Nitrous oxide - wikipedia Nitrous oxide Not to be confused with nitric oxide ( formula NO ), nitrogen dioxide ( NO ), or generic nitrogen oxide pollutants NOx. For other uses of the terms, see nitrous oxide ( disambiguation ) and laughing gas ( disambiguation ) Nitrous oxide Names IUPAC name Dinitrogen monoxide Other names : Laughing gas, sweet air, protoxide of nitrogen, hyponitrous oxide Identifiers CAS Number 10024 - 97 - 2 3D model ( JSmol ) Interactive image Beilstein Reference 8137358 ChEBI CHEBI : 17045 ChEMBL ChEMBL1234579 ChemSpider 923 DrugBank DB06690 ECHA InfoCard 100.030. 017 E number E942 ( glazing agents,... ) Gmelin Reference 2153410 KEGG D00102 PubChem CID 948 RTECS number QX1350000 UNII K50XQU1029 UN number 1070 ( compressed ) 2201 ( liquid ) InChI InChI = 1S / N2O / c1 - 2 - 3 Key : GQPLMRYTRLFLPF - UHFFFAOYSA - N InChI = 1 / N2O / c1 - 2 - 3 InChI = 1 / N2O / c1 - 2 - 3 Key : GQPLMRYTRLFLPF - UHFFFAOYAP SMILES N # ( N+ ) ( O - ) Properties Chemical formula O Molar mass 44.013 g / mol Appearance colorless gas Density 1.977 g / L ( gas ) Melting point − 90.86 ° C ( − 131.55 ° F ; 182.29 K ) Boiling point − 88.48 ° C ( − 127.26 ° F ; 184.67 K ) Solubility in water 1.5 g / L ( 15 ° C ) Solubility soluble in alcohol, ether, sulfuric acid log P 0.35 Vapor pressure 5150 kPa ( 20 ° C ) Magnetic susceptibility ( χ ) − 18.9 10 cm / mol Refractive index ( n ) 1.000516 ( 0 ° C, 101,325 kPa ) Structure Molecular shape linear, C Dipole moment 0.166 D Thermochemistry Std molar entropy ( S ) 219.96 J K mol Std enthalpy of formation ( Δ H ) + 82.05 kJ mol Pharmacology ATC code N01AX13 ( WHO ) Pregnancy category US : C ( Risk not ruled out ) Routes of administration Inhalation Pharmacokinetics : Metabolism 0.004 % Biological half - life 5 minutes Excretion Respiratory Hazards Safety data sheet Ilo.org, ICSC 0067 NFPA 704 0 0 OX Flash point Nonflammable Related compounds Related nitrogen oxides Nitric oxide Dinitrogen trioxide Nitrogen dioxide Dinitrogen tetroxide Dinitrogen pentoxide Related compounds Ammonium nitrate Azide Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state ( at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ), 100 kPa ). N verify ( what is ? ) Infobox references Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas or nitrous, is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula N O. At room temperature, it is a colorless non-flammable gas, with a slight metallic scent and taste. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen. Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry, for its anaesthetic and pain reducing effects. Its name `` laughing gas '', coined by Humphry Davy, is due to the euphoric effects upon inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic. It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. It also is used as an oxidizer in rocket propellants, and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines. Nitrous oxide occurs in small amounts in the atmosphere, but recently has been found to be a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone, with an impact comparable to that of CFCs. It is estimated that 30 % of the N O in the atmosphere is the result of human activity, chiefly agriculture. Contents 1 Uses 1.1 Rocket motors 1.2 Internal combustion engine 1.3 Aerosol propellant 1.4 Medicine 1.5 Recreational use 2 Safety 2.1 Mental and manual impairment 2.2 Neurotoxicity and neuroprotection 2.3 Oxygen deprivation 2.4 Vitamin B deficiency 2.5 Prenatal development 2.6 Chemical / physical risks 3 Mechanism of action 3.1 Euphoric effect 3.2 Anxiolytic effect 3.3 Analgesic effect 4 Properties and reactions 5 History 5.1 Early use 5.2 Anaesthetic use 5.3 As a patent medicine 6 Production 6.1 Industrial methods 6.2 Laboratory methods 7 Atmospheric occurrence 7.1 Emissions by source 7.2 Biological processes 8 Environmental impact 8.1 Greenhouse effect 8.2 Ozone layer depletion 9 Legality 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Uses Rocket motors Nitrous oxide may be used as an oxidizer in a rocket motor. This is advantageous over other oxidisers in that it is not only non-toxic, but due to its stability at room temperature is also easier to store and relatively safer to carry on a flight. As a secondary benefit, it may be decomposed readily to form breathing air. Its high density and low storage pressure ( when maintained at low temperature ) enable it to be highly competitive with stored high - pressure gas systems. In a 1914 patent, American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard suggested nitrous oxide and gasoline as possible propellants for a liquid - fuelled rocket. Nitrous oxide has been the oxidiser of choice in several hybrid rocket designs ( using solid fuel with a liquid or gaseous oxidizer ). The combination of nitrous oxide with hydroxyl - terminated polybutadiene fuel has been used by SpaceShipOne and others. It also is notably used in amateur and high power rocketry with various plastics as the fuel. Nitrous oxide also may be used in a monopropellant rocket. In the presence of a heated catalyst, N O will decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen, at a temperature of approximately 1,070 ° F ( 577 ° C ). Because of the large heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes secondary, as thermal autodecomposition becomes dominant. In a vacuum thruster, this may provide a monopropellant specific impulse ( I ) of as much as 180 s. While noticeably less than the I available from hydrazine thrusters ( monopropellant or bipropellant with dinitrogen tetroxide ), the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide an option worth investigating. Nitrous oxide is said to deflagrate at approximately 600 ° C ( 1,112 ° F ) at a pressure of 309 psi ( 21 atmospheres ). At 600 psi for example, the required ignition energy is only 6 joules, whereas N O at 130 psi a 2500 - joule ignition energy input is insufficient. Internal combustion engine Main article : Nitrous oxide engine In vehicle racing, nitrous oxide ( often referred to as just `` nitrous '' ) allows the engine to burn more fuel by providing more oxygen than air alone, resulting in a more powerful combustion. The gas is not flammable at a low pressure / temperature, but it delivers more oxygen than atmospheric air by breaking down at elevated temperatures. Therefore, it often is mixed with another fuel that is easier to deflagrate. Nitrous oxide is a strong oxidant, roughly equivalent to hydrogen peroxide, and much stronger than oxygen gas. Nitrous oxide is stored as a compressed liquid ; the evaporation and expansion of liquid nitrous oxide in the intake manifold causes a large drop in intake charge temperature, resulting in a denser charge, further allowing more air / fuel mixture to enter the cylinder. Sometimes nitrous oxide is injected into ( or prior to ) the intake manifold, whereas other systems directly inject, right before the cylinder ( direct port injection ) to increase power. The technique was used during World War II by Luftwaffe aircraft with the GM - 1 system to boost the power output of aircraft engines. Originally meant to provide the Luftwaffe standard aircraft with superior high - altitude performance, technological considerations limited its use to extremely high altitudes. Accordingly, it was only used by specialized planes such as high - altitude reconnaissance aircraft, high - speed bombers, and high - altitude interceptor aircraft. It sometimes could be found on Luftwaffe aircraft also fitted with another engine - boost system, MW 50, a form of water injection for aviation engines that used methanol for its boost capabilities. One of the major problems of using nitrous oxide in a reciprocating engine is that it can produce enough power to damage or destroy the engine. Very large power increases are possible, and if the mechanical structure of the engine is not properly reinforced, the engine may be severely damaged, or destroyed, during this kind of operation. It is very important with nitrous oxide augmentation of petrol engines to maintain proper operating temperatures and fuel levels to prevent `` pre-ignition '', or `` detonation '' ( sometimes referred to as `` knock '' ). Most problems that are associated with nitrous oxide do not come from mechanical failure due to the power increases. Since nitrous oxide allows a much denser charge into the cylinder, it dramatically increases cylinder pressures. The increased pressure and temperature can cause problems such as melting the piston or valves. It also may crack or warp the piston or head and cause pre-ignition due to uneven heating. Automotive - grade liquid nitrous oxide differs slightly from medical - grade nitrous oxide. A small amount of sulfur dioxide ( SO ) is added to prevent substance abuse. Multiple washes through a base ( such as sodium hydroxide ) can remove this, decreasing the corrosive properties observed when SO is further oxidised during combustion into sulfuric acid, making emissions cleaner. Aerosol propellant Food grade N O whippets The gas is approved for use as a food additive ( also known as E942 ), specifically as an aerosol spray propellant. Its most common uses in this context are in aerosol whipped cream canisters, cooking sprays, and as an inert gas used to displace oxygen in order to inhibit bacterial growth when filling packages of potato chips and other similar snack foods. The gas is extremely soluble in fatty compounds. In aerosol whipped cream, it is dissolved in the fatty cream until it leaves the can, when it becomes gaseous and thus creates foam. Used in this way, it produces whipped cream four times the volume of the liquid, whereas whipping air into cream only produces twice the volume. If air were used as a propellant, oxygen would accelerate rancidification of the butterfat, but nitrous oxide inhibits such degradation. Carbon dioxide can not be used for whipped cream because it is acidic in water, which would curdle the cream and give it a seltzer - like `` sparkling '' sensation. The whipped cream produced with nitrous oxide is unstable, however, and will return to a more liquid state within half an hour to one hour. Thus, the method is not suitable for decorating food that will not be served immediately. During December 2016, some manufacturers reported a shortage of aerosol whipped creams in the United States due to an explosion at the Air Liquide nitrous oxide facility in Florida in late August. With a major facility offline, the disruption caused a shortage resulting in the company diverting the supply of nitrous oxide to medical clients rather than to food manufacturing. The shortage came during the Christmas and holiday season when canned whipped cream use is normally at its highest. Similarly, cooking spray, which is made from various types of oils combined with lecithin ( an emulsifier ), may use nitrous oxide as a propellant. Other propellants used in cooking spray include food - grade alcohol and propane. Medicine Main article : Nitrous oxide ( medication ) Medical grade N O tanks used in dentistry Nitrous oxide has been used in dentistry and surgery, as an anaesthetic and analgesic, since 1844. In the early days, the gas was administered through simple inhalers consisting of a breathing bag made of rubber cloth. Today, the gas is administered in hospitals by means of an automated relative analgesia machine, with an anaesthetic vaporiser and a medical ventilator, that delivers a precisely dosed and breath - actuated flow of nitrous oxide mixed with oxygen in a 2 : 1 ratio. Nitrous oxide is a weak general anaesthetic, and so is generally not used alone in general anaesthesia, but used as a carrier gas ( mixed with oxygen ) for more powerful general anaesthetic drugs such as sevoflurane or desflurane. It has a minimum alveolar concentration of 105 % and a blood / gas partition coefficient of 0.46. The use of nitrous oxide in anaesthesia, however, can increase the risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Dentists use a simpler machine, that only delivers a N O / O mixture for the patient to inhale while conscious. The patient is kept conscious throughout the procedure, and retains adequate mental faculties to respond to questions and instructions from the dentist. Inhalation of nitrous oxide is used frequently to relieve pain associated with childbirth, trauma, oral surgery, and acute coronary syndrome ( includes heart attacks ). Its use during labour has been shown