or growth factors ( despite some overlap in the terminology ). Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes and mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various stromal cells ; a given cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell. They act through receptors, and are especially important in the immune system ; cytokines modulate the balance between humoral and cell - based immune responses, and they regulate the maturation, growth, and responsiveness of particular cell populations. Some cytokines enhance or inhibit the action of other cytokines in complex ways. They are different from hormones, which are also important cell signaling molecules, in that hormones circulate in less variable concentrations and hormones tend to be made by specific kinds of cells. They are important in health and disease, specifically in host responses to infection, immune responses, inflammation, trauma, sepsis, cancer, and reproduction. Contents 1 Discovery of cytokines 2 Difference from hormones 3 Nomenclature 4 Classification 4.1 Structural 4.2 Functional 5 Receptors 6 Cellular effects 7 Roles of endogenous cytokines in health and disease 8 Medical use as drugs 9 Research into diagnostic use of measured levels 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Discovery of cytokines Interferon - alpha, an interferon type I, was identified in 1957 as a protein that interfered with viral replication. The activity of interferon - gamma ( the sole member of the interferon type II class ) was described in 1965 ; this was the first identified lymphocyte - derived mediator. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor ( MIF ) was identified simultaneously in 1966 by John David and Barry Bloom. In 1969 Dudley Dumonde proposed the term `` lymphokine '' to describe proteins secreted from lymphocytes and later, proteins derived from macrophages and monocytes in culture were called `` monokines ''. As scientists learned more, it was understood that these proteins and others were part of a broader class of proteins involved in self - defense, and should be called `` cytokines ''. Difference from hormones Classic hormones circulate in nanomolar ( 10 M ) concentrations that usually vary by less than one order of magnitude. In contrast, some cytokines ( such as IL - 6 ) circulate in picomolar ( 10 M ) concentrations that can increase up to 1,000-fold during trauma or infection. The widespread distribution of cellular sources for cytokines may be a feature that differentiates them from hormones. Virtually all nucleated cells, but especially endo / epithelial cells and resident macrophages ( many near the interface with the external environment ) are potent producers of IL - 1, IL - 6, and TNF - α. In contrast, classic hormones, such as insulin, are secreted from discrete glands ( e.g., the pancreas ). As of 2008, the current terminology refers to cytokines as immunomodulating agents. However, more research is needed in this area of defining cytokines and hormones. Part of the difficulty with distinguishing cytokines from hormones is that some of the immunomodulating effects of cytokines are systemic rather than local. For instance, to use hormone terminology, the action of cytokines may be autocrine or paracrine in chemotaxis or chemokinesis and endocrine as a pyrogen. Further, as molecules, cytokines are not limited to their immunomodulatory role. Nomenclature Cytokines have been classed as lymphokines, interleukins, and chemokines, based on their presumed function, cell of secretion, or target of action. Because cytokines are characterised by considerable redundancy and pleiotropism, such distinctions, allowing for exceptions, are obsolete. The term interleukin was initially used by researchers for those cytokines whose presumed targets are principally leukocytes. It is now used largely for designation of newer cytokine molecules and bears little relation to their presumed function. The vast majority of these are produced by T - helper cells. Lymphokines, produced by lymphocytes Monokines, produced exclusively by monocytes Interferons, involved in antiviral responses Colony stimulating factors, support the growth of cells in semisolid media Chemokines mediate chemoattraction ( chemotaxis ) between cells. Classification Structural Structural homogeneity has been able to partially distinguish between cytokines that do not demonstrate a considerable degree of redundancy so that they can be classified into four types : The four - α - helix bundle family : member cytokines have three - dimensional structures with four bundles of α - helices. This family, in turn, is divided into three sub-families : the IL - 2 subfamily the interferon ( IFN ) subfamily the IL - 10 subfamily. The first of these three, the IL - 2 subfamily, is the largest. It contains several non-immunological cytokines including erythropoietin ( EPO ) and thrombopoietin ( TPO ). Furthermore, four - α - helix bundle cytokines can be grouped into long - chain and short - chain cytokines. the IL - 1 family, which primarily includes IL - 1 and IL - 18 the IL - 17 family, which has yet to be completely characterized, though member cytokines have a specific effect in promoting proliferation of T - cells that cause cytotoxic effects. the cysteine - knot cytokines include members of the transforming - growth - factor - beta superfamily, including TGF - β1, TGF - β2 and TGF - β3. Functional A classification that proves more useful in clinical and experimental practice outside of structural biology divides immunological cytokines into those that enhance cellular immune responses, type 1 ( TNFα, IFN - γ, etc. ), and type 2 ( TGF - β, IL - 4, IL - 10, IL - 13, etc. ), which favor antibody responses. A key focus of interest has been that cytokines in one of these two sub-sets tend to inhibit the effects of those in the other. Dysregulation of this tendency is under intensive study for its possible role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders. Several inflammatory cytokines are induced by oxidative stress. The fact that cytokines themselves trigger the release of other cytokines and also lead to increased oxidative stress makes them important in chronic inflammation, as well as other immunoresponses, such as fever and acute phase proteins of the liver ( IL - 1, 6, 12, IFN - a ). Cytokines also play a role in anti-inflammatory pathways and are a possible therapeutic treatment for pathological pain from inflammation or peripheral nerve injury. There are both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines that regulate this pathway. Receptors Main article : Cytokine receptor In recent years, the cytokine receptors have come to demand the attention of more investigators than cytokines themselves, partly because of their remarkable characteristics, and partly because a deficiency of cytokine receptors has now been directly linked to certain debilitating immunodeficiency states. In this regard, and also because the redundancy and pleomorphism of cytokines are, in fact, a consequence of their homologous receptors, many authorities think that a classification of cytokine receptors would be more clinically and experimentally useful. A classification of cytokine receptors based on their three - dimensional structure has, therefore, been attempted. Such a classification, though seemingly cumbersome, provides several unique perspectives for attractive pharmacotherapeutic targets. Immunoglobulin ( Ig ) superfamily, which are ubiquitously present throughout several cells and tissues of the vertebrate body, and share structural homology with immunoglobulins ( antibodies ), cell adhesion molecules, and even some cytokines. Examples : IL - 1 receptor types. Hemopoietic Growth Factor ( type 1 ) family, whose members have certain conserved motifs in their extracellular amino - acid domain. The IL - 2 receptor belongs to this chain, whose γ - chain ( common to several other cytokines ) deficiency is directly responsible for the x-linked form of Severe Combined Immunodeficiency ( X-SCID ). Interferon ( type 2 ) family, whose members are receptors for IFN β and γ. Tumor necrosis factors ( TNF ) ( type 3 ) family, whose members share a cysteine - rich common extracellular binding domain, and includes several other non-cytokine ligands like CD40, CD27 and CD30, besides the ligands on which the family is named ( TNF ). Seven transmembrane helix family, the ubiquitous receptor type of the animal kingdom. All G protein - coupled receptors ( for hormones and neurotransmitters ) belong to this family. Chemokine receptors, two of which act as binding proteins for HIV ( CD4 and CCR5 ), also belong to this family. Interleukin - 17 receptor ( IL - 17R ) family, which shows little homology with any other cytokine receptor family. Structural motifs conserved between members of this family include : an extracellular fibronectin III - like domain, a transmembrane domain and a cytoplasmic SERIF domain. The known members of this family are as follows : IL - 17RA, IL - 17RB, IL - 17RC, IL17RD and IL - 17RE. Cellular effects Each cytokine has a matching cell - surface receptor. Subsequent cascades of intracellular signalling then alter cell functions. This may include the upregulation and / or downregulation of several genes and their transcription factors, resulting in the production of other cytokines, an increase in the number of surface receptors for other molecules, or the suppression of their own effect by feedback inhibition. The effect of a particular cytokine on a given cell depends on the cytokine, its extracellular abundance, the presence and abundance of the complementary receptor on the cell surface, and downstream signals activated by receptor binding ; these last two factors can vary by cell type. Cytokines are characterized by considerable `` redundancy '', in that many cytokines appear to share similar functions. It seems to be a paradox that cytokines binding to antibodies have a stronger immune effect than the cytokine alone. This may lead to lower therapeutic doses. Said et al. showed that inflammatory cytokines cause an IL - 10 - dependent inhibition of T - cell expansion and function by up - regulating PD - 1 levels on monocytes which leads to IL - 10 production by monocytes after binding of PD - 1 by PD - L. Adverse reactions to cytokines are characterized by local inflammation and / or ulceration at the injection sites. Occasionally such reactions are seen with more widespread papular eruptions. Roles of endogenous cytokines in health and disease Cytokines are often involved in several developmental processes during embryogenesis. Cytokines are crucial for fighting off infections and in other immune responses. However, they can become dysregulated and pathological in inflammation, trauma, and sepsis. Adverse effects of cytokines have been linked to many disease states and conditions ranging from schizophrenia, major depression and Alzheimer 's disease to cancer. Normal tissue integrity is preserved by feedback interactions between diverse cell types mediated by adhesion molecules and secreted cytokines ; disruption of normal feedback mechanisms in cancer threatens tissue integrity. Over-secretion of cytokines can trigger a dangerous syndrome known as a cytokine storm ; this may have been the cause of severe adverse events during a clinical trial of TGN1412. Cytokine storms are suspected to be the main cause of death in the 1918 `` Spanish Flu '' pandemic. Deaths were weighted more heavily towards people with healthy immune systems, due to its ability to produce stronger immune responses, likely increasing cytokine levels. Another important example of cytokine storm is seen in acute pancreatitis. Cytokines are integral and implicated in all angles of the cascade resulting in the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and multi organ failure associated with this intra-abdominal catastrophe. Medical use as drugs Some cytokines have been developed into protein therapeutics using recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant cytokines being used as drugs as of 2014 include : Bone morphogenetic protein ( BMP ), used to treat bone - related conditions Erythropoietin ( EPO ), used to treat anemia Granulocyte colony - stimulating factor ( G - CSF ), used to treat neutropenia in cancer patients Granulocyte macrophage colony - stimulating factor ( GM - CSF ), used to treat neutropenia and fungal infections in cancer patients Interferon alfa, used to treat hepatitis C and multiple sclerosis Interferon beta, used to treat multiple sclerosis Interleukin 2 ( IL - 2 ), used to treat cancer. Interleukin 11 ( IL - 11 ), used to treat thrombocytopenia in cancer patients. Interferon gamma