Using in silico and in vitro approaches, this study identified two novel T cell epitopes NP 89-97 (PKKTGGPIY) and NP [198] [199] [200] [201] [202] [203] [204] [205] [206] (KRGINDRNF) in the H5N1 AIV NP in chickens of certain haplotypes. The method used in this investigation is applicable to predicting T cell epitopes for other antigens in chicken, while this study also extends our understanding of the mechanisms of the immune response to AIV in chickens.  Novel Paramyxoviruses in Free-Ranging European Bats The zoonotic potential of paramyxoviruses is particularly demonstrated by their broad host range like the highly pathogenic Hendra and Nipah viruses originating from bats. But while so far all bat-borne paramyxoviruses have been identified in fruit bats across Africa, Australia, South America, and Asia, we describe the detection and characterization of the first paramyxoviruses in free-ranging European bats. Moreover, we examined the possible impact of paramyxovirus infection on individual animals by comparing histo-pathological findings and virological results. Organs from deceased insectivorous bats of various species were sampled in Germany and tested for paramyxovirus RNA in parallel to a histo-pathological examination. Nucleic acids of three novel paramyxoviruses were detected, two viruses in phylogenetic relationship to the recently proposed genus Jeilongvirus and one closely related to the genus Rubulavirus. Two infected animals revealed subclinical pathological changes within their kidneys, suggestive of a similar pathogenesis as the one described in fruit bats experimentally infected with Hendra virus. Our findings indicate the presence of bat-born paramyxoviruses in geographic areas free of fruit bat species and therefore emphasize a possible virus–host co-evolution in European bats. Since these novel viruses are related to the very distinct genera Rubulavirus and Jeilongvirus, a similarly broad genetic diversity among paramyxoviruses in other Microchiroptera compared to Megachiroptera can be assumed. Given that the infected bats were either found in close proximity to heavily populated human habitation or areas of intensive agricultural use, a potential risk of the emergence of zoonotic paramyxoviruses in Europe needs to be considered. Members of the virus family Paramyxoviridae are divided into two subfamilies, Paramyxovirinae and Pneumovirinae, comprising a vast variety of animal-and human-pathogenic viruses [1] . Within the subfamily Paramyxovirinae, five genera have been classified, Respiro-, Morbilli-, Rubula-, Avula-, and Henipavirus, as well as a fastgrowing group of unclassified viruses. The increased molecular characterization of recently isolated paramyxoviruses indicates a much greater genetic diversity within the subfamily Paramyxovirinae than previously assumed. Furthermore, the detection of highly human-pathogenic paramyxoviruses has also influenced the attention drawn to paramyxovirus research and to the isolation of further novel paramyxoviruses from hosts that are suggested as likely species to transmit newly emerging viruses. Bats are among this highly suspected group of animals [2] . They belong to the most successful and diverse mammals on earth and comprise approximately 1,200 chiropteran species distributed worldwide. In the last two decades important zoonotic viruses including Ebola, Marburg, and SARS virus, but also paramyxoviruses such as Hendra and Nipah virus have been identified in various Pteropus spp. (flying foxes) fruit bats [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] . For Menangle virus, another paramyxovirus isolated from fruit bats, less pathogenic courses of disease in humans have been described [12] . For other bat paramyxoviruses isolated, infections in humans have yet to be associated, e.g. Tioman virus from flying fox [13] , bat parainfluenza virus from flying fox [14] , Tuhoko virus from flying fox [6] , Mapuera virus from non-pteropid fruit bat [15] , and Henipalike viruses also from non-pteropid fruit bat [4] . All viruses of the family Paramyxoviridae so far detected in bat species have been identified in fruit bats across Africa, Australia, South America, Asia, and Madagascar [3] [4] [5] [6] 10] . Only a few studies attempting the isolation of paramyxoviruses in bats concerned insectivorous bat species, and all of them turned out with negative results [16, 17] . The only indication of paramyxoviruses in this group of bat species was the detection of Nipah virus antibodies in lesser Asiatic yellow bats (Scotophilus kuhlii) [16] .