to be a safe and effective aid for birthing women. Its use for acute coronary syndrome is of unknown benefit. In Britain and Canada, Entonox and Nitronox are used commonly by ambulance crews ( including unregistered practitioners ) as a rapid and highly effective analgesic gas. 50 % nitrous oxide can be considered for use by trained non-professional first aid responders in prehospital settings, given the relative ease and safety of administering 50 % nitrous oxide as an analgesic. The rapid reversibility of its effect would also prevent it from precluding diagnosis. Recreational use Aquatint depiction of a laughing gas party in the nineteenth century Recreational inhalation of nitrous oxide, with the purpose of causing euphoria and / or slight hallucinations, began as a phenomenon for the British upper class in 1799, known as `` laughing gas parties ''. Whippit remnants of recreational drug use, The Netherlands, 2017 Starting already in the nineteenth century, widespread availability of the gas for medical and culinary purposes allowed the recreational use to expand greatly, throughout the world. In the United Kingdom, as of 2014, nitrous oxide was estimated to be used by almost half a million young people at nightspots, festivals, and parties. The legality of that use varies greatly from country to country, and even from city to city in some countries. Safety The major safety hazards of nitrous oxide come from the fact that it is a compressed liquefied gas, an asphyxiation risk, and a dissociative anaesthetic. While relatively non-toxic, nitrous oxide has a number of recognized ill effects on human health, whether through breathing it in or by contact of the liquid with skin or eyes. Nitrous oxide is a significant occupational hazard for surgeons, dentists, and nurses. Because nitrous oxide is minimally metabolised in humans ( with a rate of 0.004 % ), it retains its potency when exhaled into the room by the patient, and can pose an intoxicating and prolonged exposure hazard to the clinic staff if the room is poorly ventilated. Where nitrous oxide is administered, a continuous - flow fresh - air ventilation system or N O scavenger system is used to prevent a waste - gas buildup. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends that workers ' exposure to nitrous oxide should be controlled during the administration of anaesthetic gas in medical, dental, and veterinary operators. It set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 25 ppm ( 46 mg / m ) to escaped anaesthetic. Mental and manual impairment Exposure to nitrous oxide causes short - term decreases in mental performance, audiovisual ability, and manual dexterity. These effects coupled with the induced spatial and temporal disorientation could result in physical harm to the user from environmental hazards. Neurotoxicity and neuroprotection Like other NMDA antagonists, N O was suggested to produce neurotoxicity in the form of Olney 's lesions in rodents upon prolonged ( several hour ) exposure. New research has arisen suggesting that Olney 's lesions do not occur in humans, however, and similar drugs such as ketamine are now believed not to be acutely neurotoxic. It has been argued that, because N O has a very short duration under normal circumstances, it is less likely to be neurotoxic than other NMDA antagonists. Indeed, in rodents, short - term exposure results in only mild injury that is rapidly reversible, and permanent neuronal death only occurs after constant and sustained exposure. Nitrous oxide also may cause neurotoxicity after extended exposure because of hypoxia. This is especially true of non-medical formulations such as whipped - cream chargers ( also known as `` whippets '' or `` nangs '' ), which never contain oxygen, since oxygen makes cream rancid. Additionally, nitrous oxide depletes vitamin B levels. This can cause serious neurotoxicity if the user has preexisting vitamin B deficiency. Nitrous oxide at 75 - vol % reduce ischemia - induced neuronal death induced by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery in rodents, and decrease NMDA - induced Ca2+ influx in neuronal cell cultures, a critical event involved in excitotoxicity. Oxygen deprivation If pure nitrous oxide is inhaled without oxygen mixed in, this can eventually lead to oxygen deprivation resulting in loss of blood pressure, fainting and even heart attacks. This can occur if the user inhales large quantities continuously, as with a strap - on mask connected to a gas canister. It can also happen if the user engages in excessive breath - holding or uses any other inhalation system that cuts off their supply of fresh air. Vitamin B deficiency Long - term exposure to nitrous oxide may cause vitamin B deficiency. It inactivates the cobalamin form of vitamin B by oxidation. Symptoms of vitamin B deficiency, including sensory neuropathy, myelopathy, and encephalopathy, may occur within days or weeks of exposure to nitrous oxide anaesthesia in people with subclinical vitamin B deficiency. Symptoms are treated with high doses of vitamin B, but recovery can be slow and incomplete. People with normal vitamin B levels have stores to make the effects of nitrous oxide insignificant, unless exposure is repeated and prolonged ( nitrous oxide abuse ). Vitamin B levels should be checked in people with risk factors for vitamin B deficiency prior to using nitrous oxide anaesthesia. Prenatal Development Several experimental studies in rats indicate that chronic exposure of pregnant females to nitrous oxide may have adverse effects on the developing fetus. Chemical / physical risks At room temperature ( 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) ) the saturated vapour pressure is 50.525 bar, rising up to 72.45 bar at 36.4 ° C ( 97.5 ° F ) -- the critical temperature. The pressure curve is thus unusually sensitive to temperature. Liquid nitrous oxide acts as a good solvent for many organic compounds ; liquid mixtures may form shock sensitive explosives. As with many strong oxidisers, contamination of parts with fuels have been implicated in rocketry accidents, where small quantities of nitrous / fuel mixtures explode due to `` water hammer '' - like effects ( sometimes called `` dieseling '' -- heating due to adiabatic compression of gases can reach decomposition temperatures ). Some common building materials such as stainless steel and aluminium can act as fuels with strong oxidisers such as nitrous oxide, as can contaminants that may ignite due to adiabatic compression. There also have been incidents where nitrous oxide decomposition in plumbing has led to the explosion of large tanks. Mechanism of action The pharmacological mechanism of action of N O in medicine is not fully known. However, it has been shown to directly modulate a broad range of ligand - gated ion channels, and this likely plays a major role in many of its effects. It moderately blocks NMDA and β - subunit - containing nACh channels, weakly inhibits AMPA, kainate, GABA, and 5 - HT receptors, and slightly potentiates GABA and glycine receptors. It also has been shown to activate two - pore - domain K channels. While N O affects quite a few ion channels, its anaesthetic, hallucinogenic, and euphoriant effects are likely caused predominantly, or fully, via inhibition of NMDA receptor - mediated currents. In addition to its effects on ion channels, N O may act to imitate nitric oxide ( NO ) in the central nervous system, and this may be related to its analgesic and anxiolytic properties. The effects of inhaling sub-anaesthetic doses of Nitrous Oxide have been known to vary, based on several factors, including settings and individual differences, however, from his discussion, Jay ( 2008 ) suggests that it has been reliably known to induce the following states and sensations : Intoxication Euphoria / dysphoria Spatial disorientation Temporal disorientation Reduced pain sensitivity A minority of users also will present with uncontrolled vocalisations and muscular spasms. These effects generally disappear minutes after removal of the nitrous oxide source. Euphoric effect In rats, N O stimulates the mesolimbic reward pathway via inducing dopamine release and activating dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, presumably through antagonisation of NMDA receptors localised in the system. This action has been implicated in its euphoric effects, and notably, appears to augment its analgesic properties as well. It is remarkable, however, that in mice, N O blocks amphetamine - induced carrier - mediated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and behavioural sensitisation, abolishes the conditioned place preference ( CPP ) of cocaine and morphine, and does not produce reinforcing ( or aversive ) effects of its own. Studies on CPP of N O in rats is mixed, consisting of reinforcement, aversion, and no change. In contrast, it is a positive reinforcer in squirrel monkeys, and is well known as a drug of abuse in humans. These discrepancies in response to N O may reflect species variation or methodological differences. In human clinical studies, N O was found to produce mixed responses, similarly to rats, reflecting high subjective individual variability. Anxiolytic effect In behavioural tests of anxiety, a low dose of N O is an effective anxiolytic, and this anti-anxiety effect is associated with enhanced activity of GABA receptors, as it is partially reversed by benzodiazepine receptor antagonists. Mirroring this, animals that have developed tolerance to the anxiolytic effects of benzodiazepines are partially tolerant to N O. Indeed, in humans given 30 % N O, benzodiazepine receptor antagonists reduced the subjective reports of feeling `` high '', but did not alter psychomotor performance, in human clinical studies. Analgesic effect The analgesic effects of N O are linked to the interaction between the endogenous opioid system and the descending noradrenergic system. When animals are given morphine chronically, they develop tolerance to its pain - killing effects, and this also renders the animals tolerant to the analgesic effects of N O. Administration of antibodies that bind and block the activity of some endogenous opioids ( not β - endorphin ) also block the antinociceptive effects of N O. Drugs that inhibit the breakdown of endogenous opioids also potentiate the antinociceptive effects of N O. Several experiments have shown that opioid receptor antagonists applied directly to the brain block the antinociceptive effects of N O, but these drugs have no effect when injected into the spinal cord. Conversely, α - adrenoceptor antagonists block the pain - reducing effects of N O when given directly to the spinal cord, but not when applied directly to the brain. Indeed, α - adrenoceptor knockout mice or animals depleted in norepinephrine are nearly completely resistant to the antinociceptive effects of N O. Apparently N O - induced release of endogenous opioids causes disinhibition of brain stem noradrenergic neurons, which release norepinephrine into the spinal cord and inhibit pain signalling. Exactly how N O causes the release of endogenous opioid peptides, remains uncertain. Properties and reactions Nitrous oxide is a colourless, non-toxic gas with a faint, sweet odour. Nitrous oxide supports combustion by releasing the dipolar bonded oxygen radical, thus it can relight a glowing splint. O is inert at room temperature and has few reactions. At elevated temperatures, its reactivity increases. For example, nitrous oxide reacts with NaNH at 460 K ( 187 ° C ) to give NaN : 2 NaNH + N O → NaN + NaOH + NH The above reaction is the route adopted by the commercial chemical industry to produce azide salts, which are used as detonators. History The gas was first synthesised in 1772 by English natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley, who called it phlogisticated nitrous air ( see phlogiston ) or inflammable nitrous air. Priestley published his discovery in the book Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air ( 1775 ), where he described how to produce the preparation of `` nitrous air diminished '', by heating iron filings dampened with nitric acid. Early use `` LIVING MADE EASY '' A satirical print from 1830 depicting Humphry Davy administering a dose of laughing gas to a woman The first important use of nitrous oxide was made possible by Thomas Beddoes and James Watt, who worked together to publish the book Considerations on the Medical Use and on the