The exact mechanisms by which CO acts at the molecular level remain incompletely understood. CO potentially exerts its physiological effects by influencing at least three known pathways (Fig. 2 ). By complexation with the heme moiety of the enzyme, CO activates soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), stimulating the production of cyclic 3':5'guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) [47] . The sGC/cGMP pathway mediates the effects of CO on vascular relaxation, smooth muscle cell relaxation, bronchodilation, neurotransmission, and the inhibition of platelet aggregation, coagulation, and smooth muscle proliferation [48] [49] [50] [51] . Furthermore, CO may cause vascular relaxation by directly activating calcium-dependent potassium channels [52] [53] [54] . CO potentially influences other intracellular signal transduction pathways. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, which transduce oxidative stress and inflammatory signaling (i.e. response to lipopolysaccharide), may represent an important target Possible mechanism(s) of carbon monoxide action Figure 2 Possible mechanism(s) of carbon monoxide action. Endogenous carbon monoxide (CO) arises principally as a product of heme metabolism, from the action of heme oxygenase enzymes, although a portion may arise from environmental sources such as pharmacological administration or accidental exposure, or other endogenous processes such as drug and lipid metabolism. The vasoregulatory properties of CO, including its effects on cellular proliferation, platelet aggregation, and vasodilation, have been largely ascribed to the stimulation of guanylate cyclase by direct heme binding, leading to the generation of cyclic GMP. The anti-inflammatory properties of CO are associated with the downregulation of proinflammatory cytokine production, dependent on the selective modulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), such as the 38 kilodalton protein (p38MAPK). In addition to these two mechanisms, CO may potentially interact with any hemoprotein target, though the functional consequences of these interactions with respect to cellular signaling remain poorly understood.