Battle of Pavia - wikipedia Battle of Pavia For other battles at Pavia, see Battle of Pavia ( disambiguation ). Battle of Pavia Part of the Italian War of 1521 -- 26 Ruprecht Heller, The Battle of Pavia ( 1529 ), Nationalmuseum, Stockholm Date 24 February 1525 Location Pavia ( in present - day Italy ) Result Decisive Imperial -- Spanish victory Belligerents Kingdom of France Empire of Charles V : Holy Roman Empire Spain Commanders and leaders Francis I of France Robert III de La Marck Anne de Montmorency Henry II of Navarre Francois de Lorraine † Richard de la Pole † Jacques de la Palice † Louis de la Tremoille † Seigneur de Bonnivet † Charles IV, Duke of Alençon Marquess of Saluzzo Charles de Lannoy Fernando d'Avalos Charles de Bourbon Georg Frundsberg Antonio de Leyva Alfonso d'Avalos Cesare Hercolani Fernando de Andrade Strength 17,000 infantry 6,500 cavalry 53 guns 19,000 infantry 4,000 cavalry 17 guns Casualties and losses 15,000 dead, wounded or captured 500 dead or wounded The Battle of Pavia, fought on the morning of 24 February 1525, was the decisive engagement of the Italian War of 1521 -- 26. An Imperial -- Spanish army under the nominal command of Charles de Lannoy ( and working in conjunction with the garrison of Pavia, commanded by Antonio de Leyva ) attacked the French army under the personal command of Francis I of France in the great hunting preserve of Mirabello outside the city walls. In the four - hour battle, the French army was split and defeated in detail. The French suffered massive casualties, including many of the chief nobles of France. Francis himself was captured by Habsburg troops and imprisoned by Charles V and forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madrid, surrendering significant territory to his captor. The outcome of the battle cemented Habsburg ascendancy in Italy. Contents 1 Prelude 2 Battle 2.1 Movements in the dark 2.2 Francis attacks 2.3 Endgame 3 Aftermath 4 Art 5 Notes 6 References Prelude For more details on this topic, see Italian campaign of 1524 - 1525. The French, in possession of Lombardy at the start of the Italian War of 1521 -- 26, had been forced to abandon it after their defeat at the Battle of Bicocca in 1522. Determined to regain it, Francis ordered an invasion of the region in late 1523, under the command of Guillaume Gouffier, Seigneur de Bonnivet ; but Bonnivet was defeated by Imperial troops at the Battle of the Sesia and forced to withdraw to France. Charles de Lannoy now launched an invasion of Provence under the command of Fernando d'Avalos, Marquess of Pescara, and Charles III, Duke of Bourbon ( who had recently betrayed Francis and allied himself with the Emperor ). While initially successful, the Imperial offensive lost valuable time during the Siege of Marseille and was forced to withdraw back to Italy by the arrival of Francis and the main French army at Avignon. The French advance into Lombardy and the Pavia campaign of 1524 -- 25. French movements are indicated in blue and Imperial movements in red. In mid-October 1524, Francis himself crossed the Alps and advanced on Milan at the head of an army numbering more than 40,000. Bourbon and d'Avalos, their troops not yet recovered from the campaign in Provence, were in no position to offer serious resistance. The French army moved in several columns, brushing aside Imperial attempts to hold its advance, but failed to bring the main body of Imperial troops to battle. Nevertheless, Charles de Lannoy, who had concentrated some 16,000 men to resist the 33,000 French troops closing on Milan, decided that the city could not be defended and withdrew to Lodi on 26 October. Having entered Milan and installed Louis II de la Trémoille as the governor, Francis ( at the urging of Bonnivet and against the advice of his other senior commanders, who favored a more vigorous pursuit of the retreating Lannoy ) advanced on Pavia, where Antonio de Leyva remained with a sizable Imperial garrison of about 9000. The main mass of French troops arrived at Pavia in the last days of October. By 2 November, Anne de Montmorency had crossed the Ticino River and invested the city from the