{
    "filename": "THE POWER OF MUSIC",
    "department": "Manager",
    "cleaned_text": "obpthe power musicsusan hallam evangelos himonidesthe power music building earlier work power music research synthesis impact acti vely making music intellectual social personal development children young people volume susan hallam evangelos himonides important new resource \ufb01 eld music educa prac ce psychology well signposted text helpful subheadings power music gathers synthesises research neuroscience psychology educa develop understanding e\ufb00 ects listening ac vely making music chapters address musics rela onship literacy numeracy transferable skills impact social cohesion personal wellbeing well roles music plays everyday lives considering evidence large popula samples individual case studies across age groups authors also pose important methodological ques ons research community power music defends qualita research requirement randomised control trials obscure diverse en fraught contexts people ages backgrounds exposed engage music magni\ufb01 cent comprehensive volume allows evidence power music speak thus providing essen al directory researching music educa social personal cogni impact across human ages experiences authorapproved edi open access tle open book publica ons en book available download free publishers website printed digital edi ons together supplementary digital material also found h pwww openbookpublisherscom cover image tabitha lincoln rights reserved cover design anna gatti susan hallam evangelos himonidesan exploration evidencehallam himonides power music exploration evidenceebook ebook oa edi ons also available open access wwwopenbookpublisherscomthe power musicthe power music exploration evidence susan hallam evangelos himonides httpswwwopenbookpublisherscom susan hallam evangelos himonides work licensed attributionnoncommercialnoderivs international license cc nc nd license allows reusers copy distribute material medium format unadapted form noncommercial purposes long attribution given creator attribution include following information susan hallam evangelos himonides power music exploration evidence cambridge uk open book publishers httpsdoiorgobp order access detailed updated information license please visit https doiorgobp copyright details cc byncnd licenses available httpcreativecommons orglicensesbyncnd external links active time publication unless otherwise stated archived via internet archive wayback machine httpsarchiveorgweb digital material resources associated volume available httpsdoi orgobp resources every effort made identify contact copyright holders omission error corrected notification made publisher isbn paperback isbn hardback isbn digital pdf isbn digital ebook epub isbn digital ebook azw isbn digital ebook xml isbn digital html doi obp cover image tabitha lincoln rights reserved cover design anna gatti contents author biographies xiii susan hallam xiii evangelos himonides xiv preface xvii introduction music functions origins transfer learning methodological issues ways engaging music varying levels commitment music therapy interpreting research findings music neuroscience neuroscientific methods changes brain following musical activity comparisons musicians nonmusicians expertise automation skills expertise increases bimanual motor coordination multisensory learning neurological differences relating genre instrument played studies child musicians nonmusicians genetic maturational effects versus training effects intervention studies overview vi power music aural perception language skills explanations relationships music language comparisons musicians nonmusicians research children research auditory language impairments overview literacy related language skills correlation studies comparisons musicians nonmusicians intervention studies children facing challenges literacy skills pitch rhythm programmes effective enhancing literacy reviews metaanalyses conclusions spelling writing overview music spatial reasoning mathematical performance comparisons musicians nonmusicians correlation studies musical interventions spatialtemporal reasoning relationships spatial skills mathematics relationships music spatial skills mathematics musical engagement mathematical performance overview impact musical engagement memory visual memory research children verbal memory research children working memory research adults vii contents research children young people older adults reviews metaanalyses overview executive functioning selfregulation research adults research children research older people reviews literature overview intellectual development nature nurture correlational comparative research adults correlation comparative research children intervention studies music emotional intelligence studies older adults reviews metaanalyses overview musicians creativity neurological studies creativity correlational comparative research musicians personality musicians creativity intervention studies creativity later life reviews metaanalyses overview general attainment correlation comparative studies largescale research research disadvantaged populations intervention research reviews metaanalyses viii power music explanations research findings neurological studies length engagement music type nature quality musical training role executive functions attainment personality factors motivation overview music studying listening music prior completing task background music nature music preferred music familiarity liking preference music ones culture nature task completed background music memory background music attention reading comprehension secondlanguage learning background music english second language individual differences musical expertise gender personality background music metacognition impact background music childrens behaviour task performance background music primaryschool children background music older students research children emotional behavioural difficulties adhd developmental difficulties children attention deficit hyperactivity disorder attention deficit disorder emotional behavioural difficulties ix contents older adults cognitive impairment reviews metaanalyses explaining impact background music cognitive performance explanatory framework overview reengagement motivation motivation motivation developed engagement music children young people facing challenging life circumstances el sistema sistema inspired programmes raised aspirations motivation learning selfbeliefs school attendance positive attitudes towards school emotional behavioural difficulties transferable skills music interventions unrelated el sistema school attendance attitudes towards school integration young people special educational needs mainstream education schoolbased music therapy interventions children emotional behavioural difficulties role rap hip hop therapy school contexts music programmes young offenders music programmes adult offenders choirs projects using gamelan assorted music therapies overview personal social physical development personal development music identity music personality x power music selfbeliefs selfbeliefs deprivation disaffection children special educational needs disabilities ensemble participation musical preferences selfesteem social development musical ensembles teamwork school climate sistema programmes prosocial skills empathy interventions children special educational needs disabilities physical development music locomotor performance coordinated motor skills overview psychological wellbeing use music support emotional stability manage moods singing wellbeing young children music wellbeing schoolaged participants music wellbeing adolescents young people actively making music music wellbeing adults participation musical activities attendance music festivals music wellbeing older generation music wellbeing covid pandemic impact pandemic music professionals overview music physical mental health role music psychological physical health music stress immune system xi contents active musicmaking promotion general good health music health older generation music dementia care home reviews relationship music therapy dementia music public health music prescription role community music creative workshops music brain plasticity movement breathing speech impairment music hospital settings music mental health stress anxiety depression mental health care children adolescents young people insomnia music trauma abuse severe mental illhealth overview music inclusion social cohesion music conflict music refugees social inclusion overview music everyday life music leisure listening music attending live musical events actively making music socioeconomic status music arts listening support everyday activities music driving music work accompany mental activity xii power music music exercise music commerce consumption economics music music nonhuman species overview reflections exploration evidence power music bibliography index author biographies susan hallam professor susan hallam mbe studied violin royal academy music prior becoming principal nd violin bbc midland light orchestra deputy leader orchestra da camera studied ba psychology externally london university msc psychology education phd institute education university london currently emerita professor education music psychology university college london institute education past editor psychology music music performance research chair education section british psychological three times academician learned societies social sciences awarded lifelong honorary membership british psychological society international society music education awarded music drama education lifetime achievement award research interests music include practising performing musical ability musical understanding wider impact engagement music author numerous books related music including instrumental teaching practical guide better teaching learning power music music psychology education preparing success practical guide young musicians helena gaunt active ageing music andrea creech maria varvarigou hilary mcqueen impact actively making music intellectual social personal development children young people research synthesis psychology music contexts music learning participation developing sustaining musical possible selves andrea creech maria xiv power music varvarigou editor oxford handbook psychology music ian cross michael thaut music education st century united kingdom achievements analysis aspirations andrea creech routledge international handbook music psychology education community andrea creech donald hodges evangelos himonides dr evangelos himonides held university londons first ever lectureship music technology education holds countrys first ever chair technology education music evangelos works university college london leads number courses supervises doctoral postdoctoral research postgraduate level led serves music education programme ucl courses music technology education choral conducting leadership communication undergraduate level evangelos developed ucl first ever musicrelated course institutions near twocentury history called interactions music science offered innovative bachelors arts sciences basc programme fellow rsa chartered fellow fbcs citp british computer society musician technologist educator evangelos ongoing career experimental research fields psychoacoustics music perception music cognition humancomputer interaction special needs singing voice singing development publications currently number two hundred highprofile international journals frontiers psychology cognitive science psychology music ijme rsme journal voice logopedics phoniatrics vocology evangelos working numerous funded research projects leading uk research councils ahrc esrc epsrc grantmaking foundationscharities paul hamlyn foundation rnib ambertrust esm\u00e9e fairbairn foundation government agenciesdepartments dfes qca also european union evangelos associate editor journal music technology education intellect associate editor frontiers psychology past associate editor journal logopedics phoniatrics vocology xv author biographies informa healthcare reviews editor psychology music sage editor society education music psychology research sempre conference series section editor technology oxford handbook music education evangelos coedited andrew king two key volumes technology music education published routledge sound engineer researcher evangelos recorded numerous venues including york minster stpauls rcm various artists derek lee ragin farinelli vanessa mae sony bmg jarvis cocker pulp numerous media productions bbc ch discovery channel rtl cbs pbs history channel evangelos developed free online technologies sounds intent inspiremusic online afghan rubab tutor spare time evangelos likes record music play guitar handcraft musical instruments order raise funds charitable workpreface book written provide update power music research synthesis impact actively making music intellectual social personal development children young people evidence collated became clear much research undertaken since original book produced research focused much wider age range particular expansion work older age groups therefore decided expand book include research across lifespan covering wider range issues particularly relating health wellbeing become important research agenda recent years title referring exploration research selected make possible take account kinds research large scale population studies single case studies correlation studies experiments evaluations interventions focus listening actively making creating music interventions several different outcomes mentioned one chapter much controversy recently whether music impact particularly cognition felt important include examples individual research projects reader able draw conclusions impact music rather relying summary although overview provided end chapter means book always easy read research extremely complex takes time understand hoped despite reader enabled make informed decision power music range areas across lifespan hallam e himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp introduction speed change electronic media latter part th century revolutionised access use music peoples lives music accessed many ways radio cds dvds tv tablets smart technologies computers phones downloaded enable creation personal playlists achieved little effort always case historically people could access music participating religious social events changes made possible individuals use music manipulate moods arousal levels feelings create environments may change way people feel behave music used aid relaxation overcome powerful emotions generate moods appropriate carrying routine activities prepare social activities stimulate concentration short music used promote wellbeing young people supports development identity selfpresentation alongside technological advances research techniques increased understanding way music benefit intellectual social personal development children young people chapters book explore ways music benefit children young people well wellbeing health general population introductory section sets know functions origins music transfer learning methodological issues ways engaging music varying levels commitment music therapy issues related interpretation research findings power music music functions origins evidence engagement music prehomosapiens turk bone flute estimated years old found neanderthal burial site may predated singing china bone flutes found dating back bce stone flutes bce system classification instruments according materials made bce zhenxiong et al evidence early use instruments found several cultures carterette kendall despite evidence musical activity early humans consensus whether music evolutionary significance although arguments evolutionary role strong instance miller argued music exemplifies many classic criteria complex human evolutionary adaptation pointing culture ever without music universality musical development children orderly musicality widespread adults appreciate music remember tunes specialist memory music specialised cortical mechanisms involved parallels signals speciesfor example birds gibbons whalesso evolution may convergent music evoke strong emotions implies receptive well productive adaptations considering possible functions music huron set following theoretical positions mate selectionmusic performance may arisen courtship behaviour social cohesionmusic may create maintain social cohesion promotion group solidarity altruism group effortmusic may contribute coordination group work perceptual developmentmusic may contribute towards general development sound perception motor skill developmentsinging movement musicmaking provides opportunities refine motor skills introduction conflict reductionmusic may reduce interpersonal conflict within groups shared activities unlikely provoke argument dispute safe time passingmusic may provide way passing time avoids engagement possible dangerous situations transgenerational communicationmusic may originated useful mnemonic device passing information generation generation supporting sexual selection theoryfor example miller argue male musical performance influences female choice mate might also apply males choice mate could explain music becomes important adolescence theories propose music evolved emotional impassioned speech indeed imitation bird song cross huron suggested music evolved mother child relationshipin particular soothing comforting behaviour developed lullabies supported evidence systems processing sound develop foetus still womb fully operational processing music birth gaston parncutt dissanayake suggests musicality mother infant interaction might lay foundations grammar emotions considerable support role music promoting social cohesion instance sloboda speculates music making rewarding participating generates social bonding cultural coherence supported role music wide range ceremonies roederer survival value synchronising moods many individuals support collectively taking action strengthen means defending attack dowling harwood moving together rhythmically may reinforce process kogan approach suggests music reinforces groupishnessthe formation maintenance group identityas well collective thinking synchronisation catharsis collective expression experience emotion brown supported weinstein colleagues demonstrated small largescale bonding could power music occur choirs people larger groups findings corroborate evolutionary accounts emphasise role music social bonding large groups primates able manage cross drawing work smith szathmary mithen suggests appearance homo sapiens marked emergence flexible crossdomain cognitive capacity uniquely fitted played significant role facilitating acquisition maintenance skill member culture interacting socially othersas well providing vehicle integrating domainspecific competences endow us multipurpose adaptive cognitive capacities make us human intrinsically transposable aboutness music allows many meanings change situation situation may exploited infancy childhood means forming connections interrelations different domainssocial biological mechanical musical activity may simultaneously movement mood emotion mastery embodied sound affording opportunity explore crossdomain mappings authors agree music evolutionary purpose suggest music along arts evolutionary significance practical function barrow pinker sperber music condemned evolutionary parasite pinker argues music bound domain language auditory scene analysis habitat selection emotion motor control merely exploits capacities evolved subserve areas music evolutionary byproduct emergence capacities direct adaptive value exists simply pleasure affords basis purely hedonic st century music multiplicity functions operate several levels individual social group society general radocy boyle gregory merriam recognises ten major musical functions emotional expression aesthetic enjoyment entertainment communication symbolic representation physical response enforcing conformity social norms validation introduction social institutions religious rituals contributions continuity stability culture contributions integration society extensive evidence key role music plays lives individuals sloboda et al music generate feelings wellbeing facilitate working difficult emotions frequently linked spirituality juslin sloboda widely used exploring regulating emotions moods juslin laukka north et al saarikallio shifriss bodner effective inducing positive affective states north et al achieving desirable moods vastfjall also coping negative moods emotions miranda claes shifriss bodner common activity mood regulation listening music saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 even adolescents play instrument report best activity mood regulation listening music alone saarikallio adolescence music makes major contribution development selfidentity plays important role teenagers lives spend many hours listening bonnevilleroussy et al bosacki oneill greasley lamont teenagers listen music pass time alleviate boredom relieve tension distract worries north et al tarrant et al zillman gan music seen source support feeling troubled lonely acting mood regulator helping maintain sense belonging community schwartz fouts zillman gan also used relation impression management needs engaging social comparisons adolescents able portray peer groups positively groups network thus able sustain positive selfevaluations music facilitates process tarrant et al individual level music also seen vehicle emotional expression conveying ideas emotions might difficult communicate ordinary verbal interchanges music elicits physical responses aid relaxation stimulate activity particularly effective changing moods thayer listening music provides opportunities experience aesthetic enjoyment entertained making music seen source reward intellectual stimulation providing interesting challenging activities power music rehearsal stage opportunities demonstrate expertise musicianship performance successful lead enhanced selfesteem small groups music means communication making music social activity creating interpreting performing hearing music depend shared social meanings music serve provide shared experiences understandings assist binding together social groups supporting identities apparent use childrens games also adolescence music becomes one central aspects young peoples chosen youth culture music also used work contexts facilitate appropriate level stimulation mental physical activity may also serve ensure individuals literally work time together emotional expression also important group level instance protest songs provides means expressing feelings towards subjects taboo inhibitions regarding expression emotionsfor example love romantic love love god country school institution music fosters prosocial behaviour shared sense success physical coordination shared attention shared motivation group identity weinstein et al creates strengthens social bonds amongst interacting group members endorphins released synchronised exertive movements singing playing together involved social bonding across primate species tarr launay dunbar society whole music provides means symbolic representation ideas behaviours represent state patriotism religion bravery heroism rebellion encourage conformity social norms songs alternatively may incite challenges social norms provides validation social institutions religious rituals plays major part ceremonial occasions including weddings military functions funerals sporting events music also contributes towards continuity stability culture individuals respond similar ways music culture social nature musical activity invites encourages individuals participate group activities reducing social isolation introduction power music reflected way beenand continue beattempts exert control nazi germany music carefully selected use mass rallies generate appropriate patriotic emotions ussr music shostakovich censored soviet government cultural revolution china western music denounced decadent forbidden iran ayatollah khomeini power tight restrictions placed particular types music whitedominated south africa centres african music demolished musicians living exile continued influence attitudes world prevailing political system music western world criticism hard rock music establishment purported effects well documented martin segrave music also reflects values attitudes characteristics society instance weber suggests western classical tradition reflects drive rationalise understand environment technological advances impact way musicmaking develops extent contact withand influence ofother musical cultures nettl development musical literacy latter extends passed onto future generations oral cultures restrict remembered sloboda transfer learning transfer learning one domain another depends similarities processes involved transfer tasks function degree tasks share cognitive processes transfer near far stronger likely occur