Paragraph 1: A chronospecies is a species derived from a sequential development pattern that involves continual and uniform changes from an extinct ancestral form on an evolutionary scale. The sequence of alterations eventually produces a population that is physically, morphologically, and/or genetically distinct from the original ancestors. Throughout the change, there is only one species in the lineage at any point in time, as opposed to cases where divergent evolution produces contemporary species with a common ancestor. The related term paleospecies (or palaeospecies) indicates an extinct species only identified with fossil material. That identification relies on distinct similarities between the earlier fossil specimens and some proposed descendant although the exact relationship to the later species is not always defined. In particular, the range of variation within all the early fossil specimens does not exceed the observed range that exists in the later species.

Paragraph 2: Throughout her reign, Catherine remained committed to intellectual pursuits and encouraged members of her court to engage in them as well. The empress provided her palace staff with a library and reportedly spent an average of 80,000 rubles annually on books.  In his essay, "Catherine the Great: Enlightened Empress?" Simon Henderson implores the reader to consider the constraints the empress faced when deciding if she was truly an enlightened despot. Henderson asserts that despite her deceptive tactics, she always possessed an "unswerving commitment to modernizing Russia,". Early on, Catherine concerned herself with the philosophies and culture of the enlightenment. Though she often agreed with their liberal positions, her status in court was entirely reliant upon the support of noble families. As a result, the Empress could not always implement reforms the way she would have liked. For example, when confronted with the issue of serfdom, Catherine initially suggested in her proposal of "the Instruction" that landowners offer serfs the option to "purchase their freedom"  or that the government limit the period of servitude to six years. However, the nobles omitted this section from the document as it did not benefit them. "Rather than seeing her as insincere in her concern for the peasantry, historians have recently highlighted…what she might have achieved had the circumstances been different,". Despite the constraints, Catherine did manage to implement few policies that benefitted the serfs. In 1767 it was forbidden for foster parents to enserf illegitimate children and in 1781 enserfment of prisoners of war was prohibited and a law passes that saw marriage of a free man to a serf woman emancipate the woman. Catherine is known to have investigated and then bought out landowners who were reported to ill-treat their serfs,. Voltaire outwardly supported emancipation of the serfs. The philosopher believed that the Russian aristocracy "should not permit the vast majority of the people to go on suffering from the arbitrariness of [the] very laws who ought to be to afford protection to each and all,". Furthermore, in an attempt to create a more educated bureaucracy, Catherine moved to bring better education to her people. In 1786, she established the Russian Statute of National Education to launch a national school system. As a result of her campaign to modify Russia, Catherine successfully introduced the tsardom to the Western world and furthered the degree to which it was involved in European affairs. While Catherine worked to bring enlightenment principles to Russia, Voltaire worked to improve her reputation in Europe. The philosopher enthusiastically adopted her cause, commending her to friends in high places, advising her in politics, and distributing her texts to the liberal media, thereby cementing her title as an enlightened despot. "Voltaire participated in a campaign to protect Catherine's reputation…he wrote pamphlets in support of her policies…[and] published her pronouncements in the western press,". In a letter to Marquis D'Argenson, a French statesman, Voltaire asked him to help "re-establish [Catherine's] reputation in Paris", (Lentin 13). Catherine, happy with rise to popularity, admits to Prince De Ligne: "It was certainly Voltaire who brought me into fashion,".

Paragraph 3: The rubric was further challenged in the 19th century by the Oxford Movement, many of whose leaders preferred the traditional  ad orientem position, - indeed what is considered the "English Use" altar arrangement has curtains on 3 sides of the altar, only allowing the eastward celebration of the Eucharist. The practices reintroduced by the Anglo-Catholic revival soon became the norm throughout the Church of England, with most mainstream parish churches adopting, among other catholic practices, Eucharistic vestments, altar candlesticks and crucifixes, and most 19th century churches being constructed with ad orientem celebration in mind. Notable examples include the 19th century high altar at St Paul's Cathedral by Bodley and Garner constructed in marble with a large marble reredos, and the various Oxford Movement churches such as All Saints, Margaret Street and St Cyprian's, Clarence Gate by Comper, built to a Sarum Rite ideal.  In America, the rubric requiring that the priest stand at the north end of the table, facing liturgical South, was removed from the 1928 American Book of Common Prayer (the Church of England never adopted the 1928 prayer book, as it was rejected by parliament). This was controversial, despite many notable 19th century Anglican churches and cathedrals in America had been built to Anglo-Catholic ideals, complete with stone eastward-facing altars and using full Eucharistic vestments, but nonetheless regularized a practice that was already widespread. Praying ad orientem then became common especially at the Gloria Patri, Gloria in Excelsis and Ecumenical creeds in that direction. However, following the reforms of the Second Vatican Council in the Roman Catholic Church, many mainstream Anglican churches that had re-adopted many of the traditional catholic practices, likewise adopted the reforms of Vatican II. "the course of the last forty years or so, a great many of those altars have either been removed and pulled out away from the wall or replaced by the kind of freestanding table-like altar", in "response to the popular sentiment that the priest ought not turn his back to the people during the service; the perception was that this represented an insult to the laity and their centrality in worship. Thus developed today’s widespread practice in which the clergy stand behind the altar facing the people." Today, it is not uncommon to find ad orientem celebrations of the Eucharist in more traditional Anglican churches, but the reformed late 20th century Roman Catholic practice of versus populum is undoubtedly more widespread despite never being the historical norm.