south, completing its encirclement. Inside were about 9,000 men, mainly mercenaries whom Antonio de Leyva was able to pay only by melting the church plate. A period of skirmishing and artillery bombardments followed, and several breaches had been made in the walls by mid-November. On 21 November, Francis attempted an assault on the city through two of the breaches, but was beaten back with heavy casualties ; hampered by rainy weather and a lack of gunpowder, the French decided to wait for the defenders to starve. Battle of Pavia by Joachim Patinir In early December, a Spanish force commanded by Ugo de Moncada landed near Genoa, intending to interfere in a conflict between pro-Valois and pro-Habsburg factions in the city. Francis dispatched a larger force under the Marquis of Saluzzo to intercept them. Confronted by the more numerous French and left without naval support by the arrival of a pro-Valois fleet commanded by Andrea Doria, the Spanish troops surrendered. Francis then signed a secret agreement with Pope Clement VII, who pledged not to assist Charles in exchange for Francis 's assistance with the conquest of Naples. Against the advice of his senior commanders, Francis detached a portion of his forces under the Duke of Albany and sent them south to aid the Pope. Lannoy attempted to intercept the expedition near Fiorenzuola, but suffered heavy casualties and was forced to return to Lodi by the intervention of the infamous Black Bands of Giovanni de ' Medici, Italian mercenaries which had just entered French service. Medici then returned to Pavia with a supply train of gunpowder and shot gathered by the Duke of Ferrara ; but the French position was simultaneously weakened by the departure of nearly 5,000 Grisons Swiss mercenaries, who returned to their cantons in order to defend them against marauding landsknechts. In January 1525, Lannoy was reinforced by the arrival of Georg Frundsberg with 15,000 fresh landsknechts from Germany and renewed the offensive. D'Avalos captured the French outpost at Sant'Angelo Lomellina, cutting the lines of communication between Pavia and Milan, while a separate column of landsknechts advanced on Belgiojoso and, despite being briefly pushed back by a raid led by Medici and Bonnivet, occupied the town. By 2 February, Lannoy was only a few miles from Pavia. Francis had encamped the majority of his forces in the great walled park of Mirabello outside the city walls, placing them between Leyva 's garrison and the approaching relief army. Skirmishing and sallies by the garrison continued through the month of February. Medici was seriously wounded and withdrew to Piacenza to recuperate, forcing Francis to recall much of the Milan garrison to offset the departure of the Black Band ; but the fighting had little overall effect. On 21 February, the Imperial commanders, running low on supplies and mistakenly believing that the French forces were more numerous than their own, decided to launch an attack on Mirabello Castle in order to save face and demoralize the French sufficiently to ensure a safe withdrawal. Battle The times given here are taken from Konstam 's reconstruction of the battle. Movements in the dark The Battle of Pavía by Juan de la Corte. On the evening of 23 February, Lannoy 's imperial troops, who had been encamped outside the east wall of the park, began their march north along the walls. At the same time, the Imperial artillery began a bombardment of the French siege lines -- which had become routine during the extended siege -- in order to conceal Lannoy 's movement. Meanwhile, Imperial engineers quickly worked to create a breach in the park walls, at the Porta Pescarina near the village of San Genesio, through which the Imperial army could enter. By 5 : 00 am, some 3,000 arquebusiers under the command of Alfonso d'Avalos had entered the park and were rapidly advancing on Mirabello Castle, where they believed the French headquarters to be ; simultaneously, Imperial light cavalry spread out from the breach into the park, intending to intercept any French movements. Meanwhile, a detachment of French cavalry under Charles Tiercelin encountered