Limitations of the model. Lack of reliable data prevented us from considering geo-spatial aspects of mixing group formation. We also did not consider the impact of public education and the use of personal protective measures (e.g., face masks) on transmission, again due to a lack of effectiveness data [91] . We did not study the marginal effectiveness of individual resources due to a considerable uncertainty about the transmissibility of an emerging pandemic virus and efficacy of vaccine and antiviral. For the same reason, the vaccine and antiviral risk groups considered in the testbed can be adjusted, as different prioritization schemes have been suggested. The form of social distancing implemented in the testbed can also be modified as a variety of schemes can be found in the literature, including those based on geographical and social targeting. Effectiveness of these approaches is substantially influenced by the compliance factor, for which limited accurate data support exists. It will thus be vital to gather the most detailed data on the epidemiology of a new virus and the population dynamics early in the evolution of a pandemic, and expeditiously analyze the data to adjust the interventions accordingly. A Novel Vaccine Using Nanoparticle Platform to Present Immunogenic M2e against Avian Influenza Infection Using peptide nanoparticle technology, we have designed two novel vaccine constructs representing M2e in monomeric (Mono-M2e) and tetrameric (Tetra-M2e) forms. Groups of specific pathogen free (SPF) chickens were immunized intramuscularly with Mono-M2e or Tetra-M2e with and without an adjuvant. Two weeks after the second boost, chickens were challenged with 107.2 EID50 of H5N2 low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) virus. M2e-specific antibody responses to each of the vaccine constructs were tested by ELISA. Vaccinated chickens exhibited increased M2e-specific IgG responses for each of the constructs as compared to a non-vaccinated group. However, the vaccine construct Tetra-M2e elicited a significantly higher antibody response when it was used with an adjuvant. On the other hand, virus neutralization assays indicated that immune protection is not by way of neutralizing antibodies. The level of protection was evaluated using quantitative real time PCR at 4, 6, and 8 days post-challenge with H5N2 LPAI by measuring virus shedding from trachea and cloaca. The Tetra-M2e with adjuvant offered statistically significant (P < 0.05) protection against subtype H5N2 LPAI by reduction of the AI virus shedding. The results suggest that the self-assembling polypeptide nanoparticle shows promise as a potential platform for a development of a vaccine against AI. Avian influenza (AI) is a devastating poultry disease with serious economic consequences to the commercial poultry industry. AI is also a significant public health concern because of recent highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza outbreaks causing also human deaths in Asia, Europe, and North Africa. According to the world health organization (WHO) update, 2011, since 2003, 520 confirmed cases of human infection with H5N1 have been reported, of which 307 died due to disease complications. However, other avian influenza viruses including low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) can also be a risk to public health. For instance, the LPAI subtype H9N2 infection in chickens is mild to asymptomatic and easily overlooked. However, it shares similar receptor binding epitopes with human influenza viruses and can infect humans [1] . There is a risk for LPAI subtypes H5 and H7 to become high-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses in chickens due to constant virus shedding and transmission to new birds within the flock or neighboring flocks [2, 3] . Vaccination is an effective way for prevention of viral diseases in poultry. However, routine vaccination against AI has not been widely practiced throughout the world mainly for surveillance reasons [1, 2] . When there is the desire for routine vaccination, constant 2 Influenza Research and Treatment reformulation of AI vaccines is required according to the circulating field virus, which can be cumbersome in the case of an immediate outbreak. Current vaccines against AI viruses can reduce mortality, clinical signs, shedding, and transmission of the virus in poultry, but they are not capable of preventing infection and virus replication [4] .