sou · H0B310d4 · 2012-05-02 00:00:00 — A quarter of all book sales take place in bookstores, while supermarkets and multimedia outlets account for 42,5 per cent of the turnover. In 2005 there were 1 600 bookstores in all of , according to . A law that stipulates a fixed price regime regulates the French book market. This also pertains to e-books as of November 2011.17 Book prices are fixed by law with a maximum possible discount of 5 per cent, and prices apply for two years. The fixed price system was legislated in 1981 and approved by Court of in 1985. The literary field receives substantial government support. 14See: [available 9 October 2010]. 15See: [available ]. [available ]. 17 See: [available 20 January 2012]. Or Just Like Other Media? Books are subject to 5,5 per cent value added tax (VAT), a significant reduction compared with the standard VAT of 19,6 per cent. In , the largest publishing groups have established their own distribution channels for e-books. , owned by Lagardère, administers . , La Martinière and Flammarion have joined forces around . Editis, number two on the list of the largest publishers, has teamed up with Média- Participations to establish an e-platform.18 But as elsewhere in Europe, the e-book market has yet to take off in . In October 2011, Amazon presented a French Kindle version, and the expansive Canadian company Kobo19 simultaneously announced that it would team with FNAC to release its e-book platform and create the countrys largest e-book store.20 Media Convergence and Specialization (Horizontal Convergence) Internationally, we are currently experiencing a situation in which convergence and divergence coexist both at national and transnational levels. After a long period of mergers and acquisitions across media technologies and markets, the dominant parts of the industry have once again begun to cultivate the book and relate to digital products based on the book as a medium in its own right. Although consolidation does take place in the publishing world, it does not centre on multimedia. It takes place in the realm of the book itself, as a battle between analogue and digital, offline and online. Publishers of educational materials, non-fiction and STM are particularly eager to cultivate their particular specialities, thereby boosting their own importance within the industry. These segments of the publishing business are prime movers in the area of digital media. However, there is also a general trend towards niches and specialization, both inside and outside the major publishing groups. This translates into more competition between individual publishers within a single group, while large publishing multinationnals diversify across national frontiers by turning transnationnal. 18See: and http://www. livreshebdo.fr/actualites/DetailsActuRub.aspx?id=3563 [available 28 2010]. 19Kobo was sold to the Japanese electronics company Rakuten on 8, 2011. 20See: [available ]. Or Just Like Other Media? Rather than seeing the contours of a converging oligarchic publishing industry at the international level, we see the development of strong, specialized publishing groups both inside and outside major companies. Publishers that have been absorbed by one of the large multimedia groups do particularly well, although there are strong indications that they are allowed to operate at lower profit than other divisions within the company. Todays technologies and production procedures also provide opportunities for new niche publishers to establish a position outside areas dominated by the major corporations. There is a steady supply of small, expeditious market players, while larger publishing houses buy up new imprints and bolster their own. Imprints are established in one of three different ways in the international publishing business, and the national markets differ in terms of number of imprints and the role they play in relation to their parent company. Imprints appear particularly when major publishing groups buy up smaller publishers and maintain their organizational integrity within the parent company. They become imprints when the parent company assumes responsibility for accounting, distribution and marketing, while editorial staffs manage brand names and positioning vis-à-vis authors and readers. Parent companies may also take an part in establishing new niches and trade names in order to meet the competition from smaller niche market players. Lastly, large corporations have realized that innovation and development frequently are most effecttive at an arms length from the parent unit. Thus in some cases, they hesitate to make any changes whatsoever after acquiring a publishing company, and choose instead to maintain it as an independent organizational unit under the corporate umbrella. Another interesting differentiating phenomenon that varies across Europe is how the division between fiction and non-fiction, and between general trade books, on the one hand, and STM, academic and educational publishing, on the other, is made between different publishers and companies.21 In some countries such as and , big publishers – e.g. Gyldendal in and the big three Norwegian companies Aschehoug, , and Gyldendal – operate on an integrated platform that encompasses all forms of publishing: general trade 21 For a detailed and up-to-date account of variations among the international publishing industrys various national and regional markets, see Sapiro, Les contradictions de la globalisation éditoriale. Or Just Like Other Media? books, educational material, academic books. While in many other European countries, e.g. , educational and particularly STM publishing are separate from trade publishers. A third indication of a less oligopolistic trend in and Nordic book industry is the ability of niche and specialty publishers to establish and strengthen their market positions. In part, they have achieved this by creating their own distribution channels through direct