Not only LPS, other TLR inducers including CpG, peptidoglycan, poly IC, and Pam 3 Cys can regulate cytokine expressions including TNF-α, IL-10 via MKP-1 activities [10, 11] . In these processes, MKP-1 serves to mitigate the undesirable effects of septic shock and maintain organ functions by restraining the inflammatory responses following bacterial infection. Another example of MKP-1 function is the immune response to Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), a Gram positive bacteria. There are higher levels of cytokine production including TNF-α, IL-6, and MIP-1α in MKP-1 KO mice infected with S. aureus [12] . Also, the mice would have a rapid development of multiorgan dysfunction as well as faster mortality rate upon challenge with heat-killed S. aureus [12] . Taken together, these results suggest that MKP-1 protects the host from overactivation of the immune system in response to Gram negative or Gram positive bacteria.