is used to treat chronic granulomatous disease and osteopetrosis Research into diagnostic use of measured levels Plasma levels of various cytokines may give information on the presence, or even predictive value of inflammatory processes involved in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, as well as immunomodulatory effects of foods or drugs. In addition, elevated levels of IL - 7, an important cytokine involved in T cell homeostasis, have been detected in the plasma of HIV - infected patients. See also Adipokines Apoptosis Cytokine redundancy Cytokine secretion assay ELISA assays ELISPOT assays FluoroSpot assays Myokine Signal transduction Thymic stromal lymphopoietin Virokine Notes Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cytokines. Jump up ^ Saito explains `` much evidence has suggested that cytokines and chemokines play a very important role in the reproduction, i.e. embryo implantation, endometrial development, and trophoblast growth and differentiation by modulating the immune and endocrine systems. '' ( 15 ) Jump up ^ Chen explains the regulatory activity of LIF in human and murine embryos : `` In conclusion, human preimplantation embryos express LIF and LIF - R mRNA. The expression of these transcripts indicates that preimplantation embryos may be responsive to LIF originating either from the surrounding environment or from the embryos themselves and exerting its function in a paracrine or autocrine manner. '' ( 719 ) References Jump up ^ `` Cytokine '' in John Lackie. A Dictionary of Biomedicine. Oxford University Press. 2010. ISBN 9780199549351 Jump up ^ `` Cytokine '' in Stedman 's Medical Dictionary, 28th ed. Wolters Kluwer Health, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins ( 2006 ) ^ Jump up to : Horst Ibelgaufts. 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PMID 11922866. doi : 10.1186 / 1471 - 2334 - 2 - 5. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Tian B, Nowak DE, Brasier AR ; Nowak ; Brasier ( 2005 ). `` A TNF - induced gene expression program under oscillatory NF - kappaB control ''. BMC Genomics. 6 : 137. PMC 1262712. PMID 16191192. doi : 10.1186 / 1471 - 2164 - 6 - 137. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Zhang, Jun - Ming ; An, Jianxiong ( 2007 - 01 - 01 ). `` Cytokines, Inflammation and Pain ''. International anesthesiology clinics. 45 ( 2 ) : 27 -- 37. ISSN 0020 - 5907. PMC 2785020. PMID 17426506. doi : 10.1097 / AIA. 0b013e318034194e. Jump up ^ Gaffen SL ( August 2009 ). `` Structure and signalling in the IL - 17 receptor family ''. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 9 ( 8 ) : 556 -- 67. PMC 2821718. PMID 19575028. doi : 10.1038 / nri2586. ^ Jump up to : Said EA, Dupuy FP, Trautmann L, et al. ( April 2010 ). `` Programmed death - 1 - induced interleukin - 10 production by monocytes impairs CD4+ T cell activation during HIV infection ''. Nat. Med. 16 ( 4 ) : 452 -- 9. PMC 4229134. PMID 20208540. doi : 10.1038 / nm. 2106. Jump up ^ James, William ; Berger, Timothy ; Elston, Dirk ( 2005 ). Andrews ' Diseases of the Skin : Clinical Dermatology. ( 10th ed. ). Saunders. ISBN 0 - 7216 - 2921 - 0. Jump up ^ Saito S ( 2001 ). `` Cytokine cross-talk between mother and the embryo / placenta ''. J. Reprod. Immunol. 52 ( 1 -- 2 ) : 15 -- 33. PMID 11600175. doi : 10.1016 / S0165 - 0378 ( 01 ) 00112 - 7. Jump up ^ Chen HF, Shew JY, Ho HN, Hsu WL, Yang YS ; Shew ; Ho ; Hsu ; Yang ( October 1999 ). `` Expression of leukemia inhibitory factor and its receptor in preimplantation embryos ''. Fertil. Steril. 72 ( 4 ) : 713 -- 9. PMID 10521116. doi : 10.1016 / S0015 - 0282 ( 99 ) 00306 - 4. 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Chapter 1 in Therapeutic Proteins : Methods and Protocols, Editors : Vladimir Voynov, Justin A. Caravella. Volume 899 of Methods in Molecular Biology. Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2012. ISBN 978 - 1 - 61779 - 920 - 4 ( Print ) 978 - 1 - 61779 - 921 - 1 ( Online ) Jump up ^ Woodman, RC ; Erickson, RW ; Rae, J ; Jaffe, HS ; Curnutte, JT ( Mar 15, 1992 ). `` Prolonged recombinant interferon - gamma therapy in chronic granulomatous disease : evidence against enhanced neutrophil oxidase activity. ''. Blood. 