Based on the success of many of these DNA vaccine studies in mice, a few vaccine candidates have been tested in additional animal models, possibly more relevants for the development of a veterinary or human vaccine (Table 2) . PFR-2 and KMP11 antigens were tested as DNA vaccines in hamsters, a highly susceptible animal model. PFR-2 was tested as protein, DNA, or DNA-protein immunization, and protection levels against L. mexicana varied greatly depending on vaccine formulation, route of immunization, and sex of the animals [52] . Also, contrary to mouse studies, protein vaccination seemed more protective than DNA only vaccination. However, as in mouse studies, heterologous prime-boost vaccination with DNA and protein seemed better than DNA only [52] . Another DNA vaccine encoding PapLe22 was found to be immunogenic in hamsters and decreased parasitemia after infection with L. infantum, but further assessment of disease was not performed [54] . Immunization with KPM11 DNA induced a mixed Th1/Th2 response, but was able to protect hamsters against visceral leishmaniasis caused by L. donovani [53] . In dogs, while several protein vaccines have been tested and a purified protein vaccine has now been licenced for veterinary use [77] , very few DNA vaccine studies have been performed. A heterologous prime-boost strategy using CPa and CPb DNA and protein was reported as immunogenic and protective [57] , but the study was of limited power given the reduced number of animals. In another study, dogs were immunized with a mixture of DNA vaccines encoding 10 different antigens previously tested in mouse models, and this immunization induced a very good immune response, with a high production of IFNγ [56] . However, evaluation of protection was limited to an acute in vitro assay [56] and further studies will be required to assess the potential of this vaccine in dogs. In spite of their limitations, these studies clearly showed that several DNA vaccines can induce a potent immune response in nonmurine animal models, and it is likely that a good level of protection can be achieved in these as well, provided the correct antigens and vaccine formulation are used.