dealers on transactional pricing in the marketplace.
The company also agrees to defend its intellectual property and to provide warranty and technical support to the dealer.
The agreement further grants the dealer a non-exclusive license to use the company’s trademarks, service marks and brand names.
In some instances, a separate trademark agreement exists between the company and a dealer.
In exchange for these rights, the agreement obligates the dealer to develop and promote the sale of the company’s products to current and prospective customers in the dealer’s service territory.
Each dealer agrees to employ adequate sales and support personnel to market, sell and promote the company’s products, demonstrate and exhibit the products, perform the company’s product improvement programs, inform the company concerning any features that might affect the safe operation of any of the company’s products and maintain detailed books and records of the dealer’s financial condition, sales and inventories and make these books and records available at the company’s reasonable request.
These sales and service agreements are terminable at will by either party primarily upon 90 days written notice.
Research and Development We place strong emphasis on product-oriented research and development relating to the development of new or improved machines, engines and major components.
In 2017, 2016 and 2015, we spent $1,905 million, $1,951 million and $2,119 million, or 4.2, 5.1 and 4.5 percent of our sales and revenues, respectively, on our research and development programs.
Employment As of December 31, 2017, we employed about 98,400 full-time persons of whom approximately 56,200 were located outside the United States.
In the United States, we employed approximately 42,200 employees, most of whom are at-will employees and, therefore, not subject to any type of employment contract or agreement.
At select business units, certain highly specialized employees have been hired under employment contracts that specify a term of employment, pay and other benefits.
## Table 0 ##
As of December 31, 2017, there were approximately 8,740 U. S.  hourly production employees who were covered by collective bargaining agreements with various labor unions, including The United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (UAW), The International Association of Machinists and The United Steelworkers.
Approximately 7,030 of such employees are covered by collective bargaining agreements with the UAW that expire on December 17, 2018 and March 1, 2023.
Outside the United States, the company enters into employment contracts and agreements in those countries in which such relationships are mandatory or customary.
The provisions of these agreements generally correspond in each case with the required or customary terms in the subject jurisdiction.
Sales and Revenues Sales and revenues outside the United States were 59 percent of consolidated sales and revenues for 2017, 2016 and 2015.
Additional information related to total sales and revenues and long-lived assets aggregated by our U. S.  and non-U.
S.  operations appears in Note 23 – “Segment information” of Part II, Item 8 “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data”.
Environmental Matters The company is regulated by federal, state and international environmental laws governing our use, transport and disposal of substances and control of emissions.
In addition to governing our manufacturing and other operations, these laws often impact the development of our products, including, but not limited to, required compliance with air emissions standards applicable to internal combustion engines.
We have made, and will continue to make, significant research and development and capital expenditures to comply with these emissions standards.
We are engaged in remedial activities at a number of locations, often with other companies, pursuant to federal and state laws.
When it is probable we will pay remedial costs at a site, and those costs can be reasonably estimated, the investigation, remediation, and operating and maintenance costs of the remedial action are accrued against our earnings.
Costs are accrued based on consideration of currently available data and information with respect to each individual site, including available technologies, current applicable laws and regulations, and prior remediation experience.
Where no amount within a range of estimates is more likely, we accrue the minimum.
Where multiple potentially responsible parties are involved, we consider our proportionate share of the probable costs.
In formulating the estimate of probable costs, we do not consider amounts expected to be recovered from insurance companies or others.
We reassess these accrued amounts on a quarterly basis.
The amount recorded for environmental remediation is not material and is included in the line item “Accrued expenses” in Statement 3 — “Consolidated Financial Position at December 31” of Part II, Item 8 “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data.
” There is no more than a remote chance that a material amount for remedial activities at any individual site, or at all the sites in the aggregate, will be required.
between the actual return on plan assets compared to the expected return on plan assets (U. S.  pension plans had an actual rate of return of 7.8 percent compared to an expected rate of return of 6.9 percent).  ?2015 net mark-to-market loss of $179 million - Primarily due to the difference between the actual return on plan assets compared to the expected return on plan assets (U. S.  pension plans had an actual rate of return of (2.0) percent compared to an expected rate of return of 7.4 percent) which was partially offset by higher discount rates at the end of 2015 compared to 2014.
The net mark-to-market losses were in the following Results of Operations line items:
## Table 1 ##
Effective January 1, 2018, we adopted new accounting guidance issued by the FASB related to the presentation of net periodic pension and OPEB costs.
This guidance requires that an employer disaggregate the service cost component from the other components of net benefit cost.
