B. subtilis expressing LLO induced an increased amount of LC3-I lipidation at 60 minutes post infection as compared to wild-type B. subtilis (Fig. 3A) . Further, within 40 minutes after infection, B. subtilis expressing LLO or PFO co-localized with LC3-GFP equal to or greater than twice as often as wild-type L. monocytogenes (Fig. 3B ,C). As with Dhly (LLO-minus) or heat killed L. monocytogenes, wild-type B. subtilis did not co-localize with LC3-GFP ( Fig. 3B ,C). Live video microscopic imaging of cells infected with B. subtilis expressing LLO clearly showed LC3-GFPcontaining vesicles, approximately 1 mm in diameter, surrounding the bacteria (Fig. 3D ).