sou · H0B374 · 2012-11-09 00:00:00 — the same category are ascribed other properties based on stereotypical ideas about their ethnic group. Categorisation based on ethnicity means that you focus on what sets groups apart, for example country of birth. But this means disregarding the great variations that exist within each group and the great similarities that exist between groups and between individuals in each respective group. People are faced by a number of questions in life regardless of their ethnic group. Ethnicity is not a clear concept. There are more than ten criteria that have been used by researchers to determine what an ethnic group is. The division of mankind into clear ethnic or cultural units is very much a social construct. In actual fact, all mankind has a common origin in even though it was about 60,000 years since the first intercontinental travellers crossed the Bad-Al- Mandab Strait and started spreading throughout the world. But people have seldom been isolated in separate enclaves, having instead tended to form networks with a lively exchange of knowledge and experiences. This has been an important condition for human development. Although ethnic groups are a social construct, the feeling of ethnic belonging can be strong. It is strengthened, or possibly even created, when a group is threatened by an outside entity. With increased global migration, increasing amounts of people experience a strong loyalty to more than one ethnic group and culture. They are in what is known as transnational spaces. Xenophobes often argue that not only is the world divided into clear ethnic and cultural enclaves, people are also so strongly influenced by the cultural environment in which they grow up that they cannot live in another environment. It is also claimed that meetings between people from different cultures inexorably lead to conflicts. Experience shows, however, that different ethnic groups can coexist side by side very well, without automatically falling into conflicts. That there are different groups in a country is not a problem in itself, it is what the people and their leaders make of the situation that determines if the groups will live in peace or, in a worst case scenario, fight bloody wars. Experience also shows that people are flexible. We are well suited to live well in many different cultural contexts. Additionally, each cultural environment offers not one but several types of lives. Swedish culture is a good example of this. It contains great variety. There is very about Swedish culture that is uniquely Swedish. Most of it has grown out of and been moulded by interaction with the surrounding world. The Swedish nation as we know it today has only existed for a hundred years. For more than 600 years, up until 1809, was part of and so was for almost a hundred years, until 1905. During the period that was a great power, i.e., 1611-1718 a majority of the population within the Swedish borders did not speak Swedish. It is easy to see that this exchange with the outside world has profoundly influenced what we today perceive as Swedish culture. However when you define culture you also need to accept that it is constantly evolving. This applies not only to the physical cultural environment but also to our values. Many of the values manifested in Swedish political decisions over the past decades, such as individual taxation, parental insurance with paternity leave, legal abortion, the ban on corporal punishment, the right of homosexuals to marry and the right of asylum-seekers in need of protection to be granted a permit, were unthinkable just a few decades earlier. Today, many of them are seen as typically Swedish. Selective forgetfulness is an important ingredient in creating a self-image. Definitions of the concepts Swede and Swedishness showcase an astounding lack of internal consistency and context. It would be fundamentally wrong to search them for reliable descriptions of what the national identity looks like. The Swede can actually function as a mirror for many different . Everyone can choose their character as needed – within a very wide framework. The conclusion is that Swedishness is variety; a culture rich in all senses of the word. This insight is not hard to accept when it comes to one's own culture. Other cultures tend to be subjected to more stereotypical ideas. But variety and richness apply to them as well. This insight is important in order for us to overcome our stereotypical ideas about others. Such ideas about other groups are often created by the media. The collective group immigrants can sometimes be lumped together and claims are made about their character. Claims of study results, professions or criminality can be described almost as properties of the group. In actual fact, the actual picture is obviously far more nuanced, but the nuances can disappear in the shadow of media logic. For this reason, it is important to learn how to spot the variations in other cultures and discover individuals with their many different social identities and groups. has a long history of violating human dignity. Even after democratisation, it has been possible to carry out such violations with the support of the public. Various groups within the country have been targeted, such as the , Finns and Travellers, as well as groups that have come from other countries such as Jewish and groups. From the time of Linneaus and up until the start of the 1900s when was founded in , racism had a strong foothold in . The sterilisation policy, which can be seen as a concrete result of these policies, reached its peak around the first decade after the second World War. Xenophobic and intolerant attitudes Measuring xenophobic and intolerant attitudes comes with a number of difficulties. When assessments are based on opinion surveys, the results are greatly influenced by the way questions are asked and by the interpretation of the answers given. The propensity