The goal of DNA vaccination will be the development of effective immunization strategies against previously established tumors. Because of tolerance to tumour antigens, efforts are ongoing to optimize the DNA vaccine technology platform. Strategies to improve antigen expression, inclusion of adjuvants in the formulation, or as immune modulators to improve the immunogenicity, and the use of next-generation delivery methods are under intensive investigation. Current effort to prioritize cancer antigens represents the logical next step in attempting to focus translational efforts on the most promising cancer antigens into vaccines for cancer treatment or prevention. It is likely that these vaccines will have to be combined with other treatment modalities. It has become appreciated that vaccine approaches may enhance subsequent responses to radiotherapy and that certain chemotherapies actually enhance responses to vaccines. Accordingly, several late-stage clinical trials are already evaluating the benefit of vaccination in addition to conventional chemotherapy. One attractive setting is in patients during complete remission after standard adjuvant treatment (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, etc., or a combination) to whom vaccination can be given after immunological recovery [149] . Combining immunotherapy with conventional chemotherapy, antiangiogenic therapy, and other approaches could yield synergistic or additive therapeutic results.