Since prior reports have described poorer outcomes associated with virus-induced inflammation [10, 11] , we compared the inflammation induced by the NTHi lysate, inflammation induced by influenza infection, and inflammation induced by the combination of treatment and infection. Figure 2 shows that single or repeated treatment with NTHi lysate induces dramatic inflammation in the lungs, measured by cytokine levels ( Fig. 2A ) and cellular influx (Fig. 2D) .