Epidermis - wikipedia Epidermis This article is about human skin. For the outer layer of cells in plants, see Epidermis ( botany ). For other uses, see Epidermis ( disambiguation ). Epidermis Microscopic image of the epidermis, which constitutes the outer layer of skin, shown here by the white bar Microscopic image showing the layers of the epidermis. The stratum corneum appears more compact in this image than above because of different sample preparation. Details Part of Skin System Integumentary system Identifiers Latin Epidermis MeSH D004817 TA A16. 0.00. 009 TH H3. 12.00. 1.01001 FMA 70596 Anatomical terms of microanatomy ( edit on Wikidata ) The epidermis is the outermost of the three layers that make up the skin, the inner layers being the dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis layer provides a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens and regulates the amount of water released from the body into the atmosphere through transepidermal water loss. The epidermis is composed of multiple layers of flattened cells that overlie a base layer ( stratum basale ) composed of columnar cells arranged perpendicularly. The rows of cells develop from stem cells in the basal layer. Cellular mechanisms for regulating water and sodium levels ( ENaCs ) are found in all layers of the epidermis. The word epidermis is derived through Latin from Ancient Greek epidermis, itself from Ancient Greek epi, meaning ' over, upon ' and from Ancient Greek dermis, meaning ' skin '. Something related to or part of the epidermis is termed epidermal. The human epidermis is a familiar example of epithelium, particularly a stratified squamous epithelium Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Cellular components 1.2 Cell junctions 1.3 Layers 1.4 Cellular kinetics 1.4. 1 Cell division 1.4. 2 Calcium concentration 1.5 Development 2 Function 2.1 Barrier 2.2 Skin hydration 2.3 Skin color 3 Clinical significance 4 Additional images 5 See also 6 References Structure Cellular components The epidermis primarily consists of keratinocytes ( proliferating basal and differentiated suprabasal ), which comprise 90 % of its cells, but also contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, and inflammatory cells. Epidermal thickenings called Rete ridges ( or rete pegs ) extend downward between dermal papillae. Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole and a venule. The epidermis itself has no blood supply and is nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air. Cell junctions Epidermal cells are tightly interconnected to serve as a tight barrier against the exterior environment. The junctions between the epidermal cells are of the adherens junction type, formed by transmembrane proteins called cadherins. Inside the cell, the cadherins are linked to actin filaments. In immunofluorescence microscopy, the actin filament network appears as a thick border surrounding the cells, although the actin filaments are actually located inside the cell and run parallel to the cell membrane. Because of the proximity of the neighboring cells and tightness of the junctions, the actin immunofluorescence appears as a border between cells. Layers Schematic image showing a section of epidermis, with epidermal layers labeled The epidermis is composed of 4 or 5 layers, depending on the region of skin being considered. Those layers in descending order are : cornified layer ( stratum corneum ) Confocal image of the stratum corneum Composed of 10 to 30 layers of polyhedral, anucleated corneocytes ( final step of keratinocyte differentiation ), with the palms and soles having the most layers. Corneocytes are surrounded by a protein envelope ( cornified envelope proteins ), filled with water - retaining keratin proteins, attached together through corneodesmosomes and surrounded in the extracellular space by stacked layers of lipids. Most of the barrier functions of the epidermis localize to this layer. clear / translucent layer ( stratum lucidum, only in palms and soles ) This narrow layer is found only on the palms and soles. The epidermis of these two areas is known as `` thick skin '' because with this extra layer, the skin has 5 epidermal layers instead of 4. granular layer ( stratum granulosum ) Confocal image of the stratum granulosum Keratinocytes lose their nuclei and their cytoplasm appears granular. Lipids, contained into those keratinocytes within lamellar bodies, are released into the extracellular space through exocytosis to form a lipid barrier. Those polar lipids are then converted into non-polar lipids and arranged parallel to the cell surface. For example glycosphingolipids become ceramides and phospholipids become free fatty acids. spinous layer ( stratum spinosum ) Confocal image of the stratum spinosum already showing some clulsters of basal cells Keratinocytes become connected through desmosomes and start