79 ( 6 ) : 1558 -- 62. PMID 1312372. Jump up ^ Key LL, Jr ; Rodriguiz, RM ; Willi, SM ; Wright, NM ; Hatcher, HC ; Eyre, DR ; Cure, JK ; Griffin, PP ; Ries, WL ( Jun 15, 1995 ). `` Long - term treatment of osteopetrosis with recombinant human interferon gamma ''. The New England Journal of Medicine. 332 ( 24 ) : 1594 -- 9. PMID 7753137. doi : 10.1056 / NEJM199506153322402. Jump up ^ Kokkonen, H. Arthritis & Rheumatism, Feb. 2, 2010 ; vol 62 : pp 383 -- 391 Jump up ^ Nikolaeva LG, Maystat TV, Masyuk LA, Pylypchuk VS, Volyanskii YL, Kutsyna GA ; Maystat ; Masyuk ; Pylypchuk ; Volyanskii ; Kutsyna ( 2009 ). `` Changes in CD4+ T - cells and HIV RNA resulting from combination of anti-TB therapy with Dzherelo in TB / HIV dually infected patients ''. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2 : 87 -- 93. PMC 2761183. PMID 19920896. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Napolitano LA, Grant RM, Deeks SG, et al. ( January 2001 ). `` Increased production of IL - 7 accompanies HIV - 1 - mediated T - cell depletion : implications for T - cell homeostasis ''. Nat. Med. 7 ( 1 ) : 73 -- 9. PMID 11135619. doi : 10.1038 / 83381. External links Cytokine Signalling Forum Cytokine Gene Summary, Ontology, Pathways and More : Immunology Database and Analysis Portal ( ImmPort ) Reperfusion Injury in Stroke. CopeWithCytoKines Cytokines Online Pathfinder Encyclopaedia Cell signaling : cytokines By family Chemokine CCL CCL1 CCL2 / MCP1 CCL3 / MIP1α CCL4 / MIP1β CCL5 / RANTES CCL6 CCL7 CCL8 CCL9 CCL11 CCL12 CCL13 CCL14 CCL15 CCL16 CCL17 CCL18 / PARC / DCCK1 / AMAC1 / MIP4 CCL19 CCL20 CCL21 CCL22 CCL23 CCL24 CCL25 CCL26 CCL27 CCL28 CXCL CXCL1 / KC CXCL2 CXCL3 CXCL4 CXCL5 CXCL6 CXCL7 CXCL8 / IL8 CXCL9 CXCL10 CXCL11 CXCL12 CXCL13 CXCL14 CXCL15 CXCL16 CXCL17 CX3CL CX3CL1 XCL XCL1 XCL2 TNF TNFA Lymphotoxin TNFB / LTA TNFC / LTB TNFSF4 TNFSF5 / CD40LG TNFSF6 TNFSF7 TNFSF8 TNFSF9 TNFSF10 TNFSF11 TNFSF13 TNFSF13B EDA Interleukin Type I ( grouped by receptor subunit ) γ chain IL2 / IL15 IL4 / IL13 IL7 IL9 IL21 β chain IL3 IL5 GMCSF IL6 like / gp130 IL6 IL11 IL27 IL30 IL31 + non IL OSM LIF CNTF CTF1 IL12 family / IL12RB1 IL12 IL23 IL27 IL35 Other IL14 IL16 IL32 IL34 Type II IL10 family IL10 / IL22 IL19 IL20 IL24 IL26 Interferon type III IL28 / IFNL2 + 3 IL29 / IFNL1 Interferon IFNA1 IFNA2 IFNA4 IFNA5 IFNA6 IFNA7 IFNA8 IFNA10 IFNA13 IFNA14 IFNA16 IFNA17 IFNA21 IFNB1 IFNK IFNW1 II IFNG Ig superfamily IL1 family : IL1A / IL1F1 IL1B / IL1F2 1Ra / IL1F3 IL1F5 IL1F6 IL1F7 IL1F8 IL1F9 IL1F10 33 / IL1F11 18 / IL1G IL17 family IL17 / IL25 ( IL17A ) Other Hematopoietic KITLG Colony - stimulating factor SPP1 MIF By function / cell proinflammatory cytokine IL1 TNFA Monokine Lymphokine IFNγ TNFβ IL4 IL5 IL6 IL10 IL13 Intercellular signaling peptides and proteins / ligands Growth factors Epidermal growth factor Fibroblast growth factor Nerve growth factor Platelet - derived growth factor Transforming growth factor beta superfamily Vascular endothelial growth factor Ephrin EFNA1 EFNA2 EFNA3 EFNA4 EFNA5 EFNB1 EFNB2 EFNB3 Other Adipokine Agouti signaling protein Agouti - related protein Angiogenic protein CCN intercellular signaling protein Cysteine - rich protein 61 Connective tissue growth factor Nephroblastoma overexpressed protein Cytokine Endothelin EDN1 EDN2 EDN3 Hedgehog protein Interferon Kinin Parathyroid hormone - related protein Semaphorin Somatomedin Tolloid - like metalloproteinase Tumor necrosis factor Wnt protein see also extracellular ligand disorders Immunology : lymphocytic adaptive immune system and complement Lymphoid Antigens Antigen Superantigen Allergen Hapten Epitope Linear Conformational Mimotope Antigen presentation / Professional APCs : Dendritic cell Macrophage B cell Immunogen Antibodies Antibody Monoclonal antibodies Polyclonal antibodies Autoantibody Microantibody Polyclonal B cell response Allotype Isotype Idiotype Immune complex Paratope Immunity vs. tolerance action : Immunity Autoimmunity Alloimmunity Allergy Hypersensitivity Inflammation Cross-reactivity inaction : Tolerance Central Peripheral Clonal anergy Clonal deletion Tolerance in pregnancy Immunodeficiency Immunogenetics Affinity maturation Somatic hypermutation Clonal selection V ( D ) J recombination Junctional diversity Immunoglobulin class switching MHC / HLA