sou · GYB388 · 2010-11-30 00:00:00 — , och , O. (2007), Do anonymous job application procedures level the playing field?, Working paper 2007:31, IFAU, . , och , D.-O. (2007), Do when and where matter? Initial labor market conditions and immigrant earnings, , 117, 422– 448. , O., Östh, J. och Zenou, Y (2010), How important is access to jobs? question – Improved answer", , kommande. (2000), Economic perspectives on immigrants and intergenerational transmissions, Doktorsavhandling, Ekono- miska studier 102, , Han- delshögskolan, , . Appendix: Integrationsinsatser i andra europeiska länder62 62 Se även SOU 2008:58. Bilaga 4 till LU2011 Appendix: Integrationsinsatser i andra europeiska länder bestämmer i vilken kommun en flyk- tinginvandrare ska bo. Placeringarna sker för att uppnå en god geo- grafisk spridning, och hänsyn tas till individens önskemål, person- liga omständigheter samt arbetsmarknadsmöjligheterna. Den som flyttar från den tilldelade kommunen riske- rar att förlora rätten att delta i introduktionsprogrammet (och därmed rätten till bidrag). Anhöriginvandrare får bosätta sig där de anhöriga bor. I princip alla invandrare från länder utanför EEA som är ska erbjudas att delta i ett kommunalt introduktionsprogram. Aktivt deltagande på heltid är obligatoriskt och programmet ska omfatta högst . Den som inte deltar riskerar nedsättning i integrationsersättningen och/eller att inte få ett permanent uppe- hållstillstånd. Omfattningen och innehållet fastslås i ett integra- tionskontrakt och ska baseras på en bedömning av individens för- utsättningar och behov med fokus på en snabb arbetsmarknadseta- blering. Innehållet består av undervisning i danska och arbetsmark- nadsaktiviteter. Arbetsmarknadsaktiviteterna består av tre delar: Vägledning och uppgradering, arbetsträning och subventionerad sysselsättning. Deltagarna får en introduktionsersättning, vilken är lägre än socialbidragsnivån. En del av ersättning får behållas om deltagaren arbetar. Ersättningen till kommunerna är delvis kopplad till om deltagarna får ett jobb, börjar en utbildning eller klarar ett prov i danska inom treårsperioden. Kommunerna har en stor frihet att utforma integrationsprogrammen, men man har ett väl utbyggt system för kommunjämförelser av sysselsättningsutfallet (så kallad benchmarking). 63 Se , Immigration and Integration Affairs (2005, 2006, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c) och (2007). Appendix: Integrationsinsatser i andra europeiska länder Bilaga 4 till LU2011 Kommunerna är skyldiga att erbjuda alla invandrare undervisning i danska . Det finns tre studievägar bestående av sex moduler och varje studieväg avslutas med ett nationellt slutprov. Undervisningen ska kunna kombineras med arbete och annan utbildning. Omfattningen är runt (dvs. på hel- tid). Invandrare med formell utbildning från utlandet är rätt att få sin utbildning kostnadsfritt värderad av CIRIUS. Utvärderingen dokumenteras i en kort redogörelse som jämför ett utländskt cer- tifikat, diplom eller examen med närmaste danska motsvarighet vad gäller nivå och ämne. Ett antal regionala kunskapscenter utvärderar dessutom reell kompetens. Dessa verksamheter bedrivs i samarbete med arbetsgivarorganisationer och fackförbund, sker ute på före- tag, och kan dokumenteras i kompetenskort. Det finns även en informationsportal på internet om detta (www.kompetence- afklaring.dk). Invandrare som beviljats uppehållstillstånd får i princip själv välja var de vill bosätta sig, men de som inte kan ordna sin egen försörj- ning och boende placeras i en kommun. Flyktingar som saknar grundläggande kvalifi- kationer har en rätt och en skyldighet att delta i ett individanpassat introduktionsprogram (i vissa fall). Den som inte deltar riskerar att inte få introduktionsersättning. Även anhöriga till flyktingar som anländer har rätt att delta. 64 Se Det konglige kommunal- och regionaldepartement (2005), Thorud (2009), och (2009b). Bilaga 4 till LU2011 Appendix: Integrationsinsatser i andra europeiska länder Programmet ska bestå av språkundervisning i norska, samhälls- information och förberedelser för arbete och/eller utbildning. Inne- hållet fastslås i en introduktionsplan. Deltagarna erhåller en intro- duktionsersättning som är högre än socialbidraget. Bidraget redu- ceras inte av andra inkomster. Kommunerna är skyldiga att erbjuda kostnadsfri utbildning i norska till alla invandrare från länder utanför /EU/EEA (övriga har ingen rättighet att delta). Deltagande är obligatoriskt för flyktingar och deras anhöriga , och omfattar undervisning i norska och samhällsinforma- tion. De som är har rätt men inte skyldighet att delta. Deltagandet ska ske . Den som har behov ska därutöver erbjudas undervisning i norska. En mindre del av den kommunala ersättningen är kopplad till