Paragraph 4: In June 1982, the state legislature established a public nonprofit corporation to manage construction and operations of the convention center. Governor Spellman appointed the corporation's board of directors which included banker James Cairns Jr. as chair, civic activist Jim Ellis, former councilwoman Phyllis Lamphere, and business leaders from Seattle and the Eastside. The appointed board was tasked with selecting a site for the convention center, with hopes of opening the facility by 1986. Public support for the project remained high because of a local recession. The project's location and public amenities, however, were the subject of a major debate that spanned several months of public hearings and city council meetings. TRA Architects were named as the head of a joint venture design team in September 1982. They unveiled preliminary designs for the convention center in February 1983 based on three finalist sites and a general size of . The freeway site, supported by downtown businesses and authorized by the state legislature, would span Interstate 5 between Freeway Park and Pike Street. It would include landscaped terraces and private development using the freeway's air rights, leased from the Washington State Department of Transportation. The Seattle Center site, supported by the city government, would replace the Metro Transit bus base and part of Memorial Stadium. The stadium part would be traded by the Seattle School District for the Metro Transit bus base. Some of the design options for the Seattle Center site included integrated bus facilities for Metro Transit in a lower level garage as well as a spur of the monorail serving the facility's top floor. The Kingdome site, deemed the one "left behind" in the "two-horse race" between the freeway and Seattle Center proposals, would replace the north parking lot and be adjacent to King Street Station. A pedestrian bridge would cross over the tracks to reach 4th Avenue South. A report prepared by a consultant hired by the convention center board favored the freeway site for its marketability. However, it found that the Kingdome and Seattle Center sites would be easily expandable and would have a lower operating cost due to shared equipment. The report also raised concerns about the potential loss of low-income housing concentrated on First Hill and the potential increase in noise and air pollution for the neighborhood. A separate report by the city concluded the freeway site would hurt operating revenue from parking at the Seattle Center. It also criticized the consultant's report for its lack of information and cost data.

Paragraph 5: The existence of sub-structure in DIBs supports the idea that they are caused by molecules. Substructure results from band heads in the rotational band contour and from isotope substitution. In a molecule containing, say, three carbon atoms, some of the carbon will be in the form of the carbon-13 isotope, so that while most molecules will contain three carbon-12 atoms, some will contain two 12C atoms and one 13C atom, much less will contain one 12C and two 13C, and a very small fraction will contain three 13C molecules.  Each of these forms of the molecule will create an absorption line at a slightly different rest wavelength.

Paragraph 6: When, in August 1980, Anna Walentynowicz lost her job at the Gdańsk Shipyard because of her position as editor of the underground newspaper Robotnik Wybrzeze, her fellow workers took action. Around 16,000 employees of the shipyard discontinued their work and occupied its premises on the morning of August 14, demanding Walentynowicz's re-employment, the erection of a monument in honor of the victims of the strikes of 1970, and a pay rise of 2000 zlotys, amongst other things. After negotiating with management and having most of their demands met, a vote was taken on August 16 leading to the strike being called off. By this time, however, many of the workers at facilities surrounding the Gdańsk Shipyard had begun their own strikes making similar demands, and it was decided that in solidarity with them, the workers in the shipyard would continue to strike despite their own demands having been met. By the next morning the Inter-Enterprise Strike Committee (Polish shorthand: MKS) had been formed within the gates of the shipyard, intending to unite workers in the Gdańsk-Sopot-Gdynia area, coordinating action and maintaining and order to ensure the safety of the strikers. Lech Wałęsa, an electrician who had lost his job at the Gdańsk Shipyard in the strikes of 1976 was elected as chair of the MKS, while the remainder of the committee was composed of delegates from other facilities including Bogdan Lis, Andrzej Gwiazda, and others. By August 18, the MKS represented workers from 156 separate enterprises, and the number was steadily growing. Just two days after the formation of MKS the Polish economy was brought to a standstill as workers struck at factories and ports all along the Baltic coast. By August 21, much of the country was affected by strikes, even including the inland mines of the Upper Silesian Industrial Area, as more and more workers joined independent unions. The Inter-Enterprise Strike Committee at Gdańsk was becoming the national center for trade union movement: a phenomenon which was itself unique to this series of events. In the strikes of the 1950s and '70s it was the lack of a central organized structure that had limited the mobilization potential of striking workers. Now the MKS had been specifically designed with this problem in mind - the decentralization of the workers' movement – and was working for the first time to unify and strengthen the movement, coordinating strikes all across Poland. It was for this reason that the government of Edward Gierek found they could no longer buy off strikers with small concessions, and finally had to settle into heavy negotiations with the MKS.

Paragraph 7: "Sacred to the memory of Richard Kane laid to rest at the citadel of the Balearic island of Menorca named for Saint Philip, who was born on December 20, 1666, at Duneane in County Antrim. In 1689, he served his military apprenticeship in the famous siege of Derry, whereafter, under William III of blessed memory, he continued in armed service both at home, until the subjugation of all Ireland, and abroad, in Flanders, at great risk of life, not least by reason of a grave wound received at the siege of Namur. In 1702, when war broke out afresh in the reign of Queen Anne, again he campaigned in Belgium before joining the expedition to Canada. In 1712, under the renowned Duke of Argyll and Greenwich, and later under Baron Carpenter, he acted as civil governor of Menorca where, capably undertaking all tasks, both civil and military, and in command of army and navy alike, he planned, ordered and maintained everything that was necessary, expedient or beneficial for the preservation of the island, in war and in peace, on sea and on land, and also had paved, fortified and adorned a truly royal road throughout the length of an island hitherto impassable. In 1720, at the behest of George I, he crossed from Mahon to Gibraltar and thwarted an attack by the Spaniards who planned to take it by surprise. In 1725, he returned to the same scene of action for eighteen months and, when the enemy laid the Peninsula under heavy siege, quashed their every hope of taking it. After this sequence of sterling achievements as Lieutenant Governor in 1733 at the command of George II neither by his own seeking nor with prior knowledge, as with his other offices wheresoever held, he was elevated to the supreme command in Menorca. But oh, oh, how uncertain is the life of man! He who under four sovereigns had borne arms with the greatest shrewdness, courage and dignity, who had served God with all his heart and played the role not less of a Christian than of a good soldier, of pure faith and old-fashioned courtesy, dear to his friends, amiable to his associates, affable to his people, kind and generous to all, and in all things concerned more for the public good than for his own, left an island that was both British and Spanish sadly mourning his loss and in his seventy sixth year on December 19, 1736, breathed his last."