the Imperial cavalry and began a series of skirmishes with them. A mass of Swiss pikemen under Robert de la Marck, Seigneur de la Flourance moved up to assist them, overrunning a battery of Spanish artillery that had been dragged into the park. They missed De Vasto 's arquebusiers -- who had, by 6 : 30 am, emerged from the woods near the castle and swiftly overrun it -- and blundered into 6,000 of Georg Frundsberg 's landsknechts. By 7 : 00 am, a full - scale infantry battle had developed not far from the original breach. Francis attacks Leather Box for the Pennant of Francis I at the Battle of Pavia The Walters Art Museum. A third mass of troops -- the German and Spanish heavy cavalry under Lannoy himself, as well as d'Avalos's Spanish infantry -- had meanwhile been moving through the woods to the west, closer to where Francis was encamped. The French did not realize the magnitude of the Imperial attack for some time ; however, by about 7 : 20 am, d'Avalos's advance had been spotted by a battery of French artillery, which commenced firing on the Spanish lines. This alerted Francis, who launched a charge against Lannoy 's outnumbered cavalry with the entire force of French gendarmes, scattering the Spanish by 7 : 40 am. Francis 's precipitate advance, however, had not only masked the fire of the French artillery, but also pulled him away from the mass of French infantry, commanded by Richard de la Pole, and by Francois de Lorraine, who led the Black Band of renegade landsknecht pikemen ( not to be confused with the Italian mercenary company of arquebusiers by the same name ), which was 4,000 to 5,000 men strong. D'Avalos, left in command of the Spanish forces after Lannoy had followed the retreating cavalry, formed his men up at the edge of the woods and sent messengers to Bourbon, Frundsberg, and De Vasto requesting assistance. Frundsberg meanwhile mauled the heavily outnumbered Swiss infantry opposing him ; Tiercelin and Flourance were unable to hold their troops together, and the French foot began to flee the field. Endgame Battle of Pavia by Juan de Orea. By 8 : 00 am, a mass of Imperial pikemen and arquebusiers descended on the French cavalry from all sides. Lacking room to maneuver by the surrounding woods, the French gendarmes were surrounded and systematically killed. Richard de la Pole and Lorraine, advancing to assist Francis, were met by Frundsberg 's arriving landsknechts ; the French infantry was broken and routed, and de la Pole and Lorraine were both killed. In a particularly bitter contest between Imperial and renegade landsknechts, the Black Band was surrounded by Frundsberg 's pikemen and exterminated where it stood. The French king fought on as his horse was killed from under him by Cesare Hercolani, an Italian Condottiere ; surrounded by Spanish arquebusiers, he was taken prisoner and escorted from the field. The exact nature of Francis 's surrender -- in particular, who exactly had taken him prisoner -- is uncertain, with a variety of candidates ranging from Alonso Pita da Veiga, Juan de Urbieta and Diego Dávila to Lannoy himself being put forward by various historians. The fact of the matter was that, as documented in the article for Alonso Pita da Veiga, at the time, no single individual was given credit for the capture of Francis I. The decree granting a coat of arms to Alonso Pita da Veiga for his deeds at the Battle of Pavia, was archived at the General Archive of Simanca ( Archivo general de Simancas, legajo 388, rotulado de `` Mercedes y Privilegios. ' ) and was issued by Emperor Charles V on 24 July 1529. In that decree, Charles V does not credit a single individual but, rather, a group of individuals that includes da Veiga : ''... and in the same battle, you ( Alonso Pita da Veiga ) accomplished so much that you reached the person of said King ( Francis I of France ) and captured him, jointly with the other persons that captured him. '' ( ''... y en la misma batalla ficistes tanto que allegastes á la misma persona del dicho Rey, y fuistes en prenderle, juntamente con las otras personas que le prendieron... `` ) Meanwhile, Antonio de Leyva had sortied with