Relatively high prevalence of AIV was regularly detected in the wintering Mallard population of the Camargue (e.g. 5.4% prevalence during the 2006±2007 hunting season) [33] . Moreover a seasonal infection pattern was identified in Mallards during autumn and winter, with higher infection rates in early fall [33] . Mallards hence represent a focal study species in AIV research. Indeed wild Mallards are one of the main low pathogenic AIV natural reservoir host [34] , and have proven to be healthy carriers of some of the H5N1 HPAIV strains [35] . However, to our knowledge no study ever aimed at investigating the potential role of hand-reared Mallards released for hunting in the epidemiology of AIV, despite the very large number of ducks being released in the wild annually.