produce lamellar bodies, from within the Golgi, enriched in polar lipids, glycosphingolipids, free sterols, phospholipids and catabolic enzymes. Langerhans cells, immunologically active cells, are located in the middle of this layer. basal / germinal layer ( stratum basale / germinativum ). Confocal image of the stratum basale already showing some papillae Composed mainly of proliferating and non-proliferating keratinocytes, attached to the basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. Melanocytes are present, connected to numerous keratinocytes in this and other strata through dendrites. Merkel cells are also found in the stratum basale with large numbers in touch - sensitive sites such as the fingertips and lips. They are closely associated with cutaneous nerves and seem to be involved in light touch sensation. The Malpighian layer ( stratum malpighi ) is both the stratum basale and stratum spinosum. The epidermis is separated from the dermis, its underlying tissue, by a basement membrane. Cellular kinetics Cell division As a stratified squamous epithelium, the epidermis is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale. Differentiating cell delaminate from the basement membrane and are displaced outwards through the epidermal layers, undergoing multiple stages of differentiation until, in the stratum corneum, losing their nucleus and fusing to squamous sheets, which are eventually shed from the surface ( desquamation ). Differentiated keratinocytes secrete keratin proteins, which contribute to the formation of an extracellular matrix that is an integral part of the skin barrier function. In normal skin, the rate of keratinocyte production equals the rate of loss, taking about two weeks for a cell to journey from the stratum basale to the top of the stratum granulosum, and an additional four weeks to cross the stratum corneum. The entire epidermis is replaced by new cell growth over a period of about 48 days. Calcium concentration Keratinocyte differentiation throughout the epidermis is in part mediated by a calcium gradient, increasing from the stratum basale until the outer stratum granulosum, where it reaches its maximum, and decreasing in the stratum corneum. Calcium concentration in the stratum corneum is very low in part because those relatively dry cells are not able to dissolve the ions. This calcium gradient parallels keratinocyte differentiation and as such is considered a key regulator in the formation of the epidermal layers. Elevation of extracellular calcium concentrations induces an increase in intracellular free calcium concentrations. Part of that intracellular increase comes from calcium released from intracellular stores and another part comes from transmembrane calcium influx, through both calcium - sensitive chloride channels and voltage - independent cation channels permeable to calcium. Moreover, it has been suggested that an extracellular calcium - sensing receptor ( CaSR ) also contributes to the rise in intracellular calcium concentration. Development Epidermal organogenesis, the formation of the epidermis, begins in the cells covering the embryo after neurulation, the formation of the central nervous system. In most vertebrates, this original one - layered structure quickly transforms into a two - layered tissue ; a temporary outer layer, the periderm, which is disposed once the inner basal layer or stratum germinativum has formed. This inner layer is a germinal epithelium that gives rise to all epidermal cells. It divides to form the outer spinous layer ( stratum spinosum ). The cells of these two layers, together called the Malpighian layer ( s ) after Marcello Malpighi, divide to form the superficial granular layer ( Stratum granulosum ) of the epidermis. The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the granules of keratin. These skin cells finally become the cornified layer ( stratum corneum ), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After birth these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout life they are shed at a rate of 0.001 - 0.003 ounces of skin flakes every hour, or 0.024 - 0.072 ounces per day. Epidermal development is a product of several growth factors, two of which are : Transforming growth factor Alpha ( TGFα ) is an autocrine growth factor by which basal cells stimulate their own division. Keratinocyte growth factor ( KGF or FGF7 ) is a paracrine growth factor produced by the underlying dermal fibroblasts in which the proliferation of basal cells is regulated. Function Barrier The epidermis serves as a barrier to protect the body against microbial pathogens, oxidant stress ( UV light ), and chemical compounds, and provides mechanical resistance to minor injury. Most of this barrier role is played by the stratum corneum. Characteristics Physical barrier : Epidermal keratinocytes are tightly linked by cell -- cell junctions