just the most eminent exegetes of the ancient church, expressly acknowledged the original iden- tity of the two offices in the New Testament, and consequently derive the proper episcopate, not from divine institution, but only from church usage.' The traditional participation of tlie people in the election, which attested the popular origin of the episcopal office, still continued, but gradually sank to a mere formality, and at last became entirely extinct. Tlie bishops filled their own vacan- cies, and elected and ordained the clergy. Besides ordination, as the medium for communicating the official gifts, they also claimed from the presbyters in the West, after the fifth cen- tury, the exclusive prerogatives of confirming the baptized and consecrating the chrism or holy ointment used in baptism." In the East, on the contrary, confirmation (the chrism) is per- formed also by the presbyters, and, according to the ancient custom, immediately follows baptism. To this spiritual preeminence of the bishops was now added, from the time of Constantino, a civil importance. Through the union of the church with the state, the bishops became at the same time state officials of weight, and enjoyed the various privileges which accrued to the church from this connection.^ They had thenceforth an independent and legally valid juris- diction ; they held supervision of the church estates, which were sometimes very considerable, and they had partial charge even of the city property ; they superintended the morals of the people, and even of the emperor ; and they exerted influ- ^ See the passages quoted in § 52, and the works there referred to. The modern Romish divine, Perrone, in his Prselectiones Theologies, t. ix. § 93, denies that the doctrine of the superiority of bishops over presbyters by divine right, is an article of the Catholic faith. But the council of Trent, sess. xxiii. can. 6, condemns all who deny the divine institution of the three orders. '■^ Innocent I., Ep. ad Decent. : " Ut sine chrismate et episcopi jussioue nequc presbyter neque diaconus jus habeant baptizandi." ^ Comp. above, ch. iii. § 14-16. § 53. THE BISHOPS. 265 ence- upon the public legislation. They were exempt from civil jurisdiction, and could neither be brought as witnesses before a court nor be compelled to take an oath. Their dio- ceses grew larger, and their power and revenues increased. Dondnus heatissimus {jxaKaptwraro'i), sanctissimus {dyta>Taro<;), or reverendissimus, Beaiitudo or Sanctitas tua^ aud similar high-sounding titles, passed into universal use. Kneeling, kissing of the hand, and like tokens of reverence, came to be shown them by all classes, up to the emperor himself. Chrys- ostom, at the end of the fourth century, says,: "The heads of the empire (hyparchs) and the governors of provinces (top- archs) enjoy no such honor as the rulers of the church. They are hrst at court, in the society of ladies, iu the houses of the great. ISTo one has precedence of them." To this position corresponded the episcopal insignia, which from the fourth