prop · GE0390 · 1990-12-31 00:00:00 — Several minis terial conferences, attended by delegates from a large number of nations, 16 have issued statements onthis subject. Western European cooperation has Prop. 1990/91:90 increased,and is becoming steadily more important. In , rapid expansion of motortraffic and are the main sources of increased carbon dioxideemissions. Againstthis background, the Riksdag should reconsider the issue of climate change. Aconcerted Swedish strategy to reduce climatic impact should be debated by theRiksdag during the current session. This would satisfy the Riksdag's caU for aprogramme to combat climatic change. One such strategy is outlined below. Theissue of climate change occupies a special status in environmental policy.Emissions of gases which affect the climate will have their effectsirrespective of where the emissions take place. The issue is thus a . Itis also a long-term issue. The effects appear gradually, and it is conceivablethat the most dramatic ones will not be evident until after 50 or 100 years.Since global occurs unevenly, some vulnerable regions will already beaffected during the first half of the twenty-first century. Inertiain the climatic system means that there are time lags between the implementationof measures and practical results. Today's emissions will affect the climatefor hundreds of years to come. Scientists are not yet certain as to the timescale, the exact magnitude ofthe anticipated climatic changes, or what theeffects will be in different regions. The precautionary principle, asserted bySweden in various interaational contexts, does, however, call for action to betaken even before all the facts have been scientifically demonstrated. Thismeans that we already need to be working actively to counteract climaticchange. Swedenshould participate actively in international discussions on the potential forsatisfying a long-term target implying limitation of climate changes to a levelsustainable for society and the environment. This would require taking measuresboth to limit emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and toincrease carbon uptake of and other vegetation. Theindustrialized nations emit the majority of gases which affect the climate.These emissions to date have already given rise to a serious risk of globalclimate change. No successful work to counteract climate change can be carriedout without concrete measures being implemented by these nations. Thus theindustrialized nations will play a crucial role and bear particularresponsibility in reducing climatic effects. Internationalcooperation to achieve global targets regarding the limitation of climaticeffects should be based on an intemationally cquitabie approach, both betweenindustrialized and developing nations and among the industrialized nations. Thedemands placed on any nation should stånd in relation to the potential of thatnation to implement cost-effective measures and to a fair distribution ofmeasures among nations in relation both to current per capita emissions andprcviously implemented measures which have curbed emissions. Swedenshould attach special importance to the possibilities of having a 17 2 1990/91. unitedEC/EFTA front in the negotiations for a climate convention which Prop.1990/91:90 begin in Febmary. It wouldbe advantageous for the Westem European nations to agree on astrategy to reduce climatic effects, and to secure its acceptance in the OECD.This strategy should cover carbon dioxide and other climate gases. Ajoint EC/EFTA target, which can låter be enlarged to includethe rest of Europé and the , should be for the total carbon dioxide emissions oftherelevant groups of nations not to exceed current levels in the year 2000,and to decline thereafter. EFTA nations have achievedan agreement of principle with the EC to draw up a common stånd forthe stabihzation of carbon dioxide emissions. Undertakings in this areashould be distributed cost-effectively and fairly among the nations. Theform for these commitments will be subject to EC/ Cooperationamongst the Westem European nations may also include proposing coordinatedeconomic policy levers, aid to the implementation of measures in EasteraEuropé, etc. Swedish aid to change in Eastera Europé will be a contribution tomore effective use of energy, and thus to lessening of climatic effects. Thetrend towards the increasing internation-alization of the electricity märketmakes it vital for the Westem European nations to coordinate measures tocounteract carbon dioxide emissions from the generation of electricity whereverpossible. In this context, should work to ensure that the pricing of electricityreflects tme costs, including environmental impact. Thedeveloping nations are particularly vulnerable to climatic change, and play akey role in interaational cooperation. To attain sustainable development, itwill be necessary to implement measures to counteract deforestation,desertification, and inefficient uses of energy in these nations. Increasedaid from the industrialized nations will be important in order to createconditions in which these measures do not come into conflict with other,short-term needs. should work towards the atiainment of the UNinteraational development assistance target by all industrialized countries.Silvicultural and reforestation measures should be an important part of Swedishforeign aid policy. Nationalpolicy to combat climate change should be formulated so that will beable to give added impetus to interaational cooperation, working with the otherWestern European nations. A Swedish strategy to counteract climate change mustbe action-oriented. It is to cover all gases affecting the climate, and allsectors of society. is to work actively to bring about limitation ofemissions even from sectors which have to compete on the international märket.Far-reaching restrictions of this kind call for