Barbara McClintock - wikipedia Barbara McClintock This article is about the American scientist. For the American illustrator, see Barbara McClintock ( illustrator ). Barbara McClintock Barbara McClintock shown in her laboratory. Eleanor McClintock ( 1902 - 06 - 16 ) June 16, 1902 Hartford, Connecticut, U.S. September 2, 1992 ( 1992 - 09 - 02 ) ( aged 90 ) Huntington, New York, U.S. Nationality American Alma mater Cornell University ( BS ) ( MS ) ( PhD ) Known for Work in genetic structure of maize Awards National Medal of Science ( 1970 ) Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal ( 1981 ) Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize ( 1982 ) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ( 1983 ) Scientific career Fields Cytogenetics Institutions University of Missouri Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Thesis A Cytological and Genetical Study of Triploid Maize ( 1927 ) Signature Barbara McClintock ( June 16, 1902 -- September 2, 1992 ) was an American scientist and cytogeneticist who was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. McClintock received her PhD in botany from Cornell University in 1927. There she started her career as the leader in the development of maize cytogenetics, the focus of her research for the rest of her life. From the late 1920s, McClintock studied chromosomes and how they change during reproduction in maize. She developed the technique for visualizing maize chromosomes and used microscopic analysis to demonstrate many fundamental genetic ideas. One of those ideas was the notion of genetic recombination by crossing - over during meiosis -- a mechanism by which chromosomes exchange information. She produced the first genetic map for maize, linking regions of the chromosome to physical traits. She demonstrated the role of the telomere and centromere, regions of the chromosome that are important in the conservation of genetic information. She was recognized among the best in the field, awarded prestigious fellowships, and elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1944. During the 1940s and 1950s, McClintock discovered transposition and used it to demonstrate that genes are responsible for turning physical characteristics on and off. She developed theories to explain the suppression and expression of genetic information from one generation of maize plants to the next. Due to skepticism of her research and its implications, she stopped publishing her data in 1953. Later, she made an extensive study of the cytogenetics and ethnobotany of maize races from South America. McClintock 's research became well understood in the 1960s and 1970s, as other scientists confirmed the mechanisms of genetic change and genetic regulation that she had demonstrated in her maize research in the 1940s and 1950s. Awards and recognition for her contributions to the field followed, including the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, awarded to her in 1983 for the discovery of genetic transposition ; she is the only woman to receive an unshared Nobel Prize in that category. Contents 1 Early life 2 Education and research at Cornell 3 University of Missouri 4 Cold Spring Harbor 4.1 Discovery of controlling elements 4.2 The origins of maize 4.3 Rediscovery 5 Honors and recognition 6 Later years 7 Legacy 8 Key publications 9 See also 10 Citations 11 References 11.1 Archives and research collections 12 External links Early life McClintock children, from left to right : Mignon, Malcolm Rider `` Tom '', Barbara and Marjorie McClintock family, from left to right : Mignon, Tom, Barbara, Marjorie and Sara ( at the piano ) Barbara McClintock was born Eleanor McClintock on June 16, 1902 in Hartford, Connecticut, the third of four children born to physician Thomas Henry McClintock and Sara Handy McClintock. Thomas McClintock was the child of British immigrants, and Sara Ryder Handy, descended from an old American Mayflower family. Marjorie, the oldest child, was born in October 1898 ; Mignon, the second daughter, was born in November 1900. The youngest, Malcolm Rider ( called Tom ), was born 18 months after Barbara. As a young girl, her parents determined that Eleanor, a `` feminine '' and `` delicate '' name, was not appropriate for her, and chose Barbara instead. McClintock was an independent child beginning at a very young age, a trait she later identified as her `` capacity to be alone ''. From the age of three until she began school, McClintock lived with an aunt and uncle in Brooklyn, New York in order to reduce the financial burden on her parents while her father established his medical practice. She was described as a solitary and independent child. She was close to her father, but had a difficult relationship with her mother, tension that began when she was young. The McClintock family moved to Brooklyn in 1908 and McClintock completed her secondary education there at Erasmus Hall High School ; she graduated early in 1919. She discovered her love of science and reaffirmed her solitary personality during high school. She wanted to continue her studies at Cornell University 's College of Agriculture. Her mother resisted sending McClintock to college, for fear that she would be unmarriageable. McClintock was almost prevented from starting college, but her father intervened just before registration began, and she matriculated at Cornell in 1919. Education and research at Cornell Barbara McClintock ( As Told By Jo Handelsman ) Problems playing this file ? See media help. McClintock began her studies at Cornell 's College of Agriculture in 1919. There, she participated in student government and was invited to join a sorority, though she soon realized that she preferred not to join formal organizations. Instead, McClintock took up music, specifically jazz. She studied botany, receiving a BSc in 1923. Her interest in genetics began when she took her first course in that field in 1921. The course was based on a similar one offered at Harvard University, and was taught by C.B. Hutchison, a plant breeder and geneticist. Hutchison was impressed by McClintock 's interest, and telephoned to invite her to participate in the graduate genetics course at Cornell in 1922. McClintock pointed to Hutchison 's invitation as the reason she continued in genetics : `` Obviously, this telephone call cast the die for my future. I remained with genetics thereafter. '' Although it has been reported that women could not major in genetics at Cornell, and therefore her MS and PhD -- earned in 1925 and 1927, respectively -- were officially awarded in botany, recent research has revealed that women did earn graduate degrees in Cornell 's Plant Breeding Department during the time that McClintock was a student at Cornell. During her graduate studies and postgraduate appointment as a botany instructor, McClintock was instrumental in assembling a group that studied the new field of cytogenetics in maize. This group brought together plant breeders and cytologists, and included Marcus Rhoades, future Nobel laureate George Beadle, and Harriet Creighton. Rollins A. Emerson, head of the Plant Breeding Department, supported these efforts, although he was not a cytologist himself. She also worked as a research assistant for Lowell Fitz Randolph and then for Lester W. Sharp, both Cornell Botanists. McClintock 's cytogenetic research focused on developing ways to visualize and characterize maize chromosomes. This particular part of her work influenced a generation of students, as it was included in most textbooks. She also developed a technique using carmine staining to visualize maize chromosomes, and showed for the first time the morphology of the 10 maize chromosomes. This discovery was made because she observed cells from the microspore as opposed to the root tip. By studying the morphology of the chromosomes, McClintock was able to link specific chromosome groups of traits that were inherited together. Marcus Rhoades noted that McClintock 's 1929 Genetics paper on the characterization of triploid maize chromosomes triggered scientific interest in maize cytogenetics, and attributed to her 10 of the 17 significant advances in the field that were made by Cornell scientists between 1929 and 1935. In 1930, McClintock was the first person to describe the cross-shaped interaction of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The