associated to cytoskeletal proteins, giving the epidermis its mechanical strength. Chemical barrier : Highly organized lipids, acids, hydrolytic enzymes, and antimicrobial peptides inhibit passage of external chemicals and pathogens into the body. Immunologically active barrier : The humoral and cellular constituents of the immune system found in the epidermis actively combat infection. Water content of the stratum corneum drops towards the surface, creating hostile conditions for pathogenic microorganism growth. An acidic pH ( around 5.0 ) and low amounts of water make the epidermis hostile to many microorganic pathogens. Non-pathogenic microorganisms on the surface of the epidermis help defend against pathogens by competing for food, limiting its availability, and by producing chemical secretions that inhibit the growth of pathogenic microbiota. Permeability Psychological stress, through an increase in glucocorticoids, compromises the stratum corneum and thus the barrier function. Sudden and large shifts in humidity alter stratum corneum hydration in a way that could allow entry of pathogenic microorganisms. Skin hydration The ability of the skin to hold water is primarily due to the stratum corneum and is critical for maintaining healthy skin. Lipids arranged through a gradient and in an organized manner between the cells of the stratum corneum form a barrier to transepidermal water loss. Skin color The amount and distribution of melanin pigment in the epidermis is the main reason for variation in skin color in Homo sapiens. Melanin is found in the small melanosomes, particles formed in melanocytes from where they are transferred to the surrounding keratinocytes. The size, number, and arrangement of the melanosomes vary between racial groups, but while the number of melanocytes can vary between different body regions, their numbers remain the same in individual body regions in all human beings. In white and Asian skin the melanosomes are packed in `` aggregates '', but in black skin they are larger and distributed more evenly. The number of melanosomes in the keratinocytes increases with UV radiation exposure, while their distribution remain largely unaffected. Clinical significance For a comprehensive list, see List of cutaneous conditions. Laboratory culture of keratinocytes to form a 3D structure ( artificial skin ) recapitulating most of the properties of the epidermis is routinely used as a tool for drug development and testing. Additional images Epidermis and dermis of human skin Cross-section of all skin layers Illustration of epidermal layers Optical coherence tomography of fingertip See also Skin repair References Jump up ^ Young, Barbara ( 2014 ). Wheater 's functional histology a text and colour atlas. Elsevier. pp. 160 & 175. ISBN 9780702047473. ^ Jump up to : Marks, James G ; Miller, Jeffery ( 2006 ). Lookingbill and Marks ' Principles of Dermatology ( 4th ed. ). Elsevier. pp. 1 -- 7. ISBN 1 - 4160 - 3185 - 5. ^ Jump up to : Proksch, E. ; Brandner, J. ; Jensen, J.M. ( 2008 ). `` The skin : an indispensable barrier ''. Experimental Dermatology. 17 ( 12 ) : 1063 -- 1072. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1600 - 0625.2008. 00786. x. PMID 19043850. ^ Jump up to : McGrath, J.A. ; Eady, R.A. ; Pope, F.M. ( 2004 ). Rook 's Textbook of Dermatology ( 7th ed. ). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1 -- 3.6. ISBN 978 - 0 - 632 - 06429 - 8. ^ Jump up to : Hanukoglu I, Boggula VR, Vaknine H, Sharma S, Kleyman T, Hanukoglu A ( January 2017 ). `` Expression of epithelial sodium channel ( ENaC ) and CFTR in the human epidermis and epidermal appendages ''. Histochemistry and Cell Biology. 147 ( 6 ) : 733 -- 748. doi : 10.1007 / s00418 - 016 - 1535 - 3. PMID 28130590. Jump up ^ James, William ; Berger, Timothy ; Elston, Dirk ( 2005 ) Andrews ' Diseases of the Skin : Clinical Dermatology ( 10th ed. ). Saunders. pp. 2 -- 3. ISBN 0 - 7216 - 2921 - 0. Jump up ^ TheFreeDictionary > rete ridge Citing : The American Heritage Medical Dictionary Copyright 2007, 2004 Jump up ^ Stücker, M ; Struk, A ; Altmeyer, P ; Herde, M ; Baumgärtl, H ; Lübbers, DW ( 2002 ). `` The cutaneous uptake of atmospheric oxygen contributes significantly to the oxygen supply of human dermis and epidermis ''. The Journal of Physiology. 538 ( 3 ) : 985 -- 994. doi : 10.1113 / jphysiol. 2001.013067. PMC 2290093. PMID 11826181. Jump up ^ The Ageing Skin - Structure ^ Jump up to : `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ). Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2010 - 12 - 14. Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 07. CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Elias, P.M. ( 2007 ). `` The skin barrier as an innate immune element ''. Seminars in Immunopathology. 29 ( 1 ) : 3 -- 14. doi : 10.1007 / s00281 - 007 - 0060 - 9. PMID 17621950. Jump up ^ Iizuka, Hajime ( 1994 ). `` Epidermal turnover time ''. Journal of Dermatological Science. 