original sin, as baptism from the actual sin of transgression ; — a view which rightly foimd but little accept- ance. This uncertainty as to the number of the sacraments con- tinued till the twelfth century.^ Yet the usage of the church from the fifth century downward, in the East and in the West, appears to have inclined silently to the number seven, which was commended by its mystical sacredness. This is shown at least by the agreement of the Greek and Roman churches in this point, and even of the ISTestorians and Monophysites, who split off in the fifth century from the orthodox Greek church.^ In the West, the number seven was first introduced, as is usually supposed, by the bishop Otto of Bamberg (1124), more correctly by Peter Lombard (f 1164), the " Master of Sentences ;" ^ According to the testimony of Ambrose, Augustine, and the Missale GaUicum vetus. Comp. Hahn, 1. c. p. 84 f. ^ Beda VenerabiUs (f 735), Ratramnus of Corbie (f 868), Ratherius of Verona (f 974), in enumerating the sacraments, name only baptism and the Lord's Supper ; and even Alexander of Hales (f 1245) expressly says (Simmia P. iv. Qu. 8, Membr. 2, art. 1): "Christus duo sacramenta instituit per se ipsum, sacramentum baptismi et sacramentum eucharistiae." Damiani (f 1072), on the other hand, mentions twelve sacraments, viz., baptism, confirmation, anointing of the sick, consecration of bishops, consecration of kings, consecration of churches, penance, consecration of canons, monks, hermits, and nuns, and marriage. 0pp. tom. ii. 372 (ed. C. Cajet.). Bernard of Clairvaux (f 1151) names ten sacraments. Confirmation was usually reckoned among the sacraments. Comp. Hahn, 1. c. 88 £f. ^ No plain trace, however, of such a definite nmnber appears in the eai'hest monuments of the faith of these Oriental sects, or even in the orthodox theologian John Damascenus. 480 THIRD PERIOD. A.D. 311-590. rationally and rhetorically justified by Thomas Aquinas and other scholastics (as recently by Mohler) from the seven chief religious wants of human life and human society ; ' and finally publicly sanctioned by the council of Florence in 1439 with the concurrence of the Greek church, and estabhshed by the council of Trent with an anathema against all who think other- wise." The Reformation returned, in this point as in others, to the New Testament ; retained none but baptism and the Lord's Supper as proper sacraments, instituted and enjoined by Christ himself; entirely rejected extreme unction (and at first con- firmation) ; consigned penance to the province of the inward life, and confirmation, marriage, and orders to the more general province of sacred acts and usages, to which a more or less sacramental character may be ascribed, but by no means an equality in other respects with baptism and the holy Supper.' § 92. Baptism. For the Literature, see vol. i. § S5,-f^r4^ ; especially Hofling (Lutheran) : Das Sacrament der Taufe. W. Wall (Anglican) : The History of In- fant Baptism (1705), new