near salomon perkins refer low high road transfer low road transfer depends automated skills relatively spontaneous automaticfor instance processing music language using skills read different pieces music text high road transfer requires reflection conscious processingfor instance adopting similar skills solving different kinds problems power music musical skills near low road likely transfer othersfor instance relating perceptual processing sound timing pitch timbre rulegoverned grouping information fine motor skills emotional sensitivity conceptions relationships written materials sound reading music text memorisation extended information music text norton et al schellenberg far transfer may occur relation impact making music intelligence attainment high road transfer may also occur relation skills acquired learning play musical instrumentfor instance able recognise personal strengths weaknesses aware range possible strategies taskrelated personal relating motivation concentration monitoring progress evaluating outcomes throughout book ways transfer occur relation skills developed active engagement musicand ways skills may impact intellectual social personal skills explored impact music wellbeing health also considered particular reference impact music emotions consideration given extent learning control emotions music support development general change behaviour research exploring impact music cognitive skills long history going back however surge interest following discovery socalled mozart effect minutes listening mozart claimed enhance intelligence rauscher et al later discredited range studies cabanac et al hallam schellenberg hallam suggested music could change arousal levels turn affected performance cognitive tests since much research undertaken explore whether active engagement music enhance cognitive ability reviews see example benz et al bugos hallam holmes press jaschke et al miendlarzewska trost moreno rauscher schellenberg research explored detail later book introduction methodological issues research exploring ways active engagement music impact beyond development musical skills undertaken within number disciplines adopting different research paradigms designs methods adopted vary widely sample sizes much early research considering impact engaging music skills based correlation studies undertaken professional young musicians varying levels expertise criticised basis showing relationship musical skills skills demonstrate causality particularly case neuroscientific studies schellenberg research compared performance groups identified musicians nonmusicians research beenand continues beuseful highlighting possible areas transfer unable identify direction causality although studies using multiple regression analyses able take account possible confounding factors experimental studies outcomes musical interventions compared musical intervention alternative intervention offer possibility establishing causality studies vary length intervention range measures adopted measure outcomes age participants nature activity control alternative intervention group ideal scientific study participants randomly assigned intervention control groups longitudinal research followup may weeks months later difficult sustain participation high likelihood dropout reduced participants selfselect activity wish undertake constitutes confounding factor selecting musical activity may share particular characteristicsfor instance high levels intelligence particular personality characteristics context musical interventions natures also critical determining impact different outcomes might expected relation wholeclass general music lessons individual instrumental lessons quality teaching relationships learners teachers power music also likely important extent variability research design implementation tends produce conflicting evidence qualitative research including interviews focus groups ethnographiccase studies able provide insights perceptions participants contexts within music may wider impact however criticised subjective methods undertaking research potential enhance understanding nature transfer musical expertise domains skillsalbeit different ways systematic reviews typically used appraise summarise communicate results implications large bodies research relating transfer musical skills domains help overcoming bias may associated single research projects lack generalisability studies conducted one type population systematic reviews aim rigorously identify evaluate research provide objective interpretation replicable conclusions systematic reviews may include meta analysisa specific statistical strategy assembling results several studies provide single estimate size impact metaanalyses draw existing experimental research using complex statistical analysis reanalyse data assess impact interventions across many studies adopt different criteria studies selected inclusion greater numbers criteria studies need meet order included lead exclusion research perhaps metaanalyses frequently produce conflicting outcomes adopting metaanalytic approaches critical research adopt strict methodological requirements randomised controlled trials individuals randomly allocated groups also argue control groups participate alternative interventions rather intervention metaanalyses severely criticised instance ansdell denora argue much important information lost music forced beforeafter yesno grids variables outcome assessments inclusive research strategy adopted accessing literature included book academic databases relevant neuroscience psychology education music searched addition web based searches locate relevant grey literature analysis located introduction documents frequently led relevant material following chapters synthesise findings wide range studies develop understanding whether skills gained actively participating making music transfer skills circumstances might support book also examines evidence relating listening making music impact wellbeing health chapter synthesises research findings studies focusing one aspect transfer impact drawing conclusions appropriate ways engaging music varying levels commitment people actively make music listen although means engagement require listening listening music speech requires processing enormous amount information rapidly without conscious awareness blakemore frith idealised view musical listening focused activity undertaken solely purpose deepening understanding appreciation music practice listening takes place alongside activities including relating travel studying physical activity including relaxation taking exercise sloboda et al like activities listening necessarily preclude listening full attention herbert listening benefits terms impact mood emotions arousal levels actively making music take many forms informal interactions home children parents formal instrumental lessons recently greater recognition importance informal learning acquisition musical skills creativity personal social benefits may emerge hallam et al formal music tuition schools may include wholeclass teaching instruments ensemble work focus singing theory music listening history music singing learning play instrument individual tuition may also join ensembles school increases time commitment music alongside individual practice may undertake intellectual personal social benefits emerging power music active engagement music depend type activity level commitment learner quality teaching musically terms rapport teachers learners role individual preferences context diversity different people interact music need taken account carrying research interpreting findings frequently case many studies assess whether participants actually learned musical skills frequently assumed participation alone ensure musical skills acquired reasonable prospect transfer skill areas level commitment music another important factor possible impact music peoples lives music constitutes leisure activity many people either listening making music singing playing serious leisure activity others merely recreational similarly listening hobby devote considerable time energy others constitutes casual engagement attend live music performances tend higher level musical experience rate music important lives nonattenders attending live music event suggests greater level commitment listening recorded music main reasons attending live events include hearing particular artist style learning new music affirming challenging existing musical tastes personal social reasons engaging social interaction part community pitts burland pitts spencer amateur musicians music shares many characteristics work professional musiciansit seen extremely serious leisure activity others see merely hobby engage personal amusement gates reported reasons participation active musicmaking include love music desire develop skills respond challenges opportunities meet likeminded others musical activities also provide pleasure relaxation opportunity selfexpression cooper taylor hallam taylor argues amateur musicians seek affirmation validation verification musical selves part community practice similar manner professional counterparts however amateurs less well defined introduction strive attain group affiliation based cultural ideal musical competence taylor rewarding membership community practice develop group lessons wristen mastering new repertoire company others facilitate enhancement selfconfidence coffman adamek despite many differences forms levels engagement music considerable impact subjective wellbeing wellbeing enhanced listening undertaking tasks using music change moods emotions however music always positive effects cause distress liking listener control music therapy addition listening making music undertaken population whole music used therapeutically role music health healing recognised years referred bible historical writings ancient civilisations egypt china india greece rome music therapy provide positive psychological physiological cognitive emotional benefits patients done since development profession united states following two world wars music used relieve perception pain severe injuries medical staff noted benefits health wellbeing since developed considerably encompass musicmaking individuals groups work hospitals planned listening support mental health issues since increased availability music individuals able use music therapeutically manage moods emotions denora interpreting research findings extensive body research exploring wider benefits music interpreting findings important judicious suggesting may mean policy practice linnavalli et al currently possible say great confidence particular musical intervention lead specific outcomebe power music intellectual personal socialalthough clear making music support development wide range skills impact creativity making music generally pleasurable providing rewarding experience sense achievement participants although exceptions frequent social context also leads sense belonging engaged throughout lifespan clearly worth continuing try understand circumstances music beneficial music neuroscience music played important role neuroscience enhancing understanding brain functions human brain contains approximately billion neurons many active simultaneously process information neurons communicate nerve impulses allow information processed analysed neuron axons dendrites transmit nerve impulses axons pass nerve impulses away cell body dendrites towards cell body neuron approximately thousand connections neurons learn changes growth axons dendrites number synapses connecting neuronsa process known synaptogenesis event important enough repeated sufficiently often synapses neurons fire repeatedly indicating event worth remembering fields way changes efficacy existing connections made learning continues particular activities engaged time myelination takes place involves increase coating axon neuron improves insulation makes established connections efficient effectively neurons become wired together enables better connections within specific brain regions also improves functioning broader neuronal pathways connecting separate brain regions needed many human activities sensory cognitive motor pruning also occurs process reduces number synaptic connections enabling finetuning functioning combinations processes occur different timescales cerebral cortex selforganises response external stimuli individuals learning activities pantev et al overall evidence neuroscience suggests individual specific himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music learning biography reflected way brain processes information altenmuller brain three main parts cerebrum cerebellum brainstem cerebrum largest part brain cerebellum located cerebrum brain stem acts relay centre connecting cerebrum cerebellum spinal cord cerebrum divided two halves right left hemispheres connected corpus callosum transmits messages one side brain hemisphere controls opposite side body functions hemispheres shared generally left hemisphere controls speech comprehension mathematical literacy functions right hemisphere controls creativity spatial ability artistic musical skills people left hemisphere dominant hand use language brain also separated frontal temporal occipital parietal lobes frontal lobe associated executive functions motor performance temporal lobe associated retention short longterm memories processing sensory input including auditory information language comprehension visual processing centre occipital lobe parietal lobe associated sensory skills music played important role neuroscience facilitating study neural plasticity training music complex multimodal musicians aspiring become musicians spend many hours practising committed engagement music long periods time pantev herholz making music draws many brain functions including related perception action cognition emotion learning memory therefore ideal tool show human brain works different brain functions interact findings neuroscientific study musicians led greater understanding cortical plasticity barrett et al dalla bella habib besson herholz zatorre j\u00e4ncke merrett et al m\u00fcnte et al rauschecker strait kraus wan schlaug zatorre mcgill music neuroscience neuroscientific methods recently technology changed way neuroscience able study brain previously largely relied studying individuals suffering damage brain exploring damage affected particular behaviours common assessment techniques adopted include electroencephalography eeg measures electrical activity generated synchronised activity thousands neurons allowing detection activity within particular cortical areas even subsecond timescales eeg measures eventrelated potential erp eventrelated potential erp measured brain response direct result specific sensory cognitive motor event stereotyped electrophysiological response stimulus evoked potentials induced potentials subtypes erps types erp include frequencyfollowing response ffr evoked potential generated periodic nearly periodic auditory stimuli part auditory brainstem response ffr reflects sustained neural activity integrated population neural elements gammaband activity gba comprises eeg frequency range hz distributed widely throughout cerebral structures gba participates various cerebral functions perception attention memory consciousness synaptic plasticity motor control early left anterior negativity elan eventrelated potential electroencephalography eeg component brain activity occurs response certain kinds stimuli characterised negative wave peaks around milliseconds less onset stimulus often occurs response linguistic stimuli violate word category phrase structure rules early right anterior negativity eran potential electroencephalography component brain activity occurs response certain kind stimulus power music mismatch negativity mmn element event related potential odd stimulus sequence stimuli frequently studied relation auditory visual stimuli case auditory stimuli mmn occurs infrequent change repetitive sequence sounds usually evoked either change frequency intensity duration real apparent spatial locus origin magnetic resonance imaging mri type scan uses strong magnetic fields radio waves produce detailed images inside brain voxel based morphometry vbm technique using mri allows investigation focal differences brain anatomy using parametric mapping brain images smoothed voxel represents average surrounding areas functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri brain scanning technique measures blood flow brain person performs task fmri works premise neurons brain active task use energy haemodynamic response allows rapid delivery blood active neuronal tissues magnetoencephalography meg functional neuroimaging technique mapping brain activity recording magnetic fields produced electrical currents occurring naturally brain using sensitive magnetometers transcranial magnetic stimulation noninvasive procedure uses magnetic fields stimulate nerve cells brain changes brain following musical activity individuals engage different musical activities long periods time permanent changes occur brain changes reflect learned learned also influence extent developed skills transfer elsewhere extensive active engagement music induces cortical reorganisation producing music neuroscience functional changes brain processes information occurs early development alterations may become hardwired produce permanent changes way information processed schlaug et al b indeed evidence western classical musicians increased neuronal representation specific processing tones musical scale pantev et al largest cortical representations musicians playing instruments longest period time overall evidence suggests active engagement music significant impact brain structure function merrett et al norton et al playing musical instrument also seems speed brain maturation instance hudziak colleagues found rapid cortical thickness maturation areas implicated motor planning coordination visuospatial ability emotion impulse regulation following musical training comparisons musicians nonmusicians expertise longstanding strand research explored differences brains musicians nonmusicians different levels musical expertise first seminal studies provided evidence larger auditory somatosensory cortical areas adult musicians compared nonmusicians pantev et al elbert et al recent criticism approach drawn attention lack clarity classifying musicians nonmusicians musicians vary widely areas expertise levels achieve socalled nonmusicians may experienced listeners despite issues strand research enhanced understanding differences emerge brain related musical training starting childhood adulthood professional levels expertise herholz zatorre huotilainen tervaniemi munte et al tervaniemi certain pieces research exploring differences musicians nonmusicians functional changes due musical training highlighted differences basic cortical subcortical processingfor instance response latencies power music amplitudes responses random musical language sounds musicians demonstrate higher fidelity brain stem responses conveying temporal frequency information present sounds exposed wong et al fidelity increases quickly period year children actively engaged making music skoe kraus differences musicians nonmusicians evidence different levels auditory pathway brainstem kraus chandrasekaran strait kraus primary auditory regions bermudez et al gaser schlaug subsequently higher levels auditory processing low level neural enhancements likely considerable impact higherlevel processing ability cochlea brain stem replicate content sound deliver accurately higherlevel cortical processes forms basis sound processing turn leads better performance listening speech embedded noise hearing masked sounds strait et al strait kraus b slater et al overall trained musicians greater volume cortical thickness auditory cortex regions likely responsible fine pitch categorisation discrimination temporal processing structural differences level primary auditory cortex auditory association areas schlaug example gaab schlaug compared brain activation patterns musicians nonmusicians performed pitch memory task groups showed bilateral activation superior temporal supramarginal posterior middle inferior frontal gyrus superior parietal lobe however musicians showed right temporal supramarginal gyrus activation non musicians right primary left secondary auditory cortex activation since performance groups matched results suggest processing differences related musical training nonmusicians may rely brain regions important pitch discrimination musicians may prefer use brain regions specialising shortterm memory recall approach pitch memory tasks schneider colleagues used magnetoencephalography compare processing pure tones auditory cortex music neuroscience nonmusicians professional musicians amateur musicians found neurophysiological anatomical differences groups activity evoked primary auditory cortex stimulus onset professional musicians larger nonmusicians greymatter volume anteromedial portion heschls gyrus larger koelsch colleagues compared eventrelated brain potentials response harmonically inappropriate chords musical experts novices chords elicited early right anterior negativity eran larger musical experts novices probably experts specific musical expectancies novices chords presented deviant timbre elicited mismatch negativity differ across groups indicating larger eran expert musicians due general enhanced auditory sensitivity specific changes brain related processing harmony learned experience music also focusing aural processing shahin colleagues investigated whether neuroplastic components auditory evoked potentials enhanced musicians relation musical training histories highly skilled violinists pianists non musicians listened violin tones piano tones pure tones latter matched fundamental frequency musical tones compared nonmusicians musician groups evidenced larger responses three types tonal stimuli results suggest tuning properties neurons modified auditory cortex relation extent acoustic musical training similarly tervaniemi colleagues compared neural behavioural sound encoding nonmusicians amateur band musicians explored auditory eventrelated potentials changes basic acoustic features frequency duration location intensity gap abstract features melodic contour interval size statistically significant differences response location changes feature changes suggests compared nonmusicians even amateur musicians neural sound processing advantages acoustic information relevant musical genre power music nonmusicians seem need neuronal resources processing auditory information relative musicians evidenced stronger activation primary auditory regions instance besson fa\u00efta requin presented musicians nonmusicians short musical phrases either selected classical musical repertoire composed experiment phrases terminated either congruous harmonically melodically rhythmically incongruous note brain waves produced endnotes differed greatly musicians nonmusicians also function participants familiarity melodies type incongruity findings additionally showed musicians faster nonmusicians detecting incongruities functional magnetic resonance imaging scans fmri scans used study grey white matter brain grey matter contains brains neuronal cell bodies includes regions brain involving muscle control sensory perceptionfor instance sight hearing memory emotions speech decisionmaking self control structural differences grey matter several cortical areas including motor somatosensory auditory areas observed musicians nonmusicians luders gaser jancke schlaug using voxelby voxel morphometric technique found greymatter volume differences motor auditory visual spatial brain regions comparing professional keyboard players matched group amateur musicians nonmusicians differences related cortical folding indicating greater cortical surface longer distances cortical areas example fingers suggests larger patch cortical surface reserved finger control musicians nonmusicians similarly groussard colleagues compared brains nonmusicians amateur musicians latter playing instrument years musical training led greater greymatter volume different brain areas musicians changes appeared gradually left hippocampus right middle superior frontal regions later included right insula supplementary motor area left superior temporal posterior cingulate area together regions implicated many functions including verbal memories bodily awareness emotional experiences control movement language music neuroscience memory impulse control ensure findings linked musical training normal brain maturation researchers controlled age educational level indications musicians exhibit increased greymatter volume inferior frontal gyrus compared nonmusicians sluming et al voxelbased morphometry stereological analyses applied highresolution threedimensional magnetic resonance images male orchestral musicians nonmusicians matched sex handedness intelligence wide age range