To clear this gap we conducted a 2-year study in the Camargue to investigate the potential influence of hand-reared Mallard releases on AIV dynamics in surrounding wildlife. We first hypothesized that, owing to high density rearing conditions and to their genetic uniformity, hand-reared Mallards should be highly susceptible to AIV infections and could play an amplification role in AIV dynamics. This phenomenon has already been pointed out in red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) reared for hunting in Spain, where Escherichia coli prevalence was much higher in hand-reared populations before their release than in the wild ones [36] . To test this assumption we collected cloacal swabs from Mallards reared for hunting in several game bird facilities (GBF) in 2009 and 2010, and analysed these samples to measure AIV prevalence. Second, we hypothesized that AIV exchange occurs between wild and hand-reared Mallards, potentially leading either to the circulation of new strains in wild populations or to the amplification and dispersal of wild strains. Indeed, no barrier prevents AIV exchange between wild birds and hand-reared ducks in the GBF since water flows exist between pens and ponds used by wild birds. Moreover, as the GBF roofs are made of nets wild birds can deposit feces in the pens. Finally, hand-reared ducks are in direct contact with wild ones after their release. To investigate these issues, we tested shot waterfowl before and after handreared Mallards were sampled. Noteworthy, genetic analyses suggest that 76% of hunted Mallards in the Camargue have a captive origin [37] . Considering the low annual survival of released Mallards (0.8±15.9% depending on the release site) [37] , the individuals we tested from the Camargue hunting bags certainly included a large proportion of ducks released some months before being shot. These released ducks cannot be differentiated morphologically from the wild ones [38] . Here we hence analyzed shot ducks as a whole since they are a representative sample of the Mallard population wintering in the Camargue, which is composed of individuals of both wild and captive origin that share habitats and can thus be considered as a single epidemiological unit.