Dengue may be the most important arboviral disease potentially affecting 2 to 3 billion people living in tropical and subtropical areas. DENV mainly infects monocytes, macrophages and DCs that are also the most important innate immune cells. The balance between the protective and pathological immune responses likely contributes to the DENV infection outcomes. Our results demonstrating that DENV can modulate the signaling events triggered by several TLRs are of interest and provide an explanation for how DENV may skew the host immune system. Immunofluorescence analysis showed the subcellular localization of NF-kB p65 (red, panels a-d) and the detection of viral proteins DENV-2 NS3 or JEV NS1 (green, panels e-h). (B) J774A.1 macrophages were infected with DENV-2 PL046 for 48 h before stimulation with LPS (1 mg/ml). After 6 h of LPS treatment, the localization of NF-kB p65 was determined by immunostaining with anti-NF-kB p65 antibody (red fluorescence, panels a-d). DENV-2 infection was determined by anti-DENV-2 NS3 antibody (green fluorescence, panels e-h), and the DAPI presents the nuclear counter stain (blue fluorescence, panels i-l). Representative cells from the same field are shown for each experimental group. (C) A549 cells were infected with DENV-2 PL046 (MOI of 5) for the indicated times. For polyI:C stimulation, DENV-2-infected cells at 36 h p.i. were transfected with polyI:C (2 mg) and incubated for another 24 h, meaning DENV-2 infection for a total of 60 h. For the mock control group, polyI:C stimulation was conducted by polyI:C (2 mg) transfection for 24 h. The immunofluorescence staining of NF-kB P65 was performed as described above, and the DENV-2 infected cells with nuclear p65 were counted. Data are mean6SD from 3 determinations. Table S1 . (TIF)  High Influenza A Virus Infection Rates in Mallards Bred for Hunting in the Camargue, South of France During the last decade, the role of wildlife in emerging pathogen transmission to domestic animals has often been pointed out. Conversely, far less attention has been paid to pathogen transmission from domestic animals to wildlife. Here, we focus on the case of game restocking, which implies the release of millions of animals worldwide each year. We conducted a 2-year study in the Camargue (Southern France) to investigate the influence of hand-reared Mallard releases on avian influenza virus dynamics in surrounding wildlife. We sampled Mallards (cloacal swabs) from several game duck facilities in 2009 and 2010 before their release. A very high (99%) infection rate caused by an H10N7 strain was detected in the game bird facility we sampled in 2009. We did not detect this strain in shot ducks we sampled, neither during the 2008/2009 nor the 2009/2010 hunting seasons. In 2010 infection rates ranged from 0 to 24% in hand-reared ducks. The 2009 H10N7 strain was fully sequenced. It results from multiple reassortment events between Eurasian low pathogenic strains. Interestingly, H10N7 strains had previously caused human infections in Egypt and Australia. The H10 and N7 segments we sequenced were clearly distinct from the Australian ones but they belonged to the same large cluster as the Egyptian ones. We did not observe any mutation linked to increased virulence, transmission to mammals, or antiviral resistance in the H10N7 strain we identified. Our results indicate that the potential role of hand-reared Mallards in influenza virus epizootics must be taken into account given the likely risk of viral exchange between game bird facilities and wild habitats, owing to duck rearing conditions. Measures implemented to limit transmission from wildlife to domestic animals as well as measures to control transmission from domestic animals to wild ones need to be equally reinforced. During the last decade, awareness concerning the intimate links between human and animal health has rapidly increased in the context of disease emergence [1] . Indeed, approximately 80% of the infectious diseases that recently emerged were zoonotic [2] . The role of wildlife in emerging pathogen transmission to humans and domestic animals has in many cases been pointed out [3±5] . Conversely, pathogen transmission from domestic animals to wildlife has received far less attention, although the importance of this issue was often mentioned [6, 7] . Indeed, contacts between wildlife and livestock or their environment sometimes result in wildlife diseases with conservation issues [8, 9] . Besides, handreared animal releases into the wild for either conservation or exploitation purposes represent a particular case in which handreared individuals eventually share natural habitats with their wild congeners. In both cases such releases can dramatically influence disease dynamics in the surrounding wild animal populations [ 10± 14] .