Paragraph 8: The trees are  tall with usually deep, wide and open crowns with long, erect branches. However, crowns are narrower and shallower in dense forests. The bark is very flaky, peeling to reveal light greyish-green patches. The branchlets are smooth and olive-green. The leaves are needle-like, in groups of three,  long, and spread stiffly. They are glossy green on the outer surface, with blue-green stomatal lines on the inner face; their sheaths fall in the first year. The cones are  long and  wide when open, with wrinkled, reflexed apophyses and an umbo curved inward at the base. The seeds (pine nuts) are  long and  broad, with a thin shell and a rudimentary wing.

Paragraph 9: The use of the term "patent pending" or "patent applied for" is permitted so long as a patent application has actually been filed and is pending, i.e., has not been issued as a patent or become abandoned.  If these terms are used for the purpose of deceiving the public when no patent application has been filed, or when the application is not pending, a fine of up to $500 may be imposed for every such offense.  Under the Forest Group, Inc. v. Bon Tool Co., 590 F.3d 1295 (Fed. Cir. 2009) decision, the current interpretation of "offense" has each mis-marked article constitutes an offense, which permits theoretical damages in the hundreds of millions of dollars for high-volume consumer goods.  The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act revised section 292 to say that only the United States may sue for that penalty but that a person who has suffered a competitive injury may sue for recovery of damages adequate to compensate for the injury.

Paragraph 10: Managerialism  – also called New Managerialism and New Public Management – is an ideology used for legitimizing the development of new organizational forms and relationships. It has been coined a practical ideology of being 'business-like’ in order to make the new arrangements work for all forms of jobs, organizations, and education systems. The ‘business-like’ indicates what is called “as if” ideologies. Managerialism is conceptualized in that it seeks firstly to explain the socioeconomic and political reasons behind why particular organizations  have been developed and, secondly, to describe the ways in which public services are currently being delivered. The idea of Managerialism came to fruition when  new organizational forms originated from a view that professional bureaucratic modes of organization were inefficient and could not cope with the challenges rising from increasing globalization. Managerialism, however, has not remained static over the years as it has had many different versions of its implementation. Its linkage to the changing practices associated with an agenda moves away from a purely Neo-liberal framework. While neo-liberalism uses politics (e.g. elections) to achieve its goals, Managerialism is fundamentally anti-democratic following instead management’s command-and-control concept. While using business-like mechanisms to ensure great cost effectiveness is still used as a great technique. There have been movements away from purely market based systems that were in place strictly for efficiency, to contractual mechanisms and performance measurement through audit and review. In practice of Managerialism, consumers are redefined as well. Not only do consumers have choice in regard to where and how they receive their services, but they should be actively involved in determining what services should be provided as  well. In new Managerialism consumers are redefined as well. Not only should they have choice regarding where and how they receive their services, but they should be actively involved in determining what services should be provided as  well. The Managerialism explains public services not as production functions or firms, but as governance structures. What is at stake is not so much the ethos and practice of management as the culture and structure of governance. Here governance means the organisational culture and structure of the relationship between what Weber called legitimate domination and the self-constitution of those who are subject to it. What Weber meant by legitimate domination was justified by an authority structure, which was, in turn, legitimated by rational authority. Hence, one finds a renewed interest of Managerialism in fostering managerial leadership. But governance through Managerialism was never only dependent for its legitimization on Weber’s notion of legal-rational authority, but more on forms of rationality that depend upon, for example, strategic management, cost-benefit-analysis, efficiency in the market, etc. Although this Managerialism draws on models of corporate Managerialism as well as accounts of New Public Management, it is also imbued with the practices of self in everyday life. What is new here, is recognition of the technologies of self that individuals employ to implicate themselves in their own governance. This creates what became known as “The Entrepreneurial Self”. The way Managerialism achieves this, for example, at university levels is through a re-formulation of research and science, as outlined in the table below.

Paragraph 11: William Hart was born in Paisley, Scotland, and in 1831 emigrated to the United States with his family, settling in Albany, New York. He was apprenticed to a decorative painter in Albany and Troy, New York, and his first artistic experience was in decorating the panels of coaches with landscapes. He also spent time as a portrait painter, likely after 1834.  He toured the mid-western States, predominantly Michigan, during the late 1830s seeking portrait commissions, and was unsuccessful.  He exhibited his first work at the National Academy of Design in 1848, and returned to Albany permanently in 1849.  In late 1849, he was underwritten by a Dr. Ormsby to travel to Europe to study landscape painting.  He painted primarily in Scotland until 1852, after which he returned to Albany, and then in 1853, moved to New York City. By the time he returned to America, Hart had shifted his energy to landscape painting. Like most of the major American landscape artists of the time, Hart settled in New York City, where he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in 1858.  In 1865, he was elected President of the Brooklyn Academy of Design.

