Besides, we did not detect any H5 subtype circulating in the GBF whereas 23% of all the AIV we isolated from samples collected on shot Mallards in the Camargue belonged to this subtype. Again we could not highlight any AIV exchange between ducks living in captivity and in the wild. Yet, hand-reared ducks are exposed to wild bird feces and GBF are connected to wild bird habitats through common use of water. Thus, AIV exchanges are very likely to exist. Our results highlighted that: i) GBF represent an epidemiological compartment into which important AIV outbreaks can occur; ii) a significant proportion of Mallards wintering in the Camargue are infected by LPAIV, including H5 strains that are known to be able to evolve to HPAIV in domestic birds [30] . Knowing that rearing conditions in the GBF may favor AIV exchanges between wild and hand-reared Mallards, these findings outline the need for influenza surveillance in GBF to prevent HPAIV outbreaks in both wild and domestic birds in the region.