to report crimes and discrimination can vary depending on the amount of mass media attention that the incidents get, if the victims know how to carry out the reporting and what they think the effects will be. It is therefore difficult to assess whether or not trends in the number of reported crimes mirror reality. To pose questions to individuals and groups that risk being subjected to xenophobic actions can provide an answer, but surveys are often qualitative (with few respondents) and this makes it impossible to say anything about the scope. Given all these reservations, some conditions can still be confirmed. There is a problem with xenophobic attitudes and actions in . The situation roughly corresponds to the rest of Europe, possibly being slightly brighter. But many persons who have immigrated, or who belong to minority groups, have personal experiences of everyday racism. In public spaces and in public institutions, youths with darker skin colour, women with head dresses and women in traditional clothing are subjected to such racism. The widespread everyday racism is not mirrored by the number of reports or the number of discrimination cases brought before the Equality Ombudsman (DO). Neither can it be seen in the many surveys and reports made over the past decade concerning the attitude of the population towards immigration, immigrants, multi-culture, , Jews and people. The group that has a negative attitude towards and has become smaller over time, but is still relatively large, perhaps as large as half the population. At the same time, there is reason to believe that far from all who are negative hold these opinions on ideological grounds. In most cases it can be assumed to be a matter of uncertainty and ignorance. Changes in public opinion can be interpreted to mean that once a person has experiences of meeting in their workplace or in their neighbourhood, fear decreases and curiosity increases. With increased knowledge, acquired mainly through personal experience and meetings with , attitudes will hopefully be affected and lead to an increased level of respect and understanding. There are indications of other positive trends as well. Fewer people have a negative view of immigration today than 20 years ago. Anti-Semitism faces strong opposition in broad sections of the population. Many individuals and groups among immigrants and minorities find a place in Swedish society and are not faced with violations or discrimination. Spreading of xenophobic messages How successfully xenophobic messages can be spread in a country depends to a great degree on the climate for political debate. Leading politicians have a big responsibility in this area. There is, not least after the persecution of Jews and other groups in Nazi , a sort of anti-racist norm in Europe. It is no coincidence that even those who want to express xenophobic ideas like to start by saying I am not a racist, but .... Xenophobic groups also tend to try to get rid of their racist labels in order to attract voters. At the same time xenophobic forces sometimes try to claim that anti-racism is just an expression of political correctness. People are not allowed to express their real opinions, they say. It is true that language norms have changed. Insulting remarks about persons of another ethnic background, but also of for example women's bodies or persons with cerebral palsy, are not accepted in the way they were before. Values change, societies evolve and with them language and behaviours. This is not an expression of political correctness but of social and political advances. No one has forced these social rules onto our societies - they have grown out of an open discussion and civic consensus. To be politically correct in this sense is not wrong, it means you contribute to the advancement of civilisation. Xenophobic parties are currently represented in a number of parliaments in Europe, including the Swedish Riksdag. The common denominator for these parties is their opposition to immigration and immigrants and their distrust of the EU. They have an anti-establishment rhetoric and claim to represent the common man. Their ideology is often called ethnopluralism, which means that they want cultures and ethnic groups to be kept separate from each other and consider the mixing of cultures to be harmful. Their hostility is mainly focused on and at present. The Democrats, who are represented in the Riksdag since the 2010 elections, have gone to some lengths to clean up their racist past and their xenophobic image, but there is no doubt that they belong in the family of xenophobic parties that exist in Europe. The other xenophobic parties and organisations in are small but can in some cases, not least by utilising the internet, have a relatively large impact. Internet is the most important channel for xenophobic organisations and individuals to spread their message to the public. The internet is also an efficient channel to use when lacking resources. The extreme right has skilfully utilised the internet and have even functioned as trend setters of sorts. There are more than a hundred xenophobic websites in . tenth person under the age of 30 has visited such a site in the past year. Most are those who are or younger. One of the larger news sites, , had over 200,000 unique visitors per week in 2012. The largest racist forum in , nordisk.nu, has over 20,000 registered members. What is appealing to many about the internet is the chance of expressing opinions anonymously. Never before has it been so easy for persons who harbour xenophobic ideas to get in contact with like-minded people. There are posts on the internet that are in violation of the law, but the often have a difficult time intervening as the servers are often located in the where they enjoy strong protection. International discussions are under way regarding improved cooperation across borders in order to apprehend IT criminals. For a closer