immunodeficiency virus type 1related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36, 652-662. Horak, P., and Kolarova, L. (2005) . Molluscan and vertebrate immune responses to bird schistosomes. Parasite Immunol. 27, Recent Advances in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza Pneumonia A potentially fatal complication of influenza infection is the development of pneumonia, caused either directly by the influenza virus, or by secondary bacterial infection. Pneumonia related to the 2009 influenza A pandemic was found to be underestimated by commonly used pneumonia severity scores in many cases, and to be rapidly progressive, leading to respiratory failure. Confirmation of etiology by laboratory testing is warranted in such cases. Rapid antigen and immunofluorescence testing are useful screening tests, but have limited sensitivity. Confirmation of pandemic H1N1 influenza A infection can only be made by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) or viral culture. The most effective preventive measure is annual influenza vaccination in selected individuals. Decisions to administer antiviral medications for influenza treatment or chemoprophylaxis should be based upon clinical and epidemiological factors, and should not be delayed by confirmatory laboratory testing results. Neuraminidase inhibitors (NI) are the agents of choice. Influenza is acute respiratory illness caused by influenza A or B viruses with seasonal circulation during the winter months. However, outbreaks of novel recombinant strains that take place in animals have produced, along the years, many worldwide outbreaks with serious public health issues. Although normally a self-limited process in the general population, high risk groups for complications and death have been identified (Table 1) . During an outbreak, in otherwise healthy subjects the diagnosis of influenza infection can be made confidently based on clinical manifestations alone. However, in certain situations, such as sporadic cases, in patients at an increased risk for complications, or in hospitalized patients with severe pulmonary compromise, confirmation of etiology by laboratory testing is required to guide treatment and for surveillance purposes [1••, 2••]. A potentially fatal complication of influenza infection is the involvement of the lower respiratory tract caused directly by the influenza virus, and the development of secondary bacterial pneumonia. Novel recombinant influenza A strains carry the risk for more severe disease and have the potential to cause widespread illness and a large number of deaths, regardless of age or previous health status. Examples of this are the H5N1 "avian" influenza A outbreak since 2004, and the more recent H1N1 "swine" influenza A pandemic in 2009, both of which have prompted the development of quick and reliable laboratory test in an effort to optimize their management and reduce morbidity and mortality. In this article, we review the latest available data for the diagnosis of influenza lower respiratory tract infection, as well as for treatment and prevention strategies.