international cooperation. Theplan adopted in to phase out CFCs requires more rapid and more extensivereduction of the current climatic effects than are required in internationalagreements (the Protocol). Theuse of other ozone-depleting substances, including halons, must cease. Thiswill bring about further reduction of climatic effects. Carbon dioxideemissions must be limited, and inputs of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons andcarbon monoxide must be sharply reduced. Anumber of possible measures to reduce emissions of these greenhouse gases are described below. Priority amongst the measures should be deter mined by their efficacy in reducing climate change in relation to their costs. If a sufficient numberofthe measures described below are implemented, Prop. 1990/91:90 the resultwill be a drastic decrease in climatic effects originating in by theyear 2000, in comparison with current levels. Many measures are alsoenvironmentally beneficial in respects other than reducing climate change. Theymay, for instance, reduce acidification, improve urban environments or protectthe ozone layer. The1988 Riksdag decision induded both the requirement for a programme to decreaseemissions of carbon dioxide and stated the interim goal that Swedish emissionsof carbon dioxide should not increase beyond 1988 levels. However, this targetlevel has already been exceeded and, in the light of increasing traffic etc, itwill probably be difficult not to continue to exceed it in the coming years.The measures described here should form a good point of departure for aprogramme for long-term reductions to a level below the 1988 level. A number offactors the price of cmde oil, consumer price sensitivity, future energyrequircments, etc. make it difficult to state the exact pace at which emissionscan be reduced. Tokeep carbon dioxide emissions from the energy sector as low as possible, thelong-term energy supply must be secured through effective utilization of sustainable,environment-friendly, preferably renewable sources of energy. Energy managementand increased use of renewable sources of energy will, therefoie, be decisiveelements in a strategy to reduce climatic impact. Efficientenergy use is one important instmment to decrease climatic effects. Energymanagement must, as has been proposed above, be height-ened. The rales of taxreduction for energy-intensive industry are undergo-ing review in order, forexample, to find incentives for energy conservation and reduced carbon dioxideemissions. Environmentallyadapted energy production with low climatic impact must be encouraged. There isenvironmental justification, for economic support to wind power, solar powerand bio-fuelled CHP, for example. From the point of view ofthe climate,bio-fuels are generally better than fossil fuels. In choosing among fossilfuels, natural gas is preferable to coal and oil. CHP should be givenpreference to back-pressure power. Investmentsin energy conservation and environmentally adapted energy production, alongwith the carbon dioxide tax passed by the Riksdag, will make it possible tolimit carbon dioxide emissions from housing, services and district heatingplants so that they will not exceed current levels in the year 2000. Itis essential to reduce the effects of traffic on the climate. This can be donethrough public transportation with low carbon dioxide emissions, increasedfuel-efficiency in new cars, motor alcohol-fuelled vehides for urban areas, andreduction of average speeds on highways. Carbon dioxide emissions from aviationand should be limited. Suchmeasures could make it possible to restrict carbon dioxide emis sions from traffic so that they do not exceed current levels in the year 2000. As traffic accounts for emissions of other greenhouse gases as well, this also means that the total effect of the traffic sector on the climate can be reduced. The results of these measures will be contingent on economic developments, and on fuel prices. Increases in the price of petrol during the first half of 1990, which was one aspect of the tax reform, helped reduce carbon dioxide emissions from vehicular traffic, following a period with annuai increases of 4 . Improved waste managementcan help to reduce climate change. 1990/91:90 example is energyrecovery through combustion of methane from waste landfills, which reduces theneed of fossil fuels and has also reduced methane emissions. Methane is apowerful greenhouse gas. Measures in agriculture will represent a significantpart of a climate strategy. Phasingout of CFCs can be extended to other substances with similar effects (halons,carbon tetrachloride, HCFC and others). In addition to decisions alreadyadopted, a number of measures can be taken in view of the interaationalsituation, for example. These could include limitations on HCFCs, halons,carbon tetrachloride and ITl' trichlorothane. Measuresof this type can lead to substantial reductions of emissions of dimate-changinggases. Measuresto counteract the use of volatile organic compounds (some solvents, forexample) are important in terms of reducing climatic effects. Thisinter-party agreement on energy policy wiU mean major investments in energymanagement and environmentally adapted power generation. The Government isproposing guidelines for energy policy in its bill on Energy Policy. Inthis , the Goverament is recommending the implementation of a number ofmeasures to reduce climatic effects. In the field of traffic, for example,measures will include an enviromental dassification system for new vehides. Inthe 1991 Government on Industrial Growth Policy, major investments inpublic transport and railways, and further pilot projects using automatic speedlimit monitoring are proposed. In its on Energy Policy, the Government isproposing allocations for testing and development of alcohol-fuelled vehides. TheGoverament is also reporting in this that