sales from publishers to readers and specialty bookstores. increasingly takes place via the Internet, and Internet bookstores are of particular importance to such publishers. Releases include everything from poetry to mysticism and technical literature. Even well-established niche publishers and small, specialized academic publishers, who take advantage of their own backlists, can to some degree maintain their position through digital distribution. New distribution channels breathe life into old books and publishing alike. Small domestic niche markets now have the opportunity to think globally with respect to exile communities and scattered ethnic or religious groups. Books from and , for example, represent a growing market in , and even the Norwegian-language book market can expand geographically via the Internet and reach all corners of the world. Perhaps an integrated, Nordic book market will ultimately allow Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish and Danish books to reach a larger readership? With directly controlled, digital distribution channels, the publishing companies today have new opportunities to exploit the On his blog in , the inventor of the term, Wired magazines Editor-in-chief , commented on how the publishing industry and niche publishing fit into the book market as a whole.22 He estimates that the long tail is responsible for approximately fifteen to sixteen per cent of the total US book market. and other commentators expect this particular long tail to grow through print-on-demand, other electronic distribution methods and not least e-books. The importance of backlists will increase, and publishers will have to find better ways to exploit them. This trend allows niche publishers to increase the possibility of finding their place in a book industry that is converging and diverging at the same time. 22 See: [available 6 January 2010]. Or Just Like Other Media? small and medium-sized publishers, however, lies in finding the proper distribution channels. It is interesting to observe that approximately half the publishers on the list of the largest publishing companies, all of them European, operate within the general book market. This shows the importance of the publishing sector in the cultural industries of Europe. At the same time, it is important to bear in mind that the industrys most profitable segment at the international level is made up of companies specializing in educational, scientific and professional (not general) trade publications. The special importance of academic and educational publishing to profits means that the competition is becoming particularly global in these market segments. This also means that publishers in small and medium-sized markets like the Nordic one will be facing an increasing challenge in these areas. Internationally, the Anglo- American dominance in academia and the sciences may ultimately play an important role in the Nordic publishing business as well. An example of this is how Pearson currently is establishing itself in the Norwegian market for books in the area of higher learning to an extent that it is also publishing books in Norwegian translation. With global markets for their English textbooks, they are also able to offer advantageous cuts and reduced prices for local booksellers. Smaller countries in particular will have to confront the question of how educational books and academic publications will be published in the future – in their native language and by domestic publishers, or through international publishing enterprises? Economies of scale depend above all on the prevalence of a given language and its position in the global hierarchy of languages.23 Bookstores and Distribution Outlets: Vertical Integration Despite the presence of many national characteristics, and different international trend patterns, it seems that independent bookstores may be losing ground. In , publishers have acquired and developed bookstore chains and thus established a market with 23 See Sapiro, Les contradictions de la globalisation éditoriale. Or Just Like Other Media? pronounced vertical features. In the three main publishers own the biggest bookstore chains. We see similar developments in other countries, such as , but not in the . On the other hand, Bertelsmann owns a stake in Amazon. Booksellers are facing problems throughout the US, and the sale of digital books is becoming increasingly important. Only booksellers located in large shopping malls, or in cities with a traditional bookreading public and large educational institutions, such as or , will survive. But this is an American development, and we must remember that US booksellers traditionally have had a far less central position than booksellers in Europe. Europe is not experiencing the same type of development, partly due to the existence of book laws that regulate the market and fix prices. countries now have such laws. has the development of retail chains been quite as rapid in Europe as in the . With the exception of the situation in , European bookstores – chains and individual booksellers alike – seem to be doing reasonably well. Booksellers have become vulnerable. The industry is capitalintensive, with major expenses for storage and large numbers of books on the shelves, many of which remain there for a long time before they are sold. In recent years, numerous alternative distribution channels have been established. Kiosks came first, followed by book clubs, and now supermarkets and chain stores such as have entered the market. And in the supermarket chain is a big mover in the book market. Bestsellers are being sold at major discounts in supermarkets. This is a trend that now has been noted in as well, after the introduction of a free price system for books in 2011. Online bookstores such as Amazon have been established for quite some time, and now the e-book revolution is in full swing. Some of the larger quality bookstores are still doing well, but the question is whether they will be able to survive if the print-on- demand and e-book markets experience substantial growth. Experiments with selling books in new ways are under way: Blackwells bookshop in in now has a called Espresso. In the course of five minutes it can print and bind a paperback edition of a book that exists in digital form.24 And , the worlds largest bookstore chain, has 24 For the development of print-on-demand, see Just Press Print, , 5 February 2010. Or Just Like Other Media? developed its own e-book reader, The Nook, and many European bookstores are now following suit. Ultimately, this may mean that unregulated book markets will adopt a four-part distribution structure. 