participants enabled researchers undertake secondary analysis agerelated effects findings revealed increased grey matter brocas area left inferior frontal gyrus musicians overall significant agerelated volume reduction nonmusicians cerebral hemispheres dorsolateral prefrontal cortex subfields bilaterally well greymatter density left inferior frontal gyrus positive relationship years playing volume grey matter musicians years old authors suggested orchestral musical performance promoted userdependent retention possibly expansion grey matter involving brocas area similarly james colleagues used optimised voxelbased morphometry perform greymatter density analyses age sex intelligencematched young adults three distinct progressive levels musical training intensity expertise findings showed functional difference areas exhibiting increase versus decrease grey matter function musical expertise greymatter density increased expertise areas known involvement higher order cognitive processing concerned executive function working memory auditory processing contrast grey matter density decreased expertise areas related sensorimotor function decrease may reflected high levels automatisation motor skills greater expertise multiple regression analysis showed greymatter density predicted accuracy detecting finegrained incongruities tonal music changes white matter also observed brains musicians white matter composed nerve fibres axons connect nerve cells covered myelin insulating layer power music forms around nerves consisting protein fatty substances gives white matter colour myelin speeds communication cells musicians greater anisotropy phenomenon varying magnitude according direction measurement suggests either larger number fibres greater myelination findings observed corticocortical connections neurons one cortical area communicate neurons cortical areas also corticomuscular connections neurons communicate muscles bengtsson nagy skare et al research shown musicians greater amounts substances brains related neuronal metabolism brain relies almost entirely circulating glucose rather storing energy glycogen majority glucose used maintain synaptic function resting potential neurons increase substances suggests active use example auditory cortical areas aydin et al musicians larger corpus callosum nonmusicians schlaug et al phenomenon particularly evident male musicians lee et al greater midsagittal size corpus callosum also found lee et al ozt\u00fcrk et al schlaug et al musicians andor thicker neuronal tracts left right motor somatosensory areas structural differences may relate range functional differences musicians nonmusicians fauvel et al amount musical practice also associated greater integrity corticospinal pathway bengtsson et al individuals absolute pitchthe ability categorise tones pitch classes without reference soundshave focus pieces research instance loui colleagues showed possessing absolute pitch increased functional activation music listening well increased degrees clustering local efficiency functional correlations difference highest around left superior temporal gyrus similarly loui colleagues observed hyperconnectivity bilateral superior temporal lobe structures linked absolute pitch furthermore volume tracts connecting left superior music neuroscience temporal gyrus left middle temporal gyrus predicted absolute pitch performance using vivo magnetic resonance morphometry schlaug colleagues measured anatomical asymmetry planum temporale musicians absolute pitch revealed stronger leftward planum temporale asymmetry nonmusicians musicians without absolute pitch results indicate absolute pitch associated increased leftward asymmetry cortex subserving musicrelated functions similarly bermudez colleagues used multiple methods compare musicians absolute pitch nonmusicians found functional evidence indicated importance frontotemporal network areas heavily relied upon performance musical tasks difference musicians absolute pitch significantly thinner cortex number areasincluding posterior dorsal frontal corticesthat previously implicated performance tasks involving absolute pitch automation skills expertise increases musicians expertise develops many skills become automated means neurological differences musicians nonmusicians become harder interpret since tasks reveal less neural activity musicians automatisation jancke et al others show brain activity kleber et al nikjeh et al simple motor tasks tend become automated complex tasks even related auditory processing may require neurological resources gaab schlaug review zatorre colleagues pointed brain imaging identified structural changes grey white matter occurred learning ascribing imaging measures underlying cellular molecular events challenging perceptual motor systems extended representation brain result musical training may process information efficiently using fewer neuronal resources less specialised systems enhanced efficiency might manifest lower blood flow demands skilled musicians compared nonmusicians performing complex power music motor sequences functional neuroimaging studies always present findings consistent observed anatomical differences musicians exhibit either lower localised activation primary motor cortex nonmusicians variable levels activation motor association regions premotor supplementary motor areas inconsistencies may reflect higher order cognitive processesfor example tonal processing working memory syntaxthat required performance may lead increased density associated brain regions processes instance sensorimotor functions basic motor control likely automated requiring fewer resources less brain volume james et al may also explain inconsistencies visible structural changes increased decreased activation musicians primary auditory motor regions using eventrelated potentials trainor colleagues compared responses adult musicians non musicians infrequent changes last note fivenote melody either altered contour interval findings suggested contour processing basic interval processing affected experience indicates always obvious whether training associated increased decreased activation underlying brain regions bimanual motor coordination pianists provided particular focus research exploring bimanual motor coordination automatisation processes means training systematically associated increased brain volume example decrease striatal volume observed skilled pianists function greater efficiency motor performance granert et al haslinger colleagues compared professional pianists musically na\u00efve participants carried inphase mirror antiphase parallel bimanual sequential finger movements functional magnetic resonance imaging tasks included performance two different kinds externally paced bimanual finger tapping involving index little finger hands one condition participants carry parallel finger movements starting either index finger right music neuroscience little finger left hand vice versa task consisted continuous bidirectional finger movements sequentially involving index middle ring little finger one hand versus little ring middle index finger hand second task demanded performance mirrorlike finger tapping corresponding fingers hands indexindex middlemiddle ringring littlelittle always moved simultaneously bidirectional sequential order resting condition without finger movements served control tasks correspond bimanually playing scales constitutes part pianists regular practice routines musicians nonmusicians showed significantly different functional activation patterns suggesting increased efficiency cortical subcortical systems bimanual movement control may fundamental achieving highlevel motor skills allowing musician focus artistic aspects musical performance similarly krings colleagues performed functional magnetic resonance imaging professional piano players non musicians overtrained complex finger movement task using blood oxygenation level dependent echoplanar gradient echo sequence participants performed complex finger opposition paradigm using right hand selfpaced light touches thumb pad finger pad without looking hand order tapping omitting one subsequent finger run pattern repeated rest periods participants asked relax task practised scanning session avoid learning effects scan activation clusters seen primary motor cortex supplementary motor area premotor cortex superior parietal lobule significant differences extent cerebral activation groups pianists smaller number activated voxels suggested longterm motor practice led different cortical activation pattern pianists needed recruit fewer neurons complete movements using selfpaced bimanual unimanual tapping tasks reflect typical movements made playing piano j\u00e4ncke colleagues measured haemodynamic responses applying functional magnetic resonance imaging two professional piano players two carefully matched nonmusician participants power music primary secondary motor areas activated much lesser degree professional pianists nonmusicians suggesting longlasting extensive handskill training pianists led greater efficiency reflected smaller number active neurons needed perform given finger movements similarly meister colleagues compared pianists nonmusicians performed simple complex movement sequences keyboard right hand nonmusicians complex motor sequences showed higher fmri activations presupplementary motor area rostral part dorsal premotor cortex compared simple motor sequences whereas musicians showed differential activations suggested higher level visuomotor integration required complex task nonmusicians whereas musicians employed rostral premotor network tasks neural plasticity result longterm practice mainly occurs caudal motor areas slowly evolving changes motorskill learning may extend adjacent areas leading effective motor representations pianists also focusing complex righthanded finger tapping task hund georgiadis von cramon investigated bloodflowrelated magnetic resonance signal changes time course underlying shortterm motor learning ten piano players nonmusicians functional learning profile based regional blood oxygenation level assessed participants achieved significant increases tapping frequency minute training session scanner pianists performed significantly better nonmusicians showed increasing activation contralateral primary motor cortex throughout motor learning concurrently involvement secondary motor areassuch bilateral supplementary motor premotor cerebellar areasdiminished relative nonmusicians throughout training session extended activation primary secondary motor areas initial training stage first seven minutes well rapid attenuation main functional patterns underlying shortterm learning nonmusician group attenuation particularly marked primary motor cortices compared pianists tapping sequence performed left hand transfer effects motor learning evident groups music neuroscience involvement relevant motor components smaller initial training right hand suggests involvement primary secondary motor cortices motor learning dependent experience using similarly complex unimanual bimanual finger tasks koeneke colleagues studied cerebellar hemodynamic responses highly skilled keyboard players nonmusician participants groups showed strong haemodynamic responses cerebellum task conditions however nonmusicians showed generally stronger haemodynamic responses cerebellum keyboard players suggesting longterm motor practice leads different cortical activation patterns movements required less neuronal activity palomargarc\u00eda colleagues found reduced connectivity motor areas control hands musicians compared nonmusicians particularly evident whose instruments required bimanual coordination effects mediated number hours practice multisensory learning structural differences brains musicians nonmusicians extend beyond auditory pathway motor circuitries parietal regions regions seem involved multisensory encoding integration music performance one complex demanding cognitive challenges human beings undertake requires precise timing number hierarchically organised actions well precise control pitch interval production implemented variably depending instrument involved zatorre et al structural differences due musical training extend motor sensorimotor cortices premotor supplementary motor regions involve subcortical structures basal ganglia cerebellum neuronal circuitry engaged motor control fine motor planningfor example finger movementduring musical engagement well motor learning schmidt lee musicians stronger connectivity right auditory cortex right ventral premotor cortex nonmusicians longer period time playing instrument stronger connection power music palomargarcia et al lahav colleagues used functional magnetic resonance imaging explore whether human actionrecognition system responded sounds found complex sequence newly acquired actions chose piece music model set acoustically presentable actions trained nonmusicians play ear monitored brain activity participants listened newly learned piece although listened music without making movements activation found bilaterally frontoparietal motorrelated network consistent neural circuits associated action observations may constitute human mirror neuron system presentation practised notes different order activated network much lesser degree whereas listening equally familiar motorically unknown music activate network findings suggest hearingdoing system highly dependent individuals motor repertoire network established rapidly brocas area hub neurological differences relating genre instrument played neural changes specific particular musical activities undertaken munte et al functional auditory responses strongest areas reflecting musicians instrument demonstrating timbral specificity related training pantev et al processing pitch classical string players create different pitches guidance frets characterised longer surveillance frontally distributed eventrelated brain potentials attention drummers whose focus rhythm generate complex memory traces temporal organisation musical sequences conductors demonstrate greater surveillance auditory space listen balance sounds various instruments ensemble conducting munte et al compared nonmusicians string players greater somatosensory representations finger activity amount increase depending age starting play pantev et al pianists violinists nonmusicians differentiated particular form music neuroscience shape motor cortex violinists pianists needing able move fingers quickly bangert schlaug trumpet players greater functional activation cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements dominant sensorimotor cortex left auditory cortex gebel et al may trumpet players need sensitive relationship embouchure minute sequential differences sound relation players wind instruments choi colleagues found significant changes cortical thickness liptongue related areas restingstate neuronal networks differential activation precentral gyrus supplementary motor areas comparison nonmusicians functional reorganisation motor cortex reflects differential usage instrumentalists comparing regions containing hand representations pianists violinists large anatomical differences precentral gyrus revealed bangert schlaug string players require highly developed fine motor skills particularly left hand keyboard players require highly trained fine motor skills hands particularly right hand frequently supports melody challenging technical passages lefthand accompaniment keyboard performers exhibit configuration known omega sign left right hemisphere whilst string players show right prominence sign related age musicians began play instrument cumulative amount time spent practising greater cortical representations fingers violinists left hands compared right hands found using magnetoencephalography elbert et al instrumentspecific neuroplasticity extends perception timbre specific neuronal responses observable different groups instrumentalists example string trumpet players reveal stronger evoked cortical responses presented sound respective instrument pantev et al particularly evident right auditory cortex shahin et al musicians also display increased gammaband activity induced sound instrument compared instruments shahin et al findings supported functional imaging evidence power music violinists flautists margulis et al suggests instrumentspecific plasticity restricted primary auditory cortex forms network including association auditorymotor integration areas experiencespecific plasticity shown level brainstem strait et al research explored whether style genre music might shape auditory processing tervaniemi colleagues studied auditory profiles classical jazz rock musicians particular reference genrespecific sensitivity musical sound features participants watched silent video instructed ignore sounds researchers recorded accuracy neural encoding melody groups showed cortical index deviance discrimination strength responses varied automatic brain responses selectively enhanced deviance tuning classical musicians timing classical jazz musicians transposition jazz musicians melody contour jazz rock musicians jazz players larger mismatch negativity mmn amplitude experimental groups across six different sound examples indicating greater overall sensitivity auditory outliers enhanced processing pitch sliding pitches found jazz musicians frontal mmn pitch location compared deviations observed jazz musicians left lateralization mmn timbre classical musicians overall characteristics particular styles genres music learned influence musicians perceptual skills brains processing training listening experiences musical styles genre shape musicians brains vuust et al folk musicians exhibit early right anterior negativity inferofrontal brain regions response chords deviate conventions western music indicating differences expertise compared nonmusicians brattico et al musical expertise one music culture modify chord processing enhancing responses ambivalent incongruous chords focusing communication musicians vuust colleagues explored jazz musicians exchanged non verbal cues played together musicians received interpreted cues performance departed regular pattern music neuroscience rhythm suggesting enjoyed highly developed sensitivity subtle rhythmic deviations preattentive brain responsesrecorded magnetoencephalography rhythmic incongruencewere leftlateralized expert jazz musicians rightlateralized non musicians suggesting functional adaptation brain task communication similar required learning language studies child musicians nonmusicians considerable research focusing structural functional changes occur childrens brains result engagement music enhancement brain responses musical sounds occur early development fourmonthold infants exposed melodies played either guitar marimba two hours course week exhibited mmn selectively sound exposed trainor et al effects musical training development extended brainstem responses processing speech noise strait et al trainor colleagues studied sixmonthold western infants randomly assigned six months either active participatory music class class experienced music passively playing active music participation resulted earlier enculturation western tonal pitch structure larger andor earlier brain responses musical tones positive social trajectory neurallevel changes also occur children participating musical playschool activities designed develop love music active engagement making music singing musical instruments putkinen colleagues explored relationship informal musical activities home electrophysiological indices neural auditory change detection two threeyearold children auditory eventrelated potentials recorded multifeature paradigm included frequency duration intensity direction gap deviants attentioncatching novel sounds correlations calculated responses amount musical activity home reported parents neurological findings implied heightened sensitivity temporal acoustic changes mature auditory change detection power music less distractibility children informal musical activities home environment one strand research focused effects training suzuki method children learn play ear imitation method implemented rigorously wherever adopted makes easier make comparisons studies one study four sixyearold children revealed changes auditory evoked responses violin noise stimulus musically trained group showed faster responses violin sounds nonmusician group fujioka et al changes accompanied enhanced performance musical task improved working memory nonmusical task another study adopting suzuki method tracked recorded brainwave patterns research included adult professional violinists amateur pianists four fiveyearold children studying piano measures taken children commenced music lessons one year later adult musicians showed robust enhancement induced gammaband activity specific musical instrument strongest effects professional violinists induced gammaband responses associated attention expectation memory retrieval integration topdown bottomup multisensory processes children receiving piano lessons exhibited increased power induced gammaband activity piano tones one year training children taking lessons showed effect shahin et al similar study trainor colleagues found larger induced gammaband responses fiveyearold children learning play instruments responses musical sounds larger adult musicians nonmusicians developed children one year musical training children age engaged music lessons trainor colleagues concluded musical training affected oscillatory networks brain associated executive functions turn enhance learning performance several cognitive domains standard musical training linked greater mismatch negativity responses melodic rhythmic modulations children years age received musical training putkinen et al structural changes brain music neuroscience found relation reading musical notation bergman colleagues undertook longitudinal study children young people ages six carrying neuroimaging investigations participants two three occasions two years apart playing instrument larger greymatter volume temporo occipital insular cortex areas previously reported related reading musical notation structural differences grey white matter also found children engage music particularly early childhood compared groussard et al habibi et al huotilainen tervaniemi pantev herholz schlaug colleagues found two years musical training five sevenyearold children committed music practice showed increased size anterior part corpus callosum similarly hudziak colleagues assessed extent playing musical instrument associated cortical thickness development among healthy children young people twoyear period young people aged six underwent mri scanning behavioural testing association cortical thickness years playing musical instrument later followup showed music training associated increased rate cortical thickness maturation areas implicated motor planning coordination similarly habibi colleagues investigated effects music training childrens brains comparing children engaged musical training others involved either sport regular afterschool activity two years training children music group showed brain changes related enhanced auditory processing skills different approach adopted hyde colleagues tested two groups children prior formal musical training instrumental group consisted children aged six years old weekly halfhour private keyboard lessons continued lessons months comparison group consisted children almost six years old receive instrumental music training participated weekly minute group music class school consisting singing playing drums bells children underwent magnetic resonance power music imaging mri scan twice beginning research months later second scan showed children learning play instruments areas greater relative voxel size within motor areas corpus callosum right primary auditory region contrast comparison group overall study demonstrated regional structural brain plasticity developing brain occurred months instrumental musical training early childhood study demonstrated type musical training important transfer musical skills hyde et al crosssectional study ellis colleagues explored impact agerelated maturation training using functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri linear regression techniques participants aged five range hours musical practice none agerelated effects common melodic rhythmic discrimination present three left hemisphere regions temporofrontal junction ventral premotor cortex inferior part intraparietal sulcusregions involved actively attending auditory rhythms sensorimotor integration working memory transformations pitch rhythmic patterns contrast trainingrelated effects localised posterior portion left superior temporal gyrus planum temporale area implicated spectrotemporal patternmatching auditorymotor coordinating transformations single cluster right superior temporal gyrus showed significantly greater activation melodic opposed rhythmic discrimination second study ellis et al using