The torsional restraint model predicts that pseudoknots should direct elongating ribosomes to pause at one specific location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 . Efficient frameshifting is stimulated by pseudo-pseudoknots. In vitro translation assays were performed in retic lysates with mRNAs derived from pJD366-18 (SL) to which J-or R-oligos were annealed. Luciferase activities were divided by those obtained using mRNAs generated from pJD366-0, and the resulting ratios were multiplied by 100 to calculate percent frameshifting. The averages of three independent experiments performed in triplicate are shown. Error bars denote standard deviation. on the mRNA, rather than being distributed along Stem 1. We used mRNA toeprint assays to test this hypothesis. In mRNA toeprint reactions, the movement of reverse transcriptase is blocked by paused ribosomes, resulting in a strong stop positioned $16-18 nt 3 0 of the P-site of eukaryotic ribosomes (25) . Synthetic JD366-18 mRNAs were annealed with the sequencing oligonucleotide and either J1, R1 or no second oligo, and these were then used for in vitro translation reactions. After a period of time (10 min were empirically determined to be optimal), elongation reactions were stopped by the addition of cycloheximide, and reverse transcription reactions were initiated on the sequencing oligonucleotides. In parallel, control reverse transcription reactions were carried out using synthetic JD366-18 mRNA and oligonucleotides, but without in vitro translation. The results are consistent with the model, showing that the J1-and R1-oligos specifically promoted one strong reverse transcriptase stop 16 nt 3 0 of the P-site of the slippery site only the in the in vitro translation reactions ( Figure 7 ). As further predicted by the model, a broad distribution of stops of equal intensities was observed in this region with JD366-18 mRNA alone (Figure 7, lane 1) . Importantly, the +16 stop was not observed when toeprint reactions were carried in the absence of ribosomes. Additional strong stops were also of interest. One corresponding to the 3 0 end of the base of Stem 1 was observed in all samples, consistent with the presence of this structure. Both J-and R-oligo-specific pauses were also observed. The reason for the strong pause in the J-oligo is unknown. The R-oligo-specific pause is perhaps more revealing. It occurs at the 3 0 end of the RNA:DNA hybrid formed by this oligo and the mRNA, a structure that should also promote pausing of reverse transcriptase.