transatlantic cooperation, an agreement at the highest level of government is most likely required. After the events in in the summer of 2011, the main- stream media have become more restrictive in allowing comments on their websites. However, there is a lot more to be done in this area. The internet will remain an important arena for political debate. Even though it is possible to become more efficient in targeting criminal activity, for example hate speech or libel, perfectly legal xenophobic messages will still be spread. This is why it is important to establish other forces on the internet, to counterbalance the xenophobia. Currently the single most important target for xenophobic attacks is and . The technique commonly used by anti-Islamic forces is to highlight isolated, and often extreme, incidents and individuals and claim that they are representative of and all . Claims are made that give birth to so many children that they will soon be in majority in large parts of Western Europe. In reality the nativity is decreasing in countries as well, and in , adjust to what is normal among women of Swedish origin. High nativity has less to do with religion than it has to do with poverty. The image of all as being of one opinion in all things is not accurate. There are many forms of and have differing opinions and live different lives. , like everyone else, adjust to the society in which they live. often perceive gender equality, democracy and tolerance as Islamic values. Most congregations in play an part in civic society and participate in activities with congregations and others. Imams that preach extreme values are the exception, not the rule. Within there is a lively debate regarding the interpretation of the Quran. There are conservative who want to return to old interpretations of the Quran, but there is also a large group that strive towards reforms. There are that, 20 years ago, saw as irreconcilable with western democracy, but who now claim that democracy is an Islamic ideal. Many want to see a reinterpretation of the Quran and an adjustment to the realities of modern life. The situation of women within is often problematic. But there are feminists who strive towards change. Progress is slow but today, despite protests from many conservative men, girls have access to education and constitute half the pupil population in a majority of countries. The problem does not lie in the criticism that anti-Islamic forces level at certain extreme incidents. There are often strong, rational reasons for this criticism. The problem lies in using these incidents to generalise about and . Doing so is an expression of simple, stereotypical ideas. The work to combat xenophobia of the work to combat xenophobia in and Europe are the international human rights conven- tions: The UN , several UN conventions, mainly the convention concerning the abolish- ment of all forms of racial discrimination, and Convention on Human Rights. The fundamental principle of all of these documents is that everyone should have access to various rights without distinction. Comprehensive efforts are being carried out in all European countries, including . Swedish legislation includes the principles of the international conventions. This applies to the constitution as well as to various special laws, such as the Swedish Penal Code and the Swedish Discrimination Act. Several government institutions are in the field, primarily the Equality Ombudsman, who monitors the Discrimination Act and promotes equal rights and opportunities for all. Two thirds of the Swedish counties have local anti- discrimination offices run by volunteer organisations with govern- ment funding. They give advice and support to people who have been discriminated against. (also a government institution) promotes democracy, tolerance and human rights with a focus on the Holocaust and communism's crimes against humanity. Present- day intolerance should be countered by increasing historical knowledge. Many of the 290 municipalities in the country carry out activities of their own. There are a couple of networks dedicated to the exchange of experiences between municipalities, concerning the promotion of human rights and combating xenophobia. There are also a large number of volunteer organisations that contribute greatly to the fight against xenophobia. Especially noteworthy among them are the Foundation, Against Anti-Semitism and Exit. The folkbildning2 organisations also devote a lot of attention to these issues. Many voluntary organisations finance a large part of their activities through governmental project grants through , and organisational grants from . The notable decentralisation of the work means it can be connected to local problems and conditions, which is often an important requirement for success. In its rules and regulations – mainly the Swedish Education Act and curricula – the Swedish school system has a clearly stated task of disseminating knowledge about democracy and fundamental values, and creating an environment where no-one is offended or discriminated and where all pupils get the prerequisites to develop into good citizens. The education system is a unique arena in society. Approximately 30 per cent of 's population spend their days in the educational system. Children spend roughly one sixth of their waking hours in school during their time in compulsory school. The education system plays an important part in what is a highly formative period of their lives. And it is the only institution in society with an explicit mission of fostering good, democratic citizens. Education organisers, including schools and universities, are required by law to have an Anti-discrimination and equal treatment plan. Most schools have such a plan, but it often has significant flaws. It is rarely preceded by taking stock of the local situation and the pupils are often excluded from the actual planning. In many cases, the