sample fmri study explored relative hemispheric asymmetries music processing making different discriminations shaped musical training assessed cumulative hours instrumental practice peak supramarginal gyrus characterised leftward asymmetry partial correlation participants cumulative hours practice controlling age task performance findings suggested direct link amount time spent practising instrument importance region auditory working memory starting musical training seven years age seems particularly strong effect stimulating brain changes barrett et al penhune zatorre structural differences corpus music neuroscience callosum musicians nonmusiciansand extent hand representations motor cortexare greater musicians begin training seven years age amunts et al elbert et al schlaug et al b early training also associated greater auditory cortex brainstem responses tones pantev et al wong et al confirmed even amount training controlled bailey penhune watanabe et al musicians begin training young display better sensorimotor synchronisation skills compared starting ages older seven difference underpinned brain connectivity terms white matter structural differences terms grey matter bailey penhune bailey et al steele et al genetic maturational effects versus training effects overall crosssectional studies suggest structural functional differences brains musicians nonmusicians engagement music leads behavioural changes underpinned changes primary secondary auditory motor cortices well sensorimotor multimodal integration areas age starting engagement music intensity duration engagement may account extent brain differences suggesting may causal link musical training changes brain however observed differences could caused existing predispositions genetic factors extreme end include difficulties processing sound instance tone deaf suffer congenital amusiadalla bella et al kirnarskaya peretz hyde williamson stewart extreme exhibit exceptional skillsfor instance prodigies musical savants mcpherson lehmann simonton individual anatomical functional properties brain genetic predispositions learning might impact learning musical skills zatorre might explain discrepant findings neuroplasticity implications research needs take account individual power music differences foster zatorre golestani et al merrett et al also issues relating maturational effects always addressed although exceptions ellis et al summarise studies compare brains musicians nonmusicians show neurological differences structurally functionally two groups age musical engagement begins intensity duration account differences cannot demonstrate causal link differences might accounted genetic factors predispositions longitudinal shortterm intervention studies address issues intervention studies shortterm intervention studies demonstrate causality instance chen colleagues used fmri investigate formation auditorymotor associations participants previous musical training learned play melody listening melodies training activated superior temporal gyrus bilaterally neural activity region significantly reduced right participants listened trained melody learning play melody involves acquiring conditional associations key presses corresponding musical pitches related activity dorsal premotor area superior frontal gyrus playing melodies random sequences activity left dorsal premotor cortex reduced latter compared early phase training learning play melody also associated reduced neural activity left ventral premotor cortex participants highest performance scores learning melody showed reduced neural activity left dorsal premotor area ventral premotor cortex overall findings demonstrated auditorymotor learning related reduction neural activity brain regions dorsal auditory action stream suggests increased efficiency neural processing learned stimulus evidence brain responds relatively quickly new activities measuring eventrelated potentials erps bangert colleagues found audiomotor coupling occurred following music neuroscience minute piano lesson another study eightyearold children eight weeks musical training differed controls cortical erps moreno besson music training minutes sevenweek period led changes electroencephalogram eeg frequencies associated enhanced cognitive processing flohr et al transcranial magnetic stimulation tms also revealed changes hand cortical representation resulting shortterm training novel fine motor skills pascualleone et al cortical motor areas tracked targeting contralateral long finger flexor extensor muscles participants learning onehanded fivefinger exercise piano second experiment researchers studied different effects mental physical practice fivefinger exercise modulation cortical motor areas targeting muscles involved task course five days participants learned onehanded exercise twohour daily practice sessions cortical motor areas targeting long finger flexor extensor muscles enlarged activation threshold decreased changes limited cortical representation hand used exercise research also studied effect increased hand use without requirement learn fivefinger exercise participants played piano two hours day using right hand participants changes cortical motor outputs similar significantly less prominent learned new skill similarly lappe colleagues reported erp changes young adults two weeks music training later lappe colleagues divided nonmusicians two groups provided two weeks musical training sensorimotor group training consisted learning play musical sequence piano group nonmusicians detected errors performances listening stimuli played participants following sensorimotor training participants showed enhanced detection incorrect pitch timing compared listening difference accompanied larger brain response pitch duration deviations indicating greater enhancement musical representation auditory cortex fostered sensorimotor training similar results showing greater benefits auditoryvisual multimodal power music training compared unimodal training also reported paraskevopoulos et al summarise shortterm changes behaviour brain activity observed result brief period musically related training sensorimotor multimodal training typical learning play musical instrument efficient engendering neuroplastic changes unimodal training effect likely underpinned brain changes occurring auditory motor sensorimotor integration regions involving feedforward mechanisms capable predicting outcome motor activity feedback mechanisms monitoring performance herholz zatorre practice lead dramatic improvements discrimination auditory stimuli carcagno plack investigated changes frequency following response ffr period pitch discrimination training twentyseven adult listeners trained ten hours pitch discrimination task using one three complex tone stimuli static pitch contour rising pitch contour falling pitch contour behavioural measures pitch discrimination ffrs stimuli taken training phase participants well untrained comparison group receiving training showed significant improvements pitch discrimination compared comparison group trained stimuli findings indicate even relatively lowlevel processes mature auditory system subject experiencerelated change similarly bosnyak colleagues found change functional brain attributes used discriminating small changes pure tones measured eeg nonmusicians training sessions menning colleagues used sequences pure deviant tones train participants discrimination skills threeweek period participants detect deviant tones differing progressively smaller frequency shifts standard stimulus frequency discrimination improved rapidly first week followed small constant improvements thereafter results suggested reorganisation cortical representation trained frequencies schulte colleagues designed melody perception experimentinvolving eight harmonic complex tones missing fundamental frequenciesto study shortterm neuronal plasticity music neuroscience auditory cortex fundamental frequencies complex tones followed beginning virtual melody tune fr\u00e8re jacques harmonics complex tones chosen spectral melody inverse contour compared virtual one baseline measurement participants exposed repeatedly experimental stimuli one hour day reported sudden change perceived melody indicating possible reorganisation cortical processes involved virtual pitch formation switch perception second measurement taken cortical sources evoked gammaband activity significantly stronger located medially switch perception results revealed primary auditory cortices involved process virtual pitch perception function modifiable laboratory manipulation adopting different approach loui colleagues explored brain activity occurring participants learned new musical system participants listened different combinations tones previously unheard system pitches based bohlenpierce scale chord progressions form ratios frequency different frequency ratios found existing musical systems event related brain potentials elicited improbable sounds new music system emerged onehour period findings demonstrated humans use generalised probabilitybased perceptual learning mechanism process novel sound patterns music functional neuroimaging yields results less consistent difficult interpret pitchrelated learning tasks associated either decreased j\u00e4ncke et al zatorre et al increased activation gaab et al auditory regions similar discrepancies observed following shortterm sensorimotor training instance pianolike instrumental learning listening melodies training associated either increased activation action observation regions instance premotor region brocas area inferior parietal region lahav et al decreased activation dorsal auditory action pathway chen et al findings reflect encountered crosssectional studies musical training manifests increased decreased activation certain circumstances learning seems improve efficiency encoding processing information thus requiring less neuronal resources power music ways learn reflected specific brain activity intervention study students aged taught judge symmetrically structured musical phrases balanced unbalanced using traditional instructions differences including verbal explanations visual aids notation verbal rules playing musical examples participating musical experiences including singing playing improvising performing examples musical literature comparisons two groups revealed activity different brain areas altenmuller et al similarly tervaniemi colleagues shown musicians play ear improvise may learn process complex musical information differently accurately classically trained musicians leading corresponding differences auditory neural responses seems way musical skills acquired direct influence brain development overview evidence neurological studies relating engagement music suggests human brain remarkable plasticity changes response training demands environment active engagement making music provides rich aural sensorimotor experience shape structure functions human brain skills needed become expert musician acquired association fine motor movements specific sound patterns developed based realtime multisensory feedback creates changes brain evidence comparisons made nonmusicians musicians involved different musical activities changes found children adults months musical training musicians become expert interpreting findings neurological studies becomes complex way many aural motor skills become automated thus requiring less neural activity despite challenges clear music made major contribution understanding plasticity brain well demonstrating role learning developing expertise albeit interaction existing genetic predispositions aural perception language skills language music unique human forms communication everyday life utilise complex linguistic systems process sound environment kraus slater environment full events necessary segregate sounds streams several sound sources present time bregman necessary differentiate relevant irrelevant able process sound high survival value hearing first sense develop foetus womb respond sound early weeks pregnancy moon fifer graven browne learning melodies timbres rhythms music language individuals culture begins mothers womb third trimester development point foetus discriminate speech mother stranger speech native language nonnative language kisilevsky et al kisilevsky hains foetuses also respond differently music speech kisilevsky et al granierdeferre et al impact prenatal auditory experience observed among newborns infants show strong preference mothers voice voice another female decasper fifer cooper aslin mothers language foreign language moon et al specific passages speech decasper spence music hepper presented final weeks pregnancy proposed early recognition music speech evolved crosscultural adaptation support mother infant interactions huron tarr et al freeman fritz et al gregory varney himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music advances technologyfor instance magnetoencephalography used record foetal neonatal cognitive functions non invasively recording magnetic fields produced active neurons brain later weeks pregnancy first months life cognitive capabilities related recognition emotion language acquisition develop rapidly newborn process emotional information speech sounds form basis childs development relation social tasks native language huotilainen early interactions adults infants include use infantdirected forms language music preferred infants trainor refers infantdirected speech type musical speech koelsc masataka fernand siebel suggest early developing brain processes language type music proposed singing develops directly motherese infantdirected speech consisting exaggerations elevated pitch slow repetitions melodic elaborations ordinary vocal communication dissanayake falk mahdhaoui et al saintgeorges et al motherese singing simple melodic arches cognitively easier process words therefore able support mother infant communication language development newborns relatively early stage neurological development bouissac infants prefer singing speech instance nakata trehub studied sixmonthold infants presented extended audiovisual recordings mothers infantdirected speech singing cumulative visual fixation initial fixation mothers image lasted longer maternal singing maternal speech furthermore movement reduction tends indicate intense engagement accompanied visual fixation frequently maternal singing maternal speech repetitiveness maternal singing may promote moderate arousal levels sustain infant attention contrast greater variability speech may result cycles heightened arousal gaze aversion reengagement regular pulse music may also enhance emotional coordination mother infant bosseler colleagues found exaggerated pitch contours infantdirected speech resulted differences brain aural perception language skills activity linked online statistical learning sleeping newborns karzon found young infants could discriminate three syllable sequences suprasegmental characteristics typical infantdirected speech emphasised middle syllable pattern results suggests exaggerated suprasegmentals infantdirected speech may function perceptual catalyst facilitating discrimination focusing infants attention distinctive syllable within series polysyllabic sequences learning comprehend communicate language places heavy demands auditory system understanding stress patterns childs native language helps segregate continuous streams syllables words ability present birth mampe et al neonatal brain stores auditory experiences speech music memory traces partanen et al b exposure music birth impact brain helps newborn make sense range sounds auditory scenes immediately birth newborn needs learn phonemes native language quickly effectively construct map first year life kuhl crucial development language skills function effectively auditory system requires high low level cognitive skills humans process begins cochlea information acoustic characteristics particular sounds presented information subject time frequency processes subsequently progressing higher levels auditory system highlevel cognitive skills required make sense auditory information skills include memory attention predictive processes processes vital speech perception instance able segregate sounds streams listening speech within noise perception music learning native languages saw chapter large body evidence active engagement music childhood produces structural changes brain functioningchanges related processing sound elbert et al huotilainen tervaniemi hutchinson et al pantev et al pascualleone schlaug et al b easily individuals able process sound depends prior experiences krishnan et power music al krizman et al whiteschwoch et al knowledge related auditory processing acquired exposure particular environments applied automatically whenever individual listens music speech bigand poulincarronnat process begins womb continues throughout infancy research aural processing relationship language taken several forms beyond undertaken neuroscience considered relationships language music terms processing also skill levels another strand research focused aural perceptionincluding comparisons musicians non musicians adults childrenwhile research considered music might help difficulties processing sound following sections consider issues explanations relationships music language language music share many characteristics including use auditory domain input path organisation perceptual elements structured sequences patel understanding relationship musical training speech perception proved challenging early work focused hemispheric specialisation example bever chiarello suggested language based left hemisphere music right technological developments neuroimaging revealed partial neural overlap two domains patel although clinical studies brain damage revealed separate deficits music language peretz coltheart despite evidence common brain regions processing music language herdener et al koelsch et al necessarily imply shared processing circuitry findings research open different interpretations kunert slevc however research focusing specifically shared neural circuitry indicated neural overlap processing speech music besson et al bidelman et al bugaj brenner chandrasekaran et al deg\u00e9 schwarzer gordon et al kraus chandrasekaran kraus whiteschwoch overy patel iversen aural perception language skills rogalsky et al sammler et al schulze et al tallal gaab wong et al despite extent nature overlap continues hotly debated normanhaignere et al patel peretz et al one area controversy whether brain networks involved separate whether neural resources shared kunert slevc normanhaignere et al peretz et al issue ease shared processes operate depends individuals prior experiences sound including music bigand poulincarronnat elmer et al krishnan et al krizman et al patel whiteschwoch et al strongest evidence neural overlap crossdomain experiencedependent plasticity brainstem followed auditory cortex evidence potential overlap becomes less apparent mechanisms involved music speech perception become specialised distinct higher levels processing ogg slevc relationship language musical abilities might explained terms signal processing dorsal auditory stream domaingeneral suggests overlap perceptual processing linguistic kotz schmidtkassow kotz schwartze musical affective prosodic sensory information fruhholz trost kotz dorsal circuit integrates auditory motor processes providing neural mechanism speech development articulation articulatory sequences encoding new vocabulary phonological shortterm memory feedforward function buchsbaum et al hickok poeppel putamen also plays pivotal role human motor cortico basal ganglia thalamocortical circuitry also involved perception beats involving local gammaband oscillations merchant et al circuit involved sequential temporal processing also rhythmic behaviours music dance audition plays crucial role circuit usually involved control voluntary skeletomotor movements includes supplementary motor cortex putamen fundamental cortical neostriatal nodes respectively two theoretical positionshickok poeppels neuroanatomical model patels opera hypothesishave power music underpinned much research hickok poeppel argue progress understanding nature extent overlap limited failure consider effects different tasks mapping speechrelated processing systems outline dualstream model speech processing ventral stream processes speech signals comprehension dorsal stream maps acoustic speech signals frontal lobe articulatory networks model assumes ventral stream largely bilaterally organised dorsal stream strongly left hemisphere dominant opera model proposed patel includes overlap subcortical cortical networks adds precision music must place higher demands networks language emotions music must elicit strong positive emotions repetition musical activity must repeated frequently must associated attention model suggests anatomical overlap neural areas process acoustic features speech music music requires greater precision speech places higher demands overlapping neural areas also suggests musical training requires repetition neural areas continually activated turn leads enhanced attention early life speech music processing shown rely overlapping neural substrates kotilahti et al mcmullen saffran perani et al brandt colleagues argued without ability hear musically would possible acquire language suggest music serves scaffold learn speech supported mothers use motherese interacts child fernald musical language processes might similar developmental underpinnings infants children modularised adults newborns understand syntax meaning words focus acoustic features voices prosodic features language rhythm speed pitch relative emphasis processing systems may become differentiated become familiar speech cognitive maturation occurs koelsch siebel koelsch suggests emergent modularity speech music processing depend perceptual categorisation speech focus primarily timbral contrasts music aural perception language skills focus distinguishing differences pitch sounds vowels sound frequencies spread along continua acquiring musical language skills requires individuals learn separate sounds continuum separate vowels pitches addition must also possible separate variation within categoryfor instance sound variation produced different speakers variation constitutes change category patel suggests challenges likely solved shared system shared soundcategory learning mechanism would suggest comparable individual differences language musical abilities support comes research individuals classed tune deaf shown poor musical performance tends associated deficits processing speech sounds jones et al may sensitive period musical training support comes findings musicians begin training early show better task performance greater changes auditory motor regions brain start later childhood bengtsson et al elbert et al gaser schlaug koeneke et al penhune schneider et al absolute pitch ability identify produce musical pitch without recourse reference tonesoffer support typically absolute pitch begin training age six almost examples absolute pitch commencing musical activity nine years age baharloo et al however auditory learning plasticity remain possible sensitive periods strait et al sensitive period learning largely bottomup process triggered exposure auditory input optimised underlying neural circuits still developing extremely sensitive input received following sensitive period learning largely topdown process depends attention enhance salience features order encode process involves changing structure efficiency preexisting circuits optimise processing music training may support developmental trajectory topdown control speech processing strait et al white et al recent research approaches draw clinical evidence musicrelated deficits neurologically impaired individuals also exploring processing music healthy people power music using neurocomparative music language research sammell elmer particular areas interest role general attention perruchet poulincharronnat rhythm neuronal entrainment predictive coding cognitive control slevc okada instance sammell elmer suggest temporal attention influenced external rhythmic auditory stimulation benefits language processing including processing syntax speech production research starts proposition speech music similar acoustic reybrouck podlipniak tsai li structural features bollavetisyan et al daikoku fotidzis et al lagrois et al lee et al myers et al silva et al snijders et al processing systems language music share challenge extracting small number categories meaningful flow acoustically variable signals analysis skills used language processing phonological distinctions blending segmentation sounds similar skills necessary perception rhythmic lamb gregory lipscomb et al harmonic melodic discrimination anvari et al barwick et al lamb gregory processing timing cues emerging particularly important leading better segmenting sounds speech quicker recognition distinctive units spoken language kraus