The PNAC aims to promote 100% condom use and behavioural change communication in every prevention effort, to encourage partnerships between local governments and NGOs, and to establish local AIDS councils. Some key cities have implemented the 100% condom use policy (UNAIDS 2008). But not all local governments have adopted these efforts. HIV has remained low among female sex workers; one explanation is the government's early and continuing strategy of monitoring and treating STIs through its social hygiene clinics. As in Taiwan, prostitution is illegal in the Philippines. However, the Philippines health system requires all workers at entertainment establishments to register with the government and to receive regular STI health check-ups at the government clinic. Outreach, treatment, and regular screening of sex workers in the Philippines have led to STI declines among sex workers and their clients (Wi et al. 2006 ). Rules on condom use at The role of non-formal education 351 entertainment establishments may also make a difference; in one study, workers were 2.6 times more likely to use condoms consistently when the establishment had such a rule (Morisky et al. 2002a, b, c) . Challenges remain for the Philippines. NGOs deliver psycho-social and medical services for IDUs. However, the Philippines could experience a rapid increase in HIV due to the use of injecting drugs, as happened in Taiwan. The Philippines National AIDS Council plans to expand HRPs to other areas where the numbers of IDUs are increasing. As part of a national surveillance system, 360 male IDUs were surveyed in Cebu City, Philippines, from 1997 to 1999. Although most of the men knew that certain behaviours put them at risk, more than two-thirds reported they shared needles and almost two-thirds of those who were sexually active said they never used condoms (Amadora-Nolasco et al. 2002) . Other challenges include a conservative culture that discourages open discussion of sexuality, inadequate social and behavioural research and monitoring, high numbers of STIs, and the weak integration of HIV/AIDS programmes into local governments (UNAIDS 2008) . Finally, the low rate of HIV testing among both the general and high-risk populations in the Philippines poses a major problem for detection and early treatment (PNAC 2008) .