Women from our sample in China reported having significantly easier pregnancies than women from our Ghanaian and U.S. samples (p < .001), and far more women in the U.S. sample report ever seeing a healthcare professional for help with emotional issues (p < .001). Table 3 ). Both the LOT-R optimism subscale and the LOT-R pessimism subscale indicate significant differences across country samples as well. (See Figure 1 .) Figure 2 illustrates differences in self-assessed healthrelated quality of life across the samples. Physical Functioning (PF) was significantly different across the country samples (ANOVA, p = .049), but the difference was primarily between Ghanaian and U.S. samples (post-hoc pairwise comparisons, p = .038). General Health (GH) was significantly different as well (ANOVA, p = .001), and here the difference was primarily between Chinese and Ghanaian samples (p = .001). Vitality (VT) showed significant differences across country samples as well (ANOVA, p < .001), with pronounced differences between Chinese and U.S. samples (p < .001) and Ghanaian and U.S. samples *Ns may total more than 56. Two separate questions were asked: "Have you ever been treated... yes/no" and "Are you currently being treated...yes/no " Thus the number "currently being treated" is a subset of the number who have "ever been treated." ANOVAs were conducted using the "ever treated" and "never treated" groups for comparison.