the garrison, overrunning the 3,000 Swiss under Montmorency that had been manning the siege lines. The remnants of the Swiss -- both Montmorency 's and Flourance 's -- tried to flee across the river, suffering massive casualties as they did. The French rearguard, under the Duke of Alençon, had taken no part in the battle ; when the Duke realized what had occurred in the park, he quickly began to retreat towards Milan. By 9 : 00 am, the battle was over. Aftermath Battle of Pavia, one of a tapestry suite woven at Brussels c 1528 - 31 after cartoons by Bernard van Orley The French defeat was decisive. Aside from Francis, a number of leading French nobles -- including Montmorency and Flourance -- had been captured ; an even greater number -- among them Bonnivet, La Tremoille, La Palice, Richard de la Pole, and Lorraine -- had been killed in the fighting. Francis was taken to the fortress of Pizzighettone, where he wrote a letter to Louise of Savoy, his mother : `` To inform you of how the rest of my ill - fortune is proceeding, all is lost to me save honour and life, which is safe... '' Soon afterwards, he finally learned that the Duke of Albany had lost the larger part of his army to attrition and desertion, and had returned to France without ever having reached Naples. The broken remnants of the French forces, aside from a small garrison left to hold the Castel Sforzesco in Milan, retreated across the Alps under the nominal command of Charles IV of Alençon, reaching Lyon by March. Art The Battle of Pavia in an engraved rock crystal cameo relief commissioned by Cardinal Ippolito de ' Medici, by Giovanni Bernardi, Rome, c 1531 - 35 ( Walters Art Museum ) In Rome Cardinal Ippolito de ' Medici, who acted as Florentine emissary to Charles V in 1535, expressed support for the Emperor 's victory by commissioning a rock crystal low relief in the manner of an Antique cameo, from the gem engraver Giovanni Bernardi. The classicizing treatment of the event lent it a timeless, mythic quality and reflected on the culture and taste of the patron. An oil - on - panel Battle of Pavia, painted by an anonymous Flemish artist, depicts the military engagement between the armies of Charles V and Francis I. Because of its detail, the painting is considered an accurate visual record, probably based on eyewitness accounts. A suite of seven Brussels tapestries after cartoons by Bernard van Orley ( left ) celebrate the Imperial -- Spanish victory. In 2016, the Spanish writer Arturo Pérez - Reverte published his short story Jodía Pavía ( 1526 ) ( `` Fucking Pavia ( 1526 ) '' ), a enhanced version of a column published in El País Semanal in October 2000. It is a fictional letter by king Francis to his lover, written from his Madrid prison. In it, Francis explains the battle and laments his situation. Pérez - Reverte uses a satyrical and colloquial language with frequent anachronism ( as an example, there are allusions to Errol Flynn and films ). Italian War of 1521 -- 26 Pampeluna Esquiroz / Noáin Mézières Tournai Bicocca Genoa San Marcial Fuenterrabía Sesia Marseille Italy 1524 -- 25 Pavia Italian Wars 1494 -- 98 1499 -- 1504 League of Cambrai Urbino 1521 -- 26 League of Cognac 1536 -- 38 1542 -- 46 1551 -- 59 Full list of battles Notes Jump up ^ This is the only identified work of the master Ruprecht Heller ^ Jump up to : Knecht, R.J. ( 1994 ). Renaissance Warrior and Patron. New York : Press Syndicate of University of Cambridge. p. 225. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 89. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 30 -- 33. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 34. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 34 -- 35. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 36 -- 39. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 40 -- 41. Jump up ^ Blockmans, Emperor Charles V, 57 ; Konstam, Pavia 1525, 42 -- 43. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 43 -- 45. Jump up ^ Blockmans, Emperor Charles V, 59 ; Konstam, Pavia 1525, 46 -- 50. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 50. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 52 -- 53. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 56 -- 57. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 56 -- 58. It is unclear whether the breach was in the east wall of the park or the north one ; Konstam, based on an analysis of the later course of the battle, suggests that the north is the more likely option. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 58 -- 61. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 62 -- 63. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 63 -- 65. Jump up ^ `` Leather Box for the Pennant of Francis I at the Battle of Pavia ''. The Walters Art Museum. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 65 -- 69. Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 69 -- 72. Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived 25 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Jump up ^ Storia di Pavia Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 72 -- 74. Jump up ^ Juan Carlos Losada, Batallas Decisivas de la Historia de España ( Decisive battles of Spanish History ), Ed. Punto de lectura, 2004 ( Pavía, pg 224 ) Jump up ^ Konstam, Pavia 1525, 74. ^ Jump up to : Konstam, Pavia 1525, 76. Jump up ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 348. Jump up ^ Birmingham Museum of Art : guide to the collection. Birmingham, Ala : Birmingham Museum of Art, 2010. Jump up ^ ( in Spanish ) Nueva edición de Jodía Pavía ( 1525 ), de Arturo Pérez - Reverte, 4 July 2016, Zenda Libros. References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Italian Wars. Italian Wars portal Black, Jeremy. `` Dynasty Forged by Fire. '' MHQ : The Quarterly Journal of Military History 18, no. 3 ( Spring 2006 ) : 34 -- 43. ISSN 1040 - 5992. Blockmans, Wim. Emperor Charles V, 1500 -- 1558. Translated by Isola van den Hoven - Vardon. New York : Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0 - 340 - 73110 - 9. Guicciardini, Francesco. The History of Italy. Translated by Sydney Alexander. Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1984. ISBN 0 - 691 - 00800 - 0. Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe : Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. ISBN 0 - 8018 - 5531 - 4. Knecht, Robert J. Renaissance Warrior and Patron : The Reign of Francis I. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0 - 521 - 57885 - X. Konstam, Angus. Pavia 1525 : The Climax of the Italian Wars. Oxford : Osprey Publishing, 1996. ISBN 1 - 85532 - 504 - 7. Oman, Charles. A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century. London : Methuen & Co., 1937. Phillips, Charles and Alan Axelrod. Encyclopedia of Wars. Volume 2. New York : Facts on File, 2005. ISBN 0 - 8160 - 2851 - 6. Taylor, Frederick Lewis. The Art of War in Italy, 1494 -- 1529. Westport : Greenwood Press, 1973. ISBN 0 - 8371 - 5025 - 6. Ferrer de Couto, Jose, ( 1862 ) `` Crisol historico español y restauracion de glorias nacionales -- Alonso Pita da Veiga en la Batalla de Pavía '', pp. 167 Spanish Empire Timeline Catholic Monarchs Habsburgs Golden Age Encomiendas New Laws in favour of the indigenous Expulsion of the Moriscos Eighty Years ' War Portuguese Restoration War Bourbons Napoleonic invasion Independence of Spanish continental Americas Liberal constitution Carlist Wars Spanish -- American War German -- Spanish Treaty ( 1899 ) Spanish Civil War Independence of Morocco ( Western Sahara conflict ) Territories Kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia Milan Union with Holy Roman Empire Netherlands Franche - Comté Portugal Philippines East Pacific ( Guam, Mariana, Caroline, Palau, Marshall, Micronesia, Moluccas ) Northern Taiwan Tidore Florida New Spain ( Western United States, Mexico, Central America, Spanish Caribbean ) Spanish Louisiana Coastal Alaska Haiti Belize Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago Venezuela, Northern and Western Guyana New Granada ( Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon ) Peru ( Peru, Acre ) Río de la Plata ( Argentina, Paraguay, Charcas ( Bolivia ), Banda Oriental ( Uruguay ), Falkland Islands ) Chile Equatorial Guinea Spanish North Africa ( Ifni, Cape