chandrasekaran overy tallal gaab reybrouck podlipniak argue sound features common preconceptual affective meanings may reflect joint evolutionary roots music language continue present dayfor instance musical expressivity speech prosody recent neurophysiological models assume speech music processing well role rhythm language development based synchronisation internal neuronal oscillations temporally regular stimuli goswami lakatos et al large et al poeppel assaneo instance lakatos colleagues argue rhythms fundamental defining feature neuronal activity humans rhythmic brain activity interacts complex ways rhythms internal external environment phenomenon neuronal entrainment proposed role many sensory cognitive processes auditory senses aural perception language skills faced many rhythmic inputs entrainment couples rhythmic brain activity external internal rhythmic events serving fine grained routing modulation external internal signals across multiple spatial temporal hierarchies lakatos colleagues propose theoretical framework explaining neuronal entrainment dynamically structures information incoming neuronal bodily environmental sources instance doelling poeppel suggest brain exploits temporal regularities music accurately parse individual notes sound stream using lower frequencies entrainment higher frequencies generate temporal contentbased predictions subsequent musical events associated predictive models one strand research focused patterning strong weak syllables beats make rhythm pulse prosodic stress breen et al frey et al myers et al richards goswami snijders et al rhythmic patterning speech music proposed draw domaingeneral abilities required perceive process temporal features sound jones kotz et al richards goswami explain prosody particularly hierarchical structuring stressed unstressed syllables provides reliable cues syntactic structure speech selkirk may therefore facilitate acquisition syntactic language organisation cumming et al early disturbances rhythmsyntax interface may hinder normal language acquisition leading developmental language disorders richards goswami suggest basic processing rhythmic prosodic cues may provide key foundation scaffolding higher aspects language development strand research focused common auditory processing temporal regularities bollavetisyan et al fotidzia et al lagrois et al reybrouck podlipniak thought promote higherlevel linguistic functions breen et al frey et al fotidzis et al richards goswami rossi et al snijders et al possibly neuronal entrainment myers et al instance lagrois colleagues found socalled beat deaf individuals beatfinding deficits music showed deficits synchronising tapping power music speech rhythm generally regular tapping without external rhythms pattern deficits may arise basic deficiency timekeeping mechanisms affects rhythm perception across domains similarly bollavetisyan colleagues used multiple regression analyses found musical rhythm perception abilities predicted rhythmic grouping preferences speech adults without dyslexia fotidzis colleagues found musical rhythmic skills predicted childrens neural sensitivity mismatches speech rhythm written word auditory rhythm strand research explored topdown modulations common auditory processes domaingeneral cognitive motor functions perception production christiner reiterer daikoku lee et al instance jung colleagues demonstrated rhythmic expectancy crucial interaction processing musical linguistic syntax silva colleagues demonstrated topdown adjustment music language perception behavioural modelling found listeners placed break patterns ambiguous speechsong stimuli differently depending whether believed listening speech prosody contemporary music similarly tsai li found strength ambiguous stimulus perceived song rather speech depended acoustics stimulus also sound category preceding stimulus mathias colleagues showed pianists gradually anticipated sounds actions music production similar mechanisms auditory feedback control speech production hickok palmer pfordresher overall research suggests listening context listeners motor plans statistical domainspecific expectations may influence topdown anticipation perception acoustic features speech music myers colleagues summarise current state knowledge neuronal entrainment speech envelope tracking reflecting quasiregular amplitude fluctuations time speech envelope tracking neural occurs simultaneously multiple time scales corresponding rates phonemes syllables phrases giraud poeppel gross et al argue aural perception language skills slowest rate corresponding prosodic stress rhythmic pacing delta range constitutes particularly strong source neuronal entrainment crucial normal language development jung colleagues demonstrated rhythmic expectancy crucial interaction processing musical linguistic syntax supporting incorporation dynamic models attentional entrainment existing theories proposed sharing neural resources syntax processing music language patel dynamic attention network governs general temporal processing large jones findings suggest interaction music language syntax processing depends rhythmic expectancy supporting emerging theories music language syntax processing dynamic models attentional entrainment research examined domaingeneral topdown modulations music language perspective perception production focusing continuous interaction bottomup topdown processes line significant trends predictive coding erickson thiessen instance koelsch colleagues suggest music perception active act listening listening music constantly generate plausible hypotheses could happen next actively attending music resolves uncertainty within predictive coding framework koelsch colleagues present formulation precision filtering attentional selection explains lowerlevel auditory even higherlevel syntacticmusic processes elicited irregular events relatively exempt topdown predictive processes provide evidence attentional selection salient auditory features suggests listening active process traditionally conceived models perception examine predictive mechanisms music fogel colleagues presented listeners beginning novel tonal melody five nine notes asked sing note expected come next half melodies underlying harmonic structure designed constrain expectations next note based implied authentic cadence within melody authentic cadence melody matched noncadential melody terms length rhythm melodic contour power music differing implied harmonic structure average participants showed much greater consistency notes sung following authentic versus noncadential melodies although significant variation consistency melodies suggesting individual differences important examining perceived relationships perceptions speech song speechtosong illusion margulis colleagues presented nativeenglishspeaking participants brief spoken utterances repeated ten times speechtosong illusion occurs brief phrase repeated several times begins perceived song illusion exposes border perception language perception music phrases used either drawn languages relatively difficult native english speaker pronounce languages relatively easy native english speaker pronounce participants rated utterances repetitions fivepoint likertlike scale ranging sounds exactly like speech sounds exactly like singing speechtosong illusion occurred readily utterance spoken language difficult native english speaker pronounce suggests speech circuitry likely capture native easytopronounce languages reluctant relinquish perceived songs across repetitions research explored processing benefits rhythmically highly regular stimuli songs instance rossi colleagues investigated whether meaning extracted spoken sung sentences similar way participants listened semantically correct incorrect sentences performing correctness judgement task neural mechanisms assessed several methods combined results indicated similar semantic processing speech song findings effects general rhythmic processing skills higherorder linguistic abilities currently investigated context first language acquisition lad\u00e1nyi et al christiner reiterer found links musical aptitude phonetic language abilities imitation foreign speech preschool children mediated domaingeneral working memory resources preclude auditory perceptual connections music aural perception language skills language findings suggest may complex interactions yet identified miles colleagues suggest two different aspects music language depend two memory systems one brain system based temporal lobes helps humans memorise information language musicfor example words meanings language familiar melodies music system based frontal lobes helps humans unconsciously learn use rules underlie language music rules syntax sentences rules harmony music findings suggest one set brain structures underlies rules language music also different brain system underlies memorised information domains time research exploring relationship music language progressed exploring mapping music language functions brain trying understand mechanisms involved much investigation required clear understanding future research needs take account individual differences nature tasks studied neural overlap might taskdependent differences listening tasks may limit extent clear conclusions drawn underlying neurobiology music speech comparisons musicians nonmusicians altenm\u00fcller proposed cortical activation music processing reflects individuals auditory learning biography personal musical experiences accumulated time suggests complexity neural networks enhanced depending complexity auditory information experienced musical training leads development mental representations music may involve different cerebral substrates required types aural processing representations take several forms including auditory sensory motor symbolic visual means process level auditory information professional musicians use larger complex neural networks compared nonmusicians power music considerable body research developed focused making comparisons sound processing musicians non musicians research musicians tend identified terms playing instrument involved formal singing activities nonmusicians defined engaging musicmaking ways although may engage music ways despite crudity distinction much research undertaken basis participants ages children seniors research demonstrated musicians enhanced abilities process pitch temporal sound information chobert et al kishonrabin et al kraus chandrasekaran magne et al marques et al micheyl et al moreno et al schon et al strait et al tervaniemi et al van zuijen et al zendel alain improved performance range listening skills hyde et al pantev et al patel iverson tallal gaab enhanced auditory attention strait kraus strait et al better processing metric structure words presented sentences marie et al b better discrimination identification moraic units timing language features sadakata sekiayama musicians classify voiced sounds vowels easily quickly nonmusicians bidelman et al advantages relation processing linguistic syntax fiveash pammer making judgements grammar patston tippett better able distinguish rapidly changing sounds gaab et al harmonic differences corrigall trainor musacchia et al zendel alain temporal novelty herdener et al tonal variations nonnative speech sounds chandrasekaran et al cooper wang k\u00fchnis et al marques et al martinezmontes et al perfors ong wong et al wong perrachione yang et al perceive speech better without training accompanied noise parberyclark et al b identify syllables presented spectral information degraded elmer et al identify whether sentences foreign language tone based different marie et al b predict ability perceive produce subtle phonetic contrasts aural perception language skills second language slevc miyake also better nonmusicians perception processing vocally expressed emotion bhatara et al lima castro strait et al thompson et al subcortical level musicians demonstrate robust quicker auditory brainstem responses music lee et al speech bidelman et al bidelman krishnan instance musacchia colleagues demonstrated musicians compared nonmusicians earlier larger auditory audiovisual brainstem responses speech music stimuli strength brainstem response related number years musical practice similarly wong colleagues examined brainstem encoding linguistic pitch found musicians show robust faithful encoding compared nonmusicians extent subcortical consonant discrimination noise perception also enhanced musicians parberyclark et al finally musicians increased neural capacity perception processing vocally expressed emotion strait et al b high functioning peripheral auditory systems quality aural encoding related amount musical training wong et al also nature instrumental requirements demonstrated chapter subtle differences musicians aural processing depending instrument play instance rauscher hinton used four discrimination tasks adults aged musicians non musiciansand found auditory discrimination better musicians particularly true string players compared percussionists probably consequence many years subtle tonal discrimination required play stringed instrument findings demonstrated expertise playing musical instrument selectively improved discrimination thresholds corresponding skills emphasised training instrument similarly brattico colleagues established responses sound modulated expertise one music culture typical finnish folk musicians tervaniemi colleagues found amateur musicians still advantages nonmusicians neural behavioural sound encoding accuracy later study tervaniemi power music colleagues found classical jazz rock musicians exhibited automatic brain responses selectively enhanced deviants tuning classical musicians timing classical jazz musicians transposition jazz musicians melody contour jazz rock musicians another study found different brain responses six types music featured classical jazz rock pop musicians nonmusicians jazz classical musicians scored higher musical aptitude test band musicians nonmusicians especially regards tonal abilities jazz musicians greater overall sensitivity auditory outliers processing pitch sliding pitches vuust et al greater left hemisphere lateralisation shown musicians comparison nonmusicians presented musical stimuli bever chiarello hirshkowitz et al besson et al schlaug et al consistent efficient verbal processes asymmetry proposed potentially related language pitch processing skills ohnishi colleagues assessed cortical activation passive listening task also found greater activation planum temporale left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex musicians nonmusicians authors also found negative correlation degree activation left planum temporale age commencement musical training nonmusicians demonstrated right dominant secondary auditory areas task degree activation left posterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex left planum temporale correlated significantly absolute pitch ability fujioka colleagues also observed greater left hemisphere lateralisation four sixyearold children received music lessons period year listening violin tones compared children receiving music lessons auditory expertise gained years music training finetunes auditory system strait kraus b strengthening neurobiological cognitive underpinnings speech music processing including enhancing neural responses changes pitch duration intensity voice onset time musicians enhanced perceptual skills play role enhancing language skills bever chiarello gaab et al hutka et al jakobsob et al aural perception language skills strait et al tallal gaab zatorre belin zattore et al increased sensitivity attention speech seems supported part right hemisphere processing jantzen et al musicians pitch expertise appears extend music language context significant differences domains alexander et al bidelman et al delogu et al lee hung marie et al mom zuo weidema et al musicians also better recognising vocally expressed emotion instance pinheiro colleagues investigated effects musical training eventrelated potential correlates emotional prosody processing fourteen musicians fourteen non musicians listened sentences neutral semantic content differing prosody one third neutral one third happy one third angry intonation intelligible semantic content unintelligible semantic content findings suggested auditory expertise impact different stages vocal emotional processing fujioka colleagues found people formal music education processed contour interval information auditory cortex automatically designed stimuli examine contour interval information separately contour condition eight different standard melodies consisting five notes ascending pitch corresponding deviant melodies altered descend final note interval condition used one fivenote standard melody transposed eight keys trial trial deviant trials last note raised one whole tone without changing pitch contour also control condition standard tone deviant tone presented results suggested musical training enhanced ability automatically register abstract changes relative pitch structure melodies language music depend rules memorised representations miranda ullman examined neural bases aspects music eventrelated potential study note violations melodies ruleonly violations consisted outofkey deviant notes violated tonal harmony rules unfamiliar melodies memory violations consisted inkey deviant notes familiar wellknown melodies notes followed musical rules deviated power music actual melodies finally outofkey notes familiar wellknown melodies constituted violations rules memory three conditions presented healthy young adults half musicians half nonmusicians results revealed double dissociation independent musical training rules memory rule violation conditions memoryonly violations elicited early somewhat right lateralised anterior central negativity consistent previous studies rule violations music analogous early left lateralised anterior negativities elicited rule violations language contrast memory violation conditions ruleonly violation elicited posterior negativity component depends least part processing representations stored longterm memory language domains results suggest neurocognitive rule memory dissociation extends language music strengthening similarities two domains harding colleagues recorded eeg participants range musical training listened melodies sentences identical rhythmic structure results showed participants years musical training comparable cortical response music speech rhythm however cortical response music rhythm increased years musical training response speech rhythm leading overall greater cortical response music rhythm across participants seems task demands shape asymmetric cortical tracking across domains focusing sound discrimination parberyclark colleagues established musicians increased ability detect small differences sounds showed conferred advantages subcortical differentiation closely related speech sounds example ba ga distinguishable harmonic spectra measuring degree subcortical response timing differed speech syllables ba da ga adult musicians nonmusicians showed musicians demonstrated enhanced subcortical discrimination closely related speech sounds extent subcortical consonant discrimination correlated speech noise perception similarly ott colleagues determined whether musical expertise led altered neurophysiological aural perception language skills processing subsegmental information available speech signals analysed neurophysiological responses voiced unvoiced consonant vowel syllables noiseanalogues germanspeaking adult musicians nonmusicians findings showed musicians processed unvoiced stimuli irrespective whether speech nonspeech stimuli differently nonmusicians zuk colleagues examined perceptual acuity musicians acoustic components speech necessary intraphonemic discrimination synthetic syllables musicians nonmusicians compared discrimination thresholds three synthetic speech syllable continua varied spectral temporal discrimination demands musicians demonstrated superior discrimination syllables required resolution temporal cues addition performance temporal syllable continua positively correlated length intensity musical training musicians also better processing intervals nonmusicians comparisons eleven musicians aged ten non musicians aged years required detect infrequent changes last note fivenote melodywhich either altered contour interval downshowed contour processing basic less affected musical experience trainor et al benefits musical training shown continue throughout lifespan bidelman alain showed musical training offset decline auditory brain processing frequently accompanies normal ageing recorded brainstem cortical neuroelectric responses older adults classified speech sound along acoustic phonetic continuum modest musical training higher temporal precision speech evoked responses better differentiating phonetic categories even limited musical training preserve robust speech recognition late life considered chapter comparisons musicians non musicians cannot demonstrate causality differences aural processing could present birth appear stage development due genetic programming differences language skills could power music developed diversity educational opportunities home circumstances however fact enhancements greater longer period training suggests musical experience cause ho et al lee noppeney musacchia et al norton et al pantev et al seitherpreisler et al strait kraus wong et al although nature particular musical activities may important may intensity commitment engagement music issue causality best resolved intervention studies usually take place research children research children reports benefits music language development extending early years childhood tierney kraus white et al addition benefits auditory skill development including auditory discrimination attention putkinen et al language skills including pitch perception linnavalli et al nan et al yang et al one strand research focused infants preschool children instance zhao colleagues examined effects laboratorybased intervention music speech processing nine monthold infants exposed music triple time waltz social context infants aid caregivers tapped musical beats maracas feet bounced synchronisation musical beats intervention incorporated key characteristics typical infant music classes maximise learning multimodal social offered repetitive experiences control group experienced similar multimodal social repetitive play without music following intervention infants neural processing temporal structure tested using tones triple time speech foreign syllable structures sessions infants neural responses temporal structure violations music speech assessed compared infants control group infants exposed music intervention improved detection prediction auditory patterns demonstrating enhanced temporal structure processing music speech musical pitch processing timing intervention enhanced infants ability extract temporal structure aural perception language skills information predict future events time skill affecting music speech processing similarly trainor colleagues reported neurallevel changes sixmonthold infants randomised engage active participatory music classes six months class experienced music passively playing active music participation resulted earlier enculturation western tonal pitch structure larger andor earlier brain responses musical tones positive social trajectory also working sixmonthold infants gerry colleagues found random assignment six months active participatory musical experience accelerated acquisition culturespecific knowledge western tonality comparison similar level passive exposure music infants assigned active musical experience showed superior development prelinguistic communicative gestures social behaviour compared infants assigned passive musical experience findings showed infants engage meaningful musical training appropriate pedagogical approaches used active musical participation infancy enhances culture specific musical acquisition impacts development social communication skills another comparable study snijders colleagues investigated whether infants could learn words ecologically valid childrens songs forty dutchlearning tenmontholds participated research explore whether infants could segment repeated target words embedded songs familiarisation subsequently recognise words continuous speech test phase infants participated song speech sessions findings showed monthold infants could indeed segment words embedded songs working children participating head start provision yazejian colleagues evaluated effects supplementary preschool classroom music movement curriculum language skills participating children made greater gains communication skills children comparison group although differences receptive language phonological awareness study children aged two three putkinen colleagues found relationship informal musical activities parents home auditory eventrelated potentials linked sound power music discrimination