Examples of IRIS in response to intact organisms include, but are not limited to, the unmasking of latent cryptococcal infection [22] and infection with Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) [4, 5, 23, 24] . The most frequently reported IRIS symptoms in response to previously treated or partially treated infections include reports of clinical worsening and recurrence of clinical manifestations of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) and cryptococcal meningitis following initiation of ART [6, 7, 10, 13, 16, [25] [26] [27] [28] . In noninfectious causes of IRIS, autoimmunity to innate antigens plays a likely role in the syndrome. Examples include exacerbation of rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases [29] . Given the role of this antigenic stimulus, the frequency and manifestations of IRIS in a given population may be determined by the prevalence of opportunistic and non-opportunistic infections to initiation of ART.