Paragraph 12: According to Dr. Karlwerner Kaiser, formerly of Speyer Archaeological Monument Care (Archäologische Denkmalpflege Speyer), knowledge and archaeological finds thus far gathered for the area within Herschweiler-Pettersheim's limits give no clue to any time before the 3rd or 4th century BC. The oldest find witnessed to date has been a bronze disk neckring. The still unknown recovery site is presumably a worn-down barrow from the 4th century BC. The find may well point to a Celtic estate, perhaps a "knightly estate", in the Ohmbach valley. Somewhat more than 200 years less old is a find consisting of a Celtic coin, which came from an unknown spot within municipal limits. It could bear witness, as a buried artifact from a settlement in the "later, pre-Christian Bronze Age" of the 1st or 2nd century BC, to a source in the floor of the dale or on the Ohmbach valley's slopes. It could somehow be linked to an ancient road that ran through the dale. Eventually, the digs at the Roman-era villa rustica on Seitersstraße in 1961 led to the unearthing of ceramics from a settlement of the "later, pre-Christian Iron Age" right near the Roman site. This points to a yet-to-be-unearthed Celtic estate at this spot dating from the 1st century BC, a forerunner to the already known Roman estate, which was built of stone. A Celtic settlement in the Ohmbach valley around today's Herschweiler-Pettersheim from the 3rd or 4th century BC melding into Roman times in the Palatinate is the picture that emerges from this. Even the name "Hühnerkopf", borne by the peak that looms over the village to the east, can be traced to the description Hünenkopf (or in Middle High German, Hunnenkopf – that is, "Hun's Head", whereas the modern form means "Chicken's Head") and is therefore a linguistic clue as to an ancient population and its particular connection with the mountain. The building of the villa rustica from Roman times after the beginning of the Christian Era on a graded layer of débris, unearthed in the years 1959-1961, in which building remnants and potsherds were found, proves that in the 2nd century AD, a great wooden building with clay-filled timber framing once stood at the spot, but later burnt down before being replaced by the Roman complex. The ceramics unearthed 30 m behind the villa rustica show that there was a Celtic settlement tradition from the "later, pre-Christian Iron Age" into what was locally Roman times, lasting into the latter half of the 3rd century AD. After the Germanic invasions and the villa's destruction in the late 3rd century, it is believed that the local area was not settled, and that virgin forest once again sprouted up on the site.

Paragraph 13: The Phillies opened the month by taking two of a three-game series against the Giants, besting Jonathan Sánchez, who threw a no-hitter earlier in the 2009 season, and Tim Lincecum, who won the 2008 NL Cy Young Award. This was followed by a trip to Texas for a four-game series against the Houston Astros; the Phillies were unable to muster much offense during the series and were swept. On September 8, in the first game of the series against the Washington Nationals, Ibañez and Utley each hit their 30th home runs of the season, making them members of the 12th quartet of teammates in major league history to each reach 30 in a single season, joining Howard and Werth. The Phillies offense backed Lee to his sixth win the following night, with Madson earning his second consecutive save after assuming the de facto closer's role from Lidge. However, the Phillies could not overcome a pair of three-run home runs by Adam Dunn and Ian Desmond to secure the sweep in the last game of the series, despite Stairs' grand slam; it was their third loss of the season to Washington in fifteen games. The Mets came to Philadelphia for their last series of the season, which began on September 11. The Phillies won game one, 4–2, but the Mets came from behind in the second game of the series, scoring five runs in the final two innings to win 10–9. Making up a postponed game from earlier in the season, the Phillies won the first game of a day-night doubleheader behind Kyle Kendrick's first major league victory in 13 months. Eight shutout innings from Martínez in the nightcap gave the Phillies a 1–0 win, a 3–1 win in the 4-game set, and a 12–6 win in the season series. Martínez' eight innings also began a streak of 26 consecutive scoreless innings by Phillies pitchers: Madson followed with a scoreless ninth for his eighth save of the season; Cliff Lee pitched a complete-game shutout against the Nationals the following night; and Blanton, Park, and Madson combined for eight scoreless innings against Washington on September 16 until Tyler Walker allowed a run in the top of the ninth inning, an RBI single by Willie Harris which scored Justin Maxwell. Hamels closed out the series with a strong performance, perfect through his first five innings and finishing with one run allowed in eight; with their 15th win over the Nationals, the Phillies matched their best season record against the franchise, set against the 1976 Montréal Expos.

Paragraph 14: In chemistry, a transition metal pincer complex is a type of  coordination complex with a pincer ligand.  Pincer ligands are chelating agents that binds tightly through three adjacent coplanar sites in a meridional configuration.  The inflexibility of the pincer-metal interaction confers high thermal stability to the resulting complexes.  This stability is in part ascribed to the constrained geometry of the pincer, which inhibits cyclometallation of the organic substituents on the donor sites at each end.  In the absence of this effect, cyclometallation is often a significant deactivation process for complexes, in particular limiting their ability to effect C-H bond activation.  The organic substituents also define a hydrophobic pocket around the reactive coordination site.  Stoichiometric and catalytic applications of pincer complexes have been studied at an accelerating pace since the mid-1970s.  Most pincer ligands contain phosphines.  Reactions of metal-pincer complexes are localized at three sites perpendicular to the plane of the pincer ligand, although in some cases one arm is hemi-labile and an additional coordination site is generated transiently.  Early examples of pincer ligands (not called such originally) were anionic with a carbanion as the central donor site and flanking phosphine donors; these compounds are referred to as PCP pincers.

Paragraph 15: In the summer of 2010, the United States Army began field testing the XM25 in Afghanistan, with an initial per-unit cost of the early models ranging from  to $35,000. Five of the weapons were deployed with the 101st Airborne Division in Afghanistan in October 2010, along with 1,000 hand-made airburst rounds.  The soldiers reported that the weapon was extremely effective at killing or neutralizing enemy combatants firing on US troops from covered positions. US troops nicknamed the weapon, "The Punisher." First contact was on 3 December 2010. As of February 2011, the weapon had been fired 55 times in nine engagements by two units in different locations. It had disrupted two insurgent attacks on observation posts, destroyed two PKM machine gun positions, and destroyed four ambush sites. In one engagement, an enemy machine gunner was wounded by, or so frightened of, the XM25 that he dropped his weapon and ran away. The units with the XM25s had no casualties during the nine engagements. The weapon was called "revolutionary" and "a game-changer." One platoon leader commented that engagements that would normally take 15 to 20 minutes were over in just a few minutes.  They performed flawlessly with no maintenance problems. Soldiers were so pleased that they carried it as their primary weapon without carrying an M4 carbine as a secondary. There were no complaints about its weight, but improvements to the battery life and a range increase to 1,000 meters were sought. Each round was hand built at a cost of $1,000.