attention showed children higher levels musical activity heightened sensitivity temporal acoustic changes mature auditory change detection less distractibility children research also attended music focused playschool age four six displayed rapid development neural responses gave activity related crosssectional study showed enhanced control auditory novelty processing musically trained schoolaged children adolescents putkinen et al similarly soundplay project uk worked children aged two four years old using combination methods including observation music language tracker tools interviews written reports compiled early years practitioners parents workshop leaders found participating project children identified risk developmental delay achieved higher average development language skills pitts australia williams colleagues investigated parent child home music activities sample australian children participating national longitudinal study frequency shared home music activities reported parents children two three years old range social emotional cognitive outcomes measured parent teacher report direct testing two years later children four five years old series regression analyses found frequency shared home music activities small significant association childrens vocabulary numeracy attentional emotional regulation prosocial skills taken together studies provide causal evidence role music training less formal musical activities shaping development important neural auditory skills young children also consider studies looking older children trainor colleagues found fouryearolds received suzuki training better developed auditory cortex better able discriminate sounds fujioka colleagues recorded auditory evoked responses violin tone noiseburst stimulus four sixyearold children four repeated measurements oneyear period using magnetoencephalography found children participated music lessons throughout year aural perception language skills showed clear musical training effect response violin stimuli compared untrained children similarly shahin colleagues measured auditory evoked potentials response piano violin pure tones twice group four fiveyearold children enrolled either suzuki music lessons nonmusic controls children learning play instrumentpiano violin auditory evoked potentials observed instrument played comparable children musically trained approximately three years older chronological age suggesting neocortical synaptic matrix shaped accumulation specific auditory experiences process accelerated musical training children playing piano also exhibited increased power induced timbrespecific gammaband activity piano tones one year training comparison nonmusicians shahin et al using eventrelated potential behavioural measures longitudinal design nan colleagues showed musical training conferred advantages speechsound processing mandarinspeaking children aged four five years old pseudorandomly assigned piano training reading training nocontact control group six months piano training improved general auditory word discrimination well word discrimination based vowels compared control group although reading group yielded similar trends piano group demonstrated unique advantages comparison reading control groups consonantbased word discrimination enhanced positive mismatch responses lexical tone musical pitch changes improved word discrimination based consonants correlated enhancements musical pitch among children piano group results suggested strengthened common sound processing across domains important mechanism underlying beneficial impact musical training language processing research focused development musical skills auditory discrimination schoolaged children elbert et al hutchinson et al pantev et al pascualleone schlaug et al b provided evidence musical training enhances auditory processing children prior training power music exhibited preexisting differences chobert et al fran\u00e7ois et al kraus et al b moreno et al norton et al tierney et al making music shown strengthen childrens auditory encoding speech chobert et al magne et al strait et al b tierney et al auditory discrimination attention chobert et al koelsch et al moreno et al putkinen et al well leading structural changes auditory cortical areas brain hyde et al seitherpreisler et al instance hyde colleagues tested two groups children prior formal musical training instrumental group consisted children aged six years old weekly halfhour private keyboard lessons period months control group children almost six years old receive instrumental music training participated weekly minute group music class school consisting singing playing drums bells structural brain changes motor auditory areas critical importance instrumental music training correlated behavioural improvements motor auditory musical tests children played practised musical instrument showed greater improvements motor ability auditory melodic rhythmic discrimination skills changes right auditory area underlay improved melodic rhythmic discrimination similarly putkinen colleagues conducted longitudinal study schoolaged children showed children received formal musical training displayed enhanced development neural responses related preattentive neural sound discrimination auditory attention musically trained children also showed superior performance tests executive functions huotilainen tervaniemi investigated longitudinal brain development children starting musical hobby age seven children music group started training start group differences brain responses compared children age starting hobbies two years later beyond enhanced auditory brain responses developed music group development observed brain responses control group later study putkinen aural perception language skills colleagues studied nine fifteenyearold children participated musical training using auditory event related potentials showed musically trained children demonstrated enhanced sound encoding intervention studies music shown positive outcomes instance working seven eightyearold spanish children learning speak english second language fonsecamora colleagues showed participating phonological training program benefited training additional musical support clear benefits strait colleagues explored encoding speech quiet noisy backgrounds musically trained nontrained children thirtyone children normal hearing ages seven thirteen participated classified musicians received private instrumental training least age five practised consistently least four years musically trained children outperformed nonmusicians speechin noise perception overall demonstrated less auditory brainstem response degradation addition background noise nonmusicians perceptual speechin noise cognitive auditory working memory attention performance correlated extent musicians musical training similarly slater colleagues followed cohort eight nineyearold school children two years assessing ability perceive speech noise musical training initial assessment participants randomly assigned one two groups one group began music training immediately completed two years training second group waited year received one year music training research showed speechin noise perception improved two years group music training several studies compared impact music versus painting equivalent visual stimulation early study moreno besson tested whether eight weeks musical training affected ability eightyearold children detect pitch changes language twenty nonmusician children listened linguistic phrases ended prosodically congruous words weak strong pitch incongruities reaction times error rates eventrelated brain power music potentials recorded final words groups weak incongruity difficult detect performance significantly different groups however amplitude late positive component largest response strong incongruities reduced training music group results suggest relatively short exposure pitch processing music exerted influence pitch processing language later longitudinal study moreno colleagues studied eventrelated potentials eightyearold nonmusician children nine months performed tasks designed test hypothesis musical training improves pitch processing music speech following initial testing children pseudo randomly assigned music painting training six months tested training using tests musicalbut paintingtraining children showed enhanced reading pitch discrimination abilities speech results revealed positive transfer music speech showing short periods training strong consequences functional organisation childrens brains study moreno et al researched children half received visual art training half music training undertake training two computerised training programmes developed administered training programmes learning goals graphics design duration number breaks number teaching staff difference content training music curriculum based combination motor perceptual cognitive tasks included training rhythm pitch melody voice basic musical concepts training relied primarily listening activities curriculum visual art emphasised development visuospatial skills relating concepts shape colour line dimension perspective children engaged training programmes two daily sessions one hour five days week four weeks programmes projected onto classroom wall conducted groups led teacher findings showed training music listening skills transferred verbal ability music training children exhibited enhanced performance vocabulary knowledge significant increase verbal aural perception language skills spatial skills following visual art training although trend towards improvement spatial skills similarly chobert colleagues randomly assigned non musician children music painting training recorded neural responses syllables differed vowel frequency vowel duration voice onset time done three times training six months twelve months crossgroup differences found training enhanced preattentive processing syllabic duration voice onset time found twelve months training music group results suggest active musical training lead improvements aural processing similarly period two years fran\u00e7ois colleagues assigned eightyearold children matched cognitive abilities sex age grade school socioeconomic status music painting lessons prior study two groups children performed similarly test identify whether three syllable nonsense words present within fiveminutelong string syllables one year training music group performed better painting group speech segmentation skills difference increasing two year period another strand research considered impact second language training versus music training enhancing aural processing instance comparative study impact second language learning french musical training moreno colleagues recorded eventrelated potentials french vowels musical notes four sixyearold children children demonstrated improved processing relevant trained sounds increased capacity suppress irrelevant untrained sounds one year traininginduced brain changes persisted hemispheric changes appeared increased eeg complexity coarse temporal scales music french vowel tasks widely distributed cortical regions findings showed musical training increased diversity brain network states supported domainspecific music skill acquisition musictolanguage transfer effects similarly carpentier colleagues conducted day longitudinal study monolingual english speaking four sixyearold children randomly selected receive daily music french language training children completed passive power music eeg musicnote french vowel auditory detection tasks training comparison pretraining posttraining showed musical training associated increased eeg complexity coarse temporal scales music french vowel tasks widely distributed cortical regions findings demonstrated musical training increased diversity brain network states support domainspecific music skill acquisition musictolanguage transfer effects evidence benefits musical training language comes yang colleagues examined whether childrens experience music training related language skills chinese first language english second language performance musical achievement test seventyseven children received formal musical training school beginning semester three categorised musicians remaining children classed nonmusicians childrens musical skills semesters study improved received training performance second language english also enhanced although performance first language correlational study milovanov colleagues explored relationship musical aptitude secondlanguage pronunciation skills schoolaged children children good linguistic skills better musical skills children less accurate linguistic skills erp data showed children good linguistic skills showed pronounced soundchange evoked activation music stimuli children less accurate linguistic skills findings implied musical linguistic skills could partly based shared neural mechanisms regression study swaminathan schellenberg used sample six nineyearold children test links musical expertise language ability speech perception grammar analyses revealed language abilities significant partial associations musical ability music training rhythm discrimination better predictor language skills melody discrimination authors concluded links music language arise primarily preexisting factors formal training music aural perception language skills music training alter course auditory development late adolescence tierney colleagues investigated effects inschool music training versus another inschool training programme focusing development auditory skills tested adolescents neural responses sound language skills entered high school pretraining three years later showed inschool music training begun high school prolonged stability subcortical sound processing accelerated maturation cortical auditory responses phonological processing improved music training active control groups enhancement greater adolescents underwent music training research supports proposition singing supports speech development example snijders colleagues found tenmonthold infants able segment words childrens songsbut performed equally well segmenting infantdirected speech similarly rossi colleagues found differences speech songs study semantic processing healthy adults taken together data suggest presentation verbal material song may sufficient enhance vocabulary learning language comprehension healthy individuals children deprived backgrounds research focused children perceived risk deprived backgrounds instance kraus colleagues used randomised controlled trial investigate whether community music participation could induce change auditory processing children deprived backgrounds programme provided free music instruction children considered risk participants children mean age eight years living gang reduction zones los angeles children randomly assigned participate defer musical participation one year participants attended music classes twice weekly three ten months students began music appreciation classes learned pitchmatching rhythm skills musical styles notation basic vocal performance recorder playing power music students progressed instrumental instruction students given instruments participated groupbased instrumental classes four hours per week children committed music intervention attended participated greater extent classroom activities developed stronger brain encoding speech less engaged children completed two years music training stronger neurophysiological distinction stop consonants neural mechanisms linked reading language skills one year training sufficient elicit changes nervous system functions greater amounts instrumental music training associated larger gains neural processing research showed participation reinforced literacy skills enhanced neural encoding speech cuesimportant readingand perception speech noisy backgrounds kraus et al b kraus strait slater et al similarly elsistema inspired project habibi colleagues part ongoing fiveyear longitudinal study investigated effects music training programme auditory development children course two years beginning age six seven children music group compared two groups children socioeconomic background one involved sports training involved systematic training prior participating children began training music differ comparison groups assessed measures two years children music group comparison groups showed enhanced ability detect changes tonal environment accelerated maturity auditory processing measured cortical auditory evoked potentials musical notes research auditory language impairments auditory system full acoustic input case hearing deficits congenital deafness development skills related audition damaged working deaf children rochette colleagues compared auditory perception auditory aural perception language skills cognition phonetic discrimination profoundly deaf children completed weekly music lessons ages eighteen months four years deaf children receive musical instruction trained children showed better performance auditory scene analysis auditory working memory phonetic discrimination tasks multiple regression analysis showed success tasks least partly driven music lessons cochlear implants support hearing cannot deliver complete auditory information cochlea input small distorted impact communication skills however children receive cochlear implant months age demonstrate normal language growth rates achieve ageappropriate receptive language scores three years implant later implants lead significant language delay evident three years implant development speech follows similar pattern normal hearing children delayed leigh et al research explored whether musical interventions help children instance torppa colleagues assessed word sentence stress perception discrimination fundamental frequency intensity duration forward digitspan twice period months twentyone early implanted children agematched normalhearing children aged four years participated children cochlear implants exposed music improved age word stress perception intensity discrimination digitspan performance equivalent naturalhearing children laterimplanted children performed less well overall findings suggested music valuable tool rehabilitation implanted children study torppa et al b researched interplay singing cortical processing music children cochlear implants findings showed augmented development neural networks attention accurate neural discrimination associated singing addition torppa colleagues concluded musical playschool also supported learning children offered efficient use mirror neurons especially children cochlear implants participated alongside normal hearing peers emotional social aspects group musical power music playschool may also impact learning outcomes provision positive inspiring environment similarly good colleagues studied children cochlear implants aged six received either six months individualised piano lessons six months individualised painting lessons measures music perception emotional speech prosody perception obtained pre mid posttraining music training led improved performance tasks requiring discrimination melodic contour rhythm incidental memory melodies emotional speech prosody perception art training lead improvements good colleagues concluded music training may effective supplementary technique supporting auditory rehabilitation following cochlear implantation children born premature increased likelihood sensory cognitive motor deficits mikkola colleagues used neurocognitive tests preterm children one five years old suggested may altered primary auditory processing suggested early auditory environment within intensive care unit later hospitalisation might play role decreased auditory attention learning skills prematurely born infants ameliorate deficits virtala partanen developed interventions focusing music found music making parental singing promoted infants early language development auditory neural processing evidence aphasia rehabilitated music sparks colleagues used melodic intonation therapy involves sung intonation propositional sentences way intoned pattern similar natural prosodic pattern sentence spoken eight severely globally impaired righthanded aphasic subjects left hemisphere damage resulting cerebrovascular accidents participated patient acted control participants shown improvement verbal expression least six months time received language therapy recovery appropriate propositional language occurred six eight patients result melodic intonation therapy aural perception language skills also argued music may aid development listening skills support children learning difficulties hirt mannheimer humpal wolf wolf music helped children developmental disabilities mendelson et al particularly low reading levels cogomoreira et al infants dyslexic parents show minor differences auditory processing compared infants parents without dyslexia observed infancy using neurological measures review research auditory processing deficits individuals dyslexia h\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen colleagues showed measures frequency rise time duration discrimination well amplitude modulation frequency modulation detection often impaired may infants dyslexic parents children symptoms dyslexia might benefit training auditory systems overcome possible differences auditory processing early life indeed musical interventions found successful helping children dyslexia overcome difficulties flaugnacco et al children show delayed language development three four years age risk dyslexia although many children eventually diagnosed dyslexic perfectly normal language development however early language difficulties diagnosis language impairment childhood predictive reading disabilities later school years adolescence adulthood atypical entrainment rhythmic prosodic cues due deficits finegrained auditory perception may constitute risk development speech language disorders goswami lad\u00e1nyi et al case increasing regularity stimuli strengthening individual rhythmic abilities aim improving neuronal entrainment may enhance development research suggested song could used improving speech processing individuals language processing deficits including dyslexia vanden bosch et al musicbased training effects dyslexia already demonstrated enhancing auditory skills children dyslexia achieved attendance musical play school overy overy power music children developmental language disorders shown impaired language processing including syntax also rhythm metre perception sammler elmer suggest may role rhythmbased processing language processing acquisition frey colleagues longitudinal study using eeg demonstrated six months music training positively influenced preattentive processing voice onset time speech children developmental difficulties przybylski colleagues tested influence external rhythmic auditory stimulation syntax processing children specific language impairment dyslexia children listened either regular irregular musical prime sequences followed blocks grammatically correct incorrect sentences required perform grammar judgements auditorily presented sentence performance children including controls better regular prime sequences irregular prime sequences benefit regular prime stronger children specific language impairment dyslexic children results suggest rhythmic structures even nonverbal materials may boost linguistic structure processing regular music therapy also help children rett syndrome genetic brain disorder associated problems language coordination improve receptive language verbal nonverbal communication chou et al musicmakingwhether playing instrument singingis multimodal activity involves integration auditory sensorimotor processes ability sing humans evident infancy depend formal vocal training although enhanced training wan colleagues reviewed evidence therapeutic effects singing might potentially ameliorate speech deficits associated conditions stuttering parkinsons disease acquired brain lesions autism singing may help children stutter reducing stress using melodic architecture help formation longer verbal phrases clementscort\u00e8s wan et al aural perception language skills overview previous sections recent reviews benz et al engel et al hallam h\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen et al j\u00e4ncke patel sammler elmer wan et al white et al provide considerable compelling evidence musical training sharpens brains early encoding sound leading enhanced performance range listening aural processing skills active engagement music childhood produces structural changes brain related processing sound develop quite short periods time making music supports development aural processing systems facilitate encoding identification speech sounds patterns turn enhance language skills earlier active participation takes place greater length participation level commitment intensity greater impact musical experience training also enhance emotional perception range cognitive skills benefits musical engagement occur without conscious awareness participants