following year, McClintock and Creighton proved the link between chromosomal crossover during meiosis and the recombination of genetic traits. They observed how the recombination of chromosomes seen under a microscope correlated with new traits. Until this point, it had only been hypothesized that genetic recombination could occur during meiosis, although it had not been shown genetically. McClintock published the first genetic map for maize in 1931, showing the order of three genes on maize chromosome 9. This information provided necessary data for the crossing - over study she published with Creighton ; they also showed that crossing - over occurs in sister chromatids as well as homologous chromosomes. In 1938, she produced a cytogenetic analysis of the centromere, describing the organization and function of the centromere, as well as the fact that it can divide. McClintock 's breakthrough publications, and support from her colleagues, led to her being awarded several postdoctoral fellowships from the National Research Council. This funding allowed her to continue to study genetics at Cornell, the University of Missouri, and the California Institute of Technology, where she worked with E.G. Anderson. During the summers of 1931 and 1932, she worked at Missouri with geneticist Lewis Stadler, who introduced her to the use of X-rays as a mutagen. Exposure to X-rays can increase the rate of mutation above the natural background level, making it a powerful research tool for genetics. Through her work with X-ray - mutagenized maize, she identified ring chromosomes, which form when the ends of a single chromosome fuse together after radiation damage. From this evidence, McClintock hypothesized that there must be a structure on the chromosome tip that would normally ensure stability. She showed that the loss of ring - chromosomes at meiosis caused variegation in maize foliage in generations subsequent to irradiation resulting from chromosomal deletion. During this period, she demonstrated the presence of the nucleolus organizer region on a region on maize chromosome 6, which is required for the assembly of the nucleolus. In 1933, she established that cells can be damaged when nonhomologous recombination occurs. During this same period, McClintock hypothesized that the tips of chromosomes are protected by telomeres. McClintock received a fellowship from the Guggenheim Foundation that made possible six months of training in Germany during 1933 and 1934. She had planned to work with Curt Stern, who had demonstrated crossing - over in Drosophila just weeks after McClintock and Creighton had done so ; however, Stern emigrated to the United States. Instead, she worked with geneticist Richard B. Goldschmidt, who was the head of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. She left Germany early amidst mounting political tension in Europe, and returned to Cornell, remaining there until 1936, when she accepted an Assistant Professorship offered to her by Lewis Stadler in the Department of Botany at the University of Missouri - Columbia. While still at Cornell, she was supported by a two - year Rockefeller Foundation grant obtained for her through Emerson 's efforts. University of Missouri During her time at Missouri, McClintock expanded her research on the effect of X-rays on maize cytogenetics. McClintock observed the breakage and fusion of chromosomes in irradiated maize cells. She was also able to show that, in some plants, spontaneous chromosome breakage occurred in the cells of the endosperm. Over the course of mitosis, she observed that the ends of broken chromatids were rejoined after the chromosome replication. In the anaphase of mitosis, the broken chromosomes formed a chromatid bridge, which was broken when the chromatids moved towards the cell poles. The broken ends were rejoined in the interphase of the next mitosis, and the cycle was repeated, causing massive mutation, which she could detect as variegation in the endosperm. This breakage -- rejoining -- bridge cycle was a key cytogenetic discovery for several reasons. First, it showed that the rejoining of chromosomes was not a random event, and second, it demonstrated a source of large - scale mutation. For this reason, it remains an area of interest in cancer research today. Although her research was progressing at Missouri, McClintock was not satisfied with her position at the University. She recalled being excluded from faculty meetings, and was not made aware of positions available at other institutions. In 1940, she wrote to Charles Burnham, `` I have decided that I must look for another job. As far as I can make out, there is nothing more for me here. I am an assistant professor at $3,000 and I feel sure that that is the limit for me. '' Initially, McClintock 's position was created especially for her by Stadler, and might have depended on his presence at the university. McClintock believed she would not gain tenure at Missouri, even though according to some accounts, she knew she would be offered a promotion from Missouri in the spring of 1942. Recent evidence reveals that McClintock more likely decided to leave Missouri because she had lost trust in her employer and in the University administration, after discovering that her job would be in jeopardy if Stadler were to leave for Caltech, as he had considered doing. The university 's retaliation against Stadler amplified her sentiments. In early 1941, she took a leave of absence from Missouri in hopes of finding a position elsewhere. She accepted a visiting Professorship at Columbia University, where her former Cornell colleague Marcus Rhoades was a professor. Rhoades also offered to share his research field at Cold Spring Harbor on Long Island. In December 1941, she was offered a research position by Milislav Demerec, the newly appointed acting director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington 's Department of Genetics Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory ; McClintock accepted his invitation despite her qualms and became a permanent member of the faculty. Cold Spring Harbor After her year - long temporary appointment, McClintock accepted a full - time research position at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. There, she was highly productive and continued her work with the breakage - fusion - bridge cycle, using it to substitute for X-rays as a tool for mapping new genes. In 1944, in recognition of her prominence in the field of genetics during this period, McClintock was elected to the National Academy of Sciences -- only the third woman to be elected. That same year, she became the first female president of the Genetics Society of America ; she was elected its vice-president in 1939. In 1944 she undertook a cytogenetic analysis of Neurospora crassa at the suggestion of George Beadle, who used the fungus to demonstrate the one gene -- one enzyme relationship. He invited her to Stanford to undertake the study. She successfully described the number of chromosomes, or karyotype, of N. crassa and described the entire life cycle of the species. Beadle said `` Barbara, in two months at Stanford, did more to clean up the cytology of Neurospora than all other cytological geneticists had done in all previous time on all forms of mold. '' N. crassa has since become a model species for classical genetic analysis. Discovery of controlling elements The relationship of Ac / Ds in the control of the elements and mosaic color of maize. The seed in 10 is colorless, there is no Ac element present and Ds inhibits the synthesis of colored pigments called anthocyanins. In 11 to 13, one copy of Ac is present. Ds can move and some anthocyanin is produced, creating a mosaic pattern. In the kernel in panel 14 there are two Ac elements and in 15 there are three. In the summer of 1944 at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, McClintock began systematic studies on the mechanisms of the mosaic color patterns of maize seed and the unstable inheritance of this mosaicism. She identified two new dominant and interacting genetic loci that she named Dissociator ( Ds ) and Activator ( Ac ). She found that the Dissociator did not just dissociate or cause the chromosome to break, it also had a variety of effects on neighboring genes when the Activator was also present, which included making certain stable mutations