1) In all likelihood, one or perhaps a few large chains will remain, with a smaller selection of books than before. 2) In addition, there will be a few specialty stores for niche books. 3) That being said, the large long tail sales will take place over the Internet – via print-on-demand – 4) in combination with the evolving e-book, and with Amazon and Google as the most likely dominant players in a global market. This trend is one of the impetuses behind the introduction of book laws in Europe. Cycles, Genres and Bestseller Thinking As things stand at the moment, different types of publishing houses both internationally and in the Nordic region face different challenges. The general book market demands an ever-greater number of bestsellers. Studies show that a global market has been established for a few international bestsellers that spread rapidly and simultaneously over large parts of the world. than before, major publishers earnings are the result of such unique sales phenomena as the books by and Stephenie . At the same time, national bestsellers tend largely to be associated with specific genres.25 In the 12 months between and 2009, seven of the 40 best-selling titles were identical in four or more Western European countries. Fourteen of these were originally written in English, indicating that global bestseller thinking currently favours English-language writers and publishers. At the same time, the English-language markets are also the most difficult to break into for writers with other native languages. Only a handful of authors writing in languages other than English make one or two bestseller lists outside their own language area. There are a few exceptions, of course, such as the books by Swedish crime author , but for the most part these are the exceptions that prove the rule. The study of translations between different language areas provides an interesting indication of the continuing 25 See Miha , Diversity Report 2009: Cultural Diversity in Translations of Books; Mapping Fiction Authors Across Europe, and Bestselling Fiction in Europe 2008/2009: An Extraordinary Case of Diversity within Strict European Contours. [available 15 2011]. Or Just Like Other Media? and increasingly lopsided relationship between centre and periphery in international publishing.26 However, European bestseller lists illustrate an interesting trend in the area of translated literature. Many of the books that sell best in multiple markets are international releases that transgress geographical and language boundaries. Yet it is also a fact that a given novel can do well in one or two countries, without seeing an international breakthrough. Apart from the obvious bestsellers, there are strong indications that translated literature is generally in a more difficult position than before. This may be due to two main factors. First, the battle for media attention has become fiercer, with particular focus on national authors and big international names in the individual book markets. This means that even exceptionally well-translated books do not receive the coverage they deserve. The second factor is related to pressure exerted in connection with the distribution stage, with bookstore chains devoting more attention to bestsellers and books that receive media coverage than to books expected to appeal to a limited readership. In this context, it is worthwhile to point out that although some titles may not perform well upon their release, they can be revived as paperbacks or e-books and become part of the long tail. Thus, translated literature may ultimately become an important part of the new backlist strategies in the publishing world. Particular attention should be paid to what is often referred to as , popular literature, or the mass market, which has its own unique distribution channels that target specific audiences, for example, novels catering especially to female audiences. The biggest player internationally is Harlequin Mills & , owned by largest newspaper chain, Torstar. In 2008, Torstar was 35 on the list of the worlds largest publishing companies. Harlequin specializes in genres such as , erotic literature, psychological thrillers and suspense novels, as well as popular novels about intimate relationships. 26 has developed unique research methods capable of mapping the degree to which the international sociology of translation continues to be hierarchically structured. See especially , Towards a Sociology of Translation: Book Translations as a , , vol. 2, 1999, pp. 429–444. Or Just Like Other Media? new titles are published each month in 29 different languages, covering 107 domestic markets on all continents.27 Overview of the Nordic Region as an Example of National Markets and Policies apocryphal comment that a publisher is – or should be – a combination of stock exchange and cathedral is a perfectly fitting description of the big old Nordic publishing houses. Historically they have been important contributors to the national development of a literary public and deeply rooted book culture in the Nordic countries. Just to exemplify, we have Gyldendal in , in , Aschehoug in , in . They have played an important part in the mixed economic system that is such a vital part of cultural