utfallet. Genom NOKUT erbjuds validering av utländsk utbildning. Resul- tatet av utvärderingen ges som ECTS poäng och ett beslut om utbildningen är ekvivalent med en norsk examen. Det finns även ett system för validering av reell kompetens, men det är främst inriktat mot de som vill börja en högre utbildning och saknar nödvändiga formella meriter. Kommunerna har en skyldighet att upprätta en integrationsplan för nyanlända som är arbetslösa eller som får socialbidrag och planen ska omfatta (kan förlängas med vid behov). Kommunerna har full frihet att själv utforma integrationspro- grammen, och det finns därför stora skillnader mellan kommuner. Programmen kan innehålla undervisning i finska eller svenska, sam- hällsinformation, utbildning och andra insatser som stödjer en 65 Se (2008). Appendix: Integrationsinsatser i andra europeiska länder Bilaga 4 till LU2011 Den som har en integrationsplan ska erhålla ett integrationsstöd. erbjuder inte något egentligt introduktionspro- gram. Invandrare har dock en skyldighet att klara ett integrations- prov som testar den invandrades kunskaper i det holländska språket och om det holländska samhället. Även invandrare som kommit till tidigare och saknar kunskaper i holländska omfat- tas. Invandrarna får i princip själva välja integrationskurser på den privata marknaden. I princip ska deltagaren bekosta de kurser som krävs själv, men en del av kostnaden betalas tillbaka när deltagarna klarat provet. De som får socialbidrag m.fl. undantas dock vanligen från kravet på att betala. har dessa regler ändrats något och kommunerna har numera återigen rätt att erbjuda (och kräva) deltagande i kommunala integrationsprogram (enligt den så kallade deltaplanen). Den som inte klarar provet inom vissa fastlagda tidsgränser (3,5–) riskerar böter och kan få svårigheter att få permanent uppehållstillstånd. Generellt erbjuds inga speciella insatser för att underlätta arbetsmarknadsetable- ringen. Socialbidragsmottagare kan dock erbjudas språkträning på arbetsplatser eller i kombination med praktik. Det finns dock inga incitament för de som erbjuder kurser att uppnå en snabb arbets- marknadsetablering då alla incitament är kopplade till andelen som klarar integrationsprovet. Anhöriginvandrare måste i många fall klara ett integrationsprov före inresan i landet. har ett relativt väl utvecklat system för valide- ring. Det finns ett informationscentrum för validering som den som vill få sin utländska utbildning validerad kan vända sig till. Validering sker sedan hos två olika myndigheter: Yrkesutbildning på gymnasienivå och vuxenutbildning respektive allmän gymnasie- utbildning och högre utbildning. Valideringen är kostnadsfri för arbetslösa personer. Validering kan resultera i en holländsk akade- misk examen om ekvivalens kan fastslås. Validering av annan reell kompetens förekommer, men i mindre grad. Verksamheten, som är riktad till alla holländare, koordineras genom ett nationellt centrum för ackreditering av förvärvad kompetens. 66 Se Justitie immigratie- en naturalisatiedienst (2009) och (2008). Bilaga 4 till LU2011 Appendix: Integrationsinsatser i andra europeiska länder I sker integrationsinsatserna på regional nivå. I Flamlän- derna har nyanlända en rätt och en skyldighet att delta i ett ettårigt introduktionsprogram. Målgruppen för programmet inkluderar även utrikes födda som bott i landet , men som erhåller soci- albidrag. Den som inte deltar riskerar symboliska böter. Ett indivi- duellt integrationsprogram utformas och dokumenteras i ett kon- trakt. Programmet innehåller samhällsorientering, språkkurser och arbetsmarknadsorientering. Språkkurserna omfattar runt 90–. Efter introduktionen kan deltagarna gå vidare till olika former av arbetsmarknadspolitiska åtgärder, vilka kan inkludera språkkurser i ytterligare 120–. I övriga två regioner är insatserna mindre omfattande. Invandrare har rätt och skyldighet att delta i ett introduktions- program. Programmet inleds med att ett kontrakt skrivs (mottag- nings- och integrationskontraktet) och omfattar (som kan förlängas en gång) och innehåller ett antal sessioner om det franska samhället samt 200 till 400 timmars språkundervisning i franska. Programmet kan även omfatta utvärdering av deltagarens kompetens, men validering av utländsk utbildning och erfarenhet är inte speciellt väl utvecklad. Försörjningen för flyktingar sker via socialbidrag. Invandrare från länder utanför EU har rätt, och i många fall skyl- dighet, att delta i ett integrationsprogram om det inte är uppenbart att ett sådant behov inte finns. I mån av plats har även de som invandrat tidigare rätt att delta. Invandrare med bristande kunska- per i tyska som lever på socialbidrag kan åläggas att delta, annars riskerar de att få socialbidraget reducerat. Programmet består av 600 timmars språkundervisning (kan förlängas för 67Se (2008). 