the plan to phase outozone-depleting substances is to be extended. The Goverament is an-nouncingthat regulations will be introduced on the recovery and destmction of CFC andhalons. TheGovernment has prcviously described measures to reduce the environmentaleffects of waste management. The on-going restracturing of Swedish agriculturewiU help reduce effects on the environment. The Government is announcing inthis that emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are to be halvedin relation to the 1988 level by the year 2000. Thesemeasures will mean a substantial reduction of Swedish inputs to climaticchange. However, further investigation ofthe costs and effects of possiblemeasures is essential. This is particularly tme in the case of measures tocounteract emissions of greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide. It is theintention of the Government, in collaboration with the relevant authorities, topresent an in-depth analysis of issues on the climate which will form a basisfor Swedish policies, both nationally and intemationally. In late January, 1991,Statistics reported the 1988 carbon diox ide emissions, and the preliminary figures for 1989. These statistics indi cate that emissions were basicaUy unchanged between 1988 and 1989 (62.8 million of carbon dioxide in 1988 and 62.2 million in 1989). Although 1989 was a much warmer year than , there were only 20 marginal reductions incarbon dioxide emissions. This illustrates the diffi-culty of to the1988 emissions levels under normal weather conditions. It is emphasized in theinter-party agreement, not least in light of traffic developments, that thisinterim target will probably be difficuft to meet in the coming years. 2.2 Transboundary air pollutants Governmentproposals: Guidelines for future work are that depositions of sulphur andnitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds are to be limited to levels atwhich neither the environment nor human health is härmed. Accordingto the 1988 statement ofthe Riksdag, Swedish sulphur levels are to be reducedby between 1980 and 2000. According to previous Riksdag statements nitrogenoxide levels are to be reduced by by 1995, in relation to the 1980 level.These emission targets are to serve as guidelines in future work. Extensivemeasures wiU have to be implemented to achieve this objective for nitrogenoxides. Ammoniaemissions should be reduced by by 1995. The potential for reducingemissions by in the southem and westem parts of the province of Götalandbefore the year 2000 is to be examined. There should be a reduction inemissions of volatile organic compounds by the year 2000 in relation to the1988 levels. 'scontribution to intemational cooperation in the next few years should befocused mainly on bringing about more stringent requircments for vehicleexhaust emissions in Europé. New intemational agreements to reduce emissions ofsulphur and nitrogen oxides are also to be given priority. They should bebased on the critical loads the environment can withstand. is to worktowards achieving an agreement on reductions of emissions of volatile organiccompounds. Thesoil in southem has become severely acidified in recent decades. In theregions of , and southem , soil acidification has reacheddepths of several meters, and is affecting the groundwater. One effect of thisprocess is that the readily accessible store of nutrients such as calcium andmagnesium in the soil has decreased by 30 in southem . Metals whichmay be toxic to plants and animals, such as aluminium, are also released fromthe acidified soil. Continued acidification offorest soil is an increasing threat to the environment and to the value of ourforests. soil in parts of southem is approaching the nitrogensaturation limit. The results of this are soil acidification and nitrogenleaching as weU as both a nutrient imbalancein the trees in the and decreased growth. Uniess Prop.1990/91:90 nitrogen deposition is reduced, substantial portions of southemSweden may be nitrogen saturated within 10 to 20 years. Groundwateraffected by acidification was reported, particularly in the southem part ofSweden, throughout the 1980s. In areas with heavy acid rain, there aresubstantially raised levels of aluminium in the groundwater. As the pipelinesare corroding, copper levels are also sharply raised in the drinking water frommany private wells all över . There is a clear risk that the copper levelsin drinking water will increase in step with increasing acidification. Copperand aluminium in drinking water may give rise to health risks. Inthe early 1980s, 16,000 ofthe approximately 85,000 lakes in were soseverely acidified that sensitive species had substantially decreased innumber or died out. In nearly 6,000 of these lakes, treatment with powderedlimestone has resulted in improvements in the situation of the plant and animallife. Without liming, acidification would have meant that most forms of lifewould have been dead in at least one-fourth ofthe lakes and watercoursesdownstream ofthe lakes which have been limed. Duringthe last 25 years, there have been no substantial changes in the acidificationsituation in the lakes and watercourses in the provinces of andSvealand or the areas of . However, in the mountains and theadjacent areas, the last 10 to 15 years have seen continuing increasedacidification. Largeparts of the Swedish are suffering from impaired vitality.Approximately every fifth fir and every seventh pine has löst more than ofits needles. Deciduous trees, including beech, oak and birch, exhibit moreextensive damage, expressed as thinning out and disturbed growth in the crowns,than is found in firs and pines. Increasing soil acidification and theconsequent impoverishment of soil stånd as the greatest long-termthreats to the Swedish . Stratosphericozone provides indispensable protection against hazardous ultra-violetradiation. However, ozone