Paragraph 16: In terms of MBT's there are 5 types in NATO that are modern enough for a peer conflict with Russia that are talked about below. The majority of NATO members use the Leopard 2 as their main tank, with some countries such as Spain and Poland having their own variants. The Leopard 2A4 is the most widely used variant but this is the least modern variant in current use. NATO also uses the variants developed after the 2A4: the 2A5, 2A6 and 2A7. The US M1 Abrams tank is mainly used by the US, although Poland uses them alongside their Leopard 2's. This makes Poland the only NATO country other than the US to operate the Abrams. The M1 Abrams is in service in large numbers with the US army and the Leopard 2 is in widespread service throughout NATO, making these tank types the bulk of NATO's armoured strength. Other tanks that are available in small numbers are the Challenger 2, Leclerc and Ariete. These tanks are only used in NATO by their respective countries. There are roughly 200 tanks in service for each tank type, making a total of 800, plus roughly 1500 Leopard 2's and roughly 2500 M1 Abrams, the majority of which are M1A2's and the rest M1A1's. Therefore, roughly half of NATO's tank strength is composed of American M1 Abrams tanks and the other half of European Leopard 2s  with smaller amounts of Challenger 2's, Leclerc's and Ariete's. While the tanks previously listed are the main NATO tank forces, other NATO members operate obsolete Cold War era tanks from both the West and the Soviet Union. Some of those Soviet tanks are domestic variants of an original Soviet design. The countries that operate these tanks also do not have the ability to deploy them abroad so they still could not be used in NATO operations against poorly armed opponents where they might be useful. In terms of infantry fighting vehicles, there is slightly more variety due to the lower cost when compared to a tank. The US M2 Bradley makes up a substantial amount of infantry fighting vehicles in NATO with the US operating roughly 6,000. Other IFV's in NATO have hundreds of each type depending on which exact one present in NATO. These IFV's are the Puma, Warrior, Dardo, Freccia, ASCOD, Combat Vehicle 90, VBCI, LAV III,BMP-1and the BMP-2. The total for all these IFV's is roughly around 5000, meaning the US has roughly half of NATO's IFV's. The previous list does not include anything that could be described as an IFV but is not classified as such, like a Stryker, Boxer or Piranha. In terms of other armoured fighting vehicles, a lot of NATO members operate wheeled APC's and IFV's to carry infantry, the difference being an IFV would be employed with an infantry squad that was meant to work with tanks and a wheeled APC would be employed with independent infantry that were not supposed to cooperate with any tanks. These are the Stryker, Boxer and Piranha as mentioned earlier and the Patria AMV, Patria Pasi, Pandur II and Pandur I. The majority of modern wheeled Armored fighting vehicles in NATO are Strykers at roughly 4,500. The next most widely available wheeled APC is the Patria AMV, with Poland having a large amount (roughly 1000 vehicles) and other NATO members employing much smaller numbers. Next is the Boxer with roughly 800 in NATO use, with that number going up to 1400 by 2022, as the British Army ordered roughly 600 additional vehicles. The second least used is the MOWAG Piranha with roughly 500 in service in NATO. The modern wheeled AFV in the smallest numbers in NATO is the Pandur II with 250. The majority is used by Portugal and a smaller amount is used by Czechoslovakia. Slovenia has also made a request for 14 Pandur II as they already operate Pandur I. Older vehicles still in use as APC's but with tracks are the M113 armored personnel carrier and ELVO Leonidas-2. Most AFV's can also be configured into specialist vehicles as in most militaries.

Paragraph 17: The Mujibnagar government made him ambassador-at-large, followed in August 1971 by the concurrent position of Advisor to the Acting President, a position he was to resign in January 1972 after the return to Bangladesh of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. He had a key role managing relations with the United States and India whilst heading the nascent country's diplomatic service.  As the senior-most diplomat of the Bangladesh movement in the United Nations delegation under Justice Abu Sayed Choudhury which was in New York in September 1971 to lobby for the Bangladesh cause at the General Assembly, he played a vital role in the delegation's lobbying efforts. He was also in communication with other governments, such as the Nixon administration in the United States and also with Senators, Congressmen, and high officials in the US Administration, World Bank, and IMF; he had the advantage as well of being familiar with decision-makers and the decision-making process having served as a diplomat in Washington 20 years earlier. Former colleague Syed Muazzem Ali described him as a "soft-spoken and scholarly diplomat" who was exceptional in articulating the cause and whose contributions were invaluable. He was one of the first high officials to reach Dhaka after its liberation, and was quartered with other senior officials in Bangabhaban until January 1972. He was also the highest Bangladeshi official in Dhaka until the acting president and cabinet arrived after independence; on his arrival in Dhaka he was driven under escort from the airport, becoming the first civilian official to lay a wreath at the ruins of the Shaheed Minar, an act planned to mark the first presence of the government in Dhaka.  Already the effective head of the incipient foreign service, he became Foreign Secretary at the end of 1971, playing a key role in formulating Bangladesh's foreign policy.

Paragraph 18: Mandarich was born and raised in Oakville, Ontario, Canada, the son of Croatian   immigrants. After his older brother John received a scholarship to play football at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio, John convinced his parents to allow Tony to play his senior year of high school football at Theodore Roosevelt High School in Kent to improve his chances of receiving a scholarship. Recruited to Michigan State University by defensive back coach Nick Saban, Mandarich played in the 1988 Rose Bowl and was named a First-team All-American, an Outland Award finalist and a two-time Big Ten Lineman of the Year. Upon his entry into the 1989 NFL Draft, both scouts and media (most notably Sports Illustrated, which did a cover story on him, nicknaming him "The Incredible Bulk") began trumpeting Mandarich as the best offensive line prospect ever, touting his "measurables." "He weighed 330, ran the 40 [yard dash] in 4.65 seconds, did a standing long jump of 10'3", leaped vertically 30" and bench-pressed 225 pounds an unheard-of 39 times". He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated twice and was also a colorful character, illustrated by such instances as challenging then–Heavyweight Boxing Champion Mike Tyson to a fight, missing scheduled public appearances due to being drunk or hungover, his well-documented love of the band Guns N' Roses (he had a dog named Axl and also a tattoo of the cross-design from the cover of Appetite for Destruction on his arm), and referring to Green Bay as "a village".

