History of mental disorders - Wikipedia History of mental disorders Contents 1 Historical conceptions of abnormal behavior 1.1 Supernatural tradition 1.2 Biological tradition 1.3 Psychological tradition 2 Ancient period 2.1 Mesopotamia 2.2 Egypt 2.3 India 2.4 China 2.5 Greece and Rome 2.6 Israel and the Hebrew diaspora 3 Middle ages 3.1 Persia, Arabia and the Muslim empire 3.2 Christian Europe 4 Modern period 4.1 16th to 18th centuries 4.2 19th century 4.3 20th century 4.4 21st century 5 History of mental health treatment 5.1 Trephination 5.2 Bloodletting and purging 5.3 Isolation and asylums 5.4 Insulin coma therapy 5.5 Lobotomy 6 See also 7 Notes and references 8 Further reading Historical conceptions of Abnormal behavior For thousands of years, humans have tried to explain and control problematic behavior. But our efforts always derive from theories or models of behavior popular at the time, and the purpose is to explain ' why someone is like that '. Three major models, namely, supernatural model, biological model and psychological model. Supernatural tradition For much of our recorded history, deviant behavior has been considered a reflection of the battle between good and evil. When confronted with unexplainable, irrational behavior and by suffering and upheaval, people have perceived evil. In fact, in the Great Persian Empire from 900 to 600 B.C., all physical and mental disorders were considered the work of the devil. Biological tradition Physical causes of mental disorders have been sought in history. Important to this tradition are a man, Hippocrates ; a disease, syphilis ; and the early consequences of believing that psychological disorders are biologically caused. Psychological tradition This was a precursor to modern psychosocial treatment approaches to the causation of psychopathology, with the focus on psychological, social and cultural factors. Well known philosophers like Aristotle, Plato, etc., wrote about the importance of fantasies, dreams, cognitions, and thus anticipated, to some extent, later developments in psychoanalytic thought and cognitive science. They also advocated humane and responsible care for individuals with psychological disturbances. Ancient period Mesopotamia Mental illnesses were well known in ancient Mesopotamia, where diseases and mental disorders were believed to be caused by specific deities. Because hands symbolized control over a person, mental illnesses were known as `` hands '' of certain deities. One psychological illness was known as Qāt Ištar, meaning `` Hand of Ishtar ''. Others were known as `` Hand of Shamash '', `` Hand of the Ghost '', and `` Hand of the God ''. Descriptions of these illnesses, however, are so vague that it is usually impossible to determine which illnesses they correspond to in modern terminology. Mesopotamian doctors kept detailed record of their patients ' hallucinations and assigned spiritual meanings to them. A patient who hallucinated that he was seeing a dog was predicted to die ; whereas, if he saw a gazelle, he would recover. The royal family of Elam was notorious for its members frequently suffering from insanity. Erectile dysfunction was recognized as being rooted in psychological problems. Egypt Limited notes in an ancient Egyptian document known as the Ebers papyrus appear to describe the affected states of concentration, attention, and emotional distress in the heart or mind. Some of these were interpreted later, and renamed as hysteria and melancholy. Somatic treatments included applying bodily fluids while reciting magical spells. Hallucinogens may have been used as a part of the healing rituals. Religious temples may have been used as therapeutic retreats, possibly for the induction of receptive states to facilitate sleep and the interpretation of dreams. India This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. ( December 2016 ) Ancient Hindu scriptures - Ramayana and Mahabharata - contain fictional descriptions of depression and anxiety. Mental disorders were generally thought to reflect abstract metaphysical entities, supernatural agents, sorcery and witchcraft. The Charaka Samhita from circa 600 BC, which is a part of the Hindu Ayurveda ( `` knowledge of life '' ), saw ill health as resulting from an imbalance among three the three body fluids or forces called Tri-Dosha. These also affected the personality types among people. Suggested causes included inappropriate diet, disrespect towards the gods, teachers or others, mental shock due to excessive fear or joy, and faulty bodily activity. Treatments included the use of herbs and ointments, charms and prayers, and moral or emotional persuasion. China The earliest known record of mental illness in ancient China dates back to 1100 B.C. Mental disorders were treated mainly under Traditional Chinese Medicine using herbs, acupuncture or `` emotional therapy ''. The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor described symptoms, mechanisms and therapies for mental illness, emphasizing connections between bodily organs and emotions. The ancient Chinese believed that demonic possession played a role in mental illness during this time period. They