At the end of the study, animals were anaesthetised and blood was collected via cardiac puncture, placed into EDTA and serum separator tubes. Following terminal exsanguination brain, heart, lungs, liver, kidney, pharynx, mesenteric lymph nodes, ovaries, uterus, spleen and thymus tissues were collected. For virus isolation and molecular studies samples were placed into 750 ml viral transport media [PBS with 1% bovine serum albumin and 1x antibiotics (Anti-anti, Invitrogen)] with 250 ml aluminium silicate beads (Biospec Products Inc., Bartlesville, OK, USA). The remaining tissues were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 48 hours prior to routine processing for histology and immunohistochemistry, the latter using a rabbit polyclonal antibody raised against the NiV N protein [45] . Nasal turbinate and oral swab samples were also collected at euthanasia, swabs were placed into 750 ml viral transport media. Tissue samples were homogenised and aliquots removed for RNA extraction and the remainder was stored at 280uC for subsequent processing.