rfr · GS0WRFR1 · 2005-01-01 00:00:00 — Branch, or secondary, lines were opened up to competition at the same time. Provision of services on the main lines was initially reserved for SJ alone. However, the act of separating operations from infrastructure prepared the way for introducing competition in the railroad sector. Deregulation came in the late 1980s. On 10 January 2000, the main lines SJs prerogativewere opened to the market, formally ushering in the liberalization of rail transport. In reality, however, the market for rail passengers is still divided into three segments, and SJs monopoly has not ended. Profitable interregional rail lines are still run only by SJ. Unprofitable interregional lines are operated by a public authority known as Rikstrafiken. Regularly scheduled regional service is offered by the regional transport authorities. Liberalization has split SJ into six different companies, with SJ being in charge of passenger service. At the end of 2002, SJ found itself in serious economic trouble from which it was rescued only with grants-in-aid from the government. Two important indicators of deregulations social effects are the development in the number of jobs and the development of wages. The number of jobs in the railroad industry has fallen steeply since the beginning of deregu- lationfrom 36,000 in 1988 to 20,000 in 2002.86 In the early years of the reform, labor displacement was accompanied by special programs accepted by both labor and management. Of the 21,000 people employed by SJ in 1990, 11,000 remained by 1999, a decline of 46 percent.87 Deregulation has evidently not affected income levels, aside from the cancellation of benefits that government employees otherwise receive. However, employment conditions have become more flexible than they used to be, leading to irregular working hours and a rising total number of working hours per day. Accordingly, most assert that deregulation measures have adversely affected the working conditions of the employed.88 The picture is contradictory in customer services, too. On some lines, customer service seems to have improved with the gain in the number of passengers; on other lines, customer service has deteriorated perceptibly. Passenger information and the different fare schedules of the providers clearly pose problems, an issue the state is to eliminate through regulation. Unlike the case in , deregulation has not been associated with any decline in safety. The number of transport-related fatalities and severe injuries potential related to synergies between rail networks and rail transport]. : , pp. 85Interview with , coordinator of the research department of the , , , , with representing . 86Banverket (2002), p. 87ÖGPP (2002), p. 88Ruiter and Mast (2000), p. STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT 2004/05:RFR1 in fluctuated in the 1990s, and the trend has clearly been downward as of 2000.89 As a result of all these factors, the demand for rail services during peak traffic hours is often higher than the supply. Moreover, the transport figures for freight is declining in some thinly populated rural regions. On the whole, experts in view the deregulation of the railroads positively, especially for rural areas. Generally, regional providers handle passenger transport in the rural areas. In this context, deregulation has led to investment possibilities that these providers have used, and it has raised the quality of the services offered. The operating costs in this segment of the industry have dropped by as much as 30 percent.90 The prime objective of the market reforms in rail transportto relieve the budget of the Swedish governmenthas not been achieved yet, however. In the ten years since deregulation, state spending has nearly quadrupled, rising from a net 302 million in 1985 to a net 1.1 billion in 1995. From 1996 through 1999, the share of total proceeds accounted for by government subsidization went from 67 percent to 72 percent.91 SJ will henceforth try to solve its financial straits by investing in efficiency and diminishing its production costs. In , the railroad commission () that the Swedish government set up in 2001 to make suggestions for laws implementing EU railroad regulations proposed doing away with the monopoly that SJ and the regional providers had on nationwide rail lines. Consequently, a decision is needed on how to continue dealing with the separation between the public rail network and what will probably be privately run operations. : Structure and Change Transport research in has traditionally been funded by the . The first research agency, the (), which was created in 1960, supported research only in the field of traffic safety. the years, its mandate was broadened, and its name was changed to (Transportforskningsberedningen, TFB). In 1990 it was also put in charge of telecommunications and was renamed accordingly: Kommunikationsforskningsberedningen (KFB). In 2000, the structure of publicly funded research was radically reformed in to sharpen attention to meeting the demands of the economy, treating practical problems, and producing useable results. The effort led to the creation of , the Authority for , which controls the bulk of publicly funded transport research. 89SIKA (2003). 