of faith in an authoritative way. Now also, however, the lines of orthodoxy were more and more strictly drawn ; freedom of inquiry was restricted ; and all departure from the state-cliurch system was met not only, ar, formerly, with spiritual weapons, but also with civil punish- ments. So early as the fourth century the dominant party, the orthbdox as well as the heterodox, with help of the im- perial authority practised deposition, confiscation, and banish- ment upon its opponents. It was but one step thence to the penalties of torture and death, which were ordained in the middle age, and even so lately as the middle of the seven- teenth century, by state-church authority, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, and continue in many countries to this day, against religious dissenters of every kind as enemies to .the prevailing order of things. Absolute freedom of religion and of worship is in fact logically impossible on the state-churcli system. It requires the separation of the spiritual and tem- poral powers. Yet, from the very beginning of ecclesiastico- political persecution, loud voices rise against it and in behalf of religious toleration ; though the plea always comes from the oppressed party, which, as soon as it gains the power, is gen- erally found, in lamentable inconsistency, imitating the violence of its former oppressors. The protest springs rather from the sense of personal injury, than from horror of the principle of persecution, or from any clear apprehension of the nature of the gospel and its significant words : " Put up thy sword into the sheath ; " " My kingdom is not of this world." The organization of the church adapts itself to the political and geographical divisions of the empire. The powers of the hierarchy are enlarged, the bishops become leading ofiicers of the state and acquire a controlling influence in civil and political afiairs, though more or less at the expense of their spiritual dignity and independence, especially at the Byzantine court. The episcopal system passes on into the metropolitan and patriarchal. In the fifth century the patriarchs of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem stand at the head of Christendom. Among- these Rome and Constanti- 8 THIRD PERIOD. A.D. 311-590. nople are the most powerful rivals, and the Roman patriarch already puts forth a claim to universal spiritual supremacy, which subsequently culminates in the mediaeval papacy, though limited to the West and resisted by the constant pro- test of the Greek church and of all non-Catholic sects. In addition to provincial synods we have now also general synods, but called by the emperors and more or less affected, though not controlled, by political influence. From the time of Constantine church discipline declines ; the whole Roman world having become nominally Christian, and the host of hypocritical professors multiplying beyond all control. Yet the firmness of Ambrose with the emperor Theodosius shows, that noble instances of discipline are not altogether wanting. Worship appears greatly enriched and adorned ; for art