Production of Factitious Airs ( 1794 ). This book was important for two reasons. First, James Watt had invented a novel machine to produce `` Factitious Airs '' ( i.e. nitrous oxide ) and a novel `` breathing apparatus '' to inhale the gas. Second, the book also presented the new medical theories by Thomas Beddoes, that tuberculosis and other lung diseases could be treated by inhalation of `` Factitious Airs ''. Sir Humphry Davy 's Researches chemical and philosophical : chiefly concerning nitrous oxide ( 1800 ), pages 556 and 557 ( right ), outlining potential anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide in relieving pain during surgery The machine to produce `` Factitious Airs '' had three parts : a furnace to burn the needed material, a vessel with water where the produced gas passed through in a spiral pipe ( for impurities to be `` washed off '' ), and finally the gas cylinder with a gasometer where the gas produced, `` air '', could be tapped into portable air bags ( made of airtight oily silk ). The breathing apparatus consisted of one of the portable air bags connected with a tube to a mouthpiece. With this new equipment being engineered and produced by 1794, the way was paved for clinical trials, which began in 1798 when Thomas Beddoes established the `` Pneumatic Institution for Relieving Diseases by Medical Airs '' in Hotwells ( Bristol ). In the basement of the building, a large - scale machine was producing the gases under the supervision of a young Humphry Davy, who was encouraged to experiment with new gases for patients to inhale. The first important work of Davy was examination of the nitrous oxide, and the publication of his results in the book : Researches, Chemical and Philosophical ( 1800 ). In that publication, Davy notes the analgesic effect of nitrous oxide at page 465 and its potential to be used for surgical operations at page 556. Davy coined the name `` laughing gas '' for nitrous oxide. Despite Davy 's discovery that inhalation of nitrous oxide could relieve a conscious person from pain, another 44 years elapsed before doctors attempted to use it for anaesthesia. The use of nitrous oxide as a recreational drug at `` laughing gas parties '', primarily arranged for the British upper class, became an immediate success beginning in 1799. While the effects of the gas generally make the user appear stuporous, dreamy, and sedated, some people also `` get the giggles '' in a state of euphoria, and frequently erupt in laughter. One of the earliest commercial producers in the U.S. was George Poe, cousin of the poet Edgar Allan Poe, who also was the first to liquefy the gas. Anaesthetic use Further information : Nitrous oxide and oxygen The first time nitrous oxide was used as an anaesthetic drug in the treatment of a patient was when dentist Horace Wells, with assistance by Gardner Quincy Colton and John Mankey Riggs, demonstrated insensitivity to pain from a dental extraction on 11 December 1844. In the following weeks, Wells treated the first 12 -- 15 patients with nitrous oxide in Hartford, Connecticut, and according to his own record, only failed in two cases. In spite of these convincing results having been reported by Wells to the medical society in Boston in December 1844, this new method was not immediately adopted by other dentists. The reason for this was most likely that Wells, in January 1845 at his first public demonstration to the medical faculty in Boston, had been partly unsuccessful, leaving his colleagues doubtful regarding its efficacy and safety. The method did not come into general use until 1863, when Gardner Quincy Colton successfully started to use it in all his `` Colton Dental Association '' clinics, that he had just established in New Haven and New York City. Over the following three years, Colton and his associates successfully administered nitrous oxide to more than 25,000 patients. Today, nitrous oxide is used in dentistry as an anxiolytic, as an adjunct to local anaesthetic. Nitrous oxide was not found to be a strong enough anaesthetic for use in major surgery in hospital settings, however. Instead, diethyl ether, being a stronger and more potent anaesthetic, was demonstrated and accepted for use in October 1846, along with chloroform in 1847. When Joseph Thomas Clover invented the `` gas - ether inhaler '' in 1876, however, it became a common practice at hospitals to initiate all anaesthetic treatments with a mild flow of nitrous oxide, and then gradually increase the anaesthesia with the stronger ether or chloroform. Clover 's gas - ether inhaler was designed to supply the patient with nitrous oxide and ether at the same time, with the exact mixture being controlled by the operator of the device. It remained in use by many hospitals until the 1930s. Although hospitals today are using a more advanced anaesthetic machine, these machines still use the same principle launched with Clover 's gas - ether inhaler, to initiate the anaesthesia with nitrous oxide, before the administration of a more powerful anaesthetic. As a patent medicine Colton 's popularization of nitrous oxide led to its adoption by a number of less than reputable quacksalvers, who touted it as a cure for consumption, scrofula, catarrh, and other diseases of the blood, throat, and lungs. Nitrous oxide treatment was administered and licensed as a patent medicine by the likes of C.L. Blood and Jerome Harris in Boston and Charles E. Barney of Chicago. Production Industrial methods Nitrous oxide production Nitrous oxide is prepared on an industrial scale by careful heating of ammonium nitrate at about 250 C, which decomposes into nitrous oxide and water vapour. NH NO → 2 H O + N O The addition of various phosphate salts favours formation of a purer gas at slightly lower temperatures. This reaction may be difficult to control, resulting in detonation. Laboratory methods The decomposition of ammonium nitrate is also a common laboratory method for preparing the gas. Equivalently, it can be obtained by heating a mixture of sodium nitrate and ammonium sulfate : 2 NaNO + ( NH ) SO → Na SO + 2 N O + 4 H O. Another method involves the reaction of urea, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid : 2 ( NH ) CO + 2 HNO + H SO → 2 N O + 2 CO + ( NH ) SO + 2H O. Direct oxidation of ammonia with a manganese dioxide - bismuth oxide catalyst has been reported : cf. Ostwald process. 2 NH + 2 O → N O + 3 H O Hydroxylammonium chloride reacts with sodium nitrite to give nitrous oxide. If the nitrite is added to the hydroxylamine solution, the only remaining by - product is salt water. If the hydroxylamine solution is added to the nitrite solution ( nitrite is in excess ), however, then toxic higher oxides of nitrogen also are formed : NH OH Cl + NaNO → N O + NaCl + 2 H O Treating HNO with SnCl and HCl also has been demonstrated : 2 HNO + 8 HCl + 4 SnCl → 5 H O + 4 SnCl + N O Hyponitrous acid decomposes to N O and water with a half - life of 16 days at 25 ° C at pH 1 -- 3. H N O → H O + N O Atmospheric occurrence Nitrous oxide is a minor component of Earth 's atmosphere, currently with a concentration of about 0.330 ppm. Emissions by source As of 2010, it was estimated that about 29.5 million tonnes of N O ( containing 18.8 million tonnes of nitrogen ) were entering the atmosphere each year ; of which 64 % were natural, and 36 % due to human activity. Most of the N O emitted into the atmosphere, from natural and anthropogenic sources, is produced by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi in soils and oceans. Soils under natural vegetation are an important source of nitrous oxide, accounting for 60 % of all naturally produced emissions. Other natural sources include the oceans ( 35 % ) and atmospheric chemical reactions ( 5 % ). The main components of anthropogenic emissions are fertilized agricultural soils and livestock manure ( 42 % ), runoff and leaching of fertilizers ( 25 % ), biomass burning ( 10 % ), fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes ( 10 % ), biological degradation of other nitrogen - containing atmospheric emissions ( 9 % ), and human sewage ( 5 % ). Agriculture enhances nitrous oxide production through soil cultivation, the use of nitrogen fertilisers, and animal waste handling. These activities stimulate naturally - occurring bacteria to produce more nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide emissions from soil can be challenging to measure as they vary markedly over time and space, and the majority of a year 's emissions may occur when conditions are favorable during `` hot moments '' and / or at favorable locations known as `` hotspots ''. Among industrial emissions, the production of nitric acid and adipic acid are the largest sources of nitrous oxide emissions. The adipic acid emissions specifically arise from the degradation of the nitrolic acid intermediate derived from nitration of cyclohexanone. Biological processes Natural processes that generate nitrous oxide may be classified as nitrification and denitrification. Specifically, they include : aerobic autotrophic nitrification, the stepwise oxidation of ammonia ( NH ) to nitrite ( NO ) and to nitrate ( NO ) ( e.g., Kowalchuk and Stephen, 2001 ), anaerobic heterotrophic denitrification, the stepwise reduction of NO to NO, nitric oxide ( NO ), N O and ultimately N, where facultative anaerobe bacteria use NO as an electron acceptor in the respiration of organic material in the condition of insufficient oxygen ( O ) ( e.g. Knowles, 1982 ), and nitrifier denitrification, which is carried out by autotrophic NH − oxidizing bacteria and the pathway whereby ammonia ( NH ) is oxidised to nitrite ( NO ), followed by the reduction of NO to nitric oxide ( NO ), N O and molecular nitrogen ( N ) ( e.g., Webster and Hopkins, 1996 ; Wrage et al., 2001 ). heterotrophic nitrification ( Robertson and Kuenen, 1990 ) aerobic denitrification by the same heterotrophic nitrifiers ( Robertson and Kuenen, 1990 ) fungal denitrification ( Laughlin and Stevens, 2002 ) non-biological chemodenitrification ( e.g. Chalk and Smith, 1983 ; Van Cleemput and Baert, 1984 ; Martikainen and De Boer, 1993 ; Daum and Schenk, 1998 ; Mørkved et al., 2007 ) These processes are affected by soil chemical and physical properties such as the availability of mineral nitrogen and organic matter, acidity, and soil type ; as well as climate - related factors such as soil temperature and water content ( e.g., Mosier, 1994 ; Bouwman, 1996 ; Beauchamp, 1997 ; Yamulki et al. 1997 ; Dobbie and Smith, 2003 ; Smith et al. 2003 ; Dalal et al. 2003 ). The emission of the gas to the atmosphere is limited greatly by its consumption inside the cells, by a process catalyzed by the enzyme nitrous oxide reductase. Environmental impact Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gas trends Nitrous oxide has a significant global warming potential as greenhouse gas. On a per - molecule basis, considered over a 100 - year - period, nitrous oxide has 298 times the atmospheric heat - trapping ability of carbon dioxide ( CO ), however, because of its low concentration ( less than 1 / 1000 of that of CO ), its contribution to the greenhouse effect is less than one - third that of carbon dioxide, and also less than water vapour and methane. On the other hand, since 38 % or more of the N O entering the atmosphere is the result of human activity, and its concentration has increased 15 % since 1750, control of nitrous oxide is considered part of efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions. A 2008 study by Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen suggests that the amount of nitrous oxide release attributable to agricultural nitrate fertilizers has been seriously underestimated, most of which presumably, would come under soil and oceanic release in the Environmental Protection Agency data. Ozone layer depletion Nitrous oxide also has been implicated in thinning of the ozone layer. A new study suggests that N O emission currently is the single most important ozone - depleting substance ( ODS ) emission and is expected to remain the largest throughout the twenty - first century. Legality In the United States, possession of nitrous oxide is legal under federal law and is not subject to DEA purview. It is, however, regulated by the Food and Drug Administration under the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act ; prosecution is possible under its `` misbranding '' clauses, prohibiting the sale or distribution of nitrous oxide for the purpose of human consumption. Many states have laws regulating the possession, sale, and distribution of nitrous oxide. Such laws usually ban distribution to minors or limit the amount of nitrous oxide that may be sold without special license. For example, in the state of California, possession for recreational use is prohibited and qualifies as a misdemeanour. In August 2015, the Council of the London Borough of Lambeth ( UK ) banned the use of the drug for recreational purposes, making offenders liable to an on - the - spot fine of up to £ 1,000. In New Zealand, the Ministry of Health has warned that nitrous oxide is a prescription medicine, and its sale or possession without a prescription, is an offense under the Medicines Act. This statement would seemingly prohibit all non-medicinal uses of nitrous oxide, although it is implied that only recreational use will be targeted legally. In India, transfer of nitrous oxide from bulk cylinders to smaller, more transportable E-type, 1590 liter - capacity tanks, is legal when the intended use of the gas is for medical anaesthesia. See also Whipped - cream charger Diffusion hypoxia Nitrous oxide fuel blend DayCent References Jump up ^ Tarendash, Albert S. ( 2001 ). Let 's review : chemistry, the physical setting ( 3rd ed. ). Barron 's Educational Series. p. 44. ISBN 0 - 7641 - 1664 - 9. Jump up ^ `` WHO Model List of Essential Medicines 20th List ( March 2017 ) '' ( PDF ). Geneva, Switzerland : World Health Organization. March 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2017. ^ Jump up to : Ravishankara, A.R. ; Daniel, J.S. ; Portmann, R.W. ( 2009 ). `` Nitrous Oxide ( N O ) : The Dominant Ozone - Depleting Substance Emitted in the 21st Century ''. Science. 