90Unfried (1994), p. 91ÖGPP (2002), p. 2004/05:RFR1 STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT Since the 1980s, research policy has been influenced primarily by a funding system established by a parliamentary resolution passed while was Prime Minister. This wage-earners fund (Löntagarefonder) was set up in 1984 by the social democratic parliamentary majority. All sizable Swedish firms paid part of their net profits into the Löntagarefonder in order to purchase shares. The profits from the fund were earmarked for use to advance economic development. The opposition parties saw this arrangement as a creeping process of socialism. When they came to power under the conservative government of Prime Minister in 1991, they decided to dissolve the Löntagarefonder, which by that time had amassed a value of approximately 2 billion. Of this amount, 72 million was made available as venture capital for small business. The sum of 110 million was used to found , , and the as independent foundations and to set up two research foundations, one for strategic environmental research (MISTRA) and the other for strategic research (SSF). A boom in the stock market left an additional 55 million to 110 million for the creation of six other foundations. Politically, this structure did not suit the Social Democrats, who were reelected in 1994. Opposed to the foundation concept but unable to change it, the government ensured its influence through the composition of the supervisory board. This leverage enabled the government to coordinate the allocation of the funds with state-funded research. In addition to these foundations, the and are important in Swedish transport research. They were created in 1987 to promote research and training in the areas of transport, energy consumption, and industrial development. Interdisciplinary projects have priority. To date, this technical, transport, and social science research has attracted investment of million. Since 2000, the have focused their activities on future urban transport. The intention is to establish a high-quality research and training program aimed at upgrading the accessibility and efficiency of the transport system and at fostering the sustainability of the environment and society. The leading topic is the complexity of developing urban transport. For this purpose, the foundations are instituting centers of excellence, funding many small international research projects, offering two-year postdoctoral scholarships, and holding international conferences.92 Reorganization of the Funding Structure At the start of the new millennium, preparations began for reorganizing the landscape of Swedish transport research. The goal was to adapt decentralized research structures to the centralized structures of other coun- STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT 2004/05:RFR1 tries and to defend standing within international research by concentrating on major research projects. When was founded in 2001, the organizations that had hitherto controlled research on transport and logistics were abolished. Now that a few years have passed in the reorganization and initial familiarization with the new structure, actual practice in transport research has drawn criticism from some Swedish experts in that area.93 Changes that have taken place in recent years could, they contend, eventually erode the quality of basic research. These specialists also deplore both the turn to research designed to yield quickly exploitable results and the fact that research budgets have shrunk. The period from 1994 through 2002 is regarded as a lost decade for research programs on transport and logistics. Money continued being invested, albeit at a declining rate, in old programs and established groups. Research on transport and logistics had no priority in either or the newly created foundations. more or less inherited the programs from its three predecessors and showed initiative to develop new ones.94 Transport researchers were urged to form groups and seek funding for big projects. They were unsuccessful. In the 1990s there was keen interest in information and communications technologies and the attendant research. Transport research was largely invisible. The status of transport research in in 2004 is thus contradictory. The creation of ushered in a basic change in research funding. Transport research is only one of several areas supported by . Funding for transport research has dwindled, and no new sources have materialized. The research council, Vetenskapsradet, does fund basic research at universities and institutes, but not transport research. What is more, the reorganization of research has led to discontinuities in the process of defining topics and the thrust of research. Thematic overlaps, for example, have disrupted efforts by and , the Swedish road authority, to plan centers of competence (VINN X 2003). For clarification, parliament is preparing a review of the state of the art in transport research not only in but also in other countries. is conducting parallel evaluations and advancing recommendations for the future direction of Swedish transport research. The sheer abundance of research projects still seems to complicate the decision on which ones to back. Their proliferation may be the result of the decentralized structure, which has been faulted for having too many actors and too coordination. Eight of every ten submitted research proposals 93 Interviews with Professor , 31 2003 and 31 2004, , ; Professor , , ; , , , ; Professor , , , ; and , , , . (See Enclosure 1, .) 94 Statements by Professor in his previously cited unpublished report. 2004/05:RFR1 STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT are rejected.95 The existing intricate structure also comes across as an obstacle to acquiring EU projects. Policy-makers96 reprove the lack of a program with a national and political objective and a holistic perspective on the transport system. One grievance of the politicians responsible for transport in the Swedish parliament is the lack of influence they have on , which answers to parliaments , not the Transport Committee.97 approach has its strengths, too, however. All projects must be multidisciplinary, a stipulation that serves cooperation between universities, the business community, public institutions, and research centers. It brings a variety of interests and methods together and at least decreases the danger of research projects drifting into academic insignificance or a purely industrial orientation. In , the regions (län) hold sole responsibility for all planning procedures. Although