at the surface ofthe earth may harm plant growth andhuman health. Superficial ozone develops in interaction with sunlight when thelevels of certain air pollutants become too high (photochemical smog). Thesuperficial levels of ozone in southem during the summer half of theyear are near or above the levels at which health and crops are härmed. Inwestern , it is estimated that current ozone levels are causing anapproximately poorer yield ofthe crops of spring wheat. Crops such asgrazing grass, oats and potatoes are also being negatively affected. Thecompounds which contribute most to acidification, nitrogen saturation and theformation of photochemical smog are sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides andvolatile organic compounds. Emissionsof sulphur in have decreased substantially since the early 1970s as aresult of implemented measures. Emissions from both combustion and industrialprocesses have been limited, and today they are lessthan half of the 1950 levds. Since 1980, total sulphur emissions have Prop.1990/91:90 decreased by more than . Sulphurdeposition in most of does, however, exceed the critical load, which isthe limit above which it has been scientifically proven that long-term effectson the environment occur. To be brought below this limit, sulphur deposition insouth-western would have to be decreased by more than of the 1980level. Simulations indicate that during the 1980s sulphur deposition in all of Swedendecreased by between 15 and . Emissions from foreign sources and diffuseemissions for which no country of origin can be determined account for about90% ofthe sulphur deposition in . In 1988, inputs of sulphur from Polandand the then GDR to sulphur deposition in were ofthe same order ofmagnitude as the Swedish inputs, if not larger. Critical loads are beingexceeded elsewhere in Northern Europé as well. Thus, in order to bring thisdeposition down to the critical loads, extensive measures will have to beimplemented in Europé. A large number of Western European nations are nowworking towards decreasing their emissions, pursuant, for instance, toagreements in the UN-ECE and the EC. The on-going processes of economic changein eastera , and may mean substantial emissionreductions, and thus the situation is consider-ably brighter today than whenthe 1988 Swedish Goverament on Environmental Policy was presented. Asulphur tax and an environmental dassification system for oil have beenintroduced in The Energy Tax Act, in order to bring about reductions in sulphuremissions in . The dassification system will lead to substantialreductions in the sulphur content of diesel fuel. In reviewing a number ofpermit appeals pursuant to the Environment Protection Act, the Government hastightened up sulphur emission requircments. The Government has amended theOrdinance on fuels containing sulphur so that a maximum sulphur level has nowbeen set for all fuels containing sulphur. Emissionsof nitrogen oxides come primarily from various combustion processes, and theyincreased rapidly in in the 1950s and 60s. During the 1980s, totalemission levels have basically remained . Emissions from energygeneration plants have decreased by about one-third. Emissions from traffichave increased in the 1980s. Nitrogendeposition exceeds the critical loads in southem and elsewhere. Thisdeposition needs to be decreased by at least in the province of ,primarily in the south-westem areas. Air-borne nitrogen is also asignificant source of nitrogen pollution. In the region of and onthe Swedish , about of the nitrogen deposition comes fromnitrogen oxides and about from nitrogen in ammonia from agriculture.Foreign sources account for of the nitrogen deposition in south-westernSweden. A large proportion of ammonia deposition comes from . TheRiksdag has passed a charge on nitrogen oxide emissions from large combustion plants. It is estimated that this charge will both decrease annuai emissions by 3,000 - 5,000 , and bring forward the imple- 23 mentation of environmentalimprovement measures. On the basis of a Prop. 1990/91:90 Goverament proposal,the Riksdag has also, at the proposal ofthe Government, considered exhaustregulations and adopted durability requircments for heavy vehides. TheGovernment has amended the Automobile Exhaust Ordinance, tightening up theexhaust requircments for light tmcks and buses, in accordance with a previouspresentation to the Riksdag. Emissionsof volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides contribute to the oecurrenceof high levels of photochemical oxidants (primarily ozone). This is a widespreadphenomenon attributable to emissions in large geographic regions. The problemis particularly great on continent, in the triangie formed byHamburg-Paris-Munich. Ozone levels in are primarily affected by ozonefrom the continent. However, local formation of ozone, primarily över urbanareas, also leads to substantial raising of the oxidant levels. High levels ofphotochemical oxidants may harm crops and and affect human heafth.Traffic is the main source of emissions of volatile organic compounds inSweden. Petrol distribution and the use of solvents are also majorcontributors. Certain organic compounds, such as chlorinated solvents, alsohave direct effects on health and the environment. Swedish emissions ofvolatile organic compounds were approximately 460,000 in 1988. Inreviewing a number of permit applications pursuant to the EnvironmentProtection Act in , the Government stated that limitation ofsolvent emissions should be given higher priority in environmental protectionwork at all levels. Pursuant to this statement, recom-mended safety distancesshould be observed, and the potential for phasing out the use of solventsentirely should be investigated. This statement has been referred to in a largenumber of cases reviewed by the Government. 2.2.2Objectives for transboundary air pollutants