326 ( 5949 ) : 123 -- 5. Bibcode : 2009Sci... 326... 123R. doi : 10.1126 / science. 1176985. PMID 19713491. Jump up ^ Berger, Bruno ( 5 October 2007 ). `` Is nitrous oxide safe ? 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Chapter 8 of The Metal - Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment, pages 177 -- 210, volume 14 in Metal Ions in Life Sciences, edited by Peter M.H. Kroneck and Martha E. Sosa Torres. Springer. doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 94 - 017 - 9269 - 1_8 Jump up ^ `` 40 CFR Part 98 -- Revisions to the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Rule and Final Confidentiality U.S. EPA '' ( PDF ). Environmental Protection Agency. 15 November 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2014. Jump up ^ `` Overview of Greenhouse Gases -- Nitrous Oxide '' ( PDF ). US EPA. Page 164 ( document header listing ). Retrieved 19 March 2014. Jump up ^ `` Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Sciences Basis ''. IPCC. Archived from the original on 1 May 2007. Retrieved 30 April 2007. Jump up ^ `` 4.1. 1 Sources of Greenhouse Gases ''. IPCC TAR WG1 2001. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 21 September 2012. Jump up ^ Crutzen, P.J. ; Mosier, A.R. ; Smith, K.A. ; Winiwarter, W. ( 2008 ). `` N O release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels ''. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 8 ( 2 ) : 389 -- 395. doi : 10.5194 / acp - 8 - 389 - 2008. Jump up ^ Grossman, Lisa ( 28 August 2009 ). `` Laughing gas is biggest threat to ozone layer ''. NewScientist. Jump up ^ `` US Nitrous Oxide Laws ( alphabetically ) Based on a search of online free legal databases. Conducted May 2002 ''. Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics. Jump up ^ `` CAL. PEN. CODE § 381b : California Code -- Section 381b ''. Lp.findlaw.com. Jump up ^ `` Lambeth Council bans laughing gas as recreational drug ''. BBC News. 17 August 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015. Jump up ^ Anderton, Jim ( 26 June 2005 ). `` Time 's up for sham sales of laughing gas ''. Beehive.govt.nz. Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Jump up ^ `` Ohio Medical '' ( PDF ). www.ohiomedical.com. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nitrous oxide. Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Nitrous Oxide Paul Crutzen Interview Freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust. National Pollutant Inventory -- Oxide of nitrogen fact sheet National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health -- Nitrous Oxide CDC -- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards -- Nitrous Oxide Nitrous Oxide FAQ Erowid article on Nitrous Oxide Nitrous oxide fingered as monster ozone slayer, Science News Dental Fear Central article on the use of nitrous oxide in dentistry Altered States Database Recreational drug use Major recreational drugs Depressants Barbiturates Benzodiazepines Carbamates Ethanol ( alcohol ) Alcoholic drinks Beer Wine Gabapentinoids GHB Inhalants Medical Nitrous oxide Hazardous solvents contact adhesives Gasoline nail polish remover Paint thinner Other Freon Kava Nonbenzodiazepines Quinazolinones Opioids Buprenorphine Suboxone Subutex Codeine Desomorphine Krokodil Dextropropoxyphene Darvocet Darvon Fentanyl Diamorphine Heroin Hydrocodone Hydromorphone Dilaudid Methadone Mitragyna speciosa Kratom Morphine Opium Oxycodone / paracetamol Tramadol Stimulants Amphetamine Arecoline Areca Betel Caffeine Coffee Energy drinks Tea Cathinone Khat Cocaine Coca Crack Ephedrine Ephedra MDPV Mephedrone Methamphetamine Methylone Methylphenidate Modafinil Nicotine Tobacco Theobromine Cocoa Chocolate Entactogens 2C series 6 - APB Benzofury AMT MDA MDMA Ecstasy Hallucinogens Psychedelics Bufotenin Psychoactive toads Vilca Yopo DMT Ayahuasca LSA LSD - 25 Mescaline Peruvian torch Peyote San Pedro Psilocybin / Psilocin Psilocybin mushrooms Dissociatives DXM Glaucine Inhalants Nitrous oxide alkyl nitrites poppers amyl nitrite Ketamine MXE Muscimol Amanita muscaria PCP Salvinorin A Salvia divinorum Deliriants Atropine and Scopolamine Atropa belladonna Datura Hyoscyamus niger Mandragora officinarum Dimenhydrinate Diphenhydramine Cannabinoids JWH - 018 THC Cannabis Hashish Hash oil Marijuana Oneirogens Calea zacatechichi Silene capensis Club drugs Cocaine Quaaludes MDMA ( Ecstasy ) Nitrous oxide Poppers Drug culture Cannabis culture 420 Cannabis cultivation Cannabis smoking Head shop Legal history of cannabis in the United States Legality of cannabis Marijuana Policy Project Medical cannabis NORML Cannabis and religion Stoner film Coffee culture Coffee break Coffeehouse Latte art Tea house Drinking culture Bartending Beer culture Beer festival Binge drinking Diethyl ether Drinking games Drinking song Happy hour Hip flask Nightclub Pub Pub crawl Sommelier Sports bar Tailgate party Wine bar Wine tasting Psychedelia Psychonautics Art Drug Era Experience Literature Music Microdosing Therapy Smoking culture Cigarette card Fashion cigarettes Cloud - chasing Loosie Smokeasy Smoking fetishism Tobacco smoking Other Club drug Counterculture of the 1960s Dance party Drug paraphernalia Drug tourism Entheogen Hippie Nootropic Party and play Poly drug use Rave Religion and drugs Self - medication Sex and drugs Whoonga Drug production and trade Drug production Coca production in Colombia Drug precursors Opium production in Afghanistan Rolling meth lab Drug trade Illegal drug trade Colombia Darknet market Drug distribution Beer shop Cannabis shop Liquor store Liquor license Issues with drug use Abuse Date rape drug Impaired driving Drug harmfulness Effects of cannabis Addiction Dependence Prevention Opioid replacement therapy Rehabilitation Responsible use Drug - related crime Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder Long - term effects of cannabis Neurotoxicity Overdose Passive smoking of tobacco or other substances Legality of drug use International 1961 Narcotic Drugs 1971 Psychotropic Substances 1988 Drug Trafficking Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs State level Drug policy Decriminalization Prohibition Supply reduction Policy reform Demand reduction Drug Policy Alliance Harm reduction Law Enforcement Action Partnership Liberalization Latin America Students for Sensible Drug Policy Transform Drug Policy Foundation Drug policy by country Australia Canada Germany India Netherlands Portugal Slovakia Soviet Union Sweden Switzerland United States Just Say No Office of National Drug Control Policy School district drug policies California Colorado Maryland Virginia Other Arguments for and against drug prohibition Capital punishment for drug trafficking Cognitive liberty Designer drug Drug court Drug possession Drug test Narc Politics of drug abuse War on Drugs Mexican Drug War Plan Colombia Philippine Drug War Zero tolerance Lists of countries by... Alcohol legality Alcohol consumption Anabolic steroid legality Cannabis legality Annual use Lifetime use Cigarette consumption Cocaine legality Cocaine use Methamphetamine legality Opiates use Psilocybin mushrooms legality Salvia legality General anesthetics ( N01A ) Inhalational Chloroethane ( ethyl chloride ) Chloroform Cyclopropane Desflurane Diethyl ether Enflurane Ethylene Fluroxene Halothane Isoflurane Methoxyflurane Methoxypropane Nitrous oxide Sevoflurane Trichloroethylene Vinyl ether Xenon Injection Phenols Fospropofol Propofol Opioids Morphine Oxycodone Anileridine Embutramide Fentanyl Alfentanil Phenoperidine Remifentanil ÷ Sufentanil Arylcyclohexylamines Esketamine Ketamine Phencyclidine Tiletamine Neuroactive steroids Alfadolone Alfaxalone Hydroxydione Others Propanidid WHO - EM Withdrawn from market Clinical trials : Phase III Never to phase III Analgesics ( N02A, N02B ) Opioids Opiates / opium Codeine ( + paracetamol, + aspirin ) Morphine ( + naltrexone ) Opium Laudanum Paregoric Semisynthetic Acetyldihydrocodeine Benzylmorphine Buprenorphine ( + naloxone ) Desomorphine Diamorphine ( heroin ) Dihydrocodeine ( + paracetamol ) Dihydromorphine Ethylmorphine Hydrocodone ( + paracetamol, + ibuprofen, + aspirin ) Hydromorphinol Hydromorphone Nicocodeine Nicodicodeine Nicomorphine Oxycodone ( + paracetamol, + aspirin, + ibuprofen, + naloxone, + naltrexone ) Oxymorphone Thebacon Synthetic Alfentanil Alphaprodine Anileridine Butorphanol Carfentanil Dextromoramide Dextropropoxyphene Dezocine Fentanyl ( + fluanisone ) Ketobemidone Levorphanol Lofentanil Meptazinol Methadone Nalbuphine NFEPP Pentazocine Pethidine ( meperidine ) Phenadoxone Phenazocine Piminodine Piritramide Propiram Remifentanil Sufentanil Tapentadol Tilidine Tramadol Paracetamol - type Acetanilide Bucetin Butacetin Paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) Parapropamol Phenacetin Propacetamol NSAIDs Propionates Fenoprofen Flurbiprofen Ibuprofen Ketoprofen Naproxen Oxaprozin Oxicams Meloxicam Piroxicam Acetates Diclofenac Indometacin Ketorolac Nabumetone Sulindac Tolmetin COX - 2 inhibitors Celecoxib Etoricoxib Lumiracoxib Parecoxib Rofecoxib Valdecoxib Fenamates Meclofenamic acid Mefenamic acid Salicylates Aspirin ( acetylsalicylic acid ) ( + paracetamol / caffeine ) Benorylate Diflunisal Ethenzamide Magnesium salicylate Salicin Salicylamide Salsalate Wintergreen ( methyl salicylate ) Pyrazolones Aminophenazone Ampyrone Metamizole ( dipyrone ) Nifenazone Phenazone Propyphenazone ( + paracetamol / caffeine ) Others Glafenine Cannabinoids Cannabidiol Cannabis Nabilone Nabiximols Tetrahydrocannabinol ( dronabinol ) Ion channel modulators Calcium blockers Gabapentin Gabapentin enacarbil Pregabalin Ziconotide Sodium blockers Carbamazepine Lacosamide Local anesthetics ( e.g., cocaine, lidocaine ) Mexiletine Nefopam Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amitriptyline ) Na 1.7 / 1.8 - selective : DSP - 2230 Funapide PF - 05089771 Raxatrigine Potassium openers Flupirtine Myorelaxants Carisoprodol Chlorzoxazone Cyclobenzaprine Mephenoxalone Methocarbamol Orphenadrine Others Analgesic adjuvant Analgecine Camphor Capsaicin Clonidine Ketamine Menthol Methoxyflurane Nefopam Proglumide Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amitriptyline ) WHO - EM Withdrawn from market Clinical trials : Phase III Never to phase III Hallucinogens Psychedelics ( 5 - HT agonists ) Benzofurans 2C - B - FLY 2CBFly - NBOMe 5 - MeO - BFE 5 - MeO - DiBF Bromo - DragonFLY F - 2 F - 22 TFMFly Lyserg ‐ amides 1P - ETH - LAD 1P - LSD 2 - Butyllysergamide 3 - Pentyllysergamide AL - LAD ALD - 52 BU - LAD Diallyllysergamide Dimethyllysergamide Ergometrine ETH - LAD IP - LAD LAE - 32 LPD - 824 LSA LSD LSD - Pip LSH LSM - 775 LSZ Methylergometrine Methylisopropyllysergamide Methysergide MLD - 41 PARGY - LAD PRO-LAD