Service cost is required to be reported in the same line item or items as other compensation costs arising from services rendered by the pertinent employees during the period.
The other components of net benefit cost are required to be reported outside the subtotal for income from operations.
As a result, components of pension and OPEB costs, other than service costs, will be reclassified from operating costs to other income/expense.
This change will be applied retrospectively to prior years.
In the fourth quarter of 2017, the company reviewed and made changes to the mortality assumptions primarily for our U. S.  pension plans which resulted in an overall increase in the life expectancy of plan participants.
As of December 31, 2017 these changes resulted in an increase in our Liability for postemployment benefits of approximately $290 million.
In the fourth quarter of 2016, the company adopted new mortality improvement scales released by the SoA for our U. S.  pension and OPEB plans.
As of December 31, 2016, this resulted in an increase in our Liability for postemployment benefits of approximately $200 million.
In the first quarter of 2017, we announced the closure of our Gosselies, Belgium facility.
This announcement impacted certain employees that participated in a defined benefit pension plan and resulted in a curtailment and the recognition of termination benefits.
In March 2017, we recognized a net loss of $20 million for the curtailment and termination benefits.
In addition, we announced the decision to phase out production at our Aurora, Illinois, facility, which resulted in termination benefits of $9 million for certain hourly employees that participate in our U. S.  hourly defined benefit pension plan.
Beginning in 2016, we elected to utilize a full yield curve approach in the estimation of service and interest costs by applying the specific spot rates along the yield curve used in the determination of the benefit obligation to the relevant projected cash flows.
Service and interest costs in 2017 and 2016 were lower by $140 million and $180 million, respectively, under the new method than they would have been under the previous method.
This change had no impact on our year-end defined benefit pension and OPEB obligations or our annual net periodic benefit cost as the lower service and interest costs were entirely offset in the actuarial loss (gain) reported for the respective year.
We expect our total defined benefit pension and OPEB expense (excluding the impact of mark-to-market gains and losses) to decrease approximately $80 million in 2018.
This decrease is primarily due to a higher expected return on plan assets as a result of a higher asset base in 2018.
In general, our strategy for both the U. S.  and the non-U.
S.  pensions includes ongoing alignment of our investments to our liabilities, while reducing risk in our portfolio.
For our U. S.  pension plans, our year-end 2017 asset allocation was 34?percent equities, 62?percent fixed income and 4 percent other.
Our current U. S.  pension target asset allocation is 30 percent equities and 70 percent fixed income.
The target allocation is revisited periodically to ensure it reflects our overall objectives.
The U. S.  plans are rebalanced to plus or minus 5 percentage points of the target asset allocation ranges on a monthly basis.
The year-end 2017 asset allocation for our non-U.
S.  pension plans was 40?percent equities, 53?percent fixed income, 4?percent real estate and 3 percent other.
The 2017 weighted-average target allocations for our non-U.
S.  pension plans was 38?percent equities, 54?percent fixed income, 5?percent real estate and 3?percent other.
The target allocations for each plan vary based upon local statutory requirements, demographics of the plan participants and funded status.
The frequency of rebalancing for the non-U.
S.  plans varies depending on the plan.
Contributions to our pension and OPEB plans were $1.6 billion and $329 million in 2017 and 2016, respectively.
The 2017 contributions include a $1.0 billion discretionary contribution made to our U. S.  pension plans in December 2017.
We expect to make approximately $365 million of contributions to our pension and OPEB plans in 2018.
We believe we have adequate resources to fund both pension and OPEB plans.
ÿþ2018 COMPARED WITH 2017  CONSOLIDATED SALES AND REVENUES  @T@  The chart above graphically illustrates reasons for the change in Consolidated Sales and Revenues between 2017 (at left) and 2018 (at right).
 Items favorably impacting sales and revenues   appear as upward stair steps with the corresponding dollar amounts above each bar, while items negatively impacting sales and revenues appear as downward stair steps with dollar amounts   reflected in parentheses above each bar.
 Caterpillar management utilizes these charts internally to visually communicate with the company s Board of Directors and employees.
  Total sales and revenues were $54.
722 billion in 2018, an increase   of $9.
260 billion, or 20 percent, compared with $45.
462 billion   in 2017.
 The increase was primarily due to higher sales volume   driven by improved demand for equipment across the three primary   segments, including favorable changes in dealer inventories.
   Favorable price realization across the three primary segments   also contributed to the sales improvement.
 In addition, sales were   higher due to currency impacts, primarily from a stronger euro.
   Financial Products  revenues increased slightly.
