领域：学术论文 · 社会科学

A. Use a tailored definition of pedagogy in pedagogical research and reform.
Despite widespread use of the term “pedagogy,” there is no consensus on what the term means in practice. Some see pedagogy as a purely technical activity and describe it as “the science of teaching.” Others focus on how sociocultural elements such as culture, local education ecosystems, and learning theories influence pedagogical choices. And others propose some combination of these definitions (Alexander, 2009; Bremner, 2021). “Pedagogy” is ambiguous partly because the purposes of education vary and because ways of teaching and learning are contested topics (Burde, 2014; Qargha, 2022). This section explores how various individuals and entities define “pedagogy” and highlights the importance of considering Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets when defining “pedagogy” in local contexts.
1. Understand that there is no single definition for “pedagogy.”
“Pedagogy” is a complex term, and its meaning varies based on political, historical, or social factors in local contexts. Although many cultures value good teaching practice, the modern use of the term “pedagogy” to describe teaching and learning is predominantly a Western phenomenon. Dating back to the 16th century, the term has been adopted by non-Western localities or transferred from the outside by international actors (Loughran, 1999; Rizvi, 2009; Schweisfurth, 2013; Steiner-Khamsi & Waldow, 2012). The term “pedagogy” is more common in French-, German-, Russian-, and Spanish-speaking communities than in English-speaking ones (Hamilton, 2009). “Pedagogy” has been used to describe various concepts, including the place, practice, system, science, art, and principles of education and teaching. For instance,
the Oxford English Dictionary defines “pedagogy” as a place of instruction (such as a school, college, or university), a system of introductory training, and a means of guidance.
Linguistic Definitions of “Pedagogy”
 “the science of teaching” (Oxford Shorter English Dictionary, 1993)
 “the art, science, or profession of teaching” (Merriam Webster Dictionary)
 “the function or work of a teacher” (dictionary.com)
 “the study of teaching methods” (Oxford Learners Dictionary, 2023)
In academic literature, the term “pedagogy” encompasses the visible aspects of teaching and learning, like teaching methods, interactions between teachers and students, the learning environment, and the curriculum, as well as the invisible theories, values, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and research that influence classroom practice (Alexander, 2009; Moyles et al., 2002; Shah & Campus, 2020; Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002). Academics also use the term “pedagogy” to describe interactions in diverse fields, such as health, fitness, gender, literature, management, cultural studies, and media studies (Loughran, 1999; Marton & Booth, 1997).
Ministries of education and international development organizations also have varied definitions of “pedagogy.” For instance, the Victoria State Department of Education and Training in Australia focuses on instructional methods and sees “pedagogy” as the methods or principles of teaching (Department of Education and Training, 2018). A USAID report defines “pedagogy” as strategies and techniques supporting development and learning (Bub, 2022). Without explicitly defining “pedagogy,” the World Bank emphasizes the importance of pedagogy for teachers’ professional development and advocates for specific interventions, such as structured pedagogy (Global Education Evidence Advisory Panel, 2023). An OECD working paper defines “pedagogy” as repeated patterns or sets of teaching and learning practices that shape interactions between teachers and learners (Peterson et al., 2018). The term “innovative pedagogies” emerged in the last two decades to refer to pedagogical approaches that aim to significantly improve learning outcomes by creating transformative shifts in teaching and learning, described as leapfrogging (Istance & Paniagua, 2019). According to recent literature, two main characteristics make a pedagogy innovative: a) intentionally planned practices to enhance student learning, and b) a departure from common pedagogical approaches in a specific context (Averill & Major, 2020; Kukulska-Hulme et al., 2020). Therefore, any intentional changes to classroom practice that aim to improve student learning in a local context can be considered an “innovative pedagogy.” However, no single practice is universally “innovative.” An “innovative” practice in one local context might be common practice in another. In Working Paper II, we discuss student-centered pedagogies as a leading example of innovative pedagogies in practice. We recommend a working definition for pedagogy as a starting point for discussion in local contexts to overcome the lack of consensus on a universal definition for the term.
2. Consider local culture, education ecosystems, and learning theories when defining pedagogy.
In attempting to define pedagogy, we draw from work by education scholar Robin Alexander, who emphasized the impact of culture and local context on pedagogical choices. Alexander (2009) defines “pedagogy” as “the act of teaching together with its attendant discourse of educational theories, values, evidence and justifications” (p. 928). In other words, pedagogy is not only the teaching methods but also the theories, values, and experiences that influence a teacher’s worldview, as well as the evidence and justification that impact a teacher’s choices.
We encourage policymakers and researchers to build on our working definition to develop a definition most appropriate for their local context and aligned with their education reform agendas. In Working Paper III, we outline a collaborative research strategy that can help researchers and education actors – which can include policymakers, academics, teachers, students, donors, civil society organizations and other actors in the local education ecosystem - jointly define and explore pedagogies in their local context. Our working definition of pedagogy aims to capture the multiple elements that make up pedagogy. In the following section, we refer to these elements as Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets.
B. Adapt pedagogical approaches to account for Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets.
The act of teaching is the visible part of pedagogy—the tip of the iceberg. But beneath the surface, elements such as culture, local education ecosystems, and learning theories inform teachers’ choices and shape the teaching and learning experience. We use these three categories to encompass what we define as Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets: the multifaceted, interconnected, and unobservable elements that impact pedagogical approaches in the classroom. UNESCO defines culture as “the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group that encompasses, not only art and literature, but lifestyles, ways of living together, values systems, traditions and beliefs” (UNESCO, 2001). Because knowledge is situated within a social context, an individual’s learning is shaped by social processes and values within this cultural context (Kim & Davidson, 2019). Jones (1989) also underlines the importance of culture in the classroom, stating that “we cannot discuss what happens in the classroom and its significance for social change without at least an understanding of the structured, collective cultural interpretations of the pupils” (p. 22).


翻译考点：
考点1：“contested topics”推荐译为“备受争议的话题”
考点2：“tailored definition”推荐译为“因地制宜的定义”
考点3：“leapfrogging”应译为“跨越式发展”
考点4：“a departure from common pedagogical approaches”中的“departure”不是指“离开”，因此完整译文应为“对常规教学方法的突破”