Phenethyl ‐ amines 2C - x 2C - B 2C - B - AN 2C - Bn 2C - Bu 2C - C 2C - CN 2C - CP 2C - D 2C - E 2C - EF 2C - F 2C - G 2C - G - 1 2C - G - 2 2C - G - 3 2C - G - 4 2C - G - 5 2C - G - 6 2C - G-N 2C - H 2C - I 2C - iP 2C - N 2C - NH2 2C - O 2C - O - 4 2C - P 2C - Ph 2C - SE 2C - T 2C - T - 2 2C - T - 3 2C - T - 4 2C - T - 5 2C - T - 6 2C - T - 7 2C - T - 8 2C - T - 9 2C - T - 10 2C - T - 11 2C - T - 12 2C - T - 13 2C - T - 14 2C - T - 15 2C - T - 16 2C - T - 17 2C - T - 18 2C - T - 19 2C - T - 20 2C - T - 21 2C - T - 22 2C - T - 22.5 2C - T - 23 2C - T - 24 2C - T - 25 2C - T - 27 2C - T - 28 2C - T - 30 2C - T - 31 2C - T - 32 2C - T - 33 2C - TFE 2C - TFM 2C - YN 2C - V 25x - NBx 25x - NB3OMe 25B - NB3OMe 25C - NB3OMe 25D - NB3OMe 25E - NB3OMe 25H - NB3OMe 25I - NB3OMe 25N - NB3OMe 25P - NB3OMe 25T2 - NB3OMe 25T4 - NB3OMe 25T7 - NB3OMe 25TFM - NB3OMe 25x - NB4OMe 25B - NB4OMe 25C - NB4OMe 25D - NB4OMe 25E - NB4OMe 25H - NB4OMe 25I - NB4OMe 25N - NB4OMe 25P - NB4OMe 25T2 - NB4OMe 25T4 - NB4OMe 25T7 - NB4OMe 25TFM - NB4OMe 25x - NBF 25B - NBF 25C - NBF 25D - NBF 25E - NBF 25H - NBF 25I - NBF 25P - NBF 25T2 - NBF 25T7 - NBF 25TFM - NBF 25x - NBMD 25B - NBMD 25C - NBMD 25D - NBMD 25E - NBMD 25F - NBMD 25H - NBMD 25I - NBMD 25P - NBMD 25T2 - NBMD 25T7 - NBMD 25TFM - NBMD 25x - NBOH 25B - NBOH 25C - NBOH 25CN - NBOH 25D - NBOH 25E - NBOH 25F - NBOH 25H - NBOH 25I - NBOH 25P - NBOH 25T2 - NBOH 25T7 - NBOH 25TFM - NBOH 25x - NBOMe 25B - NBOMe 25C - NBOMe 25CN - NBOMe 25D - NBOMe 25E - NBOMe 25F - NBOMe 25G - NBOMe 25H - NBOMe 25I - NBOMe 25iP - NBOMe 25N - NBOMe 25P - NBOMe 25T2 - NBOMe 25T4 - NBOMe 25T7 - NBOMe 25TFM - NBOMe Atypical structures 25I - NB34MD 2CBCB - NBOMe 2CBFly - NBOMe NBOMe - mescaline 3C - x 3C - AL 3C - BZ 3C - DFE 3C - E 3C - P 4C - x 4C - B 4C - D 4C - T - 2 DOx DOT DOB DOC DOEF DOET DOF DOI DOiPR DOM DON DOPR DOTFM MEM HOT - x HOT - 2 HOT - 7 HOT - 17 MDxx DMMDA DMMDA - 2 Lophophine MDA MMDA MMDA - 2 MMDA - 3a MMDMA Mescaline ( subst. ) 2 - Bromomescaline 3 - TE 4 - TE 3 - TM 4 - TM Allylescaline Asymbescaline Buscaline Cyclopropylmescaline Difluoromescaline Difluoroescaline Escaline Fluoroproscaline Isobuscaline Isoproscaline Jimscaline Mescaline Metaescaline Methallylescaline Proscaline Thioproscaline Trifluoroescaline Trifluoromescaline TMAs TMA TMA - 2 TMA - 3 TMA - 4 TMA - 5 TMA - 6 Others 2C - B - BUTTERFLY 2C - B - DragonFLY 2CB - 5 - hemifly 2 - TOM 5 - TOET 5 - TOM 2CB - Ind 2CD - 5EtO BOB BOD βk - 2C - B βk - 2C - I DESOXY DMCPA DMBMPP DOB - FLY Fenfluramine Ganesha Macromerine MMA TCB - 2 TOMSO Piperazines BZP pFPP Tryptamines alpha - alkyltryptamines 4, 5 - DHP - α - MT 5 - MeO - α - ET 5 - MeO - α - MT α - ET α - MT x - DALT ( Daltocin ) 4 - HO - DALT ( Daltacetin ) 4 - AcO - DALT 5 - MeO - DALT DALT x - DET ( Ethacetin ) 4 - AcO - DET ( Ethocin ) 4 - HO - DET 5 - MeO - DET ( T - 9 ) DET ( Ethocybin ) 4 - PO - DET x - DiPT 1 - Me - 5 - MeO - DiPT ( Ipracetin ) 4 - AcO - DiPT ( Iprocin ) 4 - HO - DiPT ( Foxy Methoxy ) 5 - MeO - DiPT DiPT x - DMT 4, 5 - DHP - DMT 2, N, N - TMT 4 - AcO - DMT 4 - HO - 5 - MeO - DMT 4, N, N - TMT 4 - Propionyloxy - DMT 5, 6 - diBr - DMT 5 - AcO - DMT 5 - Bromo - DMT 5 - MeO - 2, N, N - TMT 5 - MeO - 4, N, N - TMT 5 - MeO - α, N, N - TMT 5 - MeO - DMT 5 - N, N - TMT 7, N, N - TMT α, N, N - TMT ( Bufotenin ) 5 - HO - DMT DMT Norbaeocystin ( Psilocin ) 4 - HO - DMT ( Psilocybin ) 4 - PO - DMT x - DPT ( Depracetin ) 4 - AcO - DPT ( Deprocin ) 4 - HO - DPT 5 - MeO - DPT ( The Light ) DPT Ibogaine - related 18 - MAC 18 - MC Coronaridine Ibogaine Ibogamine ME - 18 - MC Noribogaine Tabernanthine Voacangine x - MET ( Metocin ) 4 - HO - MET ( Metocetin ) 4 - AcO - MET 5 - MeO - MET MET x - MiPT ( Mipracetin ) 4 - AcO - MiPT ( Miprocin ) 4 - HO - MiPT 5 - Me - MiPT ( Moxy ) 5 - MeO - MiPT MiPT Others 4 - HO - DBT 4 - HO - EPT 4 - HO - McPT ( Lucigenol ) 4 - HO - MPMI ( Meprocin ) 4 - HO - MPT 5 - MeO - EiPT 5 - MeO - MALT 5 - MeO - MPMI Aeruginascin Baeocystin DBT DCPT EiPT EPT MPT PiPT Others 5 - MeO - DiBF AL - 38022A ALPHA Dimemebfe Efavirenz Lorcaserin M - ALPHA RH - 34 Also empathogens in general ( e.g. : 5 - APB, 5 - MAPB, 6 - APB and other substituted benzofurans, MDAI, MDMA ). Dissociatives ( NMDAR antagonists ) Arylcyclo ‐ hexylamines Ketamine - related 2 - Fluorodeschloroketamine Arketamine ( ( R ) - ketamine ) Deschloroketamine Ethketamine ( N - Ethylnorketamine ) Esketamine ( ( S ) - ketamine ) Ketamine Methoxetamine Methoxmetamine Methoxyketamine Norketamine Tiletamine PCP - related 3 ' - HO - PCP 3 ' - MeO - PCE 3 ' - MeO - PCMo 3 ' - MeO - PCP BDPC Dieticyclidine ( PCDE ) Eticyclidine ( PCE ) Methoxydine ( 4 ' - MeO - PCP ) PCPr Phencyclidine ( PCP ) Rolicyclidine ( PCPy ) Tenocyclidine ( TCP ) Others BTCP Gacyclidine PRE-084 Diarylethylamines Diphenidine Ephenidine Fluorolintane Methoxphenidine Morphinans Dextrallorphan Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Racemethorphan Racemorphan Others 2 - EMSB 2 - MDP 8A - PDHQ Aptiganel Budipine Delucemine Dexoxadrol Dizocilpine Etoxadrol Herkinorin Ibogaine Midafotel NEFA Neramexane Nitrous oxide Noribogaine Perzinfotel RB - 64 Remacemide Salvinorin A Selfotel Xenon Deliriants ( mAChR antagonists ) Atropine Benactyzine Benzatropine Benzydamine Biperiden BRN - 1484501 Brompheniramine BZ CAR - 226,086 CAR - 301,060 CAR - 302,196 CAR - 302,282 CAR - 302,368 CAR - 302,537 CAR - 302,668 Chloropyramine Chlorphenamine Clemastine CS - 27349 Cyclizine Cyproheptadine Dicycloverine Dimenhydrinate Diphenhydramine Ditran Doxylamine EA - 3167 EA - 3443 EA - 3580 EA - 3834 Elemicin Flavoxate Hyoscyamine JB - 318 JB - 336 Meclozine Mepyramine Myristicin Orphenadrine Oxybutynin Pheniramine Phenyltoloxamine Procyclidine Promethazine Scopolamine Tolterodine Trihexyphenidyl Tripelennamine Triprolidine WIN - 2299 Others Cannabinoids ( CB agonists ) Natural THC ( Dronabinol ) THCV Synthetic AM - x AM - 087 AM - 251 AM - 279 AM - 281 AM - 356 AM - 374 AM - 381 AM - 404 AM - 411 AM - 630 AM - 661 AM - 678 AM - 679 AM - 694 AM - 735 AM - 855 AM - 881 AM - 883 AM - 905 AM - 906 AM - 919 AM - 926 AM - 938 AM - 1116 AM - 1172 AM - 1220 AM - 1221 AM - 1235 AM - 1241 AM - 1248 AM - 1710 AM - 1714 AM - 1902 AM - 2201 AM - 2212 AM - 2213 AM - 2232 AM - 2233 AM - 2389 AM - 3102 AM - 4030 AM - 4054 AM - 4056 AM - 4113 AM - 6545 CP x CP 47,497 CP 55,244 CP 55,940 ( ± ) - CP 55,940 ( + ) - CP 55,940 ( - ) - CP 55,940 HU - x HU - 210 HU - 211 HU - 239 HU - 243 HU - 308 HU - 320 HU - 331 HU - 336 HU - 345 JWH - x JWH - 007 JWH - 015 JWH - 018 JWH - 019 JWH - 030 JWH - 047 JWH - 048 JWH - 051 JWH - 057 JWH - 073 JWH - 081 JWH - 098 JWH - 116 JWH - 120 JWH - 122 JWH - 133 JWH - 139 JWH - 147 JWH - 148 JWH - 149 JWH - 149 JWH - 161 JWH - 164 JWH - 166 JWH - 167 JWH - 171 JWH - 175 JWH - 176 JWH - 181 JWH - 182 JWH - 184 JWH - 185 JWH - 192 JWH - 193 JWH - 193 JWH - 194 JWH - 195 JWH - 196 JWH - 197 JWH - 198 JWH - 199 JWH - 200 JWH - 203 JWH - 205 JWH - 210 JWH - 210 JWH - 213 JWH - 220 JWH - 229 JWH - 234 JWH - 249 JWH - 250 JWH - 251 JWH - 253 JWH - 258 JWH - 300 JWH - 302 JWH - 307 JWH - 336 JWH - 350 JWH - 359 JWH - 387 JWH - 398 JWH - 424 Misc. designer cannabinoids 4 - HTMPIPO 5F - AB - FUPPYCA 5F - AB - PINACA 5F - ADB 5F - ADB - PINACA 5F - ADBICA 5F - AMB 5F - APINACA 5F - CUMYL - PINACA 5F - NNE1 5F - PB - 22 5F - SDB - 006 A-796,260 A-836,339 AB - 001 AB - 005 AB - CHFUPYCA AB - CHMINACA AB - FUBINACA AB - PINACA ADAMANTYL - THPINACA ADB - CHMINACA ADB - FUBINACA ADB - PINACA ADBICA ADSB - FUB - 187 AMB - FUBINACA APICA APINACA APP - FUBINACA CB - 13 CUMYL - PICA CUMYL - PINACA CUMYL - THPINACA DMHP EAM - 2201 FAB - 144 FDU - PB - 22 FUB - 144 FUB - APINACA FUB - JWH - 018 FUB - PB - 22 FUBIMINA JTE 7 - 31 JTE - 907 Levonantradol MDMB - CHMICA MDMB - CHMINACA MDMB - FUBINACA MEPIRAPIM MAM - 2201 MDA - 19 MN - 18 MN - 25 NESS - 0327 NESS - 040C5 Nabilone Nabitan NM - 2201 NNE1 Org 28611 Parahexyl PTI - 1 PTI - 2 PX - 1 PX - 2 PX - 3 QUCHIC QUPIC RCS - 4 RCS - 8 SDB - 005 SDB - 006 STS - 135 THC - O - acetate THC - O - phosphate THJ - 018 THJ - 2201 UR - 144 WIN 55,212 - 2 XLR - 11 D agonists Apomorphine Aporphine Bromocriptine Cabergoline Lisuride Memantine Nuciferine Pergolide Phenethylamine Piribedil Pramipexole Ropinirole Rotigotine Salvinorin A Also indirect D agonists, such as dopamine reuptake inhibitors ( cocaine, methylphenidate ), releasing agents ( amphetamine, methamphetamine ), and precursors ( levodopa ). GABA enhancers CI - 966 Eszopiclone Ibotenic acid Muscimol ( Amanita muscaria ) Zaleplon Zolpidem Zopiclone Inhalants ( Mixed MOA ) Aliphatic hydrocarbons Butane Gasoline Kerosene Propane Aromatic hydrocarbons Toluene Ethers Diethyl ether Enflurane Haloalkanes Chlorofluorocarbons Chloroform κOR agonists 2 - EMSB Alazocine Bremazocine Butorphan Butorphanol Cyclazocine Cyclorphan Cyprenorphine Diprenorphine Enadoline Herkinorin Heroin HZ - 2 Ibogaine Ketazocine Levallorphan Levomethorphan Levorphanol LPK - 26 Metazocine Morphine Nalbuphine Nalmefene Nalorphine Noribogaine Oxilorphan Pentazocine Phenazocine Proxorphan Racemethorphan Racemorphan Salvinorin A Spiradoline Tifluadom U-50488 U-69,593 Xorphanol Others Glaucine Isoaminile Noscapine Pukateine Pharmacodynamics GABA receptor positive modulators Alcohols Brometone Butanol Chloralodol Chlorobutanol ( cloretone ) Ethanol ( alcohol ) ( alcoholic drink ) Ethchlorvynol Isobutanol Isopropanol Menthol Methanol Methylpentynol Pentanol Petrichloral Propanol tert - Butanol ( 2M2P ) tert - Pentanol ( 2M2B ) Tribromoethanol Trichloroethanol Triclofos Trifluoroethanol Barbiturates ( - ) - DMBB Allobarbital Alphenal Amobarbital Aprobarbital Barbexaclone Barbital Benzobarbital Benzylbutylbarbiturate Brallobarbital Brophebarbital Butabarbital / Secbutabarbital Butalbital Buthalital Butobarbital Butallylonal Carbubarb Crotylbarbital Cyclobarbital Cyclopentobarbital Difebarbamate Enallylpropymal Ethallobarbital Eterobarb Febarbamate Heptabarb Heptobarbital Hexethal Hexobarbital Metharbital Methitural Methohexital Methylphenobarbital Narcobarbital Nealbarbital Pentobarbital Phenallymal Phenobarbital Phetharbital Primidone Probarbital Propallylonal Propylbarbital Proxibarbital Reposal Secobarbital Sigmodal Spirobarbital Talbutal Tetrabamate Tetrabarbital Thialbarbital Thiamylal Thiobarbital Thiobutabarbital Thiopental Thiotetrabarbital Valofane Vinbarbital Vinylbital Benzodiazepines 2 - Oxoquazepam 3 - Hydroxyphenazepam Adinazolam Alprazolam Arfendazam Avizafone Bentazepam Bretazenil Bromazepam Brotizolam Camazepam Carburazepam Chlordiazepoxide Ciclotizolam Cinazepam Cinolazepam Clazolam Climazolam Clobazam Clonazepam Clonazolam Cloniprazepam Clorazepate Clotiazepam Cloxazolam CP - 1414S Cyprazepam Delorazepam Demoxepam Diazepam Diclazepam Doxefazepam Elfazepam Estazolam Ethyl carfluzepate Ethyl dirazepate Ethyl loflazepate Etizolam EVT - 201 FG - 8205 Fletazepam Flubromazepam Flubromazolam Fludiazepam Flunitrazepam Flunitrazolam Flurazepam Flutazolam Flutemazepam Flutoprazepam Fosazepam Gidazepam Halazepam Haloxazolam Iclazepam Imidazenil Irazepine Ketazolam Lofendazam Lopirazepam Loprazolam Lorazepam Lormetazepam Meclonazepam Medazepam Menitrazepam Metaclazepam Mexazolam Midazolam Motrazepam N - Desalkylflurazepam Nifoxipam Nimetazepam Nitrazepam Nitrazepate Nitrazolam Nordazepam Nortetrazepam Oxazepam Oxazolam Phenazepam Pinazepam Pivoxazepam Prazepam Premazepam Proflazepam Pyrazolam QH - II - 66 Quazepam Reclazepam Remimazolam Rilmazafone Ripazepam Ro48 - 6791 Ro48 - 8684 SH - 053 - R - CH3 - 2 ′ F Sulazepam Temazepam Tetrazepam Tolufazepam Triazolam Triflubazam Triflunordazepam ( Ro5 - 2904 ) Tuclazepam Uldazepam Zapizolam Zolazepam Zomebazam Carbamates Carisbamate Carisoprodol Clocental Cyclarbamate Difebarbamate Emylcamate Ethinamate Febarbamate Felbamate Hexapropymate Lorbamate Mebutamate Meprobamate Nisobamate Pentabamate Phenprobamate Procymate Styramate Tetrabamate Tybamate Flavonoids 6 - Methylapigenin Ampelopsin ( dihydromyricetin ) Apigenin Baicalein Baicalin Catechin EGC EGCG Hispidulin Linarin Luteolin Rc - OMe Skullcap constituents ( e.g., baicalin ) Wogonin Imidazoles Etomidate Metomidate Propoxate Kava constituents 10 - Methoxyyangonin 11 - Methoxyyangonin 11 - Hydroxyyangonin Desmethoxyyangonin 11 - Methoxy - 12 - hydroxydehydrokavain 7, 8 - Dihydroyangonin Kavain 5 - Hydroxykavain 5, 6 - Dihydroyangonin 7, 8 - Dihydrokavain 5, 6, 7, 8 - Tetrahydroyangonin 5, 6 - Dehydromethysticin Methysticin 7, 8 - Dihydromethysticin Yangonin Monoureides Acecarbromal Apronal ( apronalide ) Bromisoval Carbromal Capuride Ectylurea Neuroactive steroids Acebrochol Allopregnanolone ( brexanolone ) Alfadolone Alfaxalone 3α - Androstanediol Androstenol Androsterone Certain anabolic - androgenic steroids Cholesterol DHDOC 3α - DHP 5α - DHP 5β - DHP DHT Etiocholanolone Ganaxolone Hydroxydione Minaxolone ORG - 20599 ORG - 21465 P1 - 185 Pregnanolone ( eltanolone ) Progesterone Renanolone SAGE - 105 SAGE - 217 SAGE - 324 SAGE - 516 SAGE - 689 SAGE - 872 Testosterone THDOC Nonbenzodiazepines β - Carbolines : Abecarnil Gedocarnil Harmane SL - 651,498 ZK - 93423 Cyclopyrrolones : Eszopiclone Pagoclone Pazinaclone Suproclone Suriclone Zopiclone Imidazopyridines : Alpidem DS - 1 Necopidem Saripidem Zolpidem Pyrazolopyrimidines : Divaplon Fasiplon Indiplon Lorediplon Ocinaplon Panadiplon Taniplon Zaleplon Others : Adipiplon CGS - 8216 CGS - 9896 CGS - 13767 CGS - 20625 CL - 218,872 CP - 615,003 CTP - 354 ELB - 139 GBLD - 345 Imepitoin JM - 1232 L - 838,417 Lirequinil ( Ro41 - 3696 ) NS - 2664 NS - 2710 NS - 11394 Pipequaline ROD - 188 RWJ - 51204 SB - 205,384 SX - 3228 TGSC01AA TP - 003 TPA - 023 TP - 13 U-89843A U-90042 Viqualine Y - 23684 Phenols Fospropofol Propofol Thymol Piperidinediones Glutethimide Methyprylon Piperidione Pyrithyldione Pyrazolopyridines Cartazolate Etazolate ICI - 190,622 Tracazolate Quinazolinones Afloqualone Cloroqualone Diproqualone Etaqualone Mebroqualone Mecloqualone Methaqualone Methylmethaqualone Nitromethaqualone SL - 164 Volatiles / gases Acetone Acetophenone Acetylglycinamide chloral hydrate Aliflurane Benzene Butane Butylene Centalun Chloral Chloral betaine Chloral hydrate Chloroform Cryofluorane Desflurane Dichloralphenazone Dichloromethane Diethyl ether Enflurane Ethyl chloride Ethylene Fluroxene Gasoline Halopropane Halothane Isoflurane Kerosine Methoxyflurane Methoxypropane Nitric oxide Nitrogen Nitrous oxide Norflurane Paraldehyde Propane Propylene Roflurane Sevoflurane Synthane Teflurane Toluene Trichloroethane ( methyl chloroform ) Trichloroethylene Vinyl ether Others / unsorted 3 - Hydroxybutanal α - EMTBL AA - 29504 Avermectins ( e.g., ivermectin ) Bromide compounds ( e.g., lithium bromide, potassium bromide, sodium bromide ) Carbamazepine Chloralose Chlormezanone Clomethiazole DEABL Dihydroergolines ( e.g., dihydroergocryptine, dihydroergosine, dihydroergotamine, ergoloid ( dihydroergotoxine ) ) DS2 Efavirenz Etazepine Etifoxine Fenamates ( e.g., flufenamic acid, mefenamic acid, niflumic acid, tolfenamic acid ) Fluoxetine Flupirtine Hopantenic acid Lanthanum Lavender oil Lignans ( e.g., 4 - O - methylhonokiol, honokiol, magnolol, obovatol ) Loreclezole Menthyl isovalerate ( validolum ) Monastrol Niacin Nicotinamide ( niacinamide ) Org 25,435 Phenytoin Propanidid Retigabine ( ezogabine ) Safranal Seproxetine Stiripentol Sulfonylalkanes ( e.g., sulfonmethane ( sulfonal ), tetronal, trional ) Terpenoids ( e.g., borneol ) Topiramate Valerian constituents ( e.g., isovaleric acid, isovaleramide, valerenic acid, valerenol ) Unsorted benzodiazepine site positive modulators : α - Pinene MRK - 409 ( MK - 0343 ) TCS - 1105 TCS - 1205 See also : Receptor / signaling modulators GABA receptor modulators GABA metabolism / transport modulators Glycine receptor modulators Receptor ( ligands ) GlyR Agonists : β - Alanine β - ABA ( BABA ) β - AIBA Caesium D - Alanine D - Serine GABA Glycine Hypotaurine Ivermectin L - Alanine L - Proline L - Serine L - Threonine MDL - 27531 Milacemide Picolinic acid Propofol Quisqualamine Sarcosine Taurine Positive modulators : Alcohols ( e.g., brometone, chlorobutanol ( chloretone ), ethanol ( alcohol ), tert - butanol ( 2M2P ), tribromoethanol, trichloroethanol, trifluoroethanol ) Alkylbenzene sulfonate Anandamide Barbiturates ( e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental ) Chlormethiazole D12 - 116 Dihydropyridines ( e.g., nicardipine ) Etomidate Ginseng constituents ( e.g., ginsenosides ( e.g., ginsenoside - Rf ) ) Glutamic acid ( glutamate ) Ivermectin Ketamine Neuroactive steroids ( e.g., alfaxolone, pregnenolone ( eltanolone ), pregnenolone acetate, minaxolone, ORG - 20599 ) Nitrous oxide Penicillin G Propofol Tamoxifen Tetrahydrocannabinol Triclofos Tropeines ( e.g., atropine, bemesetron, cocaine, LY - 278584, tropisetron, zatosetron ) Volatiles / gases ( e.g., chloral hydrate, chloroform, desflurane, diethyl ether ( ether ), enflurane, halothane, isoflurane, methoxyflurane, sevoflurane, toluene, trichloroethane ( methyl chloroform ), trichloroethylene ) Xenon Zinc Antagonists : 2 - Aminostrychnine 2 - Nitrostrychnine 4 - Phenyl - 4 - formyl - N - methylpiperidine αEMBTL Bicuculline Brucine Cacotheline Caffeine Colchicine Colubrine Cyanotriphenylborate Dendrobine Diaboline Endocannabinoids ( e.g., 2 - AG, anandamide ( AEA ) ) Gaboxadol ( THIP ) Gelsemine iso - THAZ Isobutyric acid Isonipecotic acid Isostrychnine Laudanosine N - Methylbicuculline N - Methylstrychnine N, N - Dimethylmuscimol Nipecotic acid Pitrazepin Pseudostrychnine Quinolines ( e.g., 4 - hydroxyquinoline, 4 - hydroxyquinoline - 3 - carboxylic acid, 5, 7 - CIQA, 7 - CIQ, 7 - TFQ, 7 - TFQA ) RU - 5135 Sinomenine Strychnine Thiocolchicoside Tutin Negative modulators : Amiloride Benzodiazepines ( e.g., bromazepam, clonazepam, diazepam, flunitrazepam, flurazepam ) Corymine Cyanotriphenylborate Daidzein Dihydropyridines ( e.g., nicardipine, nifedipine, nitrendipine ) Furosemide Genistein Ginkgo constituents ( e.g., bilobalide, ginkgolides ( e.g., ginkgolide A, ginkgolide B, ginkgolide C, ginkgolide J, ginkgolide M ) ) Imipramine NBQX Neuroactive steroids ( e.g., 3α - androsterone sulfate, 3β - androsterone sulfate, deoxycorticosterone, DHEA sulfate, pregnenolone sulfate, progesterone ) Opioids ( e.g., codeine, dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, levomethadone, levorphanol, morphine, oripavine, pethidine, thebaine ) Picrotoxin ( i.e., picrotin and picrotoxinin ) PMBA Riluzole Tropeines ( e.g., bemesetron, LY - 278584, tropisetron, zatosetron ) Verapamil Zinc NMDAR See here instead. Transporter ( blockers ) GlyT1 ACPPB ALX - 1393 ALX - 5407 ( NFPS ) AMG - 747 ASP2535 Bitopertin ( RG1678 / RO4917838 ) CP - 802079 Ethanol ( alcohol ) Glycyldodecylamide GSK1018921 LY - 2365109 ORG - 24598 ORG - 25935 ( SCH - 900435 ) PF - 02545920 PF - 03463275 PF - 04958242 Sarcosine SSR - 103,800 SSR - 504,734 GlyT2 Amoxapine Ethanol ( alcohol ) NAGly Opiranserin ( VVZ - 149 ) ORG - 25543 VVZ - 368 See also Receptor / signaling modulators GABA receptor modulators GABA receptor positive modulators Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators AMPAR Agonists : Main site agonists : 5 - Fluorowillardiine Acromelic acid ( acromelate ) AMPA BOAA Domoic acid Glutamate Ibotenic acid Proline Quisqualic acid Willardiine ; Positive allosteric modulators : Aniracetam Cyclothiazide CX - 516 CX - 546 CX - 614 Farampator ( CX - 691, ORG - 24448 ) CX - 717 CX - 1739 CX - 1942 Diazoxide Hydrochlorothiazide ( HCTZ ) IDRA - 21 LY - 392098 LY - 395153 LY - 404187 LY - 451646 LY - 503430 Mibampator ( LY - 451395 ) Nooglutyl ORG - 26576 Oxiracetam PEPA PF - 04958242 Piracetam Pramiracetam S - 18986 Tulrampator ( S - 47445, CX - 1632 ) Antagonists : ACEA - 1011 ATPO Becampanel Caroverine CNQX Dasolampanel DNQX Fanapanel ( MPQX ) GAMS Kaitocephalin Kynurenic acid Kynurenine Licostinel ( ACEA - 1021 ) NBQX PNQX Selurampanel Tezampanel Theanine Topiramate YM90K Zonampanel ; Negative allosteric modulators : Barbiturates ( e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental ) Cyclopropane Enflurane Ethanol ( alcohol ) Evans blue GYKI - 52466 GYKI - 53655 Halothane Irampanel Isoflurane Perampanel Pregnenolone sulfate Sevoflurane Talampanel ; Unknown / unsorted antagonists : Minocycline KAR Agonists : Main site agonists : 5 - Bromowillardiine 5 - Iodowillardiine Acromelic acid ( acromelate ) AMPA ATPA Domoic acid Glutamate Ibotenic acid Kainic acid LY - 339434 Proline Quisqualic acid SYM - 2081 ; Positive allosteric modulators : Cyclothiazide Diazoxide Enflurane Halothane Isoflurane Antagonists : ACEA - 1011 CNQX Dasolampanel DNQX GAMS Kaitocephalin Kynurenic acid Licostinel ( ACEA - 1021 ) LY - 382884 NBQX NS102 Selurampanel Tezampanel Theanine Topiramate UBP - 302 ; Negative allosteric modulators : Barbiturates ( e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental ) Enflurane Ethanol ( alcohol ) Evans blue NS - 3763 Pregnenolone sulfate NMDAR Agonists : Main site agonists : AMAA Aspartate Glutamate Homocysteic acid ( L - HCA ) Homoquinolinic acid Ibotenic acid NMDA Proline Quinolinic acid Tetrazolylglycine Theanine ; Glycine site agonists : β - Fluoro - D - alanine ACBD ACC ( ACPC ) ACPD AK - 51 Apimostinel ( NRX - 1074 ) B6B21 CCG D - Alanine D - Cycloserine D - Serine DHPG Dimethylglycine Glycine HA - 966 L - 687414 L - Alanine L - Serine Milacemide Neboglamine ( nebostinel ) Rapastinel ( GLYX - 13 ) Sarcosine ; Polyamine site agonists : Neomycin Spermidine Spermine ; Other positive allosteric modulators : 24S - Hydroxycholesterol DHEA ( prasterone ) DHEA sulfate ( prasterone sulfate ) Epipregnanolone sulfate Pregnenolone sulfate SAGE - 201 SAGE - 301 SAGE - 718 Antagonists : Competitive antagonists : AP5 ( APV ) AP7 CGP - 37849 CGP - 39551 CGP - 39653 CGP - 40116 CGS - 19755 CPP Kaitocephalin LY - 233053 LY - 235959 LY - 274614 MDL - 100453 Midafotel ( d - CPPene ) NPC - 12626 NPC - 17742 PBPD PEAQX Perzinfotel PPDA SDZ - 220581 Selfotel ; Glycine site antagonists : 4 - Cl - KYN ( AV - 101 ) 5, 7 - DCKA 7 - CKA ACC ACEA - 1011 ACEA - 1328 Apimostinel ( NRX - 1074 ) AV - 101 Carisoprodol CGP - 39653 CNQX D - Cycloserine DNQX Felbamate Gavestinel GV - 196771 Harkoseride Kynurenic acid Kynurenine L - 689560 L - 701324 Licostinel ( ACEA - 1021 ) LU - 73068 MDL - 105519 Meprobamate MRZ 2 / 576 PNQX Rapastinel ( GLYX - 13 ) ZD - 9379 ; Polyamine site antagonists : Arcaine Co 101676 Diaminopropane Diethylenetriamine Huperzine A Putrescine ; Uncompetitive pore blockers ( mostly dizocilpine site ) : 2 - MDP 3 - HO - PCP 3 - MeO - PCE 3 - MeO - PCMo 3 - MeO - PCP 4 - MeO - PCP 8A - PDHQ 18 - MC α - Endopsychosin Alaproclate Alazocine ( SKF - 10047 ) Amantadine Aptiganel Argiotoxin - 636 Arketamine ARL - 12495 ARL - 15896 - AR ARL - 16247 Budipine Coronaridine Delucemine ( NPS - 1506 ) Dexoxadrol Dextrallorphan Dextromethadone Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Dieticyclidine Diphenidine Dizocilpine Ephenidine Esketamine Etoxadrol Eticyclidine Fluorolintane Gacyclidine Ibogaine Ibogamine Indantadol Ketamine Ketobemidone Lanicemine Levomethadone Levomethorphan Levomilnacipran Levorphanol Loperamide Memantine Methadone Methorphan Methoxetamine Methoxphenidine Milnacipran Morphanol NEFA Neramexane Nitromemantine Noribogaine Norketamine Orphenadrine PCPr PD - 137889 Pethidine ( meperidine ) Phencyclamine Phencyclidine Propoxyphene Remacemide Rhynchophylline Rimantadine Rolicyclidine Sabeluzole Tabernanthine Tenocyclidine Tiletamine Tramadol ; Ifenprodil ( NR2B ) site antagonists : Besonprodil Buphenine ( nylidrin ) CO-101244 ( PD - 174494 ) Eliprodil Haloperidol Isoxsuprine Radiprodil ( RGH - 896 ) Rislenemdaz ( CERC - 301, MK - 0657 ) Ro 8 - 4304 Ro 25 - 6981 Safaprodil Traxoprodil ( CP - 101606 ) ; NR2A - selective antagonists : MPX - 004 MPX - 007 TCN - 201 TCN - 213 ; Cations : Hydrogen Magnesium Zinc ; Alcohols / volatile anesthetics / related : Benzene Butane Chloroform Cyclopropane Desflurane Diethyl ether Enflurane Ethanol ( alcohol ) Halothane Hexanol Isoflurane Methoxyflurane Nitrous oxide Octanol Sevoflurane Toluene Trichloroethane Trichloroethanol Trichloroethylene Urethane Xenon Xylene ; Unknown / unsorted antagonists : ARR - 15896 Bumetanide Caroverine Conantokin D - αAA Dexanabinol Flufenamic acid Flupirtine FPL - 12495 FR - 115427 Furosemide Hodgkinsine Ipenoxazone ( MLV - 6976 ) MDL - 27266 Metaphit Minocycline MPEP Niflumic acid Pentamidine Pentamidine isethionate Piretanide Psychotridine Transcrocetin ( saffron ) See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators Glutamate metabolism / transport modulators Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulators nAChRs Agonists ( and PAMs ) 5 - HIAA A-84,543 A-366,833 A-582,941 A-867,744 ABT - 202 ABT - 418 ABT - 560 ABT - 894 Acetylcholine Altinicline Anabasine Anatoxin - a AR - R17779 Bephenium hydroxynaphthoate Butinoline Butyrylcholine Carbachol Choline Cotinine Cytisine Decamethonium Desformylflustrabromine Dianicline Dimethylphenylpiperazinium Epibatidine