unstable. In early 1948, she made the surprising discovery that both Dissociator and Activator could transpose, or change position, on the chromosome. She observed the effects of the transposition of Ac and Ds by the changing patterns of coloration in maize kernels over generations of controlled crosses, and described the relationship between the two loci through intricate microscopic analysis. She concluded that Ac controls the transposition of the Ds from chromosome 9, and that the movement of Ds is accompanied by the breakage of the chromosome. When Ds moves, the aleurone - color gene is released from the suppressing effect of the Ds and transformed into the active form, which initiates the pigment synthesis in cells. The transposition of Ds in different cells is random, it may move in some but not others, which causes color mosaicism. The size of the colored spot on the seed is determined by stage of the seed development during dissociation. McClintock also found that the transposition of Ds is determined by the number of Ac copies in the cell. Between 1948 and 1950, she developed a theory by which these mobile elements regulated the genes by inhibiting or modulating their action. She referred to Dissociator and Activator as `` controlling units '' -- later, as `` controlling elements '' -- to distinguish them from genes. She hypothesized that gene regulation could explain how complex multicellular organisms made of cells with identical genomes have cells of different function. McClintock 's discovery challenged the concept of the genome as a static set of instructions passed between generations. In 1950, she reported her work on Ac / Ds and her ideas about gene regulation in a paper entitled `` The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize '' published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. In summer 1951, she reported her work on the origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize at the annual symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, presenting a paper of the same name. The paper delved into the instability caused by Dc and As or just As in four genes, along with the tendency of those genes to unpredictably revert to the wild phenotype. She also identified `` families '' of transposons, which did not interact with one another. Her work on controlling elements and gene regulation was conceptually difficult and was not immediately understood or accepted by her contemporaries ; she described the reception of her research as `` puzzlement, even hostility ''. Nevertheless, McClintock continued to develop her ideas on controlling elements. She published a paper in Genetics in 1953, where she presented all her statistical data, and undertook lecture tours to universities throughout the 1950s to speak about her work. She continued to investigate the problem and identified a new element that she called Suppressor - mutator ( Spm ), which, although similar to Ac / Ds, acts in a more complex manner. Like Ac / Ds, some versions could transpose on their own and some could not ; unlike Ac / Ds, when present, it fully suppressed the expression of mutant genes when they normally would not be entirely suppressed. Based on the reactions of other scientists to her work, McClintock felt she risked alienating the scientific mainstream, and from 1953 stopped publishing accounts of her research on controlling elements. The Origins of maize McClintock 's microscope and ears of corn on exhibition at the National Museum of Natural History In 1957, McClintock received funding from the National Academy of Sciences to start research on indigenous strains of maize in Central America and South America. She was interested in studying the evolution of maize through chromosomal changes, and being in South America would allow her to work on a larger scale. McClintock explored the chromosomal, morphological, and evolutionary characteristics of various races of maize. After extensive work in the 1960s and 1970s, McClintock and her collaborators published the seminal study The Chromosomal Constitution of Races of Maize, leaving their mark on paleobotany, ethnobotany, and evolutionary biology. Rediscovery McClintock officially retired from her position at the Carnegie Institution in 1967, and was made a Distinguished Service Member of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. This honor allowed her to continue working with graduate students and colleagues in the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory as scientist emerita ; she lived in the town. In reference to her decision 20 years earlier to stop publishing detailed accounts of her work on controlling elements, she wrote in 1973 : Over the years I have found that it is difficult if not impossible to bring to consciousness of another person the nature of his tacit assumptions when, by some special experiences, I have been made aware of them. This became painfully evident to me in my attempts during the 1950s to convince geneticists that the action of genes had to be and was controlled. It is now equally painful to recognize the fixity of assumptions that many persons hold on the nature of controlling elements in maize and the manners of their operation. One must await the right time for conceptual change. The importance of McClintock 's contributions was revealed in the 1960s, when the work of French geneticists Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod described the genetic regulation of the lac operon, a concept she had demonstrated with Ac / Ds in 1951. Following Jacob and Monod 's 1961 Journal of Molecular Biology paper `` Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins '', McClintock wrote an article for American Naturalist comparing the lac operon and her work on controlling elements in maize. McClintock 's contribution to biology is still not widely acknowledged as amounting to the discovery of genetic regulation. McClintock was widely credited with discovering transposition after other researchers finally discovered the process in bacteria, yeast, and bacteriophages in the late 1960s and early 1970s. During this period, molecular biology had developed significant new technology, and scientists were able to show the molecular basis for transposition. In the 1970s, Ac and Ds were cloned by other scientists and were shown to be Class II transposons. Ac is a complete transposon that can produce a functional transposase, which is required for the element to move within the genome. Ds has a mutation in its transposase gene, which means that it can not move without another source of transposase. Thus, as McClintock observed, Ds can not move in the absence of Ac. Spm has also been characterized as a transposon. Subsequent research has shown that transposons typically do not move unless the cell is placed under stress, such as by irradiation or the breakage - fusion - bridge cycle, and thus their activation during stress can serve as a source of genetic variation for evolution. McClintock understood the role of transposons in evolution and genome change well before other researchers grasped the concept. Nowadays, Ac / Ds is used as a tool in plant biology to generate mutant plants used for the characterization of gene function. Honors and recognition In 1947, McClintock received the Achievement Award from the American Association of University Women. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959. In 1967, McClintock was awarded the Kimber Genetics Award ; three years later, she was given the National Medal of Science by Richard Nixon in 1970. She was the first woman to be awarded the National Medal of Science. Cold Spring Harbor named a building in her honor in 1973. She received the Louis and Bert Freedman Foundation Award and the Lewis S. Rosensteil Award in 1978. In 1981, she became the first recipient of the MacArthur Foundation Grant, and was awarded the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research, the Wolf Prize in Medicine and the Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal by the Genetics Society of America. In 1982, she was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University for her research in the `` evolution of genetic information and the control of its expression. '' Most notably, she received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1983, the first woman to win that prize unshared, credited by the Nobel Foundation for discovering `` mobile genetic elements '' ; it was more than 30 years after she initially described the phenomenon of controlling elements. She was compared to Gregor Mendel in terms of her scientific career by the Swedish Academy of Sciences when she was awarded the Prize. McClintock giving her Nobel Lecture She was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society ( ForMemRS ) in 1989. McClintock received the Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society in 1993. She was awarded 14 Honorary Doctor of Science degrees and an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters. In 1986 she was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame. During her final years, McClintock led a more public life, especially after Evelyn Fox Keller 's 1983 biography of her, A Feeling for the Organism, brought McClintock 's story to the public. She remained a regular presence in the Cold Spring Harbor community, and gave talks on mobile genetic elements and the history of genetics research for the benefit of junior scientists. An anthology of her 43 publications The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements : The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock was published in 1987. Later years McClintock spent her later years, post Nobel Prize, as a key leader and researcher in the field at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, New York. McClintock died of natural causes in Huntington, New York, on September 2, 1992 at the age of 90 ; she never married or had children. Legacy Since her death, McClintock has been the subject of a biography by the science historian Nathaniel C. Comfort 's The Tangled Field : Barbara McClintock 's Search for the Patterns of Genetic Control. Comfort 's biography contests some claims about McClintock, described as the `` McClintock Myth '', which he claims was perpetuated by the earlier biography by Keller. Keller 's thesis was that McClintock was long ignored or met with derision because she was a woman working in the sciences. For example, when McClintock presented her findings that the genetics of maize did not conform to Mendelian distributions, geneticist Sewall Wright expressed the belief that she did not understand the underlying mathematics of her work, a belief he had expressed towards other women at the time. In addition, geneticist Lotte Auerbach recounted that Joshua Lederberg returned from a visit to McClintock 's lab with the remark : ' By God, that woman is either crazy or a genius. ' `` As Auerbach tells it, McClintock had thrown Lederberg and his colleagues out after half an hour ' because of their arrogance. She was intolerant of arrogance... She felt she had crossed a desert alone and no one had followed her. ' '' Comfort, however, asserts that McClintock was well regarded by her professional peers, even in the early years of her career. Although Comfort argues that McClintock was not a victim of gender discrimination, she has been widely written about in the context of women 's studies. Most recent biographical works on women in science feature accounts of her experience. She is held up as a role model for girls in such works of children 's literature as Edith Hope Fine 's Barbara McClintock, Nobel Prize Geneticist, Deborah Heiligman 's Barbara McClintock : Alone in Her Field and Mary Kittredge 's Barbara McClintock. A recent biography for young adults by Naomi Pasachoff, Barbara McClintock, Genius of Genetics, provides a new perspective, based on the current literature. On 4 May 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the `` American Scientists '' commemorative postage stamp series, a set of four 37 - cent self - adhesive stamps in several configurations. The scientists depicted were Barbara McClintock, John von Neumann, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Richard Feynman. McClintock was also featured in a 1989 four - stamp issue from Sweden which illustrated the work of eight Nobel Prize - winning geneticists. A small building at Cornell University and a laboratory building at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory were named for her. A street has been named after her in the new `` Adlershof Development Society '' science park in Berlin. Some of McClintock 's personality and scientific achievements were referred to in Jeffrey Eugenides 's 2011 novel The Marriage Plot, which tells the story of a yeast geneticist named Leonard who suffers from bipolar disorder. He works at a laboratory loosely based on Cold Spring Harbor. The character reminiscent of McClintock is a reclusive geneticist at the fictional laboratory, who makes the same discoveries as her factual counterpart. Judith Pratt wrote a play about McClintock, called MAIZE, which was read at Artemesia Theatre in Chicago in 2015, and will be produced in Ithaca NY -- the home of Cornell University -- in February - March 2018. Key publications McClintock, B. ( 1929 ). `` A Cytological and Genetical Study of Triploid Maize ''. Genetics. 14 ( 2 ) : 180 -- 222. PMC 1201029. PMID 17246573. Creighton, H.B. ; McClintock, B. ( 1931 ). `` A Correlation of Cytological and Genetical Crossing - Over in Zea Mays ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 17 ( 8 ) : 492 -- 497. Bibcode : 1931PNAS... 17... 492C. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 17.8. 492. PMC 1076098. PMID 16587654. McClintock, B. ( 1931 ). `` The Order of the Genes C, Sh and Wx in Zea Mays with Reference to a Cytologically Known Point in the Chromosome ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 17 ( 8 ) : 485 -- 491. Bibcode : 1931PNAS... 17... 485M. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 17.8. 485. PMC 1076097. PMID 16587653. McClintock, B. ( 1941 ). `` The Stability of Broken Ends of Chromosomes in Zea Mays ''. Genetics. 26 ( 2 ) : 234 -- 282. PMC 1209127. PMID 17247004. McClintock, B. ( 1945 ). `` Neurospora. I. Preliminary Observations of the Chromosomes of Neurospora crassa ''. American Journal of Botany. 32 ( 10 ) : 671 -- 678. doi : 10.2307 / 2437624. JSTOR 2437624. McClintock, B. ( 1950 ). `` The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize ''. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 36 ( 6 ) : 344 -- 355. Bibcode : 1950PNAS... 36... 344M. doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 36.6. 344. PMC 1063197. PMID 15430309. McClintock, B. ( 1953 ). `` Induction of Instability at Selected Loci in Maize ''. Genetics. 38 ( 6 ) : 579 -- 599. PMC 1209627. PMID 17247459. McClintock, B. ( 1961 ). `` Some Parallels Between Gene Control Systems in Maize and in Bacteria ''. The American Naturalist. 95 ( 884 ) : 265 -- 277. doi : 10.1086 / 282188. McClintock, B., Kato Yamakake, T.A. & Blumenschein, A. ( 1981 ). Chromosome constitution of races of maize. Its significance in the interpretation of relationships between races and varieties in the Americas. Chapingo, Mexico : Escuela de Nacional de Agricultura, Colegio de Postgraduados. See also List of female Nobel laureates Citations Jump up ^ Nobel Prize. ^ Jump up to : Lamberts 2000. ^ Jump up to : Comfort 2001, pp. 19 -- 22. ^ Jump up to : Keller 1983. Jump up ^ Boyer 2001. ^ Jump up to : Comfort 2001, pp. 23 -- 27. Jump up ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 215. Jump up ^ Kass & Provine 1997, p. 123. Jump up ^ Kass 2000, p. 64. Jump up ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 216. Jump up ^ McClintock 1983. ^ Jump up to : Kass 2003, pp. 1251 -- 1260. Jump up ^ Kass 2005, pp. 118 -- 125. Jump up ^ Kass 2007. ^ Jump up to : The Barbara McClintock Papers -- Cornell. ^ Jump up to : Kass & Bonneuil 2004, pp. 91 -- 118. Jump up ^ Kass, Bonneuil & Coe Jr. 2005. Jump up ^ Colonna, Federica Turriziani. `` Barbara McClintock ( 1902 -- 1992 ) ''. embryo.asu.edu. Retrieved 27 November 2014. Jump up ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 217. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 212. Jump up ^ Rhoades. ^ Jump up to : Coe & Kass 2005, pp. 6641 -- 6656. Jump up ^ Creighton & McClintock 1931, pp. 492 -- 497. Jump up ^ McClintock 1931, pp. 485 -- 491. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 218. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 219. Jump up ^ McClintock 1934, p. 294 -- 328. Jump up ^ Green 1959, p. 1243. ^ Jump up to : CSHL Biography. ^ Jump up to : Kass 2005, p. 52 -- 71. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 220. ^ Jump up to : The Barbara McClintock Papers -- Missouri. Jump up ^ McClintock 1941, pp. 234 -- 282. Jump up ^ Selvarajah et al. 2006. Jump up ^ McClintock 1940. Jump up ^ Comfort 2002, p. 440. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 221. Jump up ^ Keller 1983, p. 114. Jump up ^ McClintock 1945, pp. 671 -- 678. Jump up ^ Klug et al. 2012, pp. 128 -- 130. Jump up ^ Comfort 2001, pp. 84 -- 94. Jump up ^ The Barbara McClintock Papers -- Cold Spring Harbor. ^ Jump up to : Comfort 1999, pp. 133 -- 162. Jump up ^ Goodier & Kazazian 2008, pp. 23 -- 25. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 223. Jump up ^ National Academy of Sciences 2005. Jump up ^ Comfort 2001, pp. 102 -- 115. Jump up ^ Klug et al. 2012, p. 395. ^ Jump up to : Pray & Zhaurova 2008. Jump up ^ McClintock 1950, pp. 344 -- 355. Jump up ^ McClintock 1987. Jump up ^ McClintock 1953, pp. 579 -- 599. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 224. Jump up ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 226. Jump up ^ Comfort 2001, pp. 209 -- 217. Jump up ^ The Barbara McClintock Papers -- Origins of Maize. ^ Jump up to : Kolata 1992. Jump up ^ McClintock 1973. Jump up ^ McClintock 1961, pp. 265 -- 77. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 213. Jump up ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 227. Jump up ^ Pray 2008. Jump up ^ Jin et al. 2003. Jump up ^ `` Book of Members, 1780 -- 2010 : Chapter M '' ( PDF ). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 22, 2014. ^ Jump up to : Fedoroff 1995, p. 229. Jump up ^ National Medal of Science. Jump up ^ `` The President 's National Medal of Science : Recipient Detailswork = National Science Foundation ''. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. ^ Jump up to : Washington Post. Jump up ^ Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize. Jump up ^ Nobel Prize 1983. Jump up ^ Keirns 1999. Jump up ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 236. Jump up ^ Benjamin Franklin Medal. Jump up ^ Esther Lederberg. Jump up ^ Keller 1983, p. 142. Jump up ^ Esther Lederberg Colleagues. Jump up ^ Comfort 1999. Jump up ^ Pasachoff 2006. Jump up ^ Berlin. Jump up ^ Kolata 2012. References `` Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences Recipients '', Amphilsoc.org, American Philosophical Society, retrieved 27 November 2011 `` Berlin map excerpt '', Berliner-stadtplan.com, Pharos Plans, retrieved 18 March 2010 Kass, Lee B. ; Bonneuil, Christophe ( 2004 ), `` Mapping and seeing : Barbara McClintock and the linking of genetics and cytology in maize genetics, 1928 -- 1935 '', in Rheinberger, Hans - Jörg ; Gaudilliere, Jean - Paul, Classical Genetic Research and its Legacy : The Mapping Cultures of 20th Century Genetics, London : Routledge, pp. 91 -- 118 Kass, Lee B. ; Bonneuil, Christophe ; Coe Jr., Edward H. ( April 2005 ), `` Cornfests, cornfabs and cooperation : The origins and beginnings of the Maize Genetics Cooperation News Letter '', Genetics, 169 ( 4 ) : 1787 -- 1797, PMC 1449575, PMID 15879515 Boyer, David ( 11 March 2001 ), `` Neighborhood Report : Flatbush ; Grads Hail Erasmus as It Enters a Fourth Century '', The New York Times, retrieved 12 November 2012 Coe, Edward ; Kass, Lee B. ( 2005 ), `` Proof of physical exchange of genes on the chromosomes '', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102 ( 19 ) : 6641 -- 6656, Bibcode : 2005PNAS... 102.6641 C, doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0407340102, PMC 1100733, PMID 15867161 `` Barbara McClintock ( 1902 -- 1992 ) : Biography '', Digital Archives, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, retrieved 5 January 2013 Comfort, Nathaniel C. ( 2001 ), The Tangled Field, Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, ISBN 0 - 674 - 00456 - 6 Comfort, Nathaniel C. 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Burnham ( PDF ) McClintock, Barbara ( 1945 ), `` Neurospora : preliminary observations of the chromosomes of Neurospora crassa '', American Journal of Botany, 32 ( 10 ) : 671 -- 78, doi : 10.2307 / 2437624, JSTOR 2437624 McClintock, Barbara ( 1950 ), `` The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize '', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 36 ( 6 ) : 344 -- 55, Bibcode : 1950PNAS... 36... 344M, doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 36.6. 344, PMC 1063197, PMID 15430309 McClintock, Barbara ( 1987 ), Moore, John A., ed., The discovery and characterization of transposable elements : the collected papers of Barbara McClintock, New York : Garland Pub., ISBN 0 - 8240 - 1391 - 3 McClintock, Barbara ( 1953 ), `` Induction of instability at selected loci in maize '', Genetics, 38 ( 6 ) : 579 -- 99, PMC 1209627, PMID 17247459 McClintock, Barbara ( 1973 ), Letter from Barbara McClintock to Maize geneticist Oliver Nelson McClintock, Barbara ( 1961 ), `` Some parallels between gene control systems in maize and in bacteria '', American Naturalist, 95 ( 884 ) : 265 -- 77, doi : 10.1086 / 282188 `` Barbara McClintock '', Members, National Academy of Sciences, 2005, archived from the original on 2012 - 11 - 28 `` 1970 National Medal of Science '', The Laureates, National Science and Technology Medals Foundation, 2009, archived from the original on 11 September 2012, retrieved 28 December 2012 `` Facts on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine '', Nobelprize.org, Nobel Media AB, archived from the original on 25 July 2010, retrieved 12 July 2010 `` The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1983 '', Nobelprize.org, Nobel Media AB, archived from the original on 6 July 2010, retrieved 8 July 2010 Pasachoff, Naomi ( 2006 ), Barbara McClintock, Genius of Genetics, Enslow Publishers, Inc., ISBN 978 - 0766025059 Pray, Leslie ( 2008 ), `` Transposons : The Jumping Genes '', Nature Education, Nature Publishing Group, 1 ( 1 ) Pray, Leslie ; Zhaurova, Kira ( 2008 ), `` Barbara McClintock and the Discovery of Jumping Genes ( Transposons ) '', Nature Education, Nature Publishing Group, 1 ( 1 ) Rhoades, Marcus M., The golden age of corn genetics at Cornell as seen through the eyes of M.M. Rhoades ( PDF ) Selvarajah S, Yoshimoto M, Park PC, Maire G, Paderova J, Bayani J, Lim G, Al - Romaih K, Squire JA, Zielenska M ( December 2006 ), `` The breakage - fusion - bridge ( BFB ) cycle as a mechanism for generating genetic heterogeneity in osteosarcoma '', Chromosoma, 6, 115 ( 6 ) : 459 -- 467, doi : 10.1007 / s00412 - 006 - 0074 - 4, PMID 16897100 `` Geneticist B. McClintock Dies ; Nobelist '', The Washington Post, 4 September 1992, retrieved 28 December 2012, ( Subscription required ( help ) ) -- via HighBeam Research ( subscription required ) Archives and research collections The Barbara McClintock Papers -- Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine. Barbara McClintock Papers, 1927 -- 1991 at the American Philosophical Society External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Barbara McClintock. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Archives, Barbara McClintock : A Brief Biographical Sketch Enhancer and Gene Trap Transposon Mutagenesis in Arabidopsis, comprehensive article on the use of Ac / Ds and other transposons for plant mutagenesis Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy Laureates of the Wolf Prize in Medicine 1970s George Snell / Jean Dausset / Jon J. van Rood ( 1978 ) Roger Sperry / Arvid Carlsson / Oleh Hornykiewicz ( 1979 ) 1980s César Milstein / Leo Sachs / James L. Gowans ( 1980 ) Barbara McClintock / Stanley Norman Cohen ( 1981 ) Jean - Pierre Changeux / Solomon H. Snyder / James W. Black ( 1982 ) Donald F. Steiner ( 1984 / 5 ) Osamu Hayaishi ( 1986 ) Pedro Cuatrecasas / Meir Wilchek ( 1987 ) Henri G. Hers / Elizabeth F. Neufeld ( 1988 ) John Gurdon / Edward B. Lewis ( 1989 ) 1990s Maclyn McCarty ( 1990 ) Seymour Benzer ( 1991 ) Judah Folkman ( 1992 ) Michael Berridge / Yasutomi Nishizuka ( 1994 / 5 ) Stanley B. Prusiner ( 1995 / 6 ) Mary F. Lyon ( 1996 / 7 ) Michael Sela / Ruth Arnon ( 1998 ) Eric Kandel ( 1999 ) 2000s Avram Hershko / Alexander Varshavsky ( 2001 ) Ralph L. Brinster / Mario Capecchi / Oliver Smithies ( 2002 / 3 ) Robert Weinberg / Roger Y. Tsien ( 2004 ) Alexander Levitzki / Anthony R. Hunter / Anthony Pawson ( 2005 ) Howard Cedar / Aharon