In order to examine the degree of autophagy induction in individually infected cells, we monitored L. monocytogenes colocalization with LC3 in infected BMDMs isolated from transgenic mice expressing LC3-GFP [28] . Over the course of three independent experiments, we found that within 60 minutes after infection with wild-type L. monocytogenes, approximately 15% of the bacteria colocalized with LC3-GFP, whereas Dhly (LLO-minus) bacteria showed no detectable colocalization with LC3-GFP ( Fig. 2A,B) . Given that infection is asynchronous, these observations represented bacteria at various stages of early infection: entry into cells, within intact phagocytic vacuoles or in the process of escape from the phagosomes. As LC3-GFP did not co-localize with Dhly L. monocytogenes, LC3-GFP was either targeting phagosomes damaged by LLO pores or bacteria in the cytosol.