1. To understand the relation between schistosomiasis and carcinoma of the urinary bladder in Egyptian patients. Paleoradiology (paleo means ancient) involves the use of x-rays and advanced medical imaging modalities to evaluate ancient human and animal skeletons as well as biological materials from archaeological sites. Paleoradiological studies have been performed on mummies, skeletal remains and fossils to determine their sex and age at death as well as to detect ancient diseases. The great advantage of the roentgenographic examination is that it allows examination of mummies without either destroying or unwrapping them. Mummification is the preservation of human bodies after death. It symbolises the fear ancient Egyptians had of death and answers their belief and eager desire for immortality. The main principle was to dry the bodies so that bacteria could not live on its tissues. The mummification process secrets and technique will be presented. The Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities has initiated a large ongoing project, started in 2005, for scanning all the royal mummies that belong to the 18th and 19th dynasties. Among the great Kings and Queens scanned are Tut Ankh Amun and his family, KV55 (presumed Akhenaton), Amenhotep 3rd, Ramses 2nd and 3rd, Tuthmosis family, KV 60 (presumed Queen Hatchepsut), KV 35 (presumed Nefertiti) and many others. The CT scanning of all these great pharaohs revealed intense amount of information that helped to unveil their secrets. The most important of these discoveries will be presented some of which for the first time. Real-time elastography (RTE) of the breast may easily and quickly integrate conventional breast imaging. A mechanical force is applied to the tissue and sophisticated algorithms are used to estimate the tissue stiffness. Qualitative scores are usually derived from the estimate of the strain and help to differentiate soft benign lesions from malignancies. These are usually stiffer due to the secretion of collagen and fibronectin, and the surrounding oedema. Fluid lesions almost always show a typical three-layered pattern. Strain scores may be integrated by semi-quantitative data (fat-to-lesion ratio); unfortunately, cutoff values vary for different companies. Dedicated RTE technologies as an alternative track the shear wave propagation through tissues to obtain a true quantitative evaluation of the acoustic modulus and promise to be the gold standard for the future applications. Clinical reports show a high diagnostic accuracy: increased specificity for atypical carcinomas and a very high specificity in benign lesions, including BI-RADS category 3 lesions. With the best cutoff point between elasticity scores 3 and 4, the true negative predictive value is over 90%. In invasive carcinomas RTE clearly shows the peripheral infiltration improving the volume measurement; 3D elastography and tomographic imaging may help in this respect. RTE works better with small lesions, less than 10 mm in diameter. RTE is almost insensitive to breast thickness and echogenicity. RTE scores are well reproducible. Indexes of intra-observer and inter-observer agreement are very good. Still RTE score is only a complementary descriptor that requires global experience in breast imaging and strict guidelines. Ultrasonography is the widest accessible and most cost-effective means to assess thyroid morphology and neck masses. Diffuse thyroid disease evaluation implies not only thyroid volume measurement but also parenchymal echogenicity and vascularisation assessment as this may offer clues to different types of hyperthyroidism and thyroiditis. In thyroid nodule management, whether single or nodular goiter, the main role of US is to point, for further fine needle aspiration biopsy assessment, to suspicious nodules that might represent papillary carcinoma. Sonographic criteria pointing to nodular malignancy are marked hypoechogenicity, interrupted halo, irregular /invasive contour, punctate microcalcification or central or interrupted annular macrocalcifications, taller than wide appearance, increased central vascularisation and hypo / avascular rim and accelerated volume increase on follow-up. Malignant lymphadenopathy and extrathyroid spread are late signs. Evocative signs of benignity are also discussed. The current role of elastography and contrast imaging is presented briefly. The peculiar appearance of rare thyroid malignancies is presented. Clues on how to identify abnormal parathyroid glands and differentiate them from thyroid nodules are pointed out. The most common differentials of neck masses are illustrated: lymph nodes, branchial and thyroglossal duct cysts, carotid body and salivary gland tumours and strap muscle haematomas. The lecture concludes with a brief overview on US-guided diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in the neck. It is important to identify malignant nodules because they are potentially curable. The first step in assessing a pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph is to determine that it is indeed a lung nodule rather than a pleural or chest wall abnormality. It is essential to review images from previous examinations, because a solid nodule that remains stable for at least 2 years is probably benign. Topics discussed in this talk include the importance of nodule size, growth rate, margin morphology, density (solid, ground-glass, part solid), calcifications or fatty components within the nodules, the significance of cavitations or bubble-like densities, enhancement patterns at dynamic contrast-enhanced CT, and findings on positron emission tomography (PET). The talk also covers the current guidelines for the management of incidentally detected nodules (solid and subsolid). The mediastinum is a region of the thorax that separates both lungs and communicates with the neck and the abdomen. These two anatomic features are very important to understand the behaviour of some diseases and their radiological manifestations. Most asymptomatic mediastinal masses are benign, while clinical symptoms may raise the possibility of a malignant lesion. Imaging plays a very important role, especially CT and MRI. In the presence of a mediastinal mass we must ask ourselves two questions: 1) where is the mass located? The classic divisions of the mediastinum in compartments remain very useful, because it narrows the differential diagnosis. 2) Is the lesion cystic or solid? Pure mediastinal cysts are benign and their characterisation depends on their location: Thymic cyst (anterior mediastinum), bronchogenic and duplication cysts (middle mediastinum) and menyngoceles (posterior mediastinum). Solid lesions may be benign or malignant while some lesions may have a cystic component. Solid lesions of the anterior mediastinum are usually thymomas, germ cell tumours or lymphomas. In the middle mediastinum most masses are of lymphatic origin but we should also include aortic or oesophageal pathology. Intrathoracic thyroid usually follows the trachea and thus is situated in the upper-middle mediastinum although posterior and anterior extensions may occur. In the posterior mediastinum most masses are of neural origin. There are some locations that will typically indicate specific diagnosis or a narrow differential. Such is the case of the cardiophrenic angle masses, juxtadiaphragmatic lesions and thoracic inlet pathology. Different medical specialties are using fluoroscopy-guided procedures due to many clinical benefits. X-ray systems are becoming more complex and many imaging protocols are available including rotational and cone beam CT. The potential of high-radiation doses for patients and staff are the reasons to implement specific radiation safety and quality assurance programs. Radiation quantities and units used to describe the radiation risks for patients need to be understood by clinicians and dose values considered as part of the optimisation strategies. Electronic dosimeters to inform in real-time on the level of scatter dose may be used as part of the occupational radiation protection program. Patient dose reports and the future integration in DICOM standards will be presented together with the need to promote automatic software tools to process all the dosimetric information and to help in the optimisation of the clinical procedures including a clinical follow-up programme for high-dose procedures. Strategies of radiation protection (RP) of patients and staff will be addressed. The new ICRP recommendations on the use of diagnostic reference levels for interventional procedures and the new suggested annual limit for the equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 20 mSv for occupational exposure need to be implemented in the angiography and interventional radiology units. Practical recommendations for RP of patients and staff will be summarised together with the international recommendations and standards, dealing with interventional radiology, including the need of a dedicated training and certification in RP for professionals using these techniques.