Razin ( 2008 ) 2010s Axel Ullrich ( 2010 ) Shinya Yamanaka / Rudolf Jaenisch ( 2011 ) Ronald M. Evans ( 2012 ) Nahum Sonenberg / Gary Ruvkun / Victor Ambros ( 2014 ) John Kappler / Philippa Marrack / Jeffrey V. Ravetch ( 2015 ) Lewis C. Cantley / C. Ronald Kahn ( 2016 ) James P. Allison ( 2017 ) Agriculture Arts Chemistry Mathematics Medicine Physics Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901 -- 1925 1901 Emil Behring 1902 Ronald Ross 1903 Niels Finsen 1904 Ivan Pavlov 1905 Robert Koch 1906 Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1907 Alphonse Laveran 1908 Élie Metchnikoff / Paul Ehrlich 1909 Emil Kocher 1910 Albrecht Kossel 1911 Allvar Gullstrand 1912 Alexis Carrel 1913 Charles Richet 1914 Róbert Bárány 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 Jules Bordet 1920 August Krogh 1921 1922 Archibald Hill / Otto Meyerhof 1923 Frederick Banting / John Macleod 1924 Willem Einthoven 1925 1926 -- 1950 1926 Johannes Fibiger 1927 Julius Wagner - Jauregg 1928 Charles Nicolle 1929 Christiaan Eijkman / Frederick Gowland Hopkins 1930 Karl Landsteiner 1931 Otto Warburg 1932 Charles Scott Sherrington / Edgar Adrian 1933 Thomas Morgan 1934 George Whipple / George Minot / William Murphy 1935 Hans Spemann 1936 Henry Dale / Otto Loewi 1937 Albert Szent - Györgyi 1938 Corneille Heymans 1939 Gerhard Domagk 1940 1941 1942 1943 Henrik Dam / Edward Doisy 1944 Joseph Erlanger / Herbert Gasser 1945 Alexander Fleming / Ernst Chain / Howard Florey 1946 Hermann Muller 1947 Carl Cori / Gerty Cori / Bernardo Houssay 1948 Paul Müller 1949 Walter Hess / António Egas Moniz 1950 Edward Kendall / Tadeusz Reichstein / Philip Hench 1951 -- 1975 1951 Max Theiler 1952 Selman Waksman 1953 Hans Krebs / Fritz Lipmann 1954 John Enders / Thomas Weller / Frederick Robbins 1955 Hugo Theorell 1956 André Cournand / Werner Forssmann / Dickinson W. Richards 1957 Daniel Bovet 1958 George Beadle / Edward Tatum / Joshua Lederberg 1959 Severo Ochoa / Arthur Kornberg 1960 Frank Burnet / Peter Medawar 1961 Georg von Békésy 1962 Francis Crick / James Watson / Maurice Wilkins 1963 John Eccles / Alan Hodgkin / Andrew Huxley 1964 Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen 1965 François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod 1966 Francis Rous / Charles B. Huggins 1967 Ragnar Granit / Haldan Hartline / George Wald 1968 Robert W. Holley / Har Khorana / Marshall Nirenberg 1969 Max Delbrück / Alfred Hershey / Salvador Luria 1970 Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod 1971 Earl Sutherland Jr. 1972 Gerald Edelman / Rodney Porter 1973 Karl von Frisch / Konrad Lorenz / Nikolaas Tinbergen 1974 Albert Claude / Christian de Duve / George Palade 1975 David Baltimore / Renato Dulbecco / Howard Temin 1976 -- 2000 1976 Baruch Blumberg / Daniel Gajdusek 1977 Roger Guillemin / Andrew Schally / Rosalyn Yalow 1978 Werner Arber / Daniel Nathans / Hamilton O. Smith 1979 Allan Cormack / Godfrey Hounsfield 1980 Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George Snell 1981 Roger Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten Wiesel 1982 Sune Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John Vane 1983 Barbara McClintock 1984 Niels Jerne / Georges Köhler / César Milstein 1985 Michael Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein 1986 Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi - Montalcini 1987 Susumu Tonegawa 1988 James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings 1989 J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus 1990 Joseph Murray / E. Donnall Thomas 1991 Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann 1992 Edmond Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs 1993 Richard J. Roberts / Phillip Sharp 1994 Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell 1995 Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein - Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus 1996 Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel 1997 Stanley B. Prusiner 1998 Robert F. Furchgott / Louis Ignarro / Ferid Murad 1999 Günter Blobel 2000 Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric Kandel 2001 -- present 2001 Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Paul Nurse 2002 Sydney Brenner / H. Robert Horvitz / John E. Sulston 2003 Paul Lauterbur / Peter Mansfield 2004 Richard Axel / Linda B. Buck 2005 Barry Marshall / Robin Warren 2006 Andrew Fire / Craig Mello 2007 Mario Capecchi / Martin Evans / Oliver Smithies 2008 Harald zur Hausen / Luc Montagnier / Françoise Barré - Sinoussi 2009 Elizabeth Blackburn / Carol W. Greider / Jack W. Szostak 2010 Robert G. Edwards 2011 Bruce Beutler / Jules A. Hoffmann / Ralph M. Steinman ( posthumously ) 2012 John B. Gurdon / Shinya Yamanaka 2013 James Rothman / Randy Schekman / Thomas C. Südhof 2014 John O'Keefe / May - Britt Moser / Edvard Moser 2015 William C. Campbell / Satoshi Ōmura / Tu Youyou 2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi 2017 Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young United States National Medal of Science laureates Behavioral and social science 1960s 1964 : Roger Adams Othmar H. Ammann Theodosius Dobzhansky Neal Elgar Miller 1980s 1986 : Herbert A. Simon 1987 : Anne Anastasi George J. Stigler 1988 : Milton Friedman 1990s 1990 : Leonid Hurwicz Patrick Suppes 1991 : Robert W. Kates George A. Miller 1992 : Eleanor J. Gibson 1994 : Robert K. Merton 1995 : Roger N. Shepard 1996 : Paul Samuelson 1997 : William K. Estes 1998 : William Julius Wilson 1999 : Robert M. Solow 2000s 2000 : Gary Becker 2001 : George Bass 2003 : R. Duncan Luce 2004 : Kenneth Arrow 2005 : Gordon H. Bower 2008 : Michael I. Posner 2009 : Mortimer Mishkin 2010s 2011 : Anne Treisman 2014 : Robert Axelrod 2015 : Albert Bandura Biological sciences 1960s 1963 : C.B. van Niel 1964 : Marshall W. Nirenberg 1965 : Francis P. Rous George G. Simpson Donald D. Van Slyke 1966 : Edward F. Knipling Fritz Albert Lipmann William C. Rose Sewall Wright 1967 : Kenneth S. Cole Harry F. Harlow Michael Heidelberger Alfred H. Sturtevant 1968 : Horace Barker Bernard B. Brodie Detlev W. Bronk Jay Lush Burrhus Frederic Skinner 1969 : Robert Huebner Ernst Mayr 1970s 1970 : Barbara McClintock Albert B. Sabin 1973 : Daniel I. Arnon Earl W. Sutherland Jr. 1974 : Britton Chance Erwin Chargaff James V. Neel James Augustine Shannon 1975 : Hallowell Davis Paul Gyorgy Sterling B. Hendricks Orville Alvin Vogel 1976 : Roger Guillemin Keith Roberts Porter Efraim Racker E.O. Wilson 1979 : Robert H. Burris Elizabeth C. Crosby Arthur Kornberg Severo Ochoa Earl Reece Stadtman George Ledyard Stebbins Paul Alfred Weiss 1980s 1981 : Philip Handler 1982 : Seymour Benzer Glenn W. Burton Mildred Cohn 1983 : Howard L. Bachrach Paul Berg Wendell L. Roelofs Berta Scharrer 1986 : Stanley Cohen Donald A. Henderson Vernon B. Mountcastle George Emil Palade Joan A. Steitz 1987 : Michael E. DeBakey Theodor O. Diener Harry Eagle Har Gobind Khorana Rita Levi - Montalcini 1988 : Michael S. Brown Stanley Norman Cohen Joseph L. Goldstein Maurice R. Hilleman Eric R. Kandel Rosalyn Sussman Yalow 1989 : Katherine Esau Viktor Hamburger Philip Leder Joshua Lederberg Roger W. Sperry Harland G. Wood 1990s 1990 : Baruj Benacerraf Herbert W. Boyer Daniel E. Koshland Jr. Edward B. Lewis David G. Nathan E. Donnall Thomas 1991 : Mary Ellen Avery G. Evelyn Hutchinson Elvin A. Kabat Salvador Luria Paul A. Marks Folke K. Skoog Paul C. Zamecnik 1992 : Maxine Singer Howard Martin Temin 1993 : Daniel Nathans Salome G. Waelsch 1994 : Thomas Eisner Elizabeth F. Neufeld 1995 : Alexander Rich 1996 : Ruth Patrick 1997 : James Watson Robert A. Weinberg 1998 : Bruce Ames Janet Rowley 1999 : David Baltimore Jared Diamond Lynn Margulis 2000s 2000 : Nancy C. Andreasen Peter H. Raven Carl Woese 2001 : Francisco J. Ayala Mario R. Capecchi Ann Graybiel Gene E. Likens Victor A. McKusick Harold Varmus 2002 : James E. Darnell Evelyn M. Witkin 2003 : J. Michael Bishop Solomon H. Snyder Charles Yanofsky 2004 : Norman E. Borlaug Phillip A. Sharp Thomas E. Starzl 2005 : Anthony S. Fauci Torsten N. Wiesel 2006 : Rita R. Colwell Nina Fedoroff Lubert Stryer 2007 : Robert J. Lefkowitz Bert W. O'Malley 2008 : Francis S. Collins Elaine Fuchs J. Craig Venter 2009 : Susan L. Lindquist Stanley B. Prusiner 2010s 2010 : Ralph L. Brinster Shu Chien Rudolf Jaenisch 2011 : Lucy Shapiro Leroy Hood Sallie Chisholm 2014 : May Berenbaum