felt that areas of emotional outbursts such as funeral homes could open up the Wei Chi and allow entities to possess an individual. Trauma was also considered to be something that caused high levels of emotion. Thus, trauma is a possible catalyst for mental illness, due to its ability to allow the Wei Chi open to possession. This explains why the ancient Chinese believed that a mental illness was in reality a demonic possession. According to Chinese thought, five stages or elements comprised the conditions of imbalance between Yin and yang. Mental illness, according to the Chinese perspective is thus considered as an imbalance of the yin and yang because optimum health arises from balance with nature. China was one of the earliest developed civilizations in which medicine and attention to mental disorders were introduced ( Soong, 2006 ) As in the West, Chinese views of mental disorders regressed to a belief in supernatural forces as causal agents. From the later part of the second century through the early part of the ninth century, ghosts and devils were implicated in `` ghostevil '' insanity, which presumably resulted from possession by evil spirits. The `` Dark Ages '' in China, however, were neither so severe ( in terms of the treatment of mental patients ) nor as long - lasting as in the West. A return to biological, somatic ( bodily ) views and an emphasis on psychosocial factors occurred in the centuries that followed. Over the past 50 years, China has been experiencing a broadening of ideas in mental health services and has been incorporating many ideas from Western psychiatry ( Zhang & Lu, 2006 ) Greece and Rome Main article : Mental illness in ancient Greece In ancient Greece and Rome, madness was associated stereotypically with aimless wandering and violence. However, Socrates considered positive aspects including prophesying ( a ' manic art ' ) ; mystical initiations and rituals ; poetic inspiration ; and the madness of lovers. Now often seen as the very epitome of rational thought and as the founder of philosophy, Socrates freely admitted to experiencing what are now called `` command hallucinations '' ( then called his ' daemon ' ). Pythagoras also heard voices. Hippocrates ( 470 -- ca. 360 BC ) classified mental disorders, including paranoia, epilepsy, mania and melancholia. Through long contact with Greek culture, and their eventual conquest of Greece, the Romans absorbed many Greek ( and other ) ideas on medicine. The humoral theory fell out of favor in some quarters. The Greek physician Asclepiades ( ca. 124 -- 40 BC ), who practiced in Rome, discarded it and advocated humane treatments, and had insane persons freed from confinement and treated them with natural therapy, such as diet and massages. Arateus ( ca. AD 30 -- 90 ) argued that it is hard to pinpoint from where a mental illness comes. However, Galen ( AD 129 -- ca. 200 ), practicing in Greece and Rome, revived humoral theory. Galen, however, adopted a single symptom approach rather than broad diagnostic categories, for example studying separate states of sadness, excitement, confusion and memory loss. Playwrights such as Homer, Sophocles and Euripides described madmen driven insane by the gods, imbalanced humors or circumstances. As well as the triad ( of which mania was often used as an overarching term for insanity ) there were a variable and overlapping range of terms for such things as delusion, eccentricity, frenzy, and lunacy. Physician Celsus argued that insanity is really present when a continuous dementia begins due to the mind being at the mercy of imaginings. He suggested that people must heal their own souls through philosophy and personal strength. He described common practices of dietetics, bloodletting, drugs, talking therapy, incubation in temples, exorcism, incantations and amulets, as well as restraints and `` tortures '' to restore rationality, including starvation, being terrified suddenly, agitation of the spirit, and stoning and beating. Most, however, did not receive medical treatment but stayed with family or wandered the streets, vulnerable to assault and derision. Accounts of delusions from the time included people who thought themselves to be famous actors or speakers, animals, inanimate objects, or one of the gods. Some were arrested for political reasons, such as Jesus ben Ananias who was eventually released as a madman after showing no concern for his own fate during torture. Israel and the Hebrew diaspora Passages of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament have been interpreted as describing mood disorders in figures such as Job, King Saul and in the Psalms of David. In the Book of Daniel, King Nebuchadnezzar is described as temporarily losing his sanity. Mental disorder was not a problem like any other, caused by one of the gods, but rather caused by problems in the relationship between the individual and God. They believed that abnormal behavior was the result of possessions that represented the wrath and punishment from God. This punishment was seen as a withdrawal of God 's protection and the abandonment of the individual to evil forces. Middle Ages Persia, arabia and