demonstrated range different groups across lifespan despite possible say certainty musical activities beneficial young children informal musicmaking home formal activities playschools found effective later school music education impact instrumental tuition particular instrument played genre engaged lead specific neural behavioural changes overall enhancing auditory cognition requires sufficient training high levels personal motivation rewarding musical experiences supportive learning environments range highquality formal informal learning experiences effective learning approaches depend age individual characteristics learner identification optimal musical interventions important enable development conceptual understanding enhancement aural processing well amelioration problems aural processing language literacy related language skills literacy generally defined ability read write broadly considered ability identify understand interpret create communicate compute using printed written materials variety contexts chapter focus active engagement music may support literacy particular emphasis reading skills required become competent reader also consider research writing spelling evidence association music training musical skills reading skills typically explained neartransfer theories reading requires development decoding comprehension skills comprehension requires basic word decoding skills well higherlevel cognitive processes memory attention sesma et al active engagement making music may differential impact decoding comprehension decoding ability apply knowledge lettersound relationships including knowledge letter patterns enable correct pronunciation unfamiliar words strongly associated auditory skills ahissar et al order able decode written material readers aware sounds related written word ie phonics phonological awareness important precursor early reading bradley bryant children need develop phonological awareness begin able translate written text sound phonological awareness ability analyse manipulate language two levels word level phonological awareness refers ability manipulate analyse larger phonological units instance rhyming blending words phoneme level phonological ability refers ability analyse manipulate individual sound units phonemes within word himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music repeatedly shown phonological awareness important predictor later reading ability pratt brady bruck successful decoding occurs learner uses knowledge letter sound relationships accurately read word correlation studies comparisons musicians nonmusicians one strand research role music development literacy skills focused comparing musicians nonmusicians second strand examined relationship musical skills literacy comparisons musicians nonmusicians revealed musicians exhibit advantages making judgements grammar patston tippett better correctly pronouncing irregularly spelled words jakobson et al stoesz et al remembering lyrics kilgour et al novel words dittinger et al short excerpts speech cohen et al larger vocabulary forgeard et al one study showed enhanced comprehension complicated passages text thompson et al musical training demonstrate enhanced speech perception wide range different tasks instance perceive speech better without training accompanied noise parbery clark et al b identify syllables presented spectral information degraded elmer et al identify whether sentences foreign tonebased language different marie et al b predict ability perceive produce subtle phonetic contrasts second language slevc miyake also better phoneme perception kuhnis et al children four years music lessons aged nine found accurate fast accurately discriminating syllables varied duration frequency lessons chobert et al crosssectional studies shown preschool schoolaged children adults musical experience able make stronger distinctions speech syllables nonmusic students kraus nicol parberryclark et al literacy related language skills strait kraus zuk et al musical skills also enhances ability interpret affective speech rhythms thompson et al eightyearolds musical training outperform training music language tasks magne et al research chinese elementaryschool children yang colleagues examined relationship longterm music training students development first language second language mathematics musician children outperformed non musicians musical achievement second language development although music training appeared correlated childrens final academic development first second languages mathematics independently contribute development first language mathematical skills correlation studies able identify relationships musical skills various skills related literacy including verbal auditory working memory studies preschool children aged four five years found relationships musical skills phonological awareness reading development anvari et al positive relationship phonological awareness musical ability preschoolers children aged five six older children lamb gregory milovanov et al milovanov tervaniemi peynircio\u011flu et al loui colleagues worked children aged seven nine years old showed significant positive correlation pitch perception production phonemic awareness also relationships development auditory skills early childhood informal musical activities putkinen et al moderate relationships also found tonal memory reading age barwick et al magnitude neural responses speech harmonics correlated reading ability banai et al schellenberg found length music training predicted measures reading even controlling intelligence chandrasekaran kraus linked poor reading ability deficiencies processing essential sound elements corrigall trainor examining association length music training reading ability six nineyearold children enrolled music lessons found length power music training correlated significantly reading comprehension associated word decoding scores length music training robustly associated reading comprehension even age socioeconomic status auditory perception word decoding general intelligence number hours spent reading week taken account relationship individuals tone deaf phonological processing word discrimination syllable segmentation jones et al swaminathan colleagues series studies explored range relationships music skills reported relationship music training reading adults facilitated general cognitiverather auditory skills also working adults assessed reading ability comprehension speed musicperception skills melody rhythm general cognitive ability nonverbal intelligence shortterm memory working memory family income parents education found reading ability associated positively music training english native language general cognitive ability association reading music training significant socioeconomic status native language music perception skills controlled general cognitive abilities held constant longer association reading music training findings suggest association reading ability music training consequence general cognitive abilities association rhythm aptitude speech perception found sample six nineyearold children musical training associated positively performance grammar test musical ability iq openness age regression analyses revealed language abilities significant partial associations musical ability iq music training rhythm discrimination better predictor language skills melody discrimination musical ability predicted language ability independently iq correlational studies shown positive relationship music literacy skills establishing main subsidiary beats musical selection found significant predictor reading third fourthgrade students chamberlain hartas found relationship parentreported literacy related language skills frequency singing songs rhymes playing music three years teacherrated performance literacy strongest relationships childrens learning outcomes family income mothers educational level intervention studies learning read requires word decoding skills skills strongly associated auditory skills auditory analysis skills used language processing phonological distinctions blending segmentation sounds similar skills necessary perception rhythmic lamb gregory lipscomb et al harmonic melodic discrimination anvari et al barwick et al lamb gregory learning become expert reader involves dynamic crossmodal processes beginning mapping letters sounds culminating skilled reading involves simultaneous processing phrases sentences larger multiple sources information text integration contextually relevant background information readers experiences gellert elbro perfetti stafura dynamic multiplex process reading argued similar entrainment seen musical ensembles individuals segregate integrate concurrent streams information ragert et al reading requires integrative attending activates amodal interface internal external goals experiences intersect range intervention studies explored impact active engagement music phonological awareness reading skills research findings attempts demonstrate causality musical engagement phonological awareness reading mixed artsenriched programmes include music led improvements school readiness relation receptive vocabulary brown et al literacy phillips et al compared nonarts programmes schoolbased arts programme included music gardiner colleagues showed children lower score literacy baseline achieved similar scores reading tests one year visual arts music training compared controls power music research focused impact music sound processing relates phonemic awareness study preschool childrens informal musical activities home politimou colleagues found systematic associations rhythm perception production phonological awareness melody perception related acquisition grammar similarly eccles colleagues evaluated effect varying durations music instruction single academic year phonological awareness early literacy young children aged five seven compared children received class music children greater exposure music showed greater improvement phonological awareness douglas willats found group training involving singing use percussive instruments improved decoding good colleagues worked kindergarten children participated weekly music intervention lasting minutes consisted singing body percussion activity movement instrument playing singing use graphic notation completion programme music group exhibited significantly higher phoneme segmentation fluency compared controls similarly deg\u00e9 schwarzer showed preschool children randomly assigned intensive training music ten minutes day five days week twenty weeks showed improvements phonological awareness identical changes children received lessons perceiving segmenting speech sounds control group received sports training showed improvement also working kindergarten children moritz colleagues explored whether musical activity could support acquisition reading skills formal reading instruction began found rhythm skill related phonological segmentation skills beginning kindergarten children received music training kindergarten showed wider range phonological awareness skills end kindergarten children less training furthermore kindergartners rhythmic ability strongly related phonological awareness basic word identification skills second grade schon also shown phonological awareness influenced several months rhythmic training turn improves reading skills preschool setting elliot literacy related language skills mikulas investigated effectiveness integrated music curriculum language literacy skills yearlong study employed pre posttreatment design control group students treatment group received instruction using integrated music curriculum part preschool instruction findings showed students treatment group significantly greater gains language literacy effect size similar study vidal colleagues tested children aged three four years old phonological awareness test prior intervention period lasting full school year weekly music visual arts classes following interventions groups improved music class students outperformed visual art classes showing larger differences intervention working community setting linnavalli colleagues studied whether lowcost weekly music playschool provided five sixyearold children would impact linguistic abilities sixtysix children tested four times two school years phonemic processing vocabulary perceptual reasoning inhibitory control children attending music playschool compared peers attending dance lessons attending either activity attendance music playschool significantly improved development childrens phoneme processing vocabulary skills series studies rauscher colleagues rauscher rauscher hinton explored whether children receiving suzuki violin instruction performed better phonemic awareness tasks control groups seventyfive musically naive fiveyearolds participated lessons provided minutes per week weeks prior instruction differences childrens performance reading test following intervention children receiving music lessons scored significantly higher letterword calling phonemic awareness groups adopting training programme included range activities gromko studied five sevenyearold children received four months music instruction minutes week instruction included active musicmaking movement emphasising steady beat rhythm pitch well association sounds symbols children received music instruction showed power music significantly greater gains phonemic awareness compared control group learning discriminate differences tonal rhythmic patterns associate perceptions visual symbols seemed transfer improved phonemic awareness similarly welch colleagues evaluated impact music programme linked literacy activities range musical activities including chanting clapping copying composing rhythms improvising using rhymes alliterative unusual vocabulary children participating musical activities showed average months reading improvement compared months control group later study welch colleagues evaluated sixmonth specialist singing project undertaken young disadvantaged children london professional singers provided focused mentoringrelating specialised programme singing vocal activitiesto generalist primaryschool teachers mentored classroombased singing activities resulted significant improvements childrens singing changes reading aspects executive function related inhibition phonological working memory using painting comparison activity moreno colleagues conducted longitudinal study nonmusician children nine months following first testing sessions nonmusician children pseudorandomly assigned music painting training six months tested training using tests musicalbut paintingtraining children showed enhanced performance reading study eightyearold assigned pseudo randomly six months music painting tuition children music group showed larger pre posttest improvement reading irregularly spelled words moreno et al study pseudorandom assignment four sixyear olds four weeks daily computercontrolled lessons listening music visual arts children music group larger pre post test increases vocabulary moreno et al b music group also showed greater improvement task required match arbitrary symbols words skill prerequisite learning read moreno et al b similarly chobert colleagues conducted longitudinal study two school years literacy related language skills nonmusician children randomly assigned music painting training neurological responses syllables differed vowel frequency vowel duration voice onset time recorded three times course study results highlighted influence musical training development phonological representations normally developing children also using painting comparison activity fran\u00e7ois colleagues assigned children matched terms cognitive abilities sex age grade school socioeconomic status music painting lessons twoyear period start study two groups children performed similarly test identify whether three syllable nonsense words present fiveminute string syllables one year training music group performed better painting group difference increasing twoyear period nan colleagues studied mandarinspeaking children aged four five years old pseudorandomly assigned piano training reading training nocontact control group six months piano training improved behavioural auditory word discrimination general well word discrimination based vowels compared controls group receiving reading training yielded similar trends however piano group demonstrated unique advantages reading control groups consonantbased word discrimination three groups improved general cognitive measures including tests iq working memory attention focusing adolescents tierney colleagues investigated effects inschool music training versus school training programme focus development auditory skills participants tested neural responses sound language skills entered high school training three years later inschool music training begun secondary school prolonged stability subcortical sound processing accelerated maturation cortical auditory responses phonological processing improved music training control groups impact greater adolescents underwent music training interesting study directly related rhythm reading lipscomb colleagues provided form reading rhythm training children third grade participated four sessions power music week weeks read lists words varying tempi led dramatic improvement reading fluency children low socioeconomic backgrounds tend fall progressively behind higher income peers course academic careers music interventions proposed way help lowincome children improve academic attainment research pursued line enquiry instance register colleagues examined effects music therapy programme designed teach reading skills versus television programme designed support literacy skills early literacy kindergarten children aged five seven years low socioeconomic backgrounds class assigned one four treatment conditions music video music video control group activity childrens literacy assessed using standardised tests teacher assessment music video music groups achieved highest increase mean scores four seven literacy subtests video group scored significantly better phonemic segmentation groups strong correlations found letter naming initial soundfluency tests however children offtask video condition music condition children music video enrichment groups showed gains four eight tests used measure progress slater colleagues used controlled longitudinal design assess impact group music instruction english reading ability lowincome spanishenglish bilingual children aged six nine los angeles one year children received music training retained agenormal level reading performance matched control groups performance deteriorated consistent expected declines population extent change modest outcomes nonetheless showed music help counteract negative effects low socioeconomic status childrens literacy development similar study barbaroux colleagues studied impact classical music training programme d\u00e9mos cognitive development children low socioeconomic backgrounds children presented standardised tests start programme months music training findings showed d\u00e9mos music training improved reading precision literacy related language skills research found positive impact musical training literacy bowles kemmerer lu montgomery findings difficult interpret instance rauscher provided atrisk preschool children weekly piano instruction computer instruction instruction two years effects found relation verbal memory reading tests similarly piro ortiz focused way learning piano might impact development vocabulary verbal sequencing secondgrade children fortysix children studied piano three consecutive years participated children acting controls end study music learning group significantly better vocabulary verbal sequencing scores however already playing piano two years initial differences reading skills control group findings difficult interpret authors suggested enhancement occurred effects may take long time appear age tuition important summer holidays immediately prior testing may lowered initial scores tuition may also changed time luk\u00e1cs honbolyg\u00f3 evaluated transfer effect general elementaryschool music education development linguistic abilities relationship specific musical auditory skills phonological awareness reading investigated secondgrade children either attended class intensive music curriculum class regular curriculum findings indicated significant differences children experiencing intensive music education normal curriculum overall one year kod\u00e1lybased classroom music education sufficient yield improvement musical linguistic abilities although phoneme deletion accuracy associated tonal memory suggested similar quasiexperimental pre posttest design measurements taken across period two years kempert colleagues tested effects two interventions consecutive combination musical phonological training phonological training alone participants germanspeaking children aged four five years old findings demonstrated positive relationship musical abilities phonological awareness phonological training power music produced positive effects adding musical training contribute significantly development phonological awareness may differences initial level phonological awareness participants overall may range reasons differences research findings types training adopted differ may differences quality delivery large age range participating childrens ages likely different stages developing literacy although experimental designs able take account extent development phonological skills may important early process developing literacy skills may enhanced shorter periods musical engagement whereas longer training may needed influence decoding ultimately understanding children facing challenges literacy skills one strand research focused children difficulties reading evidence importance rhythmic training especially strong poor dyslexic readers overy tallal et al thomson huss colleagues shown dyslexics lower performance normalachieving readers tasks involving musical metrical structure supported range studies showing children dyslexia difficulties keeping beat corriveau et al corriveau goswami goswami et al tierney kraus b wolff et al children dyslexia impaired rhythmic processing skills especially rhythm production normal pitchprocessing skills overy overy et al musical interventions emphasising development rhythmic skills seem greatest impact children facing challenges literacy instance working children kindergarten bolduc compared effects two music programmes one programme employed musical activities increase interest reading writing special educational needs primarily designed enhance musical abilities programme focused enhancing reading writing effective literacy related language skills enhancing phonological awareness one designed enhance musical abilities similarly standley hughes evaluated effects music sessions designed enhance prereading writing skills children aged four five enrolled early intervention programmes programmes children particular needs intervention lasted seven weeks included two minute music lessons per week total fifteen lessons autumn musical activities designed teach writing skills spring reading skills children receiving normal kindergarten curriculum without music involvement acted controls participants tested intervention findings demonstrated music significantly enhanced print concepts prewriting skills children replicating work register colleagues studied children aged four five years old enrolled early intervention programmes programmes children particular needs intervention control group received two minute music sessions week entire school year differentiating factors structure components musical activities autumn sessions experimental group focused writing skills sessions spring taught reading literacy concepts music sessions control group based purely thematic material determined classroom teacher purposeful exclusion preliteracy concepts participants tested beginning end programme findings demonstrated music sessions significantly enhanced groups abilities learn prewriting print concepts experimental group showed significantly higher results logo identification word recognition test intervention working older children aged six eight nicholson studied impact music intervention children categorised slow learners music training experimental group exhibited significantly higher reading performance scoring th percentile versus nd percentile additional year musical training reading scores experimental group still superior control group power music drawing theoretical framework emphasised pulse underlying organisational feature common music language long hallam investigated impact intervention children aged eight ten years old rhythmbased music intervention involved entrainment strategy groups children rapidly developed musicnotation reading skills synchronising stamping clapping chanting actions time musical accompaniment ten minutes week intervention groups received rhythmbased music intervention ten