Bruce Alberts 2015 : Stanley Falkow Rakesh K. Jain Mary - Claire King Simon Levin Chemistry 1980s 1982 : F. Albert Cotton Gilbert Stork 1983 : Roald Hoffmann George C. Pimentel Richard N. Zare 1986 : Harry B. Gray Yuan Tseh Lee Carl S. Marvel Frank H. Westheimer 1987 : William S. Johnson Walter H. Stockmayer Max Tishler 1988 : William O. Baker Konrad E. Bloch Elias J. Corey 1989 : Richard B. Bernstein Melvin Calvin Rudolph A. Marcus Harden M. McConnell 1990s 1990 : Elkan Blout Karl Folkers John D. Roberts 1991 : Ronald Breslow Gertrude B. Elion Dudley R. Herschbach Glenn T. Seaborg 1992 : Howard E. Simmons Jr. 1993 : Donald J. Cram Norman Hackerman 1994 : George S. Hammond 1995 : Thomas Cech Isabella L. Karle 1996 : Norman Davidson 1997 : Darleane C. Hoffman Harold S. Johnston 1998 : John W. Cahn George M. Whitesides 1999 : Stuart A. Rice John Ross Susan Solomon 2000s 2000 : John D. Baldeschwieler Ralph F. Hirschmann 2001 : Ernest R. Davidson Gábor A. Somorjai 2002 : John I. Brauman 2004 : Stephen J. Lippard 2006 : Marvin H. Caruthers Peter B. Dervan 2007 : Mostafa A. El - Sayed 2008 : Joanna Fowler JoAnne Stubbe 2009 : Stephen J. Benkovic Marye Anne Fox 2010s 2010 : Jacqueline K. Barton Peter J. Stang 2011 : Allen J. Bard M. Frederick Hawthorne 2014 : Judith P. Klinman Jerrold Meinwald 2015 : A. Paul Alivisatos Geraldine L. Richmond Engineering sciences 1960s 1962 : Theodore von Kármán 1963 : Vannevar Bush John Robinson Pierce 1964 : Charles S. Draper 1965 : Hugh L. Dryden Clarence L. Johnson Warren K. Lewis 1966 : Claude E. Shannon 1967 : Edwin H. Land Igor I. Sikorsky 1968 : J. Presper Eckert Nathan M. Newmark 1969 : Jack St. Clair Kilby 1970s 1970 : George E. Mueller 1973 : Harold E. Edgerton Richard T. Whitcomb 1974 : Rudolf Kompfner Ralph Brazelton Peck Abel Wolman 1975 : Manson Benedict William Hayward Pickering Frederick E. Terman Wernher von Braun 1976 : Morris Cohen Peter C. Goldmark Erwin Wilhelm Müller 1979 : Emmett N. Leith Raymond D. Mindlin Robert N. Noyce Earl R. Parker Simon Ramo 1980s 1982 : Edward H. Heinemann Donald L. Katz 1983 : William Redington Hewlett George M. Low John G. Trump 1986 : Hans Wolfgang Liepmann T.Y. Lin Bernard M. Oliver 1987 : R. Byron Bird H. Bolton Seed Ernst Weber 1988 : Daniel C. Drucker Willis M. Hawkins George W. Housner 1989 : Harry George Drickamer Herbert E. Grier 1990s 1990 : Mildred Dresselhaus Nick Holonyak Jr. 1991 : George H. Heilmeier Luna B. Leopold H. Guyford Stever 1992 : Calvin F. Quate John Roy Whinnery 1993 : Alfred Y. Cho 1994 : Ray W. Clough 1995 : Hermann A. Haus 1996 : James L. Flanagan C. Kumar N. Patel 1998 : Eli Ruckenstein 1999 : Kenneth N. Stevens 2000s 2000 : Yuan - Cheng B. Fung 2001 : Andreas Acrivos 2002 : Leo Beranek 2003 : John M. Prausnitz 2004 : Edwin N. Lightfoot 2005 : Jan D. Achenbach Tobin J. Marks 2006 : Robert S. Langer 2007 : David J. Wineland 2008 : Rudolf E. Kálmán 2009 : Amnon Yariv 2010s 2010 : Shu Chien 2011 : John B. Goodenough 2014 : Thomas Kailath Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences 1960s 1963 : Norbert Wiener 1964 : Solomon Lefschetz H. Marston Morse 1965 : Oscar Zariski 1966 : John Milnor 1967 : Paul Cohen 1968 : Jerzy Neyman 1969 : William Feller 1970s 1970 : Richard Brauer 1973 : John Tukey 1974 : Kurt Gödel 1975 : John W. Backus Shiing - Shen Chern George Dantzig 1976 : Kurt Otto Friedrichs Hassler Whitney 1979 : Joseph L. Doob Donald E. Knuth 1980s 1982 : Marshall Harvey Stone 1983 : Herman Goldstine Isadore Singer 1986 : Peter Lax Antoni Zygmund 1987 : Raoul Bott Michael Freedman 1988 : Ralph E. Gomory Joseph B. Keller 1989 : Samuel Karlin Saunders Mac Lane Donald C. Spencer 1990s 1990 : George F. Carrier Stephen Cole Kleene John McCarthy 1991 : Alberto Calderón 1992 : Allen Newell 1993 : Martin David Kruskal 1994 : John Cocke 1995 : Louis Nirenberg 1996 : Richard Karp Stephen Smale 1997 : Shing - Tung Yau 1998 : Cathleen Synge Morawetz 1999 : Felix Browder Ronald R. Coifman 2000s 2000 : John Griggs Thompson Karen K. Uhlenbeck 2001 : Calyampudi R. Rao Elias M. Stein 2002 : James G. Glimm 2003 : Carl R. de Boor 2004 : Dennis P. Sullivan 2005 : Bradley Efron 2006 : Hyman Bass 2007 : Leonard Kleinrock Andrew J. Viterbi 2009 : David B. Mumford 2010s 2010 : Richard A. Tapia S.R. Srinivasa Varadhan 2011 : Solomon W. Golomb Barry Mazur 2014 : Alexandre Chorin David Blackwell 2015 : Michael Artin Physical sciences 1960s 1963 : Luis W. Alvarez 1964 : Julian Schwinger Harold Clayton Urey Robert Burns Woodward 1965 : John Bardeen Peter Debye Leon M. Lederman William Rubey 1966 : Jacob Bjerknes Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Henry Eyring John H. Van Vleck Vladimir K. Zworykin 1967 : Jesse Beams Francis Birch Gregory Breit Louis Hammett George Kistiakowsky 1968 : Paul Bartlett Herbert Friedman Lars Onsager Eugene Wigner 1969 : Herbert C. Brown Wolfgang Panofsky 1970s 1970 : Robert H. Dicke Allan R. Sandage John C. Slater John A. Wheeler Saul Winstein 1973 : Carl Djerassi Maurice Ewing Arie Jan Haagen - Smit Vladimir Haensel Frederick Seitz Robert Rathbun Wilson 1974 : Nicolaas Bloembergen Paul Flory William Alfred Fowler Linus Carl Pauling Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer 1975 : Hans A. Bethe Joseph O. Hirschfelder Lewis Sarett Edgar Bright Wilson Chien - Shiung Wu 1976 : Samuel Goudsmit Herbert S. Gutowsky Frederick Rossini Verner Suomi Henry Taube George Uhlenbeck 1979 : Richard P. Feynman Herman Mark Edward M. Purcell John Sinfelt Lyman Spitzer Victor F. Weisskopf 1980s 1982 : Philip W. Anderson Yoichiro Nambu Edward Teller Charles H. Townes 1983 : E. Margaret Burbidge Maurice Goldhaber Helmut Landsberg Walter Munk Frederick Reines Bruno B. Rossi J. Robert Schrieffer 1986 : Solomon J. Buchsbaum H. Richard Crane Herman Feshbach Robert Hofstadter Chen - Ning Yang 1987 : Philip Abelson Walter Elsasser Paul C. Lauterbur George Pake James A. Van Allen 1988 : D. Allan Bromley Paul Ching - Wu Chu Walter Kohn Norman F. Ramsey Jack Steinberger 1989 : Arnold O. Beckman Eugene Parker Robert Sharp Henry Stommel 1990s 1990 : Allan M. Cormack Edwin M. McMillan Robert Pound Roger Revelle 1991 : Arthur L. Schawlow Ed Stone Steven Weinberg 1992 : Eugene M. Shoemaker 1993 : Val Fitch Vera Rubin 1994 : Albert Overhauser Frank Press 1995 : Hans Dehmelt Peter Goldreich 1996 : Wallace S. Broecker 1997 : Marshall Rosenbluth Martin Schwarzschild George Wetherill 1998 : Don L. Anderson John N. Bahcall 1999 : James Cronin Leo Kadanoff 2000s 2000 : Willis E. Lamb Jeremiah P. Ostriker Gilbert F. White 2001 : Marvin L. Cohen Raymond Davis Jr. Charles Keeling 2002 : Richard Garwin W. Jason Morgan Edward Witten 2003 : G. Brent Dalrymple Riccardo Giacconi 2004 : Robert N. Clayton 2005 : Ralph A. Alpher Lonnie Thompson 2006 : Daniel Kleppner 2007 : Fay Ajzenberg - Selove Charles P. Slichter 2008 : Berni Alder James E. Gunn 2009 : Yakir Aharonov Esther M. Conwell Warren M. Washington 2010s 2011 : Sidney Drell Sandra Faber Sylvester James Gates 2014 : Burton Richter Sean C. Solomon 2015 : Shirley Ann Jackson Connecticut Women 's Hall of Fame 1994 Mary Jobe Akeley Anni Albers Marian Anderson Beatrice Fox Auerbach Emma Fielding Baker Evelyn Beatrice Longman Catharine Beecher Jody Cohen Prudence Crandall Katharine Seymour Day Fidelia Fielding Charlotte Perkins Gilman Dorothy Goodwin Ella T. Grasso Estelle Griswold Mary Hall Alice Hamilton Katharine Hepburn Katharine Martha Houghton Hepburn Isabella Beecher Hooker Emeline Roberts Jones Barbara B. Kennelly Clare Boothe Luce Rachel Taylor Milton Alice Paul Ellen Ash Peters Ann Petry Sarah Porter Theodate Pope Riddle Edna Negron Rosario Margaret Rudkin Susan Saint James Lydia Sigourney Virginia Thrall Smith Smiths of Glastonbury Hilda Crosby Standish Harriet Beecher Stowe Gladys Tantaquidgeon Betty Tianti Hannah Bunce Watson Chase G. Woodhouse 1995 Helen M. Feeney Caroline Hewins Donna Lopiano María Colón Sánchez Edythe J. Gaines Madeleine L'Engle Susanne Langer 1997 Elizabeth Hart Jarvis Colt Annie Dillard Margo Rose Laura Wheeler Waring 1998 Dorrit Hoffleit Constance Baker Motley Rosa Ponselle Lillian Vernon Mabel Osgood Wright 1999 Jane Hamilton - Merritt Sophie Tucker Ann Uccello Florence Wald 2000 Emily Barringer Adrianne Baughns - Wallace Mary Goodrich Jenson 2001 Laura Nyro Catherine Roraback Maria Miller Stewart 2002 Florence Griswold Eileen Kraus Miriam Therese Winter 2003 Dotha Bushnell