It has to be noted that mammals possess at least 7 genes coding for LC3/Atg8 proteins that can be grouped into three subfamilies: (1) the LC3 subfamily containing LC3A, LC3B, LC3B2 and LC3C; (2) the gammaaminobutyrate receptor-associated protein (GABARAP) subfamily comprising GABARAP and GABARAPL1 (also called GEC-1); (3) the Golgi-associated ATPase enhancer of 16 kDa (GATE-16) protein (also called GABARAP-L2/GEF2) [53] . Although in vivo studies show that they are all conjugated to PE, they appear to have evolved complex nonredundant functions [54] .