Our sample size for hunted Mallards was reasonably large (n = 299 in 2008/2009 and 555 in 2009/2010). Moreover, the sites where we sampled hand-reared and shot Mallards were close to each other (see Figure 2 ; for instance one of the hunting estates we sampled was within 4 km of the GBF where we detected an AIV outbreak). Nevertheless, our sampling effort was limited in time to the hunting seasons: we do not have any data from February to August 2009. We therefore cannot exclude that the H10N7 strain originated from wild birds. Population density during the breeding season is low in wild Mallard [45] , and thus, even if the H10N7 Camargue virus originated from wild birds, hand-reared Mallards would then have played an amplifying role. In addition, commercial trade of Mallard chicks is common and most of the juveniles sampled in this study traveled 600 km from the producer when one-day old. It is also possible that the H10N7 Camargue strain originated from the birthplace of the chicks. If so, domestic ducks would have both played an amplifying role and potentially a dispersal one, since they could have spread a new strain in wild duck populations.