Lymphocytes Cellular T cell Humoral B cell NK cell Substances Cytokines Opsonin Cytolysin Cell physiology : Cell signaling / Signal transduction Signaling pathways GPCR Wnt RTK TGF beta MAPK / ERK Notch JAK - STAT Akt / PKB Fas apoptosis Hippo PI3K / AKT / mTOR pathway Integrin receptors Agents Receptor ligands Hormones Neurotransmitters / Neuropeptides / Neurohormones Cytokines Growth factors Signaling molecules Receptors Cell surface Intracellular Co-receptor Second messenger cAMP - dependent pathway Ca signaling Lipid signaling Assistants : Signal transducing adaptor protein Scaffold protein Transcription factors General Transcription preinitiation complex TFIID TFIIH By distance Juxtacrine Autocrine / Paracrine Endocrine Other concepts Intracrine action Neurocrine signaling Synaptic transmission Chemical synapse Neuroendocrine signaling Exocrine signalling Pheromones Mechanotransduction Phototransduction Ion channel gating Gap junction Cytokine receptor modulators Chemokine See here instead. CSF Erythropoietin Agonists : ARA - 290 Asialo erythropoietin Carbamylated erythropoietin CNTO - 530 Darbepoetin alfa Epoetin alfa Epoetin beta Epoetin delta Epoetin epsilon Epoetin gamma Epoetin kappa Epoetin omega Epoetin theta Epoetin zeta Erythropoietin ( EPO ) Erythropoietin - Fc Methoxy polyethylene glycol - epoetin beta ( CERA / Mircera ) Peginesatide Pegol sihematide ( EPO - 018B ) G - CSF ( CSF3 ) Agonists : Filgrastim Granulocyte colony - stimulating factor Lenograstim Leridistim Lipegfilgrastim Nartograstim Pegfilgrastim Pegnartograstim GM - CSF ( CSF2 ) Agonists : Ecogramostim Granulocyte macrophage colony - stimulating factor Milodistim Molgramostim Regramostim Sargramostim Antibodies : Mavrilimumab MOR103 Namilumab M - CSF ( CSF1 ) Agonists : Cilmostim Interleukin - 34 Lanimostim Macrophage colony - stimulating factor Mirimostim Kinase inhibitors : Agerafenib SCF ( c - Kit ) See here instead. Thrombopoietin Agonists : Eltrombopag Pegacaristim Promegapoietin Romiplostim Thrombopoietin ( THPO, MGDF ) Interferon IFNAR ( α / β, I ) Agonists : Albinterferon Interferon alpha ( interferon alfa, IFN - α ) Interferon alfa ( IFNA1, IFNA2, IFNA4, IFNA5, IFNA6, IFNA7, IFNA8, IFNA10, IFNA13, IFNA14, IFNA16, IFNA17, IFNA21 ) Interferon alfa 2a Interferon alfa 2b Interferon alfa n1 Interferon alfacon - 1 Interferon alpha - n3 Interferon beta ( IFN - β ) ( IFNB1, IFNB3 ) Interferon beta 1a Interferon beta 1b Interferon kappa ( IFN - ε / κ / τ / ζ, IFNK ) Interferon omega ( IFN - ω, IFNW1 ) Peginterferon alfa - 2a Peginterferon alfa - 2b Antibodies : Anifrolumab Faralimomab MEDI - 545 Rontalizumab Sifalimumab Decoy receptors : Bifarcept IFNGR ( γ, II ) Agonists : Interferon gamma ( IFN - γ ) Interferon gamma 1b Antibodies : Emapalumab Fontolizumab IFNLR ( λ, III ) See IL - 28R ( IFNLR ) here instead. Interleukin See here instead. TGFβ See here instead. TNF See here instead. Others JAK ( inhibitors ) JAK1 Baricitinib Filgotinib Momelotinib Oclacitinib Ruxolitinib Tofacitinib ( tasocitinib, CP - 690550 ) Upadacitinib JAK2 AG - 490 Atiprimod AZD - 1480 Baricitinib CHZ868 Cucurbitacin I ( elatericin B, JSI - 124 ) CYT387 Lestaurtinib NSC - 7908 NSC - 33994 Pacritinib Ruxolitinib SD - 1008 Tofacitinib ( tasocitinib, CP - 690550 ) JAK3 AG - 490 Cercosporamide TCS - 21311 Tofacitinib ( tasocitinib, CP - 690550 ) WHI - P 154 ZM - 39923 ZM - 449829 Others Additional cytokines : Cardiotrophin 1 ( CT - 1 ) FMS - like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand ( FLT3L ) Leukemia / leukocyte inhibitory factor ( LIF ) Oncostatin M ( OSM ) Thymic stromal lymphopoietin ( TSLP ) Additional cytokine receptor modulators : Emfilermin Lestaurtinib Midostaurin Quizartinib Sorafenib Sunitinib See also Receptor / signaling modulators Signaling peptide / protein receptor modulators Growth factor receptor modulators NDL : 00576262 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cytokine&oldid=797645248 '' Categories : Cytokines Immune system Immunology Hidden categories : Webarchive template archiveis links CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2017, at 11 : 51. 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Question: what are the main sources of immune system cytokines
Answer: macrophages