Paragraph 19: Spearhafoc was a monk at Bury St Edmunds Abbey, who according to several sources, including the Norman chronicler Goscelin, who knew him personally, "was outstanding in painting, gold-engraving and goldsmithery", the painting very likely mainly in illuminated manuscripts. It was probably his artistic work which brought into contact with the royal family and the Godwins. King Edward the Confessor imposed him as Abbot of Abingdon following the death of Æthelstan on 29 March of either 1047 or 1048. In 1051 Edward promoted him to Bishop of London, but upon the return of the previous Bishop of London, Robert of Jumièges, newly elevated to Archbishop of Canterbury, from his trip to Rome to receive his pallium, Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, claiming that Pope Leo IX had forbidden it. After a stalemate "all that summer and autumn", with an unconsecrated Spearhafoc in possession of the see, the fall of Earl Godwin in September 1051, with whom Spearhafoc seems to have been allied, precipitated matters.  Spearhafoc was expelled from London, and fled abroad, taking with him the gold and gems intended for King Edward's crown, as well as treasure from the London diocesan stores, stuffed into "very many bags":... auri gemmarumque electarum pro corona imperiali cudenda, regis ejusdem assignatione receptam haberet copiam.  Hinc et ex episcopii pecunia marsupiorum farsisset plurimum receptacula, clanculo Anglia secedens ultra non-apparuit.    The exact sequence and implied motivation of events differs between the sources, but even the history of his own monastery concluded "God's vengeance brought such ends for those by whose trickery the Church was diminished for their own profit". In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Spearhafoc's flight, placed in 1052, is related immediately after the description of Edward putting away his queen, which may imply a close relation between these events. A Norman kinsman of the king, Rodulf, had already replaced Spearhafoc in Abingdon, though he died in 1052.

Paragraph 20: After Hassler's return to the United States, President James Madison appointed him the first superintendent of the United States Coast Survey in 1816. The creative side of Hassler was seen in the design of new surveying instruments. Most original was Hassler's baseline apparatus which involved an idea worked out by him in Switzerland and perfected in America. Instead of bringing different bars in actual contact during the process of baseline measurements, he used four two-metre iron bars fastened together totaling eight metres in length and optical contact. As early as February–March 1817, Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler, standardized the bars of his device which were actually calibrated on the Committee Metre (an authentic copy of the Mètre des Archives) which was the property of the American Philosophical Society, to whom it had been presented by Hassler himself, who had received it from Tralles, a foreign member of the French Committee charged with the construction of the standard metre by comparison with the Toise of Peru, which had served as unit of length in the measurement of the meridional arcs in France and Peru. The Committee Metre possessed all the authenticity of any original metre extant, bearing not only the stamp of the committee, but also the original mark by which it was distinguished from the other bars during the operation of standardising. Thus the metre became the unit of length for geodesy in the United States. Indeed, the Committee Metre served as the standard of length for Coast and Geodetic Survey until 1890, when the National Prototype Metre Bar No. 27 allotted to the United States in 1889 at the first General Conference on Weights and Measures arrived in Washington. However, Hassler had exceeded the spending limitations that had been set for his trip to Europe, and the resulting controversy foreshadowed the frictions between Hassler and the American Government that would plague his career. In 1818, the United States Congress removed supervision of the U.S. Coast Survey from Hassler and gave control to the army, where it lingered until 1832.

Paragraph 21: The first paper documenting dispersion effects seen through the microscope was written in 1872 by O. Maschke in Germany.  This paper discussed the occurrence of colored Becke` lines when a particle was in a liquid of matching refractive index.  Prior to this paper these colors were thought to be the result of the microscope lenses (chromatic aberration) and not the result of the slide mounted subject and the medium in which it was mounted.  In 1884 and 1895 Christian Christiansen published his data on the first analytical application of dispersion colors, the Christiansen filter.  He found that by placing a colorless transparent powder into a vial of a colorless organic liquid he could create monochromatic light from white light if the liquid and powder had the same refractive index for just that wavelength.  Only that wavelength would see an optically homogeneous media and pass directly through the vial.  The other wavelengths would be scattered in all directions by the particles in the liquid.  Monochromatic light could be viewed by looking through the vial along the path of the direct beam of light.  At any other angle the complementary color of that wavelength would be observed.  If he chose a liquid that matched the refractive index of the powder in the far red, 700 nanometers wavelength, he could create any other wavelength by heating the vial, thereby changing the wavelength at which the powder and liquid's refractive index matched.  This technique did not work for any powder or liquid.  For optimal effects the powder and the liquid had to be carefully selected so that the intersection of their dispersion curves created as large an angle as possible over the full range of visible wavelengths.  Christiansen's interest was in the creation of monochromatic filters and not the development of an analytical technique.  It wasn't until 1911 that the analytical potential of dispersion effects was reported by F. E. Wright.  He observed that the colored Becke` lines noted by Maschke could be used to distinguish between two materials with the same refractive index but different dispersion curves.  The colors could also indicate the region of the visible light spectrum for which a particle and liquid it was mounted in had a refractive index match.  Wright also noted that by using oblique transmitted illumination the particle would show these colors without having to inspect the Becke` line.

Paragraph 22: Skyrmions as topological objects are important in solid-state physics, especially in the emerging technology of spintronics. A two-dimensional magnetic skyrmion, as a topological object, is formed, e.g., from a 3D effective-spin "hedgehog" (in the field of micromagnetics: out of a so-called "Bloch point" singularity of homotopy degree +1) by a stereographic projection, whereby the positive north-pole spin is mapped onto a far-off edge circle of a 2D-disk, while the negative south-pole spin is mapped onto the center of the disk. In a spinor field such as for example photonic or polariton fluids the skyrmion topology corresponds to a full Poincaré beam (a spin vortex comprising all the states of polarization mapped by a stereographic projection of the Poincaré sphere to the real plane). A dynamical pseudospin skyrmion results from the stereographic projection of a rotating polariton Bloch sphere in the case of dynamical full Bloch beams.