the Muslim Empire Persian and Arabic scholars were heavily involved in translating, analyzing and synthesizing Greek texts and concepts. As the Muslim world expanded, Greek concepts were integrated with religious thought and over time, new ideas and concepts were developed. Arab texts from this period contain discussions of melancholia, mania, hallucinations, delusions, and other mental disorders. Mental disorder was generally connected to loss of reason, and writings covered links between the brain and disorders, and spiritual / mystical meaning of disorders. wrote about fear and anxiety, anger and aggression, sadness and depression, and obsessions. Authors who wrote on mental disorders and / or proposed treatments during this period include Al - Balkhi, Al - Razi, Al - Farabi, Ibn - Sina, Al - Majusi Abu al - Qasim al - Zahrawi, Averroes, and Unhammad. Some thought mental disorder could be caused by possession by a djinn ( genie ), which could be either good or demon - like. There were sometimes beatings to exorcise the djin, or alternatively over-zealous attempts at cures. Islamic views often merged with local traditions. In Morocco the traditional Berber people were animists and the concept of sorcery was integral to the understanding of mental disorder ; it was mixed with the Islamic concepts of djin and often treated by religious scholars combining the roles of holy man, sage, seer and sorcerer. The first psychiatric hospital ward was founded in Baghdad in 705, and insane asylums were built in Fes in the early 8th century, Cairo in 800 and in Damascus and Aleppo in 1270. Insane patients were treated using baths, drugs, music and activities. In the centuries to come, The Muslim world would eventually serve as a critical way station of knowledge for Renaissance Europe, through the Latin translations of many scientific Islamic texts. Ibn - Sina 's ( Avicenna 's ) Canon of Medicine became the standard of medical science in Europe for centuries, together with works of Hippocrates and Galen. Christian Europe Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and transcendental. Theories of the four humors ( black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood ) were applied, sometimes separately ( a matter of `` physic '' ) and sometimes combined with theories of evil spirits ( a matter of `` faith '' ). Arnaldus de Villanova ( 1235 -- 1313 ) combined `` evil spirit '' and Galen - oriented `` four humours '' theories and promoted trephining as a cure to let demons and excess humours escape. Other bodily remedies in general use included purges, bloodletting and whipping. Madness was often seen as a moral issue, either a punishment for sin or a test of faith and character. Christian theology endorsed various therapies, including fasting and prayer for those estranged from God and exorcism of those possessed by the devil. Thus, although mental disorder was often thought to be due to sin, other more mundane causes were also explored, including intemperate diet and alcohol, overwork, and grief. The Franciscan monk Bartholomeus Anglicus ( ca. 1203 -- 1272 ) described a condition which resembles depression in his encyclopedia, De Proprietatibis Rerum, and he suggested that music would help. A semi-official tract called the Praerogativa regis distinguished between the `` natural born idiot '' and the `` lunatic ''. The latter term was applied to those with periods of mental disorder ; deriving from either Roman mythology describing people `` moonstruck '' by the goddess Luna or theories of an influence of the moon. Episodes of mass dancing mania are reported from the Middle Ages, `` which gave to the individuals affected all the appearance of insanity ''. This was one kind of mass delusion or mass hysteria / panic that has occurred around the world through the millennia. The care of lunatics was primarily the responsibility of the family. In England, if the family were unable or unwilling, an assessment was made by crown representatives in consultation with a local jury and all interested parties, including the subject himself or herself. The process was confined to those with real estate or personal estate, but it encompassed poor as well as rich and took into account psychological and social issues. Most of those considered lunatics at the time probably had more support and involvement from the community than people diagnosed with mental disorders today. As in other eras, visions were generally interpreted as meaningful spiritual and visionary insights ; some may have been causally related to mental disorders, but since hallucinations were culturally supported they may not have had the same connections as today. Modern period The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with Western culture and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page. ( December 2016 ) 16th to 18th centuries Some mentally disturbed people may have been victims of the witch - hunts that spread in waves in early modern Europe. However, those judged insane were increasingly admitted to local workhouses, poorhouses and jails ( particularly the `` pauper insane '' ) or sometimes to the new private