In addition to IFN related genes, PR/8 significantly increased the expression of many cytokine genes and cytokine-regulated genes. These included the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-a (7.3-fold at 4 hpi and 25-fold at 24 hpi), IL-1a (6.9-fold at 24 hpi), and IL-1b (2.3-fold at 4 hpi and 16.3-fold at 24 hpi). We verified the alteration in IL-1a and IL-1b by real-time RT-PCR (data not shown). The infection also upregulated expression of TNF-a induced proteins 2, 3, 6, and 8, as well as TNF receptor family members 9 and 10. Expression of IL-1 family members interleukin 1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1) and the IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) was also increased (Data S1). In addition, PR/8 infection up-regulated mRNA expression of many chemokine genes including CC chemokines CCL2-5, and CCL20, as well as CXC chemokines CXCL9-11 (Data S1 and Tables 1 and 2). CXCL9-11 were markedly increased when compared to controls both in the microarray studies and in additional verification studies (Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 1D ). CCL5 was the most increased CC chemokine (232-fold at 4 hpi, 234-fold at 24 hpi) (Tables 1  and 2) .