Evidence of involvement of ligands of RAGE and HMGB1 in host defense in E. coli abdominal sepsis was recently published by our laboratory [43] . Inhibition of multiple RAGE ligands (by the administration of sRAGE) and inhibition of HMGB1 (by the administration of anti-HMGB1 antibodies) led to an enhanced bacterial dissemi nation of E. coli, denoting an advantageous role of RAGE ligands, including HMGB1, in the antibacterial response during Gram-negative sepsis.