madhouses. Restraints and forcible confinement were used for those thought dangerously disturbed or potentially violent to themselves, others or property. The latter likely grew out of lodging arrangements for single individuals ( who, in workhouses, were considered disruptive or ungovernable ) then there were a few catering each for only a handful of people, then they gradually expanded ( e.g. 16 in London in 1774, and 40 by 1819 ). By the mid-19th century there would be 100 to 500 inmates in each. The development of this network of madhouses has been linked to new capitalist social relations and a service economy, that meant families were no longer able or willing to look after disturbed relatives. Madness was commonly depicted in literary works, such as the plays of Shakespeare. By the end of the 17th century and into the Enlightenment, madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon, no longer involving the soul or moral responsibility. The mentally ill were typically viewed as insensitive wild animals. Harsh treatment and restraint in chains was seen as therapeutic, helping suppress the animal passions. There was sometimes a focus on the management of the environment of madhouses, from diet to exercise regimes to number of visitors. Severe somatic treatments were used, similar to those in medieval times. Madhouse owners sometimes boasted of their ability with the whip. Treatment in the few public asylums was also barbaric, often secondary to prisons. The most notorious was Bedlam where at one time spectators could pay a penny to watch the inmates as a form of entertainment. Concepts based in humoral theory gradually gave way to metaphors and terminology from mechanics and other developing physical sciences. Complex new schemes were developed for the classification of mental disorders, influenced by emerging systems for the biological classification of organisms and medical classification of diseases. The term `` crazy '' ( from Middle English meaning cracked ) and insane ( from Latin insanus meaning unhealthy ) came to mean mental disorder in this period. The term `` lunacy '', long used to refer to periodic disturbance or epilepsy, came to be synonymous with insanity. `` Madness '', long in use in root form since at least the early centuries AD, and originally meaning crippled, hurt or foolish, came to mean loss of reason or self - restraint. `` Psychosis '', from Greek `` principle of life / animation '', had varied usage referring to a condition of the mind / soul. `` Nervous '', from an Indo - European root meaning to wind or twist, meant muscle or vigor, was adopted by physiologists to refer to the body 's electrochemical signalling process ( thus called the nervous system ), and was then used to refer to nervous disorders and neurosis. `` Obsession '', from a Latin root meaning to sit on or sit against, originally meant to besiege or be possessed by an evil spirit, came to mean a fixed idea that could decompose the mind. With the rise of madhouses and the professionalization and specialization of medicine, there was considerable incentive for medical doctors to become involved. In the 18th century, they began to stake a claim to a monopoly over madhouses and treatments. Madhouses could be a lucrative business, and many made a fortune from them. There were some bourgeois ex-patient reformers who opposed the often brutual regimes, blaming both the madhouse owners and the medics, who in turn resisted the reforms. Towards the end of the 18th century, a moral treatment movement developed, that implemented more humane, psychosocial and personalized approaches. Notable figures included the medic Vincenzo Chiarugi in Italy under Enlightenment leadership ; the ex-patient superintendent Pussin and the psychologically inclined medic Philippe Pinel in revolutionary France ; the Quakers in England, led by businessman William Tuke ; and later, in the United States, campaigner Dorothea Dix. 19th century The 19th century, in the context of industrialization and population growth, saw a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country, a process called `` the great confinement '' or the `` asylum era ''. Laws were introduced to compel authorities to deal with those judged insane by family members and hospital superintendents. Although originally based on the concepts and structures of moral treatment, they became large impersonal institutions overburdened with large numbers of people with a complex mix of mental and social - economic problems. The success of moral treatment had cast doubt on the approach of medics, and many had opposed it, but by the mid-19th century many became advocates of it but argued that the mad also often had physical / organic problems, so that both approaches were necessary. This argument has been described as an important step in the profession 's eventual success in securing a monopoly on the treatment of lunacy. However, it is well documented that very little therapeutic activity occurred in the new asylum system, that medics were little more than administrators who seldom attended to patients, and then mainly for other physical problems. Clear descriptions