Paragraph 23: The principle of postliminium, as a part of public international law, is a specific version of the maxim ex injuria jus non oritur, providing for the invalidity of all illegitimate acts that an occupant may have performed on a given territory after its recapture by the legitimate sovereign. Therefore, if the occupant has appropriated and sold public or private property that may not legitimately be appropriated by a military occupant, the original owner may reclaim that property without payment of compensation.  It derives from the ius postliminii, of Roman law. The codification of large areas of international law have made postliminium to a great extent superfluous though. It may either be seen as a historical concept, or a term generally describing the consequences to legal acts of an occupant after the termination of occupation.

Paragraph 24: The move starts with small rural town in. Pennsylvania where a feud simmers between farmer Fred Thorson and the Graveses, the Mennonite family who sold their mill to the Foley chemical company that is now contaminating the river with toxic wastes. Tess MacLean accompanied by her uncle Capt. Hamish MacLean arrives from Scotland to marry John Faulkner. Tragedy strikes when Tess arrives in Pennsylvania and is told that her fiancée is dead. This starts a series of events that are the main plot of the novel. Peter Graves a member of the town hurries to tell Tess that his family did not kill Faulkner, however Eric Thorson a member of the rival family and a close friend of John tells Tess that Peter's dad killed John. Tess also learns that John has left his farm to her, so she starts a new life on the farm. However, due to the poisoned water the farm starts dying. When one of the newborn calves dies from poisoning on Tess's farm, she lashes out at Peter telling him to close down the mill. Realizing that they can drive the mill out of business with a dam, Eric's father Fred petitions the Graves to build a dam, but they refuse because only the government can petition a dam. After all this the Graveses invite the MacLeans to dinner, where Tess comments on the strange Mennonite customs. However dinner comes to an end when Fred arrives and says his prize Angus steer has fallen ill and vows vengeance if the animal dies. Eric goes to ask Foley to shut down the mill, and when refused gets drunk. While drunk he kisses Tess who retaliates for he is being too forward. In a day after this Tess rides her bike to the river that crosses the Graveses land. When a bull attacks her Peter saves her. Tess kisses him and admits she respects him. After Fred's bull dies he and Captain McLean plot to blow up the plant. Tess arrives at the plant just after Fred plants the bomb and it explodes. The guards only seeing Tess thinks that she blew up the plant, but Peter helps her into a boat and accepts responsibility for blowing up the plant. After Peter is arrested, Tess visits him in prison and says he is the most wonderful man she knows and kisses him. Then Eric, Captain MacLean, and Foley arrive where Foley lies and says the exploded due to a faulty faulty steam boiler, freeing Peter. Once Freed Peter asks MacLean for Tess's hand in marriage, he consents but refuses to attend the wedding when he learns it will be held in a Mennonite church and Tess will like a life of a Mennonite wife. As Tess and Peter repeat their vows, MacLean and Fred peer through the church window. When the newlyweds go outside, MacLean meets them and gives his blessing.

Paragraph 25: Prior to Islam, the inhabitants of Qatar and Bahrain practiced Arabian paganism. Islam swept the entire Arabian region in the 7th century.  Muhammad sent his first envoy Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami to Munzir ibn Sawa Al Tamimi, the ruler of the historical region of Bahrain, which extended the coast from Kuwait to the south of Qatar including Al-Hasa, Qatif, and the Bahrain Islands, in the year 628 AD, inviting him to Islam. Munzir announced his conversion to Islam and all the Arab inhabitants of Bahrain and Qatar including some Persians living in Qatar also became Muslim, heralding the beginning of the Islamic era in Bahrain.

Paragraph 26: The Fobos-Grunt project began in 1999, when the Russian Space Research Institute and NPO Lavochkin, the main developer of Soviet and Russian interplanetary probes, initiated a 9 million rouble feasibility study into a Phobos sample-return mission. The initial spacecraft design was to be similar to the probes of the Phobos program launched in the late 1980s. Development of the spacecraft started in 2001 and the preliminary design was completed in 2004. For years, the project stalled as a result of low levels of financing of the Russian space program. This changed in the summer of 2005, when the new government plan for space activities in 2006–2015 was published. Fobos-Grunt was now made one of the program's flagship missions. With substantially improved funding, the launch date was set for October 2009. The 2004 design was revised a couple of times and international partners were invited to join the project. In June 2006, NPO Lavochkin announced that it had begun manufacturing and testing the development version of the spacecraft's onboard equipment.

Paragraph 27:  The label's most successful act commercially was the German-based band Boney M. with million-selling hits like "Rivers of Babylon", "Brown Girl in the Ring" and "Mary's Boy Child - Oh My Lord".  David Bowie mastered Low and recorded Heroes at their studio in Berlin.  After a decline in sales both domestically and internationally in the mid 80s, Hansa was eventually purchased by Bertelsmann Music Group, who merged them with several other labels like Ariola Records to form BMG Berlin Musik GmbH/BMG-Ariola, later to become part of international conglomerate Sony Music Entertainment, under which it was phased-out in 2009. It is used today only for reissues of its previous releases.