68Se (2008). 69Se Federal office for migration and refugees (2005, 2007) och (2007). Appendix: Integrationsinsatser i andra europeiska länder Bilaga 4 till LU2011 dem som inte klarar slutprovet) och en orienteringskurs om tysk historia, kultur och politiska system. Kursen avslutas med ett slutprov. Kurserna tillhandahålls vanligen av halv- statliga eller privata organisationer. erbjuds också rådgivning. I övrigt sker integrationsinsatserna i hög grad på regional/lokal nivå och kan bestå av språkträning, utbild- ning, yrkeskvalificering, rådgivning och stöd till integration i sam- hället i övrigt. Utrikes födda har tillgång till samma arbetsmark- nadsåtgärder som övriga medborgare. Försörjning sker genom det vanliga systemet för socialbidrag. The Swedish labor market for foreign- born people – Summary In recent decades, the number of foreign-born people in has increased rapidly, and today the group constitutes more than 14 percent of the total population. Many of the newly arrived immigrants are refugees or relatives to refugees. The integration of immigrants into the Swedish society and labor market is currently one of the most important issues facing policymakers. A successful integration policy requires that newly arrived immigrants quickly find suitable jobs. However, looking at todays labor market situa- tion, it is clear that many immigrants succeed significantly worse than natives: The employment rate is lower, the unemployment rate is higher, more people are out-of-the labor force, and many of those employed have low-skilled jobs. To improve the current situation, it is important to have a clear picture of why immigrants succeed worse than natives in the labor market. The purpose of this report is to give an overview of what we, based on Swedish and international research, know about the situation for immigrants in the Swedish labor market. The report focuses on refugees and their relatives, and has four main objecti- ves: (i) To describe the current labor market situation for immigrants, (ii) to identify and discuss the reasons why employ- ment is lower for immigrants than for natives, (iii) to describe and discuss the policies which are currently used to support the labor market integration of immigrants, and (iv) to draw conclusions about how these policies may be improved. time, immigration to has shifted from mainly labor migration from European countries to mainly refugee and family migration from non-OECD countries. At the same time, the labor market situation for immigrants has worsened signifi- cantly. In 2009, the employment rate for natives and immigrants were 75.7 and 62.5 percent, respectively. The employment rate is Bilaga 4 till LU2011 especially low for refugees from non-OECD countries. Even ten years after the time of migration, the employment rate is less than 50 percent in some immigrant groups. Compared with other countries, the difference in employment between natives and immigrants in is big. There are many factors which may explain the current labor market situation for immigrants in . The report discusses the importance of five types of factors: (i) Human capital (educa- tion, labor market experience and language skills), (ii) norms, cho- ice of search method /intensity and access to informal networks, (iii)employers requirements to consider an applicant employable, (iv)ethnic discrimination, and (v) policy interventions. From the discussion, it is concluded that the following factors are especially important for understanding the differences in labor market out- comes between immigrants and natives: Lack of language skills. Many studies show that a thorough knowledge of the language spoken in the country is crucial for success in the labor market. The studies show that the emplo- yment and wage premiums of good language skills are substan- tial. There are many indications that a substantial fraction of the immigrants lack sufficient skills in Swedish, and that this affects their labor market outcome. This explanation is most important for newly arrived immigrants, but there are indications that other immigrants also have poor language skills. Lack of access to informal networks. It is well-known that many vacancies are filled through informal search channels, which means that job seekers who do not have access to such contacts will have a lower chance of finding jobs. Several studies show that the networks of immigrants are different, and that this affects their labor market outcome. This explanation is impor- tant both for newly arrived immigrants and for immigrants who have lived in for a long time but have been unsuccessful in the labor market. High requirements to be considered as employable. Globalization, technological