Remarkably, while treatment with NTHi lysate acutely induces 8-fold more IL-6 and almost 40-fold more TNF than infection alone, the treated mice actually have lower levels of inflammatory cytokines in their lungs by day 3 after the infection (Fig. 2B ). By that time after treatment, the NTHi lysate-induced rise in cytokines in uninfected mice has entirely resolved (data not shown), and the inflammatory cell infiltration has fallen by more than 80% [16] . Together, this suggests that a robust early inflammatory reaction may allow for more rapid resolution of the infection-induced inflammation. Notably, the intense inflammation observed in the lungs is not seen systemically. Despite increases in IL-6 and TNF of 700-and 900-fold in the lungs, respectively, these cytokines increase only minimally and transiently in the serum (Fig. 2C ).