of some syndromes, such as the condition that would later be termed schizophrenia, have been identified as relatively rare prior to the 19th century, although interpretations of the evidence and its implications are inconsistent. Numerous different classification schemes and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, taking an increasingly anatomical - clinical descriptive approach. The term `` psychiatry '' was coined as the medical specialty became more academically established. Asylum superintendents, later to be psychiatrists, were generally called `` alienists '' because they were thought to deal with people alienated from society ; they adopted largely isolated and managerial roles in the asylums while milder `` neurotic '' conditions were dealt with by neurologists and general physicians, although there was overlap for conditions such as neurasthenia. In the United States it was proposed that black slaves who tried to escape were suffering from a mental disorder termed drapetomania. It was then argued in scientific journals that mental disorders were rare under conditions of slavery but became more common following emancipation, and later that mental illness in African Americans was due to evolutionary factors or various negative characteristics, and that they were not suitable for therapeutic intervention. By the 1870s in North America, officials who ran Lunatic Asylums renamed them Insane Asylums. By the late century, the term `` asylum '' had lost its original meaning as a place of refuge, retreat or safety, and was associated with abuses that had been widely publicized in the media, including by ex-patient organization the Alleged Lunatics ' Friend Society and ex-patients like Elizabeth Packard. The relative proportion of the public officially diagnosed with mental disorders was increasing, however. This has been linked to various factors, including possibly humanitarian concern ; incentives for professional status / money ; a lowered tolerance of communities for unusual behavior due to the existence of asylums to place them in ( this affected the poor the most ) ; and the strain placed on families by industrialization. 20th century The turn of the 20th century saw the development of psychoanalysis, which came to the fore later. Kraepelin 's classification gained popularity, including the separation of mood disorders from what would later be termed schizophrenia. Asylum superintendents sought to improve the image and medical status of their profession. Asylum `` inmates '' were increasingly referred to as `` patients '' and asylums renamed as hospitals. Referring to people as having a `` mental illness '' dates from this period in the early 20th century. In the United States, a `` mental hygiene '' movement, originally defined in the 19th century, gained momentum and aimed to `` prevent the disease of insanity '' through public health methods and clinics. The term mental health became more popular, however. Clinical psychology and social work developed as professions alongside psychiatry. Theories of eugenics led to compulsory sterilization movements in many countries around the world for several decades, often encompassing patients in public mental institutions. World War I saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed `` shell shock ''. In Nazi Germany, the institutionalized mentally ill were among the earliest targets of sterilization campaigns and covert `` euthanasia '' programs. It has been estimated that over 200,000 individuals with mental disorders of all kinds were put to death, although their mass murder has received relatively little historical attention. Despite not being formally ordered to take part, psychiatrists and psychiatric institutions were at the center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atrocities at every stage, and `` constituted the connection '' to the later annihilation of Jews and other `` undesirables '' such as homosexuals in the Holocaust. In other areas of the world, funding was often cut for asylums, especially during periods of economic decline, and during wartime in particular many patients starved to death. Soldiers received increased psychiatric attention, and World War II saw the development in the US of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM ). The International Classification of Diseases ( ICD ) followed suit with a section on mental disorders. Previously restricted to the treatment of severely disturbed people in asylums, psychiatrists cultivated clients with a broader range of problems, and between 1917 and 1970 the number practicing outside institutions swelled from 8 percent to 66 percent. The term stress, having emerged from endocrinology work in the 1930s, was popularized with an increasingly broad biopsychosocial meaning, and was increasingly linked to mental disorders. `` Outpatient commitment '' laws were gradually expanded or introduced in some countries. Lobotomies, Insulin shock therapy, Electro convulsive therapy, and the `` neuroleptic '' chlorpromazine came into use mid-century. An antipsychiatry movement came to the fore in the 1960s. Deinstitutionalization gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services. However, inadequate services and continued social exclusion often led to many being homeless or in prison. A consumer / survivor movement gained momentum. Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as `` psychic energizers '' and lithium. Benzodiazepines gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity. Advances in neuroscience and genetics led to new research agendas. Cognitive behavioral therapy was developed. Through the 1990s, new SSRI antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world. The DSM and then ICD adopted new criteria - based classification, representing a return to a Kraepelin - like descriptive system. The number of `` official '' diagnoses saw a large expansion, although homosexuality was gradually downgraded and dropped in the face of human rights protests. Different regions sometimes developed alternatives such as the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders or Latin American Guide for Psychiatric Diagnosis. 21st century This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( December 2016 ) Starting from 2002 DSM - 5 Research Agenda researchers were invited to contribute with their publication to the literature basis for the DSM - 5, whose draft criteria are now available to the scientific community. In the meanwhile, serious limits of the current version of the DSM extremely high comorbidity, diagnostic heterogeneity of the categories, unclear boundaries have been interpreted as intrinsic anomalies of the criterial, neopositivistic approach leading the system to a state of scientific crisis. Accordingly, a radical rethinking of the concept of mental disorder and the need of a radical scientific revolution in psychiatric taxonomy was proposed. History of mental Health treatment Trephination This procedure included removing a part of the skull using an auger, bore or so. It was used 7000 years ago to remove headaches, mental illness and even perceived demonic possession. Bloodletting and purging This procedures saw its inception in the 1600s. Bleeding, purging and vomiting were thought to keep the balance of humors in the body. According to the Greek philosophy, the imbalance of these humors were considered to cause mental disorders. These techniques were used to treat more than just mental disorders. Isolation and asylums The confinement of the mentally ill became prevalent in the 17th century. The idea behind these asylums was to isolate the abnormal and keep them separate from the normal. The poor sanitation conditions, and overcrowding along with violent treatment of the mentally ill were serious problems faced in these asylums. Insulin coma therapy This treatment was introduced in 1927 and was used till 1960. Physicians deliberately put the patient into a low blood sugar coma because they thought that large fluctuations in insulin levels could alter the function of the brain. Risks included prolong coma. Electro Convulsive Therapy ( ECT ) was later adopted as a substitution to this. Lobotomy Prefrontal Lobotomies, required the surgical removal of the connections in between the prefrontal cortex and frontal lobes of the brain. The procedure took not more than five minutes to be performed. Though useful for some, it often created further impairments for others. It was discontinued in the mid-1950s. See also Care in the Community DSM - IV codes Eugenics History of psychiatric institutions Involuntary commitment Mad Pride Neurology Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union Psychiatric hospital Psychiatric hospital Psychiatric medication Psychiatric survivors movement Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Structured Clinical Interview for DSM - IV ( SCID ) Timeline of psychiatry Notes and references Jump up ^ Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach seventh edition. Patparganj, Delhi, India : Cengage Learning. 2015. pp. 6, 7. Jump up ^ Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach seventh edition. Patparganj, Delhi, India : Cengage Learning. 2015. p. 7. Jump up ^ Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach seventh edition. Patparganj, Delhi, India : Cengage Learning. 2015. p. 10. Jump up ^ Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach seventh edition. Patparganj, Delhi, India : Cengage Learning. 2015. p. 13. ^ Jump up to : Nemet - Nejat, Karen Rhea ( 1998 ). 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Jump up ^ Bartholomew, Robert ; Goode, Erich ( May 2000 ). `` Mass Delusions and Hysterias Highlights from the Past Millennium ''. Skeptical Inquirer. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008. Jump up ^ Roffe, David ; Roffe, Christine ( 23 December 1995 ). `` Madness and care in the community : a medieval perspective ''. BMJ. 311 ( 7021 ) : 1708 -- 1712. doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 311.7021. 1708. PMC 2539103. PMID 8541770. Jump up ^ Kroll, Jerome ; Bachrach, Bernard ( January 1982 ). `` Visions and psychopathology in the Middle Ages ''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 170 ( 1 ) : 41 -- 9. doi : 10.1097 / 00005053 - 198201000 - 00007. PMID 7033474. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). Jump up ^ Schoeneman, Thomas J. ( October 1977 ). `` The role of mental illness in the European witch hunts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries : an assessment ''. Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences. 13 ( 4 ) : 337 -- 51. doi : 10.1002 / 1520 - 6696 ( 197710 ) 13 : 4 < 337 : : AID - JHBS2300130406 > 3.0.CO ; 2 - G. PMID 336681. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). ^ Jump up to : Wright, David ( April 1997 ). `` Getting out of the asylum : understanding the confinement of the insane in the nineteenth century ''. Social History of Medicine. 10 ( 1 ) : 137 -- 55. doi : 10.1093 / shm / 10.1. 137. PMID 11619188. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). ^ Jump up to : Crossley, Nick ( 2006 ). `` Contextualizing contention : a potted history of the mental health field ''. Contesting Psychiatry : Social Movements in Mental Health. Critical studies in health and society. London : Routledge. pp. 47 -- 68. ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 35417 - 2. Jump up ^ Dalby, J. Thomas ( December 1997 ). `` Elizabethan madness : On London 's stage '' ( PDF ). Psychological Reports. 81 ( 3 Pt 2 ) : 1331 -- 1343. doi : 10.2466 / pr0. 1997.81. 3f. 1331. PMID 9461770. Jump up ^ Stompe, Thomas ; Ritter, Kristina ; Friedmann, Alexander ( August 2006 ). `` Die Gestaltungen des Wahnsinns bei William Shakespeare '' ( The representation of madness in William Shakespeare 's characters ). Wiener klinische Wochenschrift ( in German ). 118 ( 15 -- 16 ) : 488 -- 95. doi : 10.1007 / s00508 - 006 - 0641 - y. PMID 16957981. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). Jump up ^ `` Bedlam : Hospital, Beckenham, England, United Kingdom ''. Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 November 2003. Jump up ^ Walsh, James Joseph ( 1907 ). `` Bedlam ''. Catholic Encyclopedia. 2. New York : Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 3 June 2007. Jump up ^ Dalby, J. Thomas ( November 1993 ). `` Terms of Madness : Historical Linguistics ''. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 34 ( 6 ) : 392 -- 395. doi : 10.1016 / 0010 - 440X ( 93 ) 90063 - A. PMID 8131383. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). Jump up ^ Torrey, E. Fuller ( 1988 ). Surviving Schizophrenia : a manual for families, consumers and providers ( 3rd ed. ). London : HarperPerennial. pp. 339 -- 342. ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 095076 - 7. OCLC 681395244. Torrey comments that very early mental illness descriptions do not seem to fit schizophrenia, there is a ' sporadic presence ' from the 17th century, and then c. 1800 `` suddenly... it appeared. '' Jump up ^ Heinrichs, R. Walter ( Fall 2003 ). `` Historical origins of schizophrenia : two early madmen and their illness ''. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 39 ( 4 ) : 349 -- 63. doi : 10.1002 / jhbs. 10152. PMID 14601041. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). Jump up ^ `` Neurology and Psychiatry : Together and Separate ''. Tempus et Hora : Time and the Hour ( ANA 125th Anniversary ). American Neurological Association. Archived from the original on 26 September 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2008. Jump up ^ Harris, Herbert W. ; Felder, Diane ; Clark, Michelle O. ( September 2004 ). `` A Psychiatric Residency Curriculum on the Care of African American Patients ''. Academic Psychiatry. 28 ( 3 ) : 226 -- 239. doi : 10.1176 / appi. ap. 28.3. 226. PMID 15507559. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). Jump up ^ Berrios, German E. ; Porter, Roy, eds. ( 1995 ). The History of Clinical Psychiatry : The Origin and History of Psychiatric Disorders. London : Athlone Press. ISBN 978 - 0 - 485 - 24211 - 9. OCLC 32823926. Jump up ^ Mandell, Wallace ( 2007 ). `` Origins of Mental Health : The Realization of an Idea ''. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health : Department of Mental Health. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008. Jump up ^ Kavles, Daniel J. ( 14 August 1999 ). `` Eugenics and human rights ''. BMJ. 319 ( 7207 ) : 435 -- 438. doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 319.7207. 435. PMC 1127045. PMID 10445929. Jump up ^ Livingston, Kathy ( 16 August 2003 ). Deciding Who Dies : Evaluating the Social Worth of People With Mental Illness during the Holocaust. Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association. Atlanta Hilton Hotel, Atlanta, GA : American Sociological Association. Jump up ^ Strous, Rael D. ( 27 February 2007 ). `` Psychiatry during the Nazi era : ethical lessons for the modern professional ''. Annals of General Psychiatry. 6 : 8. doi : 10.1186 / 1744 - 859X - 6 - 8. PMC 1828151. PMID 17326822. Jump up ^ Fakhoury, Walid ; Priebe, Stefan ( August 2007 ). `` Deinstitutionalization and reinstitutionalization : major changes in the provision of mental healthcare ''. Psychiatry. 6 ( 8 ) : 313 -- 316. doi : 10.1016 / j. mppsy. 2007.05. 008. ( Subscription required ( help ) ). Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Susan ( 19 May 2008 ). `` Mental Illness or Social Sickness ? ''. Dissident Voice. Retrieved 3 December 2010. Jump up ^ Viner, Russell ( June 1999 ). `` Putting Stress in Life : Hans Selye and the Making of Stress Theory ''. Social Studies of Science. 29 ( 3 ) : 391 -- 410. doi : 10.1177 / 030631299029003003. JSTOR 285410. Jump up ^ Torrey, E. Fuller ; Stieber, Joan ; Ezekiel, Jonathan ; Wolfe, Sidney M. ; Sharfstein, Joshua ; Noble, John H. ; Flynn, Laurie M. ( 1992 ). Criminalizing the Seriously Mentally Ill : The Abuse of Jails as Mental Hospitals ( Report ). National Alliance for the Mentally Ill & Public Citizen Health Research Group. ISBN 0 - 7881 - 4279 - 8. OCLC 604003248. Jump up ^ `` DSM - 5 ''. American Psychiatric Association. Jump up ^ Aragona, Massimiliano ( March 2009 ). `` The role of comorbidity in the crisis of the current psychiatric classification system '' ( PDF ). Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology. 16 : 1 -- 11. doi : 10.1353 / ppp. 0.0211. Jump up ^ Aragona, Massimiliano ( June 2009 ). `` The concept of mental disorder and the DSM - V '' ( PDF ). Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences. 2 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 14. Jump up ^ url = https://online.csp.edu/blog/psychology/history-of-mental-illness-treatment journal = Hussung, Tricia `` A History of Mental Illness Treatment : Obsolete Practices '' Further reading Millon, Theodore ( 2004 ). Masters of the Mind : Exploring the Story of Mental Illness from Ancient Times to the New Millennium. Hoboken, NJ : Wiley. ISBN 978 - 0 - 471 - 46985 - 8. OCLC 54460256 -- via Google Books. Kent, Deborah ( 2003 ). Snake Pits, Talking Cures & Magic Bullets : A History of Mental Illness. Brookfield, CT : Twenty - First Century Books. ISBN 978 - 0 - 7613 - 2704 - 2. OCLC 50253057 -- via Google Books. Scull, Andrew ( 1989 ). Social Order / Mental Disorder : Anglo - American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective. Medicine and society. 3. Berkeley : University of California Press. ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 06406 - 5. OCLC 17982761 -- via California Digital Library. Foucault, Michel ( 1961 ). Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique ( Madness and Civilization ). Collection Tel ( in French ). 9. Gallimard. ISBN 978 - 2 - 07 - 029582 - 1. OCLC 45404661. Quétel, Claude ( 2009 ). Histoire de la folie : De l'Antiquité à nos jours ( in French ). Paris : Editions Tallandier, Texto. ISBN 978 - 2 - 84734 - 927 - 6. OCLC 818987861. Hurd, Henry M. ; Drewry, William F. ; Dewey, Richard ; Pilgrim, Charles W. ; Blumer, G. Adler ; Burgess, T.J.W. ( 1916 ). Hurd, Henry Mills, ed. The Institutional Care of the Insane in the United States and Canada. 1. Baltimore, MD : Johns Hopkins Press -- via Google Books. Anti-psychiatry Topics Biopsychiatry controversy Controversy surrounding psychiatry Critical psychiatry Hearing Voices Movement History of mental disorders Involuntary commitment Involuntary treatment Martha Mitchell effect Medical ethics Medicalization medical model Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement Political abuse of psychiatry Psychiatric survivors movement Psychiatry : An Industry of Death Psychoanalytic theory Recovery approach Rhetoric of therapy Rosenhan experiment Self - help groups for mental health Therapeutic community Organizations American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization Aspies For Freedom Autism Network International Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law Citizens Commission on Human Rights Disability Rights International Hearing Voices Network Icarus Project International Disability Alliance Learning Disability Coalition Mad Pride MindFreedom International National Empowerment Center Radical Psychology Network Rehabilitation International Royal Association for Disability Rights Paranoia Network Soteria World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry People Linda Andre Giorgio Antonucci Franco Basaglia Ernest Becker Lauretta Bender Richard Bentall Peter Breggin Paula Caplan Ted Chabasinski Judi Chamberlin David Cooper Lyn Duff Michel Foucault Leonard Roy Frank Erving Goffman James Gottstein Jacques Lacan R.D. Laing Peter Lehmann Kate Millett Loren Mosher David Oaks Elizabeth Packard Sascha Scatter David Smail Thomas Szasz Stephen Ticktin Robert Whitaker Publications Against Therapy Anatomy of an Epidemic Anti-Oedipus Asylums Crazy Therapies Doctoring the Mind Interpretation of Schizophrenia Liberation by Oppression Mad in America Madness and Civilization Radical Psychology The Gene Illusion The Myth of Mental Illness The Politics of Experience and The Bird of Paradise The Protest Psychosis The Radical Therapist We 've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy -- And the World 's Getting Worse Psychiatry portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_mental_disorders&oldid=826741550 '' Categories : Mental and behavioural disorders History of psychiatry Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. 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Question: when was the term mental illness first used
Answer: the early 20th century