Hillyer Clarice McLean 2005 Martha Coolidge Helen Frankenthaler Rosalind Russell 2006 Helen Keller Mary Townsend Seymour Anne Stanback 2007 Dorothy Hamill Joan Joyce Glenna Collett - Vare 2008 Jewel Plummer Cobb Patricia Goldman - Rakic Barbara McClintock Joan A. Steitz 2009 Martha Minerva Franklin Carolyn M. Mazure Helen L. Smits Anne M. Mulcahy Martha Parsons Maggie Wilderotter 2011 Isabelle M. Kelley Denise Lynn Nappier Patricia Wald 2012 Anne Garrels Annie Leibovitz Faith Middleton 2013 Rosa DeLauro Barbara Franklin Linda Lorimer Augusta Lewis Troup 2014 Beatrix Farrand Jennifer Lawton Marian Salzman 2015 Margaret Bourke - White Carolyn Miles Indra Nooyi 2016 Rebecca Lobo Jane Pauley Joyce Yerwood Inductees to the National Women 's Hall of Fame 1970 -- 1979 1973 Jane Addams Marian Anderson Susan B. Anthony Clara Barton Mary McLeod Bethune Elizabeth Blackwell Pearl S. Buck Rachel Carson Mary Cassatt Emily Dickinson Amelia Earhart Alice Hamilton Helen Hayes Helen Keller Eleanor Roosevelt Florence Sabin Margaret Chase Smith Elizabeth Cady Stanton Helen Brooke Taussig Harriet Tubman 1976 Abigail Adams Margaret Mead Mildred `` Babe '' Didrikson Zaharias 1979 Dorothea Dix Juliette Gordon Low Alice Paul Elizabeth Bayley Seton 1980 -- 1989 1981 Margaret Sanger Sojourner Truth 1982 Carrie Chapman Catt Frances Perkins Belva Lockwood Lucretia Mott 1984 Mary `` Mother '' Harris Jones Bessie Smith 1986 Barbara McClintock Lucy Stone Harriet Beecher Stowe 1988 Gwendolyn Brooks Willa Cather Sally Ride Ida B. Wells - Barnett 1990 -- 1999 1990 Margaret Bourke - White Barbara Jordan Billie Jean King Florence B. Seibert 1991 Gertrude Belle Elion 1993 Ethel Percy Andrus Antoinette Blackwell Emily Blackwell Shirley Chisholm Jacqueline Cochran Ruth Colvin Marian Wright Edelman Alice Evans Betty Friedan Ella Grasso Martha Wright Griffiths Fannie Lou Hamer Dorothy Height Dolores Huerta Mary Jacobi Mae Jemison Mary Lyon Mary Mahoney Wilma Mankiller Constance Baker Motley Georgia O'Keeffe Annie Oakley Rosa Parks Esther Peterson Jeannette Rankin Ellen Swallow Richards Elaine Roulet Katherine Siva Saubel Gloria Steinem Helen Stephens Lillian Wald Madam C.J. Walker Faye Wattleton Rosalyn S. Yalow Gloria Yerkovich 1994 Bella Abzug Ella Baker Myra Bradwell Annie Jump Cannon Jane Cunningham Croly Catherine East Geraldine Ferraro Charlotte Perkins Gilman Grace Hopper Helen LaKelly Hunt Zora Neale Hurston Anne Hutchinson Frances Wisebart Jacobs Susette La Flesche Louise McManus Maria Mitchell Antonia Novello Linda Richards Wilma Rudolph Betty Bone Schiess Muriel Siebert Nettie Stevens Oprah Winfrey Sarah Winnemucca Fanny Wright 1995 Virginia Apgar Ann Bancroft Amelia Bloomer Mary Breckinridge Eileen Collins Elizabeth Hanford Dole Anne Dallas Dudley Mary Baker Eddy Ella Fitzgerald Margaret Fuller Matilda Joslyn Gage Lillian Moller Gilbreth Nannerl O. Keohane Maggie Kuhn Sandra Day O'Connor Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin Pat Schroeder Hannah Greenebaum Solomon Louisa May Alcott Charlotte Anne Bunch Frances Xavier Cabrini Mary A. Hallaren Oveta Culp Hobby Wilhelmina Cole Holladay Anne Morrow Lindbergh Maria Goeppert - Mayer Ernestine Louise Potowski Rose Maria Tallchief Edith Wharton 1998 Madeleine Albright Maya Angelou Nellie Bly Lydia Moss Bradley Mary Steichen Calderone Mary Ann Shadd Cary Joan Ganz Cooney Gerty Cori Sarah Grimké Julia Ward Howe Shirley Ann Jackson Shannon Lucid Katharine Dexter McCormick Rozanne L. Ridgway Edith Nourse Rogers Felice Schwartz Eunice Kennedy Shriver Beverly Sills Florence Wald Angelina Grimké Weld Chien - Shiung Wu 2000 -- 2009 2000 Faye Glenn Abdellah Emma Smith DeVoe Marjory Stoneman Douglas Mary Dyer Sylvia A. Earle Crystal Eastman Jeanne Holm Leontine T. Kelly Frances Oldham Kelsey Kate Mullany Janet Reno Anna Howard Shaw Sophia Smith Ida Tarbell Wilma L. Vaught Mary Edwards Walker Annie Dodge Wauneka Eudora Welty Frances E. Willard 2001 Dorothy H. Andersen Lucille Ball Rosalynn Carter Lydia Maria Child Bessie Coleman Dorothy Day Marian de Forest Althea Gibson Beatrice A. Hicks Barbara Holdridge Harriet Williams Russell Strong Emily Howell Warner Victoria Woodhull 2002 Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis Ruth Bader Ginsburg Katharine Graham Bertha Holt Mary Engle Pennington Mercy Otis Warren 2003 Linda G. Alvarado Donna de Varona Gertrude Ederle Martha Matilda Harper Patricia Roberts Harris Stephanie L. Kwolek Dorothea Lange Mildred Robbins Leet Patsy Takemoto Mink Sacagawea Anne Sullivan Sheila E. Widnall 2005 Florence Ellinwood Allen Ruth Fulton Benedict Betty Bumpers Hillary Clinton Rita Rossi Colwell Mother Marianne Cope Maya Y. Lin Patricia A. Locke Blanche Stuart Scott Mary Burnett Talbert 2007 Eleanor K. Baum Julia Child Martha Coffin Pelham Wright Swanee Hunt Winona LaDuke Elisabeth Kübler - Ross Judith L. Pipher Catherine Filene Shouse Henrietta Szold 2009 Louise Bourgeois Mildred Cohn Karen DeCrow Susan Kelly - Dreiss Allie B. Latimer Emma Lazarus Ruth Patrick Rebecca Talbot Perkins Susan Solomon Kate Stoneman 2010 -- 2019 2011 St. Katharine Drexel Dorothy Harrison Eustis Loretta C. Ford Abby Kelley Foster Helen Murray Free Billie Holiday Coretta Scott King Lilly Ledbetter Barbara A. Mikulski Donna E. Shalala Kathrine Switzer 2013 Betty Ford Ina May Gaskin Julie Krone Kate Millett Nancy Pelosi Mary Joseph Rogers Bernice Sandler Anna Schwartz Emma Willard 2015 Tenley Albright Nancy Brinker Martha Graham Marcia Greenberger Barbara Iglewski Jean Kilbourne Carlotta Walls LaNier Philippa Marrack Mary Harriman Rumsey Eleanor Smeal 2017 Matilda Cuomo Temple Grandin Lorraine Hansberry Victoria Jackson Sherry Lansing Clare Boothe Luce Aimee Mullins Carol Mutter Janet Rowley Alice Waters Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1989 Fellows Brian Anderson Kenneth Bagshawe John M. Ball Adrian Bird Roger Blandford Arthur Cain Mark Child Alwyn Davies Peter Goddard Michael Green Brian Heap Geoffrey Hewitt Derek Hull Julian Hunt Richard Hynes Michael James Francis Kelly John Lawton Gilbert George Lonzarich Andrew David McLachlan Michael A. Moore Kim Nasmyth Paul Nurse Robert Ladislav Parker Geoff Parker Richard Peto Warren R. Roper John Martin Rowell Ian John Russell John Philip Simons Charles Roger Slack Marshall Stoneham Roger C. Thomas Anne Treisman Kenneth Wade Patrick David Wall Rob Webster Thomas Summers West Andrew Wiles Ian Robert Young Statute 12 Edward Shackleton, Baron Shackleton Foreign Nicole Marthe Le Douarin Paul Erdős Kenichi Fukui Edward B. Lewis Barbara McClintock Edward Mills Purcell VIAF : 14832103 LCCN : n82153492 ISNI : 0000 0000 8093 783X GND : 119046660 SELIBR : 401017 SUDOC : 073685151 BNF : cb12278203r ( data ) NDL : 00621106 SNAC : w65f0b91 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barbara_McClintock&oldid=826763649 '' Categories : American biologists American geneticists Evolutionary biologists Theoretical biologists Women Nobel laureates 1902 births 1992 deaths American women biologists American women botanists American women scientists Women evolutionary biologists Women food scientists Women geneticists Women physiologists American Nobel laureates Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences National Medal of Science laureates Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research Wolf Prize in Medicine laureates Guggenheim Fellows MacArthur Fellows Foreign Members of the Royal Society Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences alumni Erasmus Hall High School alumni University of Missouri faculty American people of British descent People from Brooklyn People from Columbia, Missouri People from Hartford, Connecticut 20th - century American botanists 20th - century biologists 20th - century women scientists Hidden categories : Biography with signature Articles with hCards Articles with hAudio microformats Pages containing links to subscription - only content Subscription required using via Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - ID identifiers Featured articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Magyar मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Scots Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2018, at 21 : 48. 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Question: who was awarded the nobel prize for the discovery that genes can change position on chromosomes
Answer: Barbara McClintock