  Sales increased in all regions, with the largest sales increase in   North America, which improved 23 percent as strong economic   conditions in key end markets drove higher demand.
 Also   contributing to higher sales was an increase in dealer inventories   during 2018, compared with dealer inventories that were about   flat in 2017.
  Sales increased 13 percent in Latin America primarily due to   stabilizing economic conditions in several countries in the region   that resulted in improved demand from low levels.
  EAME sales increased 16 percent primarily due to higher demand,   including favorable changes in dealer inventories.
 The improvement   in demand was primarily in Europe.
 The impact of a stronger euro   and favorable price realization also contributed to higher sales.
 The   impact of changes in dealer inventories was favorable as dealer   inventories increased more significantly in 2018 than in 2017.
  Asia/Pacific sales increased 28 percent primarily due to higher   demand in several countries across the region, including favorable   changes in dealer inventories and favorable price realization.
   Dealer inventories increased during 2018 as compared with dealer   inventories that were about flat in 2017.
  Dealer machine and engine inventories increased about $2.
3 billion in   2018, compared with an increase of about $100 million in 2017.
 Dealers   are independent, and the reasons for changes in their inventory levels   vary, including their expectations of future demand and product   delivery times.
 Dealers  demand expectations take into account   seasonal changes, macroeconomic conditions, machine rental rates   and other factors.
 Delivery times can vary based on availability of   product from Caterpillar factories and product distribution centers.
  @T@  
## Table 2 ##

<table><tr><td></td><td>2017</td><td>2016</td></tr><tr><td>Inside U.S.</td><td>42,200</td><td>40,900</td></tr><tr><td>Outside U.S.</td><td>56,200</td><td>54,500</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>98,400</td><td>95,400</td></tr><tr><td>By Region:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>North America</td><td>42,400</td><td>41,200</td></tr><tr><td>EAME</td><td>18,100</td><td>20,000</td></tr><tr><td>Latin America</td><td>15,000</td><td>11,400</td></tr><tr><td>Asia/Pacific</td><td>22,900</td><td>22,800</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>98,400</td><td>95,400</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td>Years ended December 31,</td></tr><tr><td>(Millions of dollars)</td><td>2017</td><td>2016</td><td>2015</td></tr><tr><td>Cost of goods sold</td><td>$-29</td><td>$476</td><td>$122</td></tr><tr><td>Selling, general and administrative expenses</td><td>244</td><td>382</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>Research and development expenses</td><td>86</td><td>127</td><td>39</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>$301</td><td>$985</td><td>$179</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>(Millions of dollars)</td><td>2017</td><td>SalesVolume</td><td>PriceRealization</td><td>Currency</td><td>Inter-Segment / Other</td><td>2018</td><td>$Change</td><td>%Change</td></tr><tr><td>Construction Industries</td><td>$19,240</td><td>$3,663</td><td>$122</td><td>$198</td><td>$14</td><td>$23,237</td><td>$3,997</td><td>21%</td></tr><tr><td>Resource Industries</td><td>7,861</td><td>2,082</td><td>316</td><td>-14</td><td>25</td><td>10,270</td><td>2,409</td><td>31%</td></tr><tr><td>Energy & Transportation</td><td>19,382</td><td>2,637</td><td>163</td><td>68</td><td>535</td><td>22,785</td><td>3,403</td><td>18%</td></tr><tr><td>All Other Segments</td><td>570</td><td>-26</td><td>-1</td><td>3</td><td>-64</td><td>482</td><td>-88</td><td>-15%</td></tr><tr><td>Corporate Items and Eliminations</td><td>-4,377</td><td>-65</td><td>1</td><td>-1</td><td>-510</td><td>-4,952</td><td>-575</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Machinery, Energy & Transportation</td><td>42,676</td><td>8,291</td><td>601</td><td>254</td><td>—</td><td>51,822</td><td>9,146</td><td>21%</td></tr><tr><td>Financial Products Segment</td><td>3,093</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>186</td><td>3,279</td><td>186</td><td>6%</td></tr><tr><td>Corporate Items and Eliminations</td><td>-307</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>-72</td><td>-379</td><td>-72</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Financial Products Revenues</td><td>2,786</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>114</td><td>2,900</td><td>114</td><td>4%</td></tr><tr><td>Consolidated Sales and Revenues</td><td>$45,462</td><td>$8,291</td><td>$601</td><td>$254</td><td>$114</td><td>$54,722</td><td>$9,260</td><td>20%</td></tr></table>

Question: what is the expected growth rate in pension and opb contributions from 2017 to 2018?
Answer: -0.77187