Recent research among pregnant women has yielded interesting, albeit similarly inconsistent, findings. Lobel et al. [8] found that women who were the least optimistic had babies of the lowest birthweight, even when controlling for gestational age. Moyer et al. [20] found that optimism/pessimism among Ghanaian pregnant women was inversely associated with knowledge of HIV and previous HIV testing. In other words, those who were not tested prior to their pregnancy and had the least knowledge of HIV were the most optimistic. The authors also found that, when compared to a similarly aged sample of nonpregnant women in the United States (U.S.), the Ghanaian women were significantly more optimistic. [20] The construct of health-related quality of life is one variable that has been linked to optimism/pessimism in past research. [21] In one study, researchers found that, even when health status was controlled, pessimists had significantly worse health-related quality of life (HRQOL) scores than optimists or so-called "realists." [21] In that study, pessimists were those who expected disproportionately negative outcomes associated with their Hepatitis C diagnosis, optimists were those who expected few negative outcomes associated with their Hepatitis C diagnosis, and realists were those who had a fairly accurate perception of the impact Hepatitis C was going to have on their lives. Optimists' HRQOL scores in this study mirrored the scores of the general U.S. population, even though the population being studied (chronic hepatitis C patients) has been shown to have significantly lower QOL than the general population.