Paragraph 28: In his first year at Ferndale High School in 1967, Denny Hill won 3 meets, which he attributed to most of the senior quitting since he had been their 3rd coach and was requiring them to come to practice.  During his tenure as coach at Pioneer High School, the men's and women's swim teams won 31 Michigan High School State Swim Championships (15 for the men's team and 16 for the women's team). After getting married in 1983, Denny and Liz Hill became a coaching team.  Liz was named assistant coach of both the men's and women's teams beginning in 1984 but became co-head coach of both teams in 2005.  Between 1969 and 2014, the Pioneer Men's Swim & Dive Team won the Michigan High School State Championship in the following years: 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1993, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, and 2009.  In only 6 of those 45 years did the men's team place lower than 4th place in the state championships.  Between 1973 and 2010, the Pioneer Women's Swim and Dive Team won the Michigan High School State Championship in the following years: 1979, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008.  During these time periods, the men's and women's teams won 9 National Dual Meet (Power Points) Championships (the women's team also won 3 Mythical National Championships from Swimming World).  Over the course of Denny's career at Pioneer High School, the combined dual meet record was 1011-128-2 (567-90 for the men and 444-38-2 for the women.  The swim program produced 245 National Interscholastic Swim Coaches Association (NISCA) All-American Swimmers (140 men and 105 women) for a total of 862 All-American awards.  These swimmers included Olympians Kara Lynn Joyce and Alison Gregorka.  At Pioneer High School, Joyce set 4 national high school records in the 50 yard freestyle, 100 yard freestyle, 200 yard freestyle relay, and 400 yard freestyle relay before going on to swim at the University of Georgia.  Joyce has 4 Olympic silver metals.  Gregorka played water polo for Stanford University, and was a member of the US water polo team that won a silver medal at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.  Denny also coached Dan Stephenson, who wrote The Underwater Window, a novel about competitive swimming.  Denny Hill was named Michigan Interscholastic Swim Coaches Association Coach of the Year 31 times, Michigan High School Coaches Association Hall of Fame Inductee in 2003, NISCA Outstanding Service Award recipient in 2005, NHSACA National Coach of the Year in 1999, and a NHSACA Hall of Fame Inductee in 2008. In March 2014, Denny Hill was inducted into the NISCA Hall of Fame for swim coaches.  In November 2008, Pioneer High School rededicate their pool, "Hill Pool."  Denny was particularly honored that the pool naming was inclusive of both him and Liz.  Both Denny and Liz Hill retired from coaching the women's team in 2010 and the men's team in 2014.  In 2011, Eric Stanczyk took over as head coach of the Pioneer Women's Swim and Dive Team.  Stanczyk swam at Eastern Michigan University and was the captain of the team in his senior year; he also swam with the Hills' son, Steven, at EMU. Following the Hills' retirement from the men's team in 2014, Stefanie (Liebner) Kerska took over as head coach of the Pioneer Men's Swim and Dive Team.  Kerska swam for the Hills at Pioneer High School, and then went on to be a 7-time Big Ten Champion and assistant coach at the University of Michigan.  While at the University of Michigan, Kerska was the first woman to be selected by CollegeSwimming.com as Assistant Coach-of-the-Year.  Kerska took over as head coach of the Pioneer High School Women's Swim and Dive Team in the fall of 2015.

Paragraph 29: Al-Hujurat (,   The Chambers) is the 49th chapter (surah) of the Quran with 18 verses (āyāt). The chapter contains etiquette and norms to be observed in the Muslim community, including the proper conduct towards the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, an injunction against acting on news without verification, a call for peace and reconciliation, as well as injunctions against defamation, suspicion, and backbiting. The chapter also declares a universal brotherhood among Muslims. The thirteenth verse, one of the most famous in the Quran, is understood by Muslim scholars to establish equality with regards to race and origin; only God can determine one's nobility based on his piety.

Paragraph 30: The tornado initially touched down just inside western McCracken County, Kentucky northeast of Kevil and moved across the northern fringes of Paducah. The tornado was at EF2 strength in McCracken County, demolishing an abandoned mobile home, causing roof and siding damage to many structures (most of them being homes), destroying the foyer of a church, bending road signs, ripping a wooden fence out of the ground, and blowing over chain-link fences. At one building, three metal roll-up doors were blown in and part of a wall was blown out. The tops of three steel power transmission towers were bent over, power lines were downed, train car covers were blown off, and a sports utility vehicle was blown  into a ditch as well. Some damage to buildings and cooling towers at the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant was noted, though no hazardous materials were released. The tornado crossed the Ohio River into Massac County, Illinois where it went through Brookport at low-end EF3 strength and completely destroyed dozens of mobile homes, many of which were blown over . Also in Brookport, a frail site-built home was leveled, and dozens of homes, garages, storage buildings, and businesses sustained structural damage. Hundreds of trees were downed and cars were tossed as well. The tornado caused some minor damage to guard rails on the Ohio River bridge that carries traffic from Paducah to Brookport on U.S. Highway 45. East of Brookport, the tornado maintained EF3 strength as it impacted the small rural community of Shady Grove. Mobile homes in Shady Grove were obliterated, with their frames wrapped around trees. An empty school bus was picked up and thrown, and a two-story home was pushed off of its foundation and had many of its first floor walls ripped off, along with its porch. Past Shady Grove, the tornado struck the neighboring community of Unionville, where additional low-end EF3 damage occurred. Many trees in Unionville were snapped, and a large double-wide mobile home was obliterated and swept away, with debris scattered 500 feet. The home's heavy 7-by-12 foot concrete porch slab was lifted and moved by the tornado. The tornado weakened to EF2 strength as it moved briefly through Pope County and then back across the Ohio River into Livingston County, Kentucky, destroying several mobile homes and barns in this area and snapping numerous trees. In Lyon County the tornado downed additional trees before dissipating. Three people were killed and 33 additional people were injured along the tornado's  long path. All fatalities occurred in mobile homes that were destroyed in Brookport. Snow that fell in the area during the days following the tornado hindered cleanup efforts.

Question: The text describes the characteristics of tall trees with deep and wide crowns, which become narrower in dense forests. The bark is flaky and reveals light greyish-green patches. The branchlets are smooth and olive-green. The leaves are needle-like, spread stiffly, and glossy green on the outer surface with blue-green stomatal lines on the inner face. The cones are long and wide when open, with wrinkled apophyses and a curved umbo at the base. The seeds, known as pine nuts, are long and broad with a thin shell and a rudimentary wing.
Answer: Paragraph 8