the election of Damasus in Rome. In short, all the selfish passions and corrupting influ- ences, which had spoiled the freedom of the popular political elections in the Grecian and Roman republics, and which ap- pear also in the republics of modern times, intruded ujDon the elections of the church. And the clergy likewise often sufl"ered themselves to be guided by impure motives. Chrysostom laments that presbyters, in the choice of a bishop, instead of looking only at spiritual fitness, were led by regard for n^ble l)irth, or great wealth, or consanguinity and friendship.^ The ' Epist. X. c. 4 (Opera, ed. Bailer, i. GST): " Expectarentur certe vota civium, testimonia populorum, quaereretur honoratorum arbitrium, electio clericorum . . . In the same epistle, cap. 6 : Qui prcefuturus est omnibus, ah omnibus eligatur.''^ * Paulinus, Vita Aiabros. ; Sozomen, H. E. 1. iv. c. 24, and vii. 8. This historian excuses the irregularity by a special interposition of Providence. ^ Sulpitius Severus, Yita Mart, c.1: " Incredibilis muUitudo non solum ex eo oppido [Tours], sed etiam ex vicinis urbibus ad suffragia fcrenda convenerat," etc. * Socrates, H. E. vi. 2 : "VrtipWiian koiv^ dfiou Travruv K\7]pov re (prjixl koI Xaov. ' De sacerdotio, lib. iii. c. 15. Further on in the same chapter he say3 even, that many are elected on account of their badness, to prevent the mischief they would § 49. CLERGY AND LAITY. ELECTIONS. 241 bishops themselves sometimes did no better. I^ectarins, who was suddenly transferred, in 381, by the emperor Theodosius, from the preetorsliip to the bishopric of Constantino})le, even before he was baptized,' wished to ordain his physician Mar- ty rius deacon, and when the hitter refused, on the gromid of incapacity, he replied : "Did not I, who am now a priest, formerly live much more immorally than thou, as thou thyself well knowest, since thou wast often an accomplice of my many iniquities ? " Martyrius, however, persisted in his refusal, be- cause he had continued to live in sin long after his baptism, while Xectarius had become a new man since his.' The emperor also, after the middle of the fourth century, exercised a decisive influence in the election of metropolitans and patriarchs, and often abused it in a despotic and arbitrary way. Thus every mode of appointment was evidently exposed to abuse, and could furnish no security against unworthy candi- dates, if the electors, whoever they might be, were destitute of moral earnestness and the gift of spiritual discernment. Toward the end of the period before us the republican element in the election of bishops entirely disappeared. The Greek church after the eighth century vested the franchise ex- clusively in the bishops.' The Latin church, after the eleventh century, vested it in the clergy of the cathedral church, with- out allowing any participation to the people. But in the West, especially in Spain and France, instead of the people, the Othei'wise do : Ot St, Sict irovriplav (ets ttiv tov