advances and other changes have resulted in both the elimination of many low-skilled jobs and increased require- ments in terms of language skills and formal education in many occupations. There are many indications that at least some immigrants have a difficult time meeting these requirements. This explanation is most important for newly arrived Bilaga 4 till LU2011 immigrants with low skills, but even immigrants with high skills may be affected if employers find it difficult to evaluate foreign education and other skills. Many studies show that there exist ethnic discrimination in the labor market, but it is still unclear how extensive it is and what kind of discrimination is most common. However, the existing evidence suggests that both preference- based and statistical discrimination occur. This explanation is important for all immigrants, but especially for immigrants from non-OECD countries. Poorly designed policy measures. Studies indicate that poorly designed policy interventions may have made the situation worse, for example, by creating lock-in effects (see the discus- sion below). This explanation is most important for newly arri- ved immigrants who spend most of their time enrolled in intro- duction programs, but may also affect other immigrants who need support to succeed in the labor market. It is thus clear that the current labor market situation for immigrants is explained by factors associated with the immigrants themselves (i.e. supply factors), such as language skills, access to networks, factors associated with the recruiting employers (i.e. demand factors), such as the choice of recruitment methods, requi- rements for employability and discrimination, and policy interven- tions (i.e. policy factors). Many of these factors are difficult to measure, and thus it is difficult to draw clear conclusions about their relative importance. Moreover, it is likely that many of these factors are related and mutually reinforcing. Many of the factors identified as important for understanding the current situation for immigrants in the Swedish labor market are affected by policy interventions both directly and indirectly. In , the starting point for policy measures is that they should be general. This means that immigrants with permits have access to the same activities offered to all Swedes, including the extensive labor market programs. However, newly arrived immigrants are also offered a number of specific measures both before and after they have received their permits. During the often long period when the asylum applications are evaluated, some activities are offered by . Those who get permits as refugees and their relatives then typically spend several years participating in introduction programs. Bilaga 4 till LU2011 rently, the municipalities are responsible for these programs, but from the will take over this responsibility. The contents of the introduction programs are adapted to the participants, and include language training, civic studies and labor market activities. In most cases, these programs last for at least two years. Obviously, it is important that these activities are designed to help the participants quickly find suitable jobs, but there is a clear risk that poorly designed activities instead create lock-in effects. Thus an important issue is what we know about the effects of todays extensive, and costly, policy interven- tions, and how they may be improved. The report discusses in detail activities offered while the asylum applications are evaluated, the decision of where in the refugees settle, introduction programs for newly arrived refugees and their relatives, language education, validation of foreign educa- tion and other skills, and labor market policies. For each activity, the regulatory framework is briefly described, the evalua- tions which have been performed are discussed, and conclusions are drawn about how the activities may be improved. A surprising fact is that most of the measures used today have never been evalu- ated. Thus it is difficult to draw clear conclusions about how the activities optimally should be designed. The discussion shows that, among others, the following factors are important to take into account when policy interventions are designed: It is important that the measures used have a clear labor market focus. The existing studies indicate that activities which take place close to the labor market (e.g. subsidized employment) are most effective. For such activities, a positive treatment effect for the participants can be expected. Moreover, it is likely that activities which include extensive contacts with the labor market help solve other integration problems, such as poor language skills and lack of access to informal networks. Thus all policies