A human betaretrovirus has been controversially debated as a potential pathogen in PBC as outlined above. An antiretroviral strategy has therefore been tested in PBC: Lamivudine in combination with zidovudine (Combivir) normalized AP and reduced bile duct injury in a 1-year pilot trial including 11 patients [150] . This finding still awaits confirmation by a randomized, placebo-controlled study.