To measure levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) released into the media during an infection, NIH 3T3 cells were infected at an MOI of 5 for 16.5 h. Infection supernatant (60 ml) was mixed with 60 ml LDH detection reagent in triplicate in a 96-well plate as described previously [68] . Absorbance was read on an Elisa-reader at 490 nm wavelength. To detect caspase activity, NIH 3T3 cells were infected at an MOI of 5 for 24 h, whereupon caspase activity was measured using the Caspase-Glo 3/7 Assay System (Promega) following the manufacturer's protocol. To monitor Annexin V-PE and 7-AAD staining by flow cytometry, NIH 3T3 cells were infected at an MOI of 10 for 18 h. Cells were then washed with PBS and harvested via trypsin digestion. Infection supernatant, PBS wash, and cells were combined and pelleted by centrifugation. Cells were washed in PBS and then stained for Annexin V-PE (BD Biosciences, Material # 556422) and 7-AAD (BD Biosciences, Material # 559925) via the manufacturer's protocol using 3 ml of each dye. Data were collected on an EPICS XL cytometer (Beckman-Coulter) and analyzed using FlowJo software (Tree Star).