Juby, Spanish Morocco and Western Sahara ) Administration Archivo de Indias Council of the Indies Cabildo Trial of residence Laws of the Indies Royal Decree of Graces Exequatur Papal bull School of Salamanca Administrative subdivisions Viceroyalties New Spain New Granada Perú Río de la Plata Audiencias Bogotá Buenos Aires Caracas Charcas Concepción Cusco Guadalajara Guatemala Lima Manila Mexico Panamá Quito Santiago Santo Domingo Captaincies General Chile Cuba Guatemala Philippines Puerto Rico Santo Domingo Venezuela Yucatán Provincias Internas Governorates Castilla de Oro Cuba New Andalusia ( 1501 -- 1513 ) New Andalusia New Castile New Toledo Paraguay Río de la Plata Economy Currencies Dollar Real Maravedí Escudo Columnario Trade Manila galleon Spanish treasure fleet Casa de Contratación Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Military Armies Tercio Army of Flanders Spanish Armada Indian auxiliaries Legión Warriors Duke of Alba Antonio de Leyva Martín de Goiti Alfonso d'Avalos García de Toledo Osorio Duke of Savoy Álvaro de Bazán the Elder John of Austria Charles Bonaventure de Longueval Pedro de Zubiaur Ambrosio Spinola Bernardo de Gálvez Sailors Christopher Columbus Pinzón brothers Ferdinand Magellan Juan Sebastián Elcano Juan de la Cosa Juan Ponce de León Miguel López de Legazpi Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Sebastián de Ocampo Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca Alonso de Ojeda Vasco Núñez de Balboa Alonso de Salazar Andrés de Urdaneta Antonio de Ulloa Ruy López de Villalobos Diego Columbus Alonso de Ercilla Nicolás de Ovando Juan de Ayala Sebastián Vizcaíno Juan Fernández Felipe González de Ahedo Conquistadors Hernán Cortés Francisco Pizarro Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada Hernán Pérez de Quesada Francisco Vázquez de Coronado Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar Pedro de Valdivia Pedro de Alvarado Martín de Ursúa Diego de Almagro Pánfilo de Narváez Diego de Mazariegos Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera Battles Old World Won Bicocca Landriano Pavia Tunis Mühlberg St. Quentin Gravelines Malta Lepanto Antwerp Azores Siege of Mons Gembloux Siege of Ostend English Armada Cape Celidonia White Mountain Siege of Breda Nördlingen Valenciennes Siege of Ceuta Bitonto Bailén Vitoria Tetouan Alhucemas Lost Capo d'Orso Preveza Siege of Castelnuovo Algiers Ceresole Djerba Tunis Spanish Armada Leiden Rocroi Downs Passaro Trafalgar Somosierra Annual New World Won Siege of Tenochtitlan Cajamarca Cuzco Bogotá savanna Reynogüelén Penco Guadalupe Island San Juan Cartagena de Indias Cuerno Verde Pensacola Lost La Noche Triste Tucapel Chacabuco Carabobo Ayacucho Guam Santiago de Cuba Manila Bay Asomante Spanish colonizations Canary Islands Aztec Maya Chiapas Yucatán Guatemala Petén El Salvador Honduras Nicaragua Chibchan Nations Colombia Peru Chile Other civil topics Spanish missions in the Americas Architecture Mesoamerican codices Cusco painting tradition Indochristian painting in New Spain Quito painting tradition Colonial universities in Latin America Colonial universities in the Philippines General Archive of the Indies Colonial Spanish Horse Castas Old inquisition Slavery in Spanish Empire British and American slaves granted their freedom by Spain Coordinates : 45 ° 11 ′ 00 '' N 9 ° 09 ′ 00 '' E ﻿ / ﻿ 45.1833 ° N 9.1500 ° E ﻿ / 45.1833 ; 9.1500 SUDOC : 027911063 BNF : cb119851438 ( data ) HDS : 8897 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pavia&oldid=809920665 '' Categories : 1525 in Italy Battles involving France Battles involving the Holy Roman Empire Battles involving Spain Battles of the Italian Wars Conflicts in 1525 Pontifical Swiss Guard Pavia Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with Spanish - language external links Use dmy dates from February 2012 Pages using deprecated image syntax Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська West - Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 November 2017, at 09 : 43. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: after the 1525 battle of pavia italy fell under the control of
Answer: Spain