Currently, high-throughput rabies virus molecular detection methods augment standard diagnostic tests or are in the process of development and refinement for use alone. As we progress through the 21 st century, it is possible that these techniques will replace conventional tests (Box 1). Obstacles to adoption include cost, complexity and local acceptance of their use. It is also possible that immunological tests by measuring 'indirect' markers such as cytokines and electrolytes will increase in use. These tests however, will probably remain in the realm of large reference laboratories where resources allow the development of novel assays. As far as semi-automated or automated instruments and robotics-based techniques are concerned, they are useful when large numbers of the same test are undertaken such as surveillance and companion animal testing and these tests will continue to increase in popularity and use, especially in central reference facilities. There is a clear need to simplify molecular diagnostic techniques so these tests can be applied universally in developing and developed countries. It is likely that new developments will focus on generating low volume and yet affordable diagnostic tests for rabies. More use will be made of point-of-care (POC) diagnostic testing using portable extraction techniques linked to PCR machines with the use of lyophilised reagents to overcome coldchain dependencies in tropical countries. In the 21 st century, these technologies will have a demonstrable impact on people living in developing countries, especially where rabies is still considered a 'neglected' disease. By contrast in the developed world, these new technological advances will undoubtedly be faster, more accurate and cost-effective leading to a 'Theragnostics Approach' that combines therapeutics with diagnostics for the human treatment of rabies. Interest in treating human rabies aggressively is gaining momentum, largely due to the reported success in treating a 15year-old girl, in whom clinical rabies developed one month after she was bitten by a bat, using a combination of therapeutic coma with antiviral drugs whilst allowing for the host immune system to confer immunity -The 'Milwaukee Protocol' (Box 2) [62, 63] . Bioinformatics, genomics, proteomics, and functional genomics are the molecular biology tools that are essential for the progress of molecular 'theragnostics', where both early diagnosis and monitoring of serology are critical factors for the successful treatment of a rabies patient. In addition, theragnostics could eliminate the unnecessary treatment of patients for whom rabies immunotherapy is not appropriate i.e. immunosuppressed patients, resulting in substantial drug cost savings for the healthcare system. Ducks: The “Trojan Horses” of H5N1 influenza Abstract Wild ducks are the main reservoir of influenza A viruses that can be transmitted to domestic poultry and mammals, including humans. Of the 16 hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes of influenza A viruses, only the H5 and H7 subtypes cause highly pathogenic (HP) influenza in the natural hosts. Several duck species are naturally resistant to HP Asian H5N1 influenza viruses. These duck species can shed and spread virus from both the respiratory and intestinal tracts while showing few or no disease signs. While the HP Asian H5N1 viruses are 100% lethal for chickens and other gallinaceous poultry, the absence of disease signs in some duck species has led to the concept that ducks are the “Trojan horses” of H5N1 in their surreptitious spread of virus. An important unresolved issue is whether the HP H5N1 viruses are maintained in the wild duck population of the world. Here, we review the ecology and pathobiology of ducks infected with influenza A viruses and ducks’ role in the maintenance and spread of HP H5N1 viruses. We also identify the key questions about the role of ducks that must be resolved in order to understand the emergence and control of pandemic influenza. It is generally accepted that wild duck species can spread HP H5N1 viruses, but there is insufficient evidence to show that ducks maintain these viruses and transfer them from one generation to the next. Avian influenza is caused by type A viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae. The influenza A viruses infect primarily free-living aquatic birds, and they are classified by their hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) surface glycoproteins. All 16 HA and 9 NA subtypes have been isolated from aquatic birds; wild ducks are the main reservoir. The viruses cause asymptomatic or low pathogenic infection in these natural hosts. 1 However, certain strains of influenza A virus have crossed the host range barrier and infected other species, including humans. These viruses are the source of the influenza pandemics that emerge at irregular intervals. 1, 2 The H5 and H7 subtypes are of particular concern because they can become highly pathogenic (HP), causing systemic illness and death in both avian and mammalian species, including humans. 2 The H5N1 virus that emerged in Asia in 1996 is unique among the HP avian influenza (HPAI) viruses in that it has continued to circulate in avian species for more than a decade and has spread to more than 60 countries in Eurasia (http://www.who.int/csr/ disease/avian_influenza/en/). While the H5N1 HPAI viruses are 100% lethal to chickens and gallinaceous poultry, they often cause asymptomatic infection in some species of domestic and wild ducks. These ''silent spreaders'' of H5N1 HPAI viruses are therefore referred to as ''Trojan horses''. [3] [4] [5] Clearly, ducks play a complex and vital role in the biology and the overall natural history of influenza, including H5N1 HPAI viruses.