Epiboxidine Ethanol ( alcohol ) Ethoxysebacylcholine EVP - 4473 EVP - 6124 Galantamine GTS - 21 Ispronicline Ivermectin JNJ - 39393406 Levamisole Lobeline MEM - 63,908 ( RG - 3487 ) Morantel Nicotine ( tobacco ) NS - 1738 PHA - 543,613 PHA - 709,829 PNU - 120,596 PNU - 282,987 Pozanicline Pyrantel Rivanicline RJR - 2429 Sazetidine A SB - 206553 Sebacylcholine SIB - 1508Y SIB - 1553A SSR - 180,711 Suberyldicholine Suxamethonium ( succinylcholine ) Suxethonium ( succinyldicholine ) TC - 1698 TC - 1734 TC - 1827 TC - 2216 TC - 5214 TC - 5619 TC - 6683 Tebanicline Tribendimidine Tropisetron UB - 165 Varenicline WAY - 317,538 XY - 4083 Antagonists ( and NAMs ) 18 - MAC 18 - MC α - Neurotoxins ( e.g., α - bungarotoxin, α - cobratoxin, α - conotoxin, many others ) ABT - 126 Alcuronium Allopregnanolone Amantadine Anatruxonium AQW051 Atracurium Barbiturates ( e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental ) BNC - 210 Bungarotoxins ( e.g., α - bungarotoxin, κ - bungarotoxin ) Bupropion BW - A444 Candocuronium iodide ( chandonium iodide ) Chlorisondamine Cisatracurium Coclaurine Coronaridine Curare Cyclopropane Dacuronium bromide Decamethonium Dehydronorketamine Desflurane Dextromethorphan Dextropropoxyphene Dextrorphan Diadonium DHβE Dihydrochandonium Dimethyltubocurarine ( metocurine ) Dioscorine Dipyrandium Dizocilpine ( MK - 801 ) Doxacurium Encenicline Enflurane Erythravine Esketamine Fazadinium Gallamine Gantacurium chloride Halothane Hexafluronium Hexamethonium ( benzohexonium ) Hydroxybupropion Hydroxynorketamine Ibogaine Isoflurane Ketamine Kynurenic acid Laudanosine Laudexium ( laudolissin ) Levacetylmethadol Levomethadone Malouetine ME - 18 - MC Mecamylamine Memantine Methadone Methorphan ( racemethorphan ) Methyllycaconitine Metocurine Mivacurium Morphanol ( racemorphan ) Neramexane Nitrous oxide Norketamine Pancuronium bromide Pempidine Pentamine Pentolinium Phencyclidine Pipecuronium bromide Progesterone Promegestone Radafaxine Rapacuronium bromide Reboxetine Rocuronium bromide Sevoflurane Stercuronium iodide Surugatoxin Thiocolchicoside Toxiferine Tramadol Trimetaphan camsilate ( trimethaphan camsylate ) Tropeinium Tubocurarine Vanoxerine Vecuronium bromide Xenon Precursors ( and prodrugs ) Acetyl - coA Adafenoxate Choline ( lecithin ) Citicoline Cyprodenate Dimethylethanolamine Glycerophosphocholine Meclofenoxate ( centrophenoxine ) Phosphatidylcholine Phosphatidylethanolamine Phosphorylcholine Pirisudanol See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor modulators Acetylcholine metabolism / transport modulators Serotonin receptor modulators 5 - HT 5 - HT Agonists : 8 - OH - DPAT Adatanserin Amphetamine Antidepressants ( e.g., etoperidone, hydroxynefazodone, nefazodone, trazodone, triazoledione, vilazodone, vortioxetine ) Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., aripiprazole, asenapine, brexpiprazole, cariprazine, clozapine, lurasidone, quetiapine, ziprasidone ) Azapirones ( e.g., buspirone, eptapirone, gepirone, perospirone, tandospirone ) Bay R 1531 Befiradol BMY - 14802 Cannabidiol Dimemebfe Dopamine Ebalzotan Eltoprazine Enciprazine Ergolines ( e.g., bromocriptine, cabergoline, dihydroergotamine, ergotamine, lisuride, LSD, methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ), methysergide, pergolide ) F - 11461 F - 12826 F - 13714 F - 14679 F - 15063 F - 15599 Flesinoxan Flibanserin Flumexadol Lesopitron LY - 293284 LY - 301317 mCPP MKC - 242 Naluzotan NBUMP Osemozotan Oxaflozane Pardoprunox Piclozotan Rauwolscine Repinotan Roxindole RU - 24969 S - 14506 S - 14671 S - 15535 Sarizotan Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) SSR - 181507 Sunepitron Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - CT, 5 - MeO - DMT, 5 - MT, bufotenin, DMT, indorenate, N - Me - 5 - HT, psilocin, psilocybin ) TGBA01AD U-92016A Urapidil Vilazodone Xaliproden Yohimbine Antagonists : Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., iloperidone, risperidone, sertindole ) AV965 Beta blockers ( e.g., alprenolol, carteolol, cyanopindolol, iodocyanopindolol, isamoltane, oxprenolol, penbutolol, pindobind, pindolol, propranolol, tertatolol ) BMY - 7378 CSP - 2503 Dotarizine Ergolines ( e.g., metergoline ) Flopropione GR - 46611 Isamoltane Lecozotan Mefway Metitepine ( methiothepin ) MIN - 117 ( WF - 516 ) MPPF NAN - 190 Robalzotan S - 15535 SB - 649915 SDZ 216 - 525 Spiperone Spiramide Spiroxatrine UH - 301 WAY - 100135 WAY - 100635 Xylamidine Unknown / unsorted : Acetryptine Ergolines ( e.g., ergometrine ( ergonovine ) ) 5 - HT Agonists : CGS - 12066A CP - 93129 CP - 94253 CP - 122,288 CP - 135807 Eltoprazine Ergolines ( e.g., bromocriptine, dihydroergotamine, ergotamine, methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ), methysergide, pergolide ) mCPP RU - 24969 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g., avitriptan, donitriptan, eletriptan, sumatriptan, zolmitriptan ) TFMPP Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - BT, 5 - CT, 5 - MT, DMT ) Vortioxetine Antagonists : AR - A000002 Beta blockers ( e.g., alprenolol, carteolol, isamoltane, oxprenolol, penbutolol, propranolol, tertatolol ) Elzasonan Ergolines ( e.g., metergoline ) GR - 127935 Isamoltane LY - 393558 Metitepine ( methiothepin ) SB - 216641 SB - 224289 SB - 236057 Yohimbine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g., cabergoline, ergometrine ( ergonovine ), lisuride ) 5 - HT Agonists : CP - 122,288 CP - 135807 CP - 286601 Ergolines ( e.g., bromocriptine, cabergoline, dihydroergotamine, ergotamine, LSD, methysergide ) GR - 46611 L - 694247 L - 772405 mCPP PNU - 109291 PNU - 142633 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) TGBA01AD Triptans ( e.g., almotriptan, avitriptan, donitriptan, eletriptan, frovatriptan, naratriptan, rizatriptan, sumatriptan, zolmitriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - BT, 5 - CT, 5 - Et - DMT, 5 - MT, 5 - ( nonyloxy ) tryptamine, DMT ) Antagonists : Alniditan BRL - 15572 Elzasonan Ergolines ( e.g., metergoline ) GR - 127935 Ketanserin LY - 310762 LY - 367642 LY - 393558 LY - 456219 LY - 456220 Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Mianserin Ritanserin Yohimbine Ziprasidone Unknown / unsorted : Acetryptine Ergolines ( e.g., lisuride, lysergol, pergolide ) 5 - HT Agonists : BRL - 54443 Ergolines ( e.g., methysergide ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g., eletriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g., tryptamine ) Antagonists : Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g., ergometrine ( ergonovine ), lysergol, methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) 5 - HT Agonists : BRL - 54443 CP - 122,288 Ergolines ( e.g., bromocriptine, lysergol, methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) methysergide ) Lasmiditan LY - 334370 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g., eletriptan, naratriptan, sumatriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - MT ) Antagonists : Mianserin Metitepine ( methiothepin ) 5 - HT 5 - HT Agonists : 25H / NB series ( e.g., 25I - NBF, 25I - NBMD, 25I - NBOH, 25I - NBOMe, 25B - NBOMe, 25C - NBOMe, 25TFM - NBOMe, 2CBCB - NBOMe, 25CN - NBOH, 2CBFly - NBOMe ) 2Cs ( e.g., 2C - B, 2C - E, 2C - I, 2C - T - 2, 2C - T - 7, 2C - T - 21 ) 2C - B - FLY 2CB - Ind 5 - Methoxytryptamines ( 5 - MeO - DET, 5 - MeO - DiPT, 5 - MeO - DMT, 5 - MeO - DPT, 5 - MT ) α - Alkyltryptamines ( e.g., 5 - Cl - αMT, 5 - Fl - αMT, 5 - MeO - αET, 5 - MeO - αMT, α - Me - 5 - HT, αET, αMT ) AL - 34662 AL - 37350A Bromo - DragonFLY Dimemebfe DMBMPP DOx ( e.g., DOB, DOC, DOI, DOM ) Efavirenz Ergolines ( e.g., 1P - LSD, ALD - 52, bromocriptine, cabergoline, ergine ( LSA ), ergometrine ( ergonovine ), ergotamine, lisuride, LA - SS - Az, LSB, LSD, LSD - Pip, LSH, LSP, methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ), pergolide ) Flumexadol Jimscaline Lorcaserin MDxx ( e.g., MDA ( tenamfetamine ), MDMA ( midomafetamine ), MDOH, MMDA ) O - 4310 Oxaflozane PHA - 57378 PNU - 22394 PNU - 181731 RH - 34 Phenethylamines ( e.g., lophophine, mescaline ) Piperazines ( e.g., BZP, quipazine, TFMPP ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) TCB - 2 TFMFly Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - BT, 5 - CT, bufotenin, DET, DiPT, DMT, DPT, psilocin, psilocybin, tryptamine ) Antagonists : 5 - I - R91150 5 - MeO - NBpBrT AC - 90179 Adatanserin Altanserin Antihistamines ( e.g., cyproheptadine, hydroxyzine, ketotifen, perlapine ) AMDA Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., amperozide, aripiprazole, asenapine, blonanserin, brexpiprazole, carpipramine, clocapramine, clorotepine, clozapine, fluperlapine, gevotroline, iloperidone, lurasidone, melperone, mosapramine, ocaperidone, olanzapine, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, sertindole, zicronapine, ziprasidone, zotepine ) Cinanserin CSP - 2503 Deramciclane Dotarizine Eplivanserin Ergolines ( e.g., amesergide, LY - 53857, LY - 215840, mesulergine, metergoline, methysergide, sergolexole ) Fananserin Flibanserin Glemanserin Irindalone Ketanserin KML - 010 Landipirdine LY - 393558 mCPP Medifoxamine Metitepine ( methiothepin ) MIN - 101 MIN - 117 ( WF - 516 ) Naftidrofuryl Nantenine Nelotanserin Opiranserin ( VVZ - 149 ) Pelanserin Phenoxybenzamine Pimavanserin Pirenperone Pizotifen Pruvanserin Rauwolscine Ritanserin S - 14671 Sarpogrelate Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors ( e.g., etoperidone, hydroxynefazodone, lubazodone, mepiprazole, nefazodone, triazoledione, trazodone ) SR - 46349B TGBA01AD Teniloxazine Temanogrel Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amoxapine, aptazapine, esmirtazapine, maprotiline, mianserin, mirtazapine ) Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amitriptyline ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g., chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, haloperidol, loxapine, perphenazine, pimozide, pipamperone, prochlorperazine, setoperone, spiperone, spiramide, thioridazine, thiothixene, trifluoperazine ) Volinanserin Xylamidine Yohimbine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g., dihydroergotamine, nicergoline ) 5 - HT Agonists : 4 - Methylaminorex Aminorex Amphetamines ( e.g., chlorphentermine, cloforex, dexfenfluramine, fenfluramine, levofenfluramine, norfenfluramine ) BW - 723C86 DOx ( e.g., DOB, DOC, DOI, DOM ) Ergolines ( e.g., cabergoline, dihydroergocryptine, dihydroergotamine, ergotamine, methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ), methysergide, pergolide ) Lorcaserin MDxx ( e.g., MDA ( tenamfetamine ), MDMA ( midomafetamine ), MDOH, ( MMDA ( drug ) Antagonists : Agomelatine Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., amisulpride, aripiprazole, asenapine, brexpiprazole, cariprazine, clozapine, N - desalkylquetiapine ( norquetiapine ), N - desmethylclozapine ( norclozapine ), olanzapine, pipamperone, quetiapine, risperidone, ziprasidone ) Cyproheptadine EGIS - 7625 Ergolines ( e.g., amesergide, bromocriptine, lisuride, LY - 53857, LY - 272015, mesulergine ) Ketanserin LY - 393558 mCPP Metadoxine Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Pirenperone Pizotifen Propranolol PRX - 08066 Rauwolscine Ritanserin RS - 127445 Sarpogrelate SB - 200646 SB - 204741 SB - 206553 SB - 215505 SB - 221284 SB - 228357 SDZ SER - 082 Tegaserod Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amoxapine, mianserin, mirtazapine ) Trazodone Typical antipsychotics ( e.g., chlorpromazine ) TIK - 301 Yohimbine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g., ergometrine ( ergonovine ) ) 5 - HT Agonists : 2Cs ( e.g., 2C - B, 2C - E, 2C - I, 2C - T - 2, 2C - T - 7, 2C - T - 21 ) 5 - Methoxytryptamines ( 5 - MeO - DET, 5 - MeO - DiPT, 5 - MeO - DMT, 5 - MeO - DPT, 5 - MT ) α - Alkyltryptamines ( e.g., 5 - Cl - αMT, 5 - Fl - αMT, 5 - MeO - αET, 5 - MeO - αMT, α - Me - 5 - HT, αET, αMT ) A-372159 AL - 38022A Alstonine CP - 809101 Dimemebfe DOx ( e.g., DOB, DOC, DOI, DOM ) Ergolines ( e.g., ALD - 52, cabergoline, dihydroergotamine, ergine ( LSA ), ergotamine, lisuride, LA - SS - Az, LSB, LSD, LSD - Pip, LSH, LSP, pergolide ) Flumexadol Lorcaserin MDxx ( e.g., MDA ( tenamfetamine ), MDMA ( midomafetamine ), MDOH, MMDA ) MK - 212 Org 12962 Org 37684 Oxaflozane PHA - 57378 Phenethylamines ( e.g., lophophine, mescaline ) Piperazines ( e.g., aripiprazole, BZP, mCPP, quipazine, TFMPP ) PNU - 22394 PNU - 181731 Ro60 - 0175 Ro60 - 0213 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - BT, 5 - CT, bufotenin, DET, DiPT, DMT, DPT, psilocin, psilocybin, tryptamine ) Vabicaserin WAY - 629 WAY - 161503 YM - 348 Antagonists : Adatanserin Agomelatine Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., asenapine, clorotepine, clozapine, fluperlapine, iloperidone, melperone, olanzapine, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, sertindole, ziprasidone, zotepine ) Captodiame CEPC Cinanserin Cyproheptadine Deramciclane Desmetramadol Dotarizine Eltoprazine Ergolines ( e.g., amesergide, bromocriptine, LY - 53857, LY - 215840, mesulergine, metergoline, methysergide, sergolexole ) Etoperidone Fluoxetine FR - 260010 Irindalone Ketanserin Ketotifen Latrepirdine ( dimebolin ) Medifoxamine Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Nefazodone Pirenperone Pizotifen Propranolol Ritanserin RS - 102221 S - 14671 SB - 200646 SB - 206553 SB - 221284 SB - 228357 SB - 242084 SB - 243213 SDZ SER - 082 Tedatioxetine Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amoxapine, aptazapine, esmirtazapine, maprotiline, mianserin, mirtazapine ) TIK - 301 Tramadol Trazodone Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amitriptyline, nortriptyline ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g., chlorpromazine, loxapine, pimozide, pipamperone, thioridazine ) Xylamidine Unknown / unsorted : Efavirenz Ergolines ( e.g., ergometrine ( ergonovine ), methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) ) 5 - HT 5 - HT Agonists : Alcohols ( e.g., butanol, ethanol ( alcohol ), trichloroethanol ) m - CPBG Phenylbiguanide Piperazines ( e.g., BZP, mCPP, quipazine ) RS - 56812 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) SR - 57227 SR - 57227A Tryptamines ( e.g., 2 - Me - 5 - HT, 5 - CT, bufotenidine ( 5 - HTQ ) ) Volatiles / gases ( e.g., halothane, isoflurane, toluene, trichloroethane ) YM - 31636 Antagonists : Alosetron AS - 8112 Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine ) Azasetron Batanopride Bemesetron ( MDL - 72222 ) Bupropion Cilansetron CSP - 2503 Dazopride Dolasetron Galanolactone Granisetron Hydroxybupropion ICS - 205930 Lerisetron Memantine Ondansetron Palonosetron Ramosetron Renzapride Ricasetron Tedatioxetine Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amoxapine, mianserin, mirtazapine ) Thujone Tropanserin Tropisetron Typical antipsychotics ( e.g., loxapine ) Volatiles / gases ( e.g., nitrous oxide, sevoflurane, xenon ) Vortioxetine Zacopride Zatosetron Unknown / unsorted : LY - 53857 Piperazines ( e.g., naphthylpiperazine ) 5 - HT Agonists : 5 - MT BIMU8 Capeserod Cinitapride Cisapride CJ - 033466 Dazopride Metoclopramide Minesapride Mosapride Prucalopride PRX - 03140 Renzapride RS - 67333 RS - 67506 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tegaserod Velusetrag Zacopride Antagonists : GR - 113808 GR - 125487 L - Lysine Piboserod RS - 39604 RS - 67532 SB - 203186 SB - 204070 5 - HT Agonists : Ergolines ( e.g., 2 - Br - LSD ( BOL - 148 ), ergotamine, LSD ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - CT ) Valerenic Acid Antagonists : Asenapine Latrepirdine ( dimebolin ) Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Ritanserin SB - 699551 Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g., metergoline, methysergide ) Piperazines ( e.g., naphthylpiperazine ) 5 - HT Agonists : Ergolines ( e.g., dihydroergocryptine, dihydroergotamine, ergotamine, lisuride, LSD, mesulergine, metergoline, methysergide ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tryptamines ( e.g., 2 - Me - 5 - HT, 5 - BT, 5 - CT, 5 - MT, Bufotenin, E-6801, E-6837, EMD - 386088, EMDT, LY - 586713, N - Me - 5 - HT, tryptamine ) WAY - 181187 WAY - 208466 Antagonists : ABT - 354 Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., aripiprazole, asenapine, clorotepine, clozapine, fluperlapine, iloperidone, olanzapine, tiospirone ) AVN - 101 AVN - 211 AVN - 322 AVN - 397 BGC20 - 760 BVT - 5182 BVT - 74316 Cerlapirdine EGIS - 12233 GW - 742457 Idalopirdine Ketanserin Landipirdine Latrepirdine ( dimebolin ) Metitepine ( methiothepin ) MS - 245 PRX - 07034 Ritanserin Ro 04 - 6790 Ro 63 - 0563 SB - 258585 SB - 271046 SB - 357134 SB - 399885 SB - 742457 Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amoxapine, mianserin ) Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amitriptyline, clomipramine, doxepin, nortriptyline ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g., chlorpromazine, loxapine ) Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g., 2 - Br - LSD ( BOL - 148 ), bromocriptine, lergotrile, pergolide ) Piperazines ( e.g., naphthylpiperazine ) 5 - HT Agonists : 8 - OH - DPAT AS - 19 Bifeprunox E-55888 Ergolines ( e.g., LSD ) LP - 12 LP - 44 RU - 24969 Sarizotan Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g., frovatriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g., 5 - CT, 5 - MT, bufotenin, N - Me - 5 - HT ) Antagonists : Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g., amisulpride, aripiprazole, asenapine, brexpiprazole, clorotepine, clozapine, fluperlapine, olanzapine, risperidone, sertindole, tiospirone, ziprasidone, zotepine ) Butaclamol DR - 4485 EGIS - 12233 Ergolines ( e.g., 2 - Br - LSD ( BOL - 148 ), amesergide, bromocriptine, cabergoline, dihydroergotamine, ergotamine, LY - 53857, LY - 215840, mesulergine, metergoline, methysergide, sergolexole ) JNJ - 18038683 Ketanserin LY - 215840 Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Ritanserin SB - 258719 SB - 258741 SB - 269970 SB - 656104 SB - 656104A SB - 691673 SLV - 313 SLV - 314 Spiperone SSR - 181507 Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amoxapine, maprotiline, mianserin, mirtazapine ) Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g., amitriptyline, clomipramine, imipramine ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g., acetophenazine, chlorpromazine, chlorprothixene, fluphenazine, loxapine, pimozide ) Vortioxetine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g., lisuride, pergolide ) Piperazines ( e.g., naphthylpiperazine ) See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Adrenergics Dopaminergics Melatonergics Monoamine reuptake inhibitors and releasing agents Monoamine metabolism modulators Monoamine neurotoxins E numbers Colors ( E100 -- 199 ) Preservatives ( E200 -- 299 ) Antioxidants & acidity regulators ( E300 -- 399 ) Thickeners, stabilisers & emulsifiers ( E400 -- 499 ) pH regulators & anticaking agents ( E500 -- 599 ) Flavour enhancers ( E600 -- 699 ) Miscellaneous ( E900 -- 999 ) Additional chemicals ( E1100 -- 1599 ) Waxes ( E900 -- 909 ) Synthetic glazes ( E910 -- 919 ) Improving agents ( E920 -- 929 ) Packaging gases ( E930 -- 949 ) Sweeteners ( E950 -- 969 ) Foaming agents ( E990 -- 999 ) Calcium peroxide ( E930 ) Argon ( E938 ) Helium ( E939 ) Dichlorodifluoromethane ( E940 ) Nitrogen ( E941 ) Nitrous oxide ( E942 ) Butane ( E943a ) Isobutane ( E943b ) Propane ( E944 ) Oxygen ( E948 ) Hydrogen ( E949 ) Molecules detected in outer space Molecules Diatomic Aluminium monochloride Aluminium monofluoride Aluminium monoxide Argonium Carbon monophosphide Carbon monosulfide Carbon monoxide Carborundum Cyanogen radical Diatomic carbon Fluoromethylidynium Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen ( molecular ) Hydroxyl radical Iron ( II ) oxide Magnesium monohydride cation Methylidyne radical Nitric oxide Nitrogen ( molecular ) Nitrogen monohydride Nitrogen sulfide Oxygen ( molecular ) Phosphorus monoxide Phosphorus mononitride Potassium chloride Silicon carbide Silicon mononitride Silicon monoxide Silicon monosulfide Sodium chloride Sodium iodide Sulfur monohydride Sulfur monoxide Titanium oxide Triatomic Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium isocyanide Amino radical Carbon dioxide Carbonyl sulfide CCP radical Chloronium Diazenylium Dicarbon monoxide Disilicon carbide Ethynyl radical Formyl radical Hydrogen cyanide ( HCN ) Hydrogen isocyanide ( HNC ) Hydrogen sulfide Hydroperoxyl Iron cyanide Isoformyl Magnesium cyanide Magnesium isocyanide Methylene radical Nitrous oxide Nitroxyl Ozone Phosphaethyne Potassium cyanide Protonated molecular hydrogen Sodium cyanide Sodium hydroxide Silicon carbonitride c - Silicon dicarbide Silicon naphthalocyanine Sulfur dioxide Thioformyl Thioxoethenylidene Titanium dioxide Tricarbon Water Four atoms Acetylene Ammonia Cyanic acid Cyanoethynyl Cyclopropynylidyne Formaldehyde Fulminic acid HCCN Hydrogen peroxide Hydromagnesium isocyanide Isocyanic acid Isothiocyanic acid Ketenyl Methylene amidogen Methyl radical Propynylidyne Protonated carbon dioxide Protonated hydrogen cyanide Silicon tricarbide Thioformaldehyde Tricarbon monoxide Tricarbon sulfide Thiocyanic acid Five atoms Ammonium ion Butadiynyl Carbodiimide Cyanamide Cyanoacetylene Cyanoformaldehyde Cyanomethyl Cyclopropenylidene Formic acid Isocyanoacetylene Ketene Methane Methoxy radical Methylenimine Propadienylidene Protonated formaldehyde Protonated formaldehyde Silane Silicon - carbide cluster Six atoms Acetonitrile Cyanobutadiynyl radical E-Cyanomethanimine Cyclopropenone Diacetylene Ethylene Formamide HC N Ketenimine Methanethiol Methanol Methyl isocyanide Pentynylidyne Propynal Protonated cyanoacetylene Seven atoms Acetaldehyde Acrylonitrile Vinyl cyanide Cyanodiacetylene Ethylene oxide Hexatriynyl radical Methylacetylene Methylamine Methyl isocyanate Vinyl alcohol Eight atoms Acetic acid Aminoacetonitrile Cyanoallene Ethanimine Glycolaldehyde Heptatrienyl radical Hexapentaenylidene Methylcyanoacetylene Methyl formate Propenal Nine atoms Acetamide Cyanohexatriyne Cyanotriacetylene Dimethyl ether Ethanol Methyldiacetylene Octatetraynyl radical Propene Propionitrile Ten atoms or more Acetone Benzene Benzonitrile Buckminsterfullerene ( C fullerene, buckyball ) C fullerene Cyanodecapentayne Cyanopentaacetylene Cyanotetra - acetylene Ethylene glycol Ethyl formate Methyl acetate Methyl - cyano - diacetylene Methyltriacetylene Propanal n - Propyl cyanide Pyrimidine Deuterated molecules Ammonia Ammonium ion Formaldehyde Formyl radical Heavy water Hydrogen cyanide Hydrogen deuteride Hydrogen isocyanide Methylacetylene Trihydrogen cation Unconfirmed Anthracene Dihydroxyacetone Ethyl methyl ether Glycine Graphene H NCO Linear C Naphthalene cation Phosphine Pyrene Silylidine Related Abiogenesis Astrobiology Astrochemistry Atomic and molecular astrophysics Chemical formula Circumstellar envelope Cosmic dust Cosmic ray Cosmochemistry Diffuse interstellar band Earliest known life forms Extraterrestrial life Extraterrestrial liquid water Forbidden mechanism Helium hydride ion Homochirality Intergalactic dust Interplanetary medium Interstellar medium Photodissociation region Iron -- sulfur world theory Kerogen Molecules in stars Nexus for Exoplanet System Science Organic compound Outer space PAH world hypothesis Panspermia Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ( PAH ) RNA world hypothesis Spectroscopy Tholin Book : Chemistry Category : Astrochemistry Category : Molecules Portal : Astrobiology Portal : Astronomy Portal : Chemistry Nitrogen species Hydrides : NH NH NH MNH2 NH OH Organic : - NH - CHR = NHR - CONHR2 HCN CN H NCN CH N Oxides : N O NO NO N O N O N O HNO HNO NO NO NO NO Halides : NF NCl NBr NI FN ClN NH Cl Chemical formulas Oxygen compounds AgO Al O AmO Am O As O As O Au O B O BaO BeO Bi O BiO Bi O BrO Br O Br O CO CO C O CaO CaO CdO CeO Ce O Ce O ClO Cl O Cl O Cl O Cl O Cl O CoO Co O Co O CrO Cr O Cr O Cr O CsO Cs O CuO D O Dy O Er O Eu O F O F O F O FeO Fe O Fe O Ga O Ga O GeO GeO H O H O H O HfO HgO Hg O Ho O I O I O I O I O In O IrO KO K O La O Li O Li O Lu O MgO Mg O MnO MnO Mn O Mn O MoO MoO Mo O NO NO N O N O N O N O NaO Na O Na O NbO NbO Nd O Chemical formulas LCCN : sh85092097 GND : 4150244 - 9 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nitrous_oxide&oldid=833181421 '' Categories : 5 - HT3 antagonists Aerosol propellants Dissociative drugs Euphoriants GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators General anesthetics Greenhouse gases Glycine receptor agonists Industrial gases Industrial hygiene Inhalants Inorganic nitrogen compounds Monopropellants Nicotinic antagonists NMDA receptor antagonists Rocket oxidizers Vehicle modification Gaseous signaling molecules Hidden categories : CS1 errors : missing author or editor CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 Japanese - 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Question: what is the use of nitrous oxide in surgery
Answer: for its anaesthetic and pain reducing effects