implementation of the plan also leaves a lot to be 2 Swedish folkbildning is the collective name for the activities conducted by the country's folk high schools and study associations in the form of courses, study circles and cultural activities. Folkbildning is a part of the liberal non-formal educational system (). It is important that schools use this important tool more actively than they have thus far. To be able to avoid violations it is important to have a non- normative approach. It is not a matter of dissolving all norms – human interaction requires some norms – but rather of high- lighting the prevailing norms and their consequences. A non- normative approach can pave the way for mutual respect between people of different backgrounds. It is not unusual for a teacher to engage in categorisation of pupils due to their ethnic backgrounds. The pupils are expected to represent their or their parents' country of origin. In many cases, teachers are also predisposed to let their expectations on the pupils be influenced by this categorisation. These situations also require a non-normative approach. Surveys indicate that the attitudes of the pupils are influenced in various ways by how much education they are given when it comes to important knowledge and values. For example, pupils who have had more education concerning the Holocaust are less xenophobic than those who have had less education. The education system should promote and develop a democratic mentality in its pupils. At the same time, the pupils must not be seen as passive recipients of knowledge, but rather as participants in a communicative and mutual process. The problem is that there is no way to presuppose what values the pupils will arrive at by speaking freely. Herein lies one of the teacher's challenges. Experience clearly shows us that all work devoted to funda- mental values and promotion of democracy, and against discrimination and xenophobia, must be done long-term and continuously. Making hasty interventions when something has happened can be counter productive. The responsibility for this work, and for ensuring a unified approach at the school, rests with the Headmaster. An explicit goal from the government is that the Holocaust should be an important basis for combating xenophobia and intolerance. The former prime minister initiated the creation of the book ye your children.... It is an account of the Holocaust and of how acted in the shadow of Nazi . When pupils study the Holocaust it is often appropriate for them to take the perspective of an . It can be hard to identify with the cruelty that and his followers showed and the horrible situation that the Jews were in. It is often easier to identify with the many who were , who more or less passively accepted what was happening. Parallels can also be drawn to our contemporary world. It is becoming increasingly important for the education system to emphasise critical thinking and critical evaluation of sources, especially in an age where an abundance of unsorted and unexamined information reaches us via the internet. In some cases, the preventative work fails and some pupils develop more extreme attitudes. The education system has a responsibility to actively work with these pupils, which can be resource intensive. In the long term, however, there are great socio-economic gains to be made by facing these problems early on. It is important that many of the challenges that teachers face are brought up in their training, both in first-cycle courses at university and in their continuing professional development. Volunteer organisations can play an important role by complementing the school's work, but they cannot be used to provide the expertise that is required in schools. This kind of expertise needs to lie with those who, year after year and day after day, interact with the pupils. Efforts that contribute to the fight against xenophobia are under way in municipalities and in other government reports. Many Swedish municipalities participate in the Citizen dialogue project, which aims to involve individuals in issues of common interest. It is natural that persons with foreign backgrounds should be invited to such dialogues. The government has recently decided on a directive for an inquiry that will propose how the promotion of equal values mandated by the Discrimination Act is regulated, organised and implemented. Testing to see if the current demands of anti- discrimination plans placed on education organisers should be expanded to all employers will be naturally integrated within the framework of the inquiry. The government has also recently launched an inquiry into how the fight against violent extremism should be handled. The inquiry is expected to further explore some of the issues touched on in this report. In the report, ten proposed actions are brought up. 1.Clarifying that the Equality Ombudsman (DO) commission includes monitoring and analysing the on-going work against xenophobia and other forms of intolerance, and that DO should function as a driving force and information resource for the work of others in these fields. DO should establish a network for the work against xenophobia consisting of representatives of government institutions, the Swedish association of , research institutions and volunteer organisations. The proposal is made due to the fact that the work against xenophobia is very decentralised, at various government institutions, municipalities and volunteer organisations. It is important to information, assess various activities and disseminate knowledge. Such a task is well in line with the commission already given to DO by the Riksdag, but it needs to be clarified and further resources should be allocated to DO to carry out the task. The necessary increases in funding is estimated at million per year. 2.Creating an anti-discrimination office in every county or region. The proposed solution is to commission the Government