certain projects must be coordinated with the central government in , the regional authorities are the most important executive powers. Swedish public authorities have been independent for four hundred years. These institutions are characterized by a flat organization. They report to supervisory boards and general directors. The government has only indirect influence on the public authorities through its appointments of their directors and the members of the supervisory boards. The government controls the public authorities principally by means of regulatory letters (Regleringsbrev) and ordinances. The letters define the objectives that the public authorities are expected to achieve through their actions. They also contain the annual budget. A few public authorities have sectorial authority over financing research at universities and other specialized institutions in their area. performs this function for roads; does so for the railroads. The public authorities prepare applications for project funding (äskande), which must be bargained over politically. In annual budgetary negotiations, the government asks what public authorities require. The finance ministry submits to parliament a budget proposal, which is decided upon after deliberation by the parliamentary committees (utskott). Funds, including those for transport research, are thereby allocated directly to the public authorities. budget is set in this way. The , Employment, 95From an unpublished manuscript on a survey among decision-makers from public administration, business, and the research community on the subject of the reform, , Employment, and Communication [2004]. See also evaluation report on national strategy in transport research, 96Interview with , Chair of , 31 2004, , . 97Interview with and Hélèn , Office of , 31 2003, , . STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT 2004/05:RFR1 and Communication and the are jointly responsible for transport research. In order to present relevant research programs and to cover annual budget requirements, each public authority has a research advisory board with representatives of the policy-making community and industry. Their chief products are research programs that facilitate the budgetary negotiations and guide decisions on the submitted research proposals, which are considered annually or semiannually. Researchers still have relatively wide latitude to determine the size and aims of the research projects within these programs. A sound reputation and well-founded research proposals are important for approval to run research projects. The public authorities must disclose their expenditures to the government and organize open, competitive bidding. The public authorities transfer the research funds directly to the research centers of the universities and to private consultants after the research proposals have been scrutinized. For substantial projects, this task is entrusted to three evaluators, usually foreign professors. There is no external controlling or project management by the public authorities and the research centers as the research is conducted. has no institution such as (). The only formal instrument for exercising control is the rejection of project funding. The is the sole agency in charge of official controlling, a function that imbues it with a fair degree of power. ,98 , founded in 1995, reports to the , Employment, and Communication. analyzes data to supply a basis for planning by actors in the area of transport and communication. For this purpose the institute receives statistics, descriptions of the current situation, and forecasts. Among other things, prepares studies for the government, compiles the official statistics on the transport and communications sector, and develops forecasting and planning methods. also evaluates the costs of transport to answer such questions as how much money it would take for accident-reduction measures to curb the number of road and rail fatalities. is a small organization with influence on the research projects. It works closely with and . For example, the project that developed Sampers (a computer-aided traffic-forecast system and tool that models demand for all in ) was headed by , funded by and , and conducted by a private consulting company. The conditions surrounding Swedish transport research have changed over the last twenty years, depending on the governments political strategy. 98 Interview with and , , 29 2004, , . 2004/05:RFR1 STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT have been only two different directions, though: mostly social democratic, sometimes conservative. The foundations, which had been suspected of socialist leanings because they siphoned off some of the profits earned by the major companies, were dissolved or transformed by a conservative government. In any case, direct subsidization off general welfare was ended. The structures have always been changed to bring them into line with national and international economic developments. The intention has been to make the Swedish economy fit for globalization and to expand its role in intra- for EU funding. One priority has not shifted, however. The emphasis on safety, so evident from the of the 1960s and from the research commissioned by the at that time, is still the basis of transport research in . Of course, much of Swedish transport research consists of research or research in the service of vehicles and roads. The Swedish car manufacturers and their network employ 250,000 people and post turnover ranging from 30 billion to 50 billion.99 The high objectives of Swedish transport policy have thus far survived these changes. They are part of the countrys political culture and constitute topics and structures of transport research. Focal Points of Research Funding The main areas of transport research in are safety; environmentally sound engine technologies; and user behavior, especially that of children, older persons, people with disabilities, and beginning drivers. Technical systems for directing traffic and monitoring speed are tested. In research on rail transport, priority goes to logistics and the movement of freight by a combination of rail and road systems. Swedish municipalities (e.g., , , and ) have an important role in conducting innovative projects pertaining to transport policy. Indeed, efforts in the field of mobility and urban transport policy led to the communitys being named of the Year at the 2004 in (). The primary actors deciding the subject matter of the projects and acquiring the funding are ,100 , , and the , (), for they define the research 99www.pff.nu and from an information brochure entitled , 2004 (received by e-mail on 15September 2004 from , the person responsible for PFF at (hereafter cited as PFF and Its Work). 