targeted at immigrants should be preceded by a thorough analy- sis of their expected effects on labor market integration. It is important that all activities in the introduction programs, langu- age education, validation, labor market programs etc. are con- ducted in, or close to, the labor market. Also, it should be stressed that, since immigrants typically are outsiders in the labor market, crowding out effects should not be a major con- Bilaga 4 till LU2011 Instead, carefully designed labor market activities offered to immigrants may even reduce equilibrium unemployment. It is important that the measures used are adapted to the individu- als. Effective labor market integration requires that the activities are designed to give the participants exactly the knowledge, skills and access to networks they need. This requires that the activities are preceded by a thorough mapping of the needs and wishes of the participants and that the activities then, to the lar- gest extent possible, are adapted to the participants. Individuali- zation also requires that the activities are offered promptly so that unnecessary delays are avoided. Thus the mapping should be done early in the integration process, preferably during the time the asylum applications are evaluated, and then quickly be followed by suitable activities within the introduction programs. It is probably best that participation in the activities is volun- tary, but that benefits are made contingent on participa- tion. However, it is important that the individuals have access to correct information before they make their decisions (for example about the labor market situation in different municipa- lities and in different occupations). It may be argued that incre- ased individualization is difficult to achieve, for example, if the participants have special needs or live in small municipalities, but in such cases cooperation with other actors, both public and private, should be sought. It may also be argued that increased individualization is costly, but the potential gains are probably also substantial in most cases. It is important that the measures used are flexible. To avoid lock- in effects, it is important that it is possible to combine partici- pation in integration activities with job search and work. Intro- duction programs, language training and other activities should start immediately after the immigrants arrive in the municipali- ties, and then be arranged in such a way that they support, and not obstruct, job search and work. If a suitable labor market opportunity arrives, it should be possible to continue language training and other education in evening and/or in distance learning so that the labor market entry is not delayed by these activities. It is important that the measures used give both the participants and the organizers incentives to contribute to effective labor market integration. To avoid lock-in effects, it is crucial that the activities offered give all actors involved – participants and organizers – Bilaga 4 till LU2011 strong incentives for labor market entry. Thus it is important that the participants are encouraged to both search for jobs and exit the programs if they find suitable jobs. Also, payment to the organizers of the activities should be linked to the results. Thus there may be scope for more use of bonuses and other incenti- ves to stimulate labor market entry. At the same time, it is important that the incentives are designed carefully so that the organizers do not focus only on the easy cases. It is important that the measures used are designed in collaboration with the major parties in the labor market. If employers, industry associations and trade unions participate in the design and implementation of the introduction programs, the language education and the validation activities, the likelihood of effec- tive labor market integration increases. It is crucial that certifi- cates of validation or completed language studies are perceived as credible proof that the individuals really have sufficient skills. Such legitimacy requires cooperation when the criteria for approval are designed. It is unfortunate that it is still unclear how firms and others perceive such certificates. It is important that the measures used have clear objectives and a clear order of responsibility. Effective labor market integration requires that clear goals are associated with the activities offe- red. However, it is only meaningful to formulate goals if it is possible to measure if they are reached and if one actor is given a clear mandate and responsibility for the fulfillment of each goal. It is widely documented that many of the activities which have been used have lacked both clear objectives and a clear order of responsibility.