8 ( 3 ) : 215 -- 217. doi : 10.1016 / 0923 - 1811 ( 94 ) 90057 - 4. PMID 7865480. Jump up ^ Hennings, H ; Kruszewski, FH ; Yuspa, SH ; Tucker, RW ( 1989 ). `` Intracellular calcium alterations in response to increased external calcium in normal and neoplastic keratinocytes ''. Carcinogenesis. 10 ( 4 ) : 777 -- 80. doi : 10.1093 / carcin / 10.4. 777. PMID 2702726. Jump up ^ Pillai, S ; Bikle, DD ( 1991 ). `` Role of intracellular - free calcium in the cornified envelope formation of keratinocytes : Differences in the mode of action of extracellular calcium and 1, 25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 ''. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 146 ( 1 ) : 94 -- 100. doi : 10.1002 / jcp. 1041460113. PMID 1990023. Jump up ^ Reiss, M ; Lipsey, LR ; Zhou, ZL ( 1991 ). `` Extracellular calcium - dependent regulation of transmembrane calcium fluxes in murine keratinocytes ''. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 147 ( 2 ) : 281 -- 91. doi : 10.1002 / jcp. 1041470213. PMID 1645742. Jump up ^ Mauro, TM ; Pappone, PA ; Isseroff, RR ( 1990 ). `` Extracellular calcium affects the membrane currents of cultured human keratinocytes ''. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 143 ( 1 ) : 13 -- 20. doi : 10.1002 / jcp. 1041430103. PMID 1690740. Jump up ^ Mauro, TM ; Isseroff, RR ; Lasarow, R ; Pappone, PA ( 1993 ). `` Ion channels are linked to differentiation in keratinocytes ''. The Journal of membrane biology. 132 ( 3 ) : 201 -- 9. doi : 10.1007 / BF00235738. PMID 7684087. Jump up ^ Tu, CL ; Oda, Y ; Bikle, DD ( 1999 ). `` Effects of a calcium receptor activator on the cellular response to calcium in human keratinocytes ''. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 113 ( 3 ) : 340 -- 5. doi : 10.1046 / j. 1523 - 1747.1999. 00698. x. PMID 10469331. ^ Jump up to : Gilbert, Scott F ( 2000 ). `` The Epidermis and the Origin of Cutaneous Structures ''. Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0 - 87893 - 243 - 7. Jump up ^ Weschler, Charles J. ( April 8, 2011 ). `` Squalene and Cholesterol in Dust from Danish Homes and Daycare Centers ''. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 : 3872 -- 3879. doi : 10.1021 / es103894r. PMID 21476540. Retrieved 3 July 2014. Jump up ^ Denda, M. ; Tsuchiya, T. ; Elias, P.M. ; Feingold, K.R. ( 2000 ). `` Stress alters cutaneous permeability barrier homeostasis ''. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 278 ( 2 ) : R367 -- 372. PMID 10666137. Jump up ^ `` Metabolic Approaches To Enhance Transdermal Drug Delivery. 1. Effect of Lipid Synthesis Inhibitors ''. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 85 : 643 -- 648. doi : 10.1021 / js950219p. Jump up ^ Blank, IH ( 1952 ). `` Factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum ''. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 18 ( 6 ) : 433 -- 40. doi : 10.1038 / jid. 1952.52. PMID 14938659. Jump up ^ Downing, DT ; Stewart, ME ; Wertz, PW ; Colton, SW ; Abraham, W ; Strauss, JS ( 1987 ). `` Skin lipids : An update ''. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 88 ( 3 Suppl ) : 2s -- 6s. doi : 10.1111 / 1523 - 1747. ep12468850. PMID 2950180. Jump up ^ Bonté, F ; Saunois, A ; Pinguet, P ; Meybeck, A ( 1997 ). `` Existence of a lipid gradient in the upper stratum corneum and its possible biological significance ''. Archives of dermatological research. 289 ( 2 ) : 78 -- 82. doi : 10.1007 / s004030050158. PMID 9049040. Jump up ^ Montagna, William ; Prota, Giuseppe ; Kenney, John A. ( 1993 ). Black skin : structure and function. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 0 - 12 - 505260 - X. Skin and related structures Skin Epidermis Stratum corneum Stratum lucidum Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum basale Basement membrane Basal keratinocyte Lamina lucida Lamina densa Dermis Papillary Dermal papillae Reticular Subcutaneous tissue Panniculus / Pannus ( Panniculus adiposus Panniculus carnosus ) Membranous layer Loose connective tissue Superficial fascia Adnexa Skin glands Sweat glands : Apocrine sweat gland Eccrine sweat gland Sebaceous Hair Root sheath Outer root sheath Inner root sheath Henle 's layer Huxley 's layer Hair shaft Cuticle Cortex Medulla Bulb with matrix cells Hair follicle Muscle Arrector pili muscle Pilosebaceous unit Hair sebaceous gland Nail Nail matrix Nail plate Lunula Eponychium Paronychium Hyponychium Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&oldid=865091464 '' Categories : Skin anatomy Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Archived copy as title Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 42 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 October 2018, at 17 : 27 ( UTC ). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: what is the upper most layer of skin
Answer: The epidermis