100Unfortunately, details about the duration and funding of some of the projects that have been presented are unreliable. The information published by the responsible authorities is often contradictory and thus precludes total precision in this presentation. STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT 2004/05:RFR1 topics and call for the competitive bids. The universities and institutes apply for research funding.101 Vinnova102The Authority for (Verket för innova- tionssystem)is headquartered in , employs 145 people, and is the most important source of research funding. job is to initiate and support R&D needed in the fields of technology, work life, and transport. has five scientific platforms: biotechnology, effective product development and materials, work life, information technologies, and infrastructure and effective transport systems. Research on transport receives annual funding of 160 million. projects must be of a strictly applied and practical nature. Two of the eighteen areas of growth that has defined have to do with transport: innovative vehicles and systems, and innovative logistics systems and freight transport. already has an on-going program of competence centers, which was launched by its precursor, KFB, with 28 centers at 8 universities. The competence center for railroad mechanics, Charmec, is clearly associated with transport. It involves nine partners, including universities, , and (a former government society for freight rail transport). The competence centers bring together the authority and the R&D needs of the universities, industry, and the government in order to conduct demandcentered, problem-oriented projects in defined areas and time frames. Three new competence centers (VINN X) planned in 2004 are to have a life of ten years, each with a budget of 2 million supplied by the government, universities, and business to treat the topics of freight transport and logistics, innovative vehicles, and transport policy. The new competence centers thereby respond to the escalating need for research-based knowledge and to the increasing dependency of companies, public actors, and other organizations on external competence, research cooperation, and development. At the same time, costs and the need for efficiency are forcing the different companies to concentrate on their core activities in R&D. The new generation of competence centers will therefore accentuate an innovation perspective and sustainable growth more than their predecessors did. This aim, which is in with mandate, is to a strong orientation to the market and to international competition. To help businesses adapt to changing world market conditions and to aid companies where R&D 101 The programs described in this report are from a presentation given by on as transmitted by e-mail on 3 2004 by of the Swedish ; from the website of (), , and PFF and Its Work. 102 Interview with , head of the transport department at , 31 2003, and , , 29 2004, , . 2004/05:RFR1 STRATEGIES, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS PERTAINING TO POLICY ON TRANSPORT is going abroad, the idea is to create a sound environment for research and innovation, that is, an effective interplay of production and competence networks with qualified researchers and education in the key areas. Small companies, which often do not reach critical mass in research volume, are also supposed to benefit. By using public funds and by networking the activities of the business community, public institutions, universities, and research centers, this approach ultimately ought to enhance the returns on R&D as far as international competitiveness is concerned. The principal goal of the projects funded by in this topic area is to increase the use of public transport. Public means of transport are often criticized for being complex and bewildering to use. People also fear a loss of control over their own route. To overcome these barriers, the search is for research projects that make the access to public transport attractive and comprehensible to potential by identifying the information they want and the appropriate technologies with which to supply it. The greatest current issue with passenger transport on demandthe integration of call buses into regular public transport, for exampleis the absence of standard ways to furnish information about and make arrangements for the entire journey. Solutions that seem user-friendly and effective are being tested. Mobility of Older Persons and of People with Disabilities Politically and practically, the mobility of older persons and of people with disabilities is a subject with a long and successful tradition in . Kneeling buses and other measures to ensure the accessibility of public transport are a normal part of everyday life in . There are also alternative modes of transport, such as the customary driving services offered in to people with disabilities. The costs of these services, however, are estimated to be high, even excessive. Projects on ways to facilitate this groups access to regular public transport are therefore conducted.