with the Persians a disadvantageous but necessary peace, replaced the cross in the labarum, and restored to the church her privileges, but, beyond this, declared universal toleration in the spirit of Constantine. Under the circum- stances, this was plainly the wisest policy. Like Constantine, also, he abstained from all interference with the internal affairs of the cliurch, though for himself holding the Nicene faith and warmly favorable to Athanasius. He died in the thirty-third year of his age, after a brief reign of eight months. Augustin says, God took him away sooner than Julian, that no emperor might become a Christian for the sake of Constantino's good fortune, but only fof the sake of eternal life. His successor, Valentinian I. (died 375), tliough generally inclined to despotic measures, declared likewise for the policy of religious freedom,' and, though personally an adherent of the Nicene orthodoxy, kept aloof from the docti-inal controver- sies ; while his brother and co-emperor, Valens, who reigned * Cod. Theodos. 1. ix. tit. 16, 1. 9 ^of the year 371): Testes sunt leges a me in exordio imperii mei datae, quibus iinicicigue, quod aniino imbihisset, colend' libera facultas tributa est. Tiiis is confirmed by Ammian. Marc. 1. xxx. c. 9. § 5. FROM JOVIAN TO TIIEODOSrUS. 61 in the East till 378, favored the Arians and persecuted the tJatholics. Both, however, j^rohibited bloody sacrifices ' and divination. Maxirain, the representative of Yalentinian at Rome, proceeded with savage cruelty against all w4io were found guilty of the crime of magic, especially the Roman aristocracy. Soothsayers were burnt alive, while their meaner accomplices were beaten to death by straps loaded with lead. In almost every case recorded the magical arts can be traced to pagan religious usages. Under this reign heathenism was for the first time officially designated &.i pagan is mus, that is, peasant-religion; because it had almost entirely died out in the cities, and maintained only a decrepit and obscure existence in retired villages.' What an inversion of the state of things in tlie second century, when Celsus contemptuously called Christianity a religion of me- chanics and slaves ! Of course large exceptions must in both cases be made. Especially in Rome, many of the oldest and most respectable families for a long time still adhered to the heathen traditions, and the city appears to have preserved until the latter part of the fourth century a hundred and fifty-two temples and a hundred and eighty-three smaller chapels and altars of patron deities.' But advocates of the old religion — a Themistius, a Libanius, and a Symmachus — limited themselves to the claim of toleration, and thus, in their oppressed condi- tion, became, as formerly the Christians were, and as the per- secuted sects in the Catholic church and the Protestant state churches since have been, advocates of religious freedom. The same toleration continued under Gratian, son and ^ Libanius, 1. c. (ed. Reiske, ii. 1G3) : rh ^vfiv lepe7a — iicuXvdri irapa toIv a5fA(po7v, ctAV ou