Table:
characteristic
population distribution
pm2.5 exposure

total
urban core
urban fringe
rural

total
total
urban core
urban fringe
rural
mean
s.d
mean
s.d
mean
s.d
mean
s.d

total
100.0
100.0
70.0
10.1
19.8
7.05
5.57
8.03
4.90
5.62
4.24
4.32
2.77

age group

younger than 5
5.4
100.0
70.3
10.6
19.1
6.94
5.41
7.86
4.99
5.55
4.10
4.29
2.53

5 to 17
16.7
100.0
67.7
10.7
21.6
6.86
5.44
7.87
4.94
5.59
4.17
4.30
2.63

18 to 39
29.1
100.0
74.3
9.3
16.4
7.23
5.52
8.06
4.92
5.62
4.21
4.33
2.72

40 to 65
36.7
100.0
68.1
10.0
21.9
6.97
5.60
8.01
4.88
5.63
4.26
4.33
2.85

older than 65
12.1
100.0
68.9
11.4
19.6
7.17
5.73
8.25
4.82
5.64
4.39
4.31
2.97

visible minority or aboriginal status

white
80.1
100.0
65.9
11.7
22.4
6.84
5.68
7.89
5.05
5.65
4.30
4.37
3.01

aboriginal
3.6
100.0
44.9
11.8
43.4
5.29
3.60
7.00
4.74
4.71
3.13
3.67
1.47

visible minority
16.3
100.0
96.0
2.1
1.9
8.45
4.33
8.58
4.10
5.93
3.99
4.77
3.18

south asian
4.1
100.0
96.8
1.6
1.6
8.36
4.30
8.46
4.14
5.86
3.78
5.02
3.07

chinese
3.9
100.0
97.0
1.6
1.3
8.38
3.94
8.48
3.75
5.73
3.77
4.66
2.86

black
2.5
100.0
94.9
2.3
2.7
8.71
4.54
8.89
4.18
6.10
4.31
4.65
3.44

filipino
1.3
100.0
96.4
2.1
1.5
8.25
4.38
8.37
4.17
5.61
3.54
4.35
3.15

latin american
1.0
100.0
94.4
2.8
2.8
8.78
4.46
8.95
4.19
6.48
4.50
5.21
2.98

arab
0.9
100.0
96.3
1.9
1.8
8.73
4.37
8.87
4.05
5.38
3.66
4.61
3.39

other asian
2.0
100.0
94.7
3.0
2.2
8.31
4.54
8.47
4.30
6.04
3.89
4.69
3.05

multiple visible minority
0.4
100.0
95.2
2.6
2.2
8.32
4.47
8.46
4.24
5.99
3.95
4.63
2.58

other visible minority
0.2
100.0
95.1
2.3
2.6
8.68
4.52
8.83
4.22
6.43
4.14
4.94
4.33

immigration status

not immigrant
79.3
100.0
64.9
11.8
23.3
6.73
5.52
7.81
5.02
5.58
4.23
4.29
2.73

immigrant
20.7
100.0
89.8
3.9
6.3
8.28
4.82
8.63
4.26
6.07
4.23
4.73
3.29

education

less than secondary graduation
16.7
100.0
61.1
12.1
26.8
6.78
5.70
8.17
4.90
5.50
4.28
4.20
2.64

secondary graduation
16.1
100.0
69.4
10.6
19.9
7.08
5.64
8.06
4.92
5.73
4.34
4.38
2.97

non-university diploma or certificate
21.8
100.0
69.3
10.6
20.1
6.98
5.58
7.93
4.94
5.64
4.27
4.39
2.93

university degree
14.0
100.0
82.6
6.3
11.0
7.59
5.37
8.17
4.77
5.66
4.07
4.39
2.89

labour force status

employed
43.6
100.0
70.7
9.7
19.6
7.06
5.57
7.99
4.90
5.65
4.21
4.37
2.89

unemployed
22.5
100.0
69.1
10.9
20.0
7.13
5.69
8.19
4.85
5.61
4.36
4.28
2.80

not in labour force
2.5
100.0
67.4
9.4
23.2
7.02
5.79
8.30
4.86
5.34
4.27
3.99
2.36

household income

less than 30,000
17.7
100.0
69.6
9.9
20.4
7.21
5.67
8.37
4.79
5.51
4.35
4.11
2.36

30,000 to 50,000
18.6
100.0
67.4
10.2
22.4
7.05
5.73
8.21
4.89
5.59
4.32
4.23
2.66

50,000 to 90,000
31.7
100.0
68.1
10.7
21.1
6.94
5.60
7.96
4.95
5.62
4.25
4.34
2.85

more than 90,000
32.0
100.0
73.7
9.7
16.6
7.06
5.36
7.82
4.87
5.69
4.10
4.51
3.04

low-income status

low income
11.2
100.0
84.7
6.3
9.1
7.94
5.43
8.52
4.57
5.59
4.52
4.21
2.89

not low income
87.0
100.0
69.1
10.7
20.2
6.98
5.68
7.96
4.96
5.64
4.31
4.37
3.06

visible minority and low income

white - low income
7.1
100.0
78.3
8.7
13.0
7.59
5.76
8.37
3.85
5.61
4.56
4.28
2.96

white - not low income
73.0
100.0
65.0
12.0
23.1
6.78
5.71
7.84
5.09
5.65
4.32
4.38
3.08

visible minority - low income
3.5
100.0
98.3
1.0
0.7
8.86
3.92
8.92
3.78
6.02
4.27
4.66
3.63

visible minority - not low income
12.7
100.0
95.5
2.3
2.1
8.34
4.42
8.48
4.18
5.93
4.05
4.71
3.21

Statement: in rural areas, mean pm2.5 exposure was less for people in lower- versus higher-income households.
Question: in rural areas, which group has a less mean pm2.5 exposure, people in lower-income households or higher-income household?
Answer: low income