Mass dog vaccination has long been recognized as the mainstay of successful dog rabies control and eventual elimination [12, 48] . In the most affected continents, Africa and Asia, generally characterized by very dense dog populations, adequate levels of coverage, of at least 70% [12, 51] , as well as sustained and frequent (usually annual) campaigns are essential for effective control aimed at achieving a "rabiesfree" status. Since dogs are often unrestrained and without any apparent evidence of ownership, local authorities often view costly oral vaccination of free-roaming dogs as the only solution to the rabies problem in the reservoir population. However, the vast majority of domestic dog populations have affiliations to households/communities and are, therefore, accessible for central-point parenteral vaccination, considered the most cost-effective strategy [29, [52] [53] [54] [55] . Participation in dog vaccination campaigns can also be increased by improved engagement of local communities through education and awareness, as discussed below, and delivery of "primary animal health care" against common infections (mange and internal parasites) to dogs brought to vaccination stations as in KwaZulu-Natal [56] . In some circumstances (e.g., very aggressive or truly unowned dogs, and dispersed communities) more intensive (i.e., house-tohouse) efforts [55] or alternative (oral) delivery strategies [57, 58] may, however, be required. In some circumstances, the effectiveness of mass dog vaccination campaigns can be increased through management of the dog population. Needs for this are determined at the start of the program through ecological surveys, generally conducted as part of the preparatory phase. A combination of approaches are available for dog population management programs: promotion of responsible dog ownership through community education and legislative measures (mandatory dog registration and identification, tie-up orders, abandonment legislation, etc.); reproduction control [59] ; temporary/permanent removal of dogs (shelters, foster homes, capture and release, euthanasia); and habitat control [60] . Elimination of dogs should be restricted to suspect rabid dogs, unvaccinated contact dogs, and dogs considered unsuitable for rehoming or release at the point of capture, and should always be implemented in conjunction with other approaches [60] .