non-coding RNA may use a similar mechanism to regulate gene expression although the À1 PRF efficiency observed here is not dramatic compared with the reported examples (20, 21) . However, further enhancement of frameshift efficiency for application purpose is possible, such as that demonstrated by the use of modified oligonucleotides (20) . Early Days of Food and Environmental Virology In July 1962, the author joined the Food Research Institute (FRI), then at the University of Chicago, to become its food virologist. There was a limited record of waterborne viral disease outbreaks at the time; recorded data on foodborne outbreaks were fewer still. Laboratory environmental (water and wastewater) virology was in its infancy, and food virology was in gestation. Detection of viruses was most often attempted by inoculation of primary primate cell cultures, with observation for plaque formation or cytopathic effects. Focus was initially on enteroviruses and reoviruses. Environmental and food samples had to be liquefied if not already in liquid form; clarified to remove solids, bacteria, and fungi; and concentrated to a volume that could be tested in cell culture. Cytotoxicity was also a concern. Studies at the FRI and some other laboratories addressed all of these challenges. The FRI group was the World Health Organization’s Collaborating Center for Food Virology for many years. Other topics studied were virus inactivation as functions of temperature, time, matrix, disinfectants, and microbial action; peroral and ex-vivo infectivity; and the suitability of various virus surrogates for environmental monitoring and inactivation experiments. Detection of noroviruses and hepatitis A virus required molecular methods, most often RT-PCR. When it was found that inactivated virus often gave the same RT-PCR signal as that of infectious virus, sample treatments were sought, which would prevent false-positive test results. Many laboratories around the world have taken up food and environmental virology since 1962, with the result that a dedicated journal has been launched. I am delighted to have this opportunity to share some reminiscences of the evolution of food and environmental virology. Although this is largely a first-person account and subject to the problems of a failing memory, I console myself with the thought that most of what is known of evolution has been learned from old fossils. My research in environmental virology began in 1962. Only virology is addressed in this narrative, although our group worked with other intestinal pathogens (bacteria, protozoa, etc.) at times. My research career has led me to view the world as though peering outward through the anal orifice-''reverse proctoscopy'' has contributed significantly to addressing problems in unusual ways.