policy in the Nordic countries, with a comprehensive system of public support for infrastructural cultural initiatives and services while private and commercial interests continue to act as the centre of the cultural economies. An important aspect of this is also the different support schemes for the development of literature and books and thus also publishing that exist in all the Nordic countries, but with clear national differences in their concrete implementations. The Nordic publishing groups included in the list of the worlds largest in 2008 are (23),28 (25) and Sanoma Oyj, formerly SanomaWSOY (31). Among these, has the strongest interests in international publishing outside the Nordic market. Sanoma Oyj has shown more interest in European magazine publications, while primarily has a stake in audiovisual media, not least in . has significant holdings, especially in the German publishing world, including Thienemann and , major publishers of childrens books and teenage literature, in addition to the prominent literary publisher Piper. As illustrated earlier, the Nordic publishing groups are above all national institutions, with occasional interests in other Nordic 27For a thorough study of Harlequins inner workings and international publishing strategies, see , Global Infatuation: Explorations in (: , 1998). 28In 2009, combined all of its publications for children and teens into a single division, Kids Media, registered on the list of new publishing companies during the first half of 2009. The Global Ranking of the 2009. Or Just Like Other Media? One or a few publishing groups tend to dominate in each country, frequently those with a long history as central cultural institutions.29 Thus mergers from foreign, non-Nordic companies will probably be from other European publishers, rather than the American companies. And most probably, the Nordic publishers are not interesting for the biggest players at the international level.30 At the moment then, the ownership structures and the delimited, small national markets probably form a stable basis for the existing publishing firms in the Nordic region. The four large Nordic countries share a similar publishing market pattern. Two or three major companies dominate the market, followed by several medium-sized publishers and a number of smaller ones. The large corporations typically own several trade names and subsidiaries, in addition to serving as distributors for book clubs and bookstores. A number of them are also involved in publishing as part of more extensive operations covering a wide variety of media platforms. Conclusion: Trends to International trends concerning ownership concentration, vertical and horizontal integration in the media industry, the role of educational publishing and STM, the dynamics created by the e-book, and transnational bestseller logics are all visible trends in the Nordic region as well. However, underlying our systematic descriptions of the different national markets is a strong belief that these differences will prevail and that homogenizing effects of globalization in the publishing industry will be filtered through differently and thus influence the developments in the Nordic countries in diverse ways and at separate speeds. At least this would be the simple argument if we were only talking about the physical book market and did not seriously analyse the effects of the growing e-book markets and the presence of global players in the digital book market such as Amazon and Google. 29According to comparative studies of European media systems, the Northern European media industry continues to show influences of the dominant role of books and literature in the process of modernization and shaping of national identity. See , : Three Models of Media and Politics (: , 2006). 30Some years ago it was rumored that Bertelsmann was interested in buying into Norwegian publishing, but apparently found it too difficult to come to grips with the cultural aspects of the system. Or Just Like Other Media? the continuous preservation of national markets do not come from market concentration among Nordic players, but from the international digital players. Thus any measure taken to preserve the physical book as a medium, treated differently or separately as a cultural commodity from the e-book, will strengthen national and local publishers at the expense of Amazon and Google. To some degree, these same measures will also probably strengthen concentration in the national markets. , professor och föreståndare Avdelningen för internationell pedagogik, Institutionen och informationsvetenskap/ , , idéhistoria och religion, Svenska språket, , Fakulteten för lärande och samhälle, högskola Per , professor emeritus Språk- och litteraturcentrum, Institutt for medier og kommunikasjon, Institutt for medier og kommunikasjon, , docent och forskningschef , professor , , , kommunikation och lärande, 1.Tre blir två! Två nya myndigheter inom utbildningsområdet. 2.Framtidens högkostnadsskydd i vården. 3.Skatteincitament för riskkapital. 4.Kompletterande regler om personuppgiftsbehandling på det arbetsmarknadspolitiska området. 6.Åtgärder mot fusk och felaktigheter med assistansersättning. 7.Kunskapsläget på kärnavfallsområdet 2012 – långsiktig säkerhet, haverier och global utblick. 8.Skadeståndsansvar och försäkringsplikt vid sjötransporter – Atenförordningen och försäkringsdirektivet i svensk rätt. 9.Förmån och fälla – nyanländas uttag av föräldrapenning. 10.Läsarnas marknad, marknadens läsare – en forskningsantologi. vid sjötransporter – Atenförordningen och försäkringsdirektivet i svensk rätt. Framtidens högkostnadsskydd i vården. Åtgärder mot fusk och felaktigheter med assistansersättning. Skatteincitament för riskkapital. Tre blir två! Två nya myndigheter inom utbildningsområdet. Kunskapsläget på kärnavfallsområdet 2012 – långsiktig säkerhet, haverier och global utblick. Läsarnas marknad, marknadens läsare – en forskningsantologi.