pseudoknot structure influencing frameshifting. Addition of residues in the R-oligos was analogous to lengthening Loop 1, which is typically short in À1 frameshifting pseudoknots. Limited and conflicting data are available on the importance of Loop 1 in À1 frameshifting pseudoknots. In one study, addition of three A bases to Loop 1 did not affect frameshifting efficiency (15) , while in another all the mutations made in this region were detrimental to frameshifting efficiency (17) . Given the complex interactions occurring between the helices and loops in this region, we cannot yet account for why the R4-oligo stimulated frameshifting so efficiently and with such variable results. Examination of the RNA toeprint data presented here reveals that both of the pseudo-pseudoknot structures formed by the J1-and R1-oligos promoted strong stops of the reverse transcriptase $16 nt 3 0 of the P-site codon of the slippery site, consistent with the hypothesis that the presence of Stem 2 forces ribosomes to pause with their A-and P-sites positioned over the slippery site. Previous studies mapping the lagging edge of paused ribosomes, i.e. mRNA heelprint studies, did not reveal any striking differences between the effects of pseudoknots versus stem-loops (8, 16) . Interestingly, using this method, the ribosomal pauses appeared distributed over a broader stretch of mRNA ($4 nt) than observed here. It is possible that some critical level of resolution is lost in the requirement for many additional manipulations of substrates using the mRNA heelprint as compared with the toeprint methods.