(2) stimulation of the metabolism of hydrophobic bile salts and other toxic compounds to more hydrophilic and less toxic metabolites; (3) stimulation of orthograde secretion into bile and (4) stimulation of retrograde secretion of bile salts and other potentially toxic cholephils into the systemic circulation for excretion by the kidney; (5) protection of injured cholangiocytes against toxic effects of bile salts; (6) inhibition of apoptosis caused by elevated levels of bile salts; and (7) inhibition of fibrosis" [225] .