minutes week six weeks effects rhythmic training assessed intervention measured reading behaviour rhythmic performance control group matched reading comprehension rhythmic performance statistically significant effects reading comprehension scores children lower attainment reading normalattaining children research demonstrated children reading difficulties benefit specific rhythmic musical training carried alongside normalattaining classmates similar study long recruited children aged nine ten identified weak readers school intervention consisted ten minutes rhythmbased exercises administered start childrens usual weekly curriculum music lessons childrens school music teacher trained deliver intervention two sessions gap one week following participation intervention statistically significant gains occurred childrens reading comprehension reading accuracy reading rate analysis reading fluency revealed significant gains prosodic features reading behaviour including syllable division grammatical structure phrase contours rhythmic training emphasised group interaction also led children reporting positive changes sense wellbeing research showed interventions effective delivered whole class class teacher intervention required mental anticipation inhibitory control participants order lift one foot striking floor synchrony strong beat musical accompaniment actions children entrainment activity applied theoretical modelling normal anti synchronyas one foot comes literacy related language skills goes clayton et al stable hierarchical distribution cognitive attention clayton et al jones jones boltz jones yee overall children required plan ahead synchronise monitor integrate multi level physical coordination turn required anticipatory inhibitory control keeping time musical accompaniment children teacher also modelled reading simple staff notation chanting alphabet letter names music notation monotone synchronised time stamping clapping actions training addition reading pitch note durations varied rests added following intervention children demonstrated statistically significant gains reading comprehension accuracy rate reading comprehension rate reading large effect sizes moderate effect size accuracy mean change reading accuracy intervention group standardised scores control group standardised scores mean change reading comprehension intervention group standardised scores control group standardised scores statistically significant difference rate reading using music programme ten minutes week tenweek period groups ten children total lowerthanaverage reading scores first year secondary school eleven twelveyearsold hallam found randomly allocated intervention groups showed statistically greater improvement reading accuracy comprehension controls reading rate differences reading accuracy equivalent standardised scores reading comprehension standardised scores similarly bonacina colleagues developed computerassisted training called rhythmic reading training reading exercises combined rhythmic background participants took part nine biweekly individual sessions minutes intervention positive effect reading speed accuracy significant effects also found reading speed short long pseudowords highfrequency long words text reading accuracy research demonstrated overwhelmingly positive effects music interventions find literacy challenging power music instance bhide colleagues compared effects musical intervention poor readers software intervention based rhyme training phonemegrapheme learning found interventions similar benefits literacy large effect sizes music interventions small effects instance working brazilian schools attempt improve reading skills cogomoreira colleagues studied children aged eight ten reading difficulties two hundred thirtyfive children reading difficulties ten schools participated fivemonth randomised controlled trial impoverished zone within city s\u00e3o paulo test effects music education intervention assessing reading skills academic achievement school year five schools chosen randomly incorporate music classes five served controls two different methods analysis revealed mixed results positive results found rate correct real words read per minute phonological awareness also improvements portuguese mathematics throughout school year overall effects relatively small children dyslexia studied number years core deficit underlying developmental dyslexia identified difficulties dynamic rapidly changing auditory information processing contributes development impaired phonological representations words overy argued underlying causes language literacy difficulties experienced dyslexic children linked deficits timing exhibit timing difficulties language music perception cognition well motor control based ideas overy colleagues designed programme administered dyslexic children aged seven eleven control children aged seven ten children tested musical aptitude scores compared results showed dyslexic group scored higher control group three tests pitch skills lower control group seven nine tests timing skills particular difficulties noted one tests involving rapid temporal processing subgroup five dyslexic children found account significant errors also correlation spelling ability skill tapping rhythm song involve skill literacy related language skills syllable segmentation results suggest timing presents particular difficulty dyslexic children may helped using targeted interventions since early research range studies considered issues relating dyslexia even shortterm rhythm instruction brought positive effects habibi et al sevenmonthlong training shown lead increase phonological awareness reading skills flaugnacco et al habibi colleagues tested efficacy specially designed cognitive music training method included series musical exercises involving jointly simultaneously sensory visual auditory somatosensory motor systems special emphasis rhythmic perception production addition intensive training various features musical audition two separate studies carried outone children dyslexia received intensive musical exercises concentrated hours three consecutive days hours musical training spread six weeks studies showed significant improvements several untrained linguistic nonlinguistic variables first study yielded significant improvement categorical perception auditory perception temporal components speech second study revealed improvements auditory attention phonological awareness reading abilities repetition pseudowords benefits persisted six weeks training flaugnacco colleagues carried prospective multicentre open randomised controlled trial children dyslexia aged eight eleven consisting test intervention retest intervention music group performed better control group tasks assessing rhythmic abilities phonological awareness reading skills findings showed music training modify reading phonological abilities even severely impaired thomson explored perception amplitude envelopes speech nonspeech necessity skill parsing sounds represented letters literacy group school children dyslexia sixweek rhythmbased intervention positive effects phonological awareness literacy equal control intervention phonemic awareness frey colleagues power music investigated whether six months active music training efficient painting training improving preattentive processing phonological parameters based durations often impaired children developmental dyslexia comparisons made typically developing group children matched reading age results showed normalisation preattentive processing voice onset time children developmental dyslexia music training painting training working adults bollavetisyan colleagues assessed reading musical abilities dyslexics agematched controls presented rhythmic grouping task listened speech streams syllables alternating intensity duration neither indicated whether perceived strongweak weakstrong rhythm pattern findings showed adults dyslexia lower musical rhythm abilities without dyslexia lower musical rhythm ability associated lower reading ability however speech grouping adults dyslexia impaired musical rhythm perception ability controlled rhythmic grouping predicted musical rhythm perception ability irrespective dyslexia overall results suggested associations among musical rhythm perception ability speech rhythm perception reading ability adults dyslexia cogomoreira colleagues review research dyslexia music found randomised controlled studies argued therefore impossible draw conclusions pitch rhythm programmes effective enhancing literacy researchers explored extent active engagement music may support development literacy skills ongoing debate kind interventions may successful musical programmes include pitch rhythm activities research focused trying assess whether rhythm melody important supporting literacy skills one approach considering examine relative skills poor musical literacy skills instance sun colleagues examined whether phonological impairments evident literacy related language skills individuals poor music abilities twenty individuals congenital amusia matched controls assessed pure tone pitch discrimination task rhythm discrimination task four phonological tests amusic participants showed deficits discriminating pitch rhythmic patterns involved regular beat group individuals performed similarly controls phonological tests eight amusics severe pitch impairment identified pitch discrimination task exhibited significantly worse performance participants phonological awareness regression analysis indicated pitch discrimination thresholds predicted phonological awareness beyond predicted phonological shortterm memory rhythm discrimination contrast rhythm discrimination task predict phonological awareness beyond predicted pitch discrimination thresholds suggesting accurate pitch discrimination critical phonological processing patscheke colleagues also investigated separate effects training rhythm pitch phonological awareness preschool children aged four six years old participants randomly assigned either nonmusic training condition sports programme music training condition either based rhythm pitch groups trained three times week twenty minutes per session period weeks phonological awareness tested training phase following training pitch programme showed positive effect phonological awareness concerning rhyming blending segmenting lamb gregory also found pitch perception associated reading ability fiveyearolds controlling nonverbal ability barwick colleagues found pitch perception associated reading ability seven tenyear old readingdisabled children controlling general intelligence similarly besson colleagues examined pitch processing dyslexic children found difficulties discriminating strong pitch changes easily discriminated nondyslexic readers rautenberg studied effects musical training decoding skills germanspeaking primary school children found rhythmical abilities significantly correlated decoding skills reading accuracy reading prosody tonal skills related reading skills power music research children experiencing difficulties literacy shown programmes focus rhythm particularly effective enhancing reading skills bollavetisyan et al fotidzis et al hallam long long hallam overy overy et al relationship tests auditoryvisual rhythmic patternmatching reading ability eight nineyearolds rudnick et al sterrit rudnick rhythmic skills may better predictor reading ability pitchbased skills douglas willatts huss et al strait et al b swaminathan schellenberg although research supports cultural factors play role individuals perceive metrical structure including beat perception tierney kraus b perception complex rhythms hannon trehub human ability perceive entrain beat flexibly accurately spontaneous universal across cultures savage et al b\u00e9gel et al although individual variability sensorimotor synchronisation including phenomenon known beat deafness nozaradan et al individuals inability distinguish musical rhythm move time nine months age coordination rhythm syllable structure usually sufficiently supportive infant segment speech streams syllables morgan saffran rhythmic movement may play role process many children naturally move time beat enculturation plays major role process repp su manning schutz jones colleagues propose pitchtime entrainment theory argues timing brain understood response regular irregular rhythmical events children display entertainmentthe patterning body processes movements rhythm musictypically four years age trainor cirelli takes longer adjust tempo usually occur seven eight years age kurgansky shupikova reading ability phonological awareness related variety rhythmic abilities including reproduction rhythmic patterns rautenberg tempo reproduction moritz et al tapping beat music david et al discrimination stimuli based amplitude rise times goswami et al leong et al literacy related language skills temporal patterns overy strait et al furthermore children languagelearning impairment tap variably beat corriveau goswami musical training improves verbal ability moreno et al speech segmentation fran\u00e7ois et al sentence processing moreno et al syllable processing chobert et al training beat synchronisation shown improve reading fluency taub lazarus overall seems rhythmic training may enhance learning read neurological evidence revealing direct link cortical behavioural measures rhythmic entrainment supports nozaradan et al tracking rhythm patterns seems play vital role music speech perception important acquiring reading skills beat induction humans derive pulse music even explicit suggested serve development auditory scene analysis language patel particular supplementary motor area known involved articulation speech preparation movement engaged performing music imagining listening music imagining performing music herholz zatorre brown et al also plays important role planning music performance terms rhythm melody sequencing de manzan\u00f6 ull\u00e9n link basal ganglia supplementary motor area along dorsal route supports finding ability synchronise beat positively correlated better prereading skills segmenting speech streams better neural encoding speech language carr et al tierney kraus kraus slater better subcortical neural timing adolescents tierney kraus well better cognitive linguistic skills tierney kraus b integration sensory motor information may provide mechanism predicting sequence timing large et al processes ensure smooth flow conversation tierney kraus c propose two theoriesthe temporal sampling hypothesis dynamic attending theorysuggest rhythm music envelope speech may tracked biologically mechanism temporal sampling hypothesis proposes neural mechanism tracking speech amplitude power music time goswami suggesting phaselocking slow neural oscillations delta theta range mechanism selectively samples lowfrequency information amplitude envelope crucial segmentation speech sounds dynamic attending theory proposes similar set neural oscillators phaselock resonate temporal structure music leading attentional focus changes relation rhythmic structure piece music velasco large speech inherently temporal boundary lengthening pauses enhancing experience language temporal phenomenon moberget ivry metrical intonational pitch components grammar experienced prosody ferreira karimi studies reported importance rhythmic pitch perception development reading skills atterbury forgeard et al atterbury found readingdisabled children aged seven nine could discriminate rhythm patterns well controls poorer rhythm performance tonal memory normalachieving readers anvari colleagues studied four fiveyearolds found rhythm pitch perception skills predicted early reading performance fouryearolds even taking account variance due phonological awareness fiveyearolds pitch perception predicted early reading performance accounting phonological awareness tsang conrad studied children without formal music training trained children outperformed untrained children pitch discrimination rhythm discrimination phonological skills although two groups performed tests word identification timbre discrimination receptive vocabulary jones colleagues shown pattern structure particularly initial patterns pitch time involving small pitch intervals important listeners rely heavily global pitch structure rhythm language processing range possible reasons differing outcomes research including different methods used assess reading nature musical interventions whether support development pitch melodic rhythmic skills prior musical literacy experiences participants musical activities literacy related language skills involve learning read notation may direct transfer reading text singing also proposed one possible way musical activity improves literacy involves reading predictable text segmenting words syllables lyrics matched music recognising patterns butzlaff forgeard et al possible explanations impact musical training reading performance relate changes concentration motivation aid children focusing long periods time helping persevere butzlaff reviews metaanalyses conclusions number reviews research considering relationship musical engagement literacy taken together indicate number similarities learning read text music auditory analysis skills used language processing phonological distinctions blending segmentation sounds similar skills necessary music perception rhythmic melodic discrimination five subskills underlying reading acquisitionphonological awareness speech noise perception rhythm perception auditory working memory ability learn sound patternsare linked music experience temporal attention influenced rhythm benefits syntax processing speech production music written text require reading notation left right conversion notation specific sounds reviews agree music education contribute literacy development children including find development literacy skills challenging bolduc bugaj brenner sammler elmer sch\u00f6n tillman tierney kraus rolka silverman carried systematic review analysing research music dyslexia twentythree studies included focused challenges studying musicin particular problems reading notationalthough explored music could used improve literacy skills test neural processing auditory information offering potential inform early diagnosis findings review revealed music training seen power music remediation tool improve literacy skills children dyslexia although specific type music support achieve predictable outcomes require investigation metaanalyses mixed results butzlaff carried two metaanalyses first included studies examining correlation music instruction reading performance second six intervention studies first demonstrated significant positive relationship music instruction performance reading tests second yielded reliable effects contrast standley analysis experimental studies found strong overall effect metaanalysis gordon colleagues based studies found music training led gains phonological awareness skills transfer effects rhyming skills became stronger increased hours training significant transfer effect emerged reading fluency measures conclude taken together evidence set chapter along research reviews metaanalyses suggests active engagement music positive effect childrens literacy variety musical activities appears contribute benefits although exact nature effective remains established differences outcomes research may depend rigour age general life experiences participants assessment measures used reliability validity nature quality musical instruction spelling much less focus impact active engagement music spelling compared reading early study douglas willatts working seven eightyearolds found positive correlations among tests pitch rhythmic aptitude vocabulary reading spelling vocabulary scores taken account association rhythm spelling abilities remained pitch aptitude spelling disappeared suggesting importance rhythm relation spelling overy found positive effect music lessons spelling performance children poor spelling skills benefiting hille literacy related language skills colleagues tested boys grade aged eight nine germany half learned play musical instrument boys played instrument showed better performance spelling effect occurred independently intelligence test scores weak correlation spelling mistakes nonverbal measures intelligence examination data performed poorly spelling showed played instrument underrepresented percent boys lowest quartile played instrument whereas percent boys highest quartiles active musicians singing choir taking part course entitled first experiences music associated spelling performance suggesting skills developed playing instrument potential transfer currently insufficient research relationship actively engaging musical activities spelling skills us draw firm conclusions writing spelling little attention paid influence active engagement music writing exception study children economically disadvantaged homes participated instruction focused concepts print singing activities writing children experimental group showed enhanced print concepts prewriting skills standley hughes register colleagues replicated study standley hughes evaluating effects music intervention using curriculum designed enhance prereading writing skills children aged four five enrolled early intervention programmes programme children exceptional needs intervention control groups received two minute music sessions week entire school year autumn sessions experimental group focused writing skills spring sessions taught reading book concepts music sessions control group based thematic material determined classroom teacher purposeful exclusion preliteracy concepts participants pretested beginning school year posttested power music school year ended findings showed music sessions significantly enhanced groups abilities learn prewriting print concepts although experimental group showed statistically significantly higher results logo identification word recognition following intervention research focused whether learning play musical instrument enhance development fine motor skills may contribute towards development handwriting neuroscientific studies shown changes cortical representation fingers intensive keyboard practice sessions periods short five days long two weeks pascualleone orsmond miller compared fine motor abilities children participated two years piano instruction never received formal music training significant improvement fine motor skills found children received piano lessons significant difference speed response found two groups end two years instruction innumerable opportunities assess refine time motor responses specific stimuli musical practice availability constant evaluative feedback sound may allow musicians improve accuracy speed perceiving responding relevant stimuli similarly costagiomi compared fine motor abilities children lowincome families participated two years piano instruction received formal music training significant improvement fine motor skills found children receiving lessons children experimental group supplied acoustic pianos practised average threeandahalf hours weekly costagiomi b motor proficiency two groups comparable start project costagiomi findings suggested improvement motor proficiency mainly caused differences speed subtest required children react quickly catch rod sliding wall scores tasks measured handeye coordination dexterity affected lessons costagiomi concluded music performance requires accurate quick motor reaction visual aural kinesthetic stimuli improves accuracy speed perceiving responding stimuli literacy related language skills conclude relatively little evidence appears learning play musical instrument contributes development fine motor skills may support development handwriting overview taken together evidence suggests active engagement music positive effect childrens literacy enhancement aural skills improves phonological awareness supports decoding written material sound rhythmic activities particular seem support reading skillsparticularly experiencing difficulties literacy little evidence draw conclusions relating role learning play musical instrument spelling handwriting music spatial reasoning mathematical performance historically long interest relationship acquired musical skills performance mathematics assumed strong connection music mathematics many musicians play notation constantly required adopt quasimathematical processes subdivide beats turn rhythmic notation sound recently interest relationship music spatialtemporal reasoning contributes areas mathematical understanding spatialtemporal reasoning ability transform mental images absence physical model rauscher et al shaw involves ability manipulate understand complex shapes mental imagery individual develops evaluates patterns change space time cooper viewed spatial temporal reasoning abstract model cognition consisting several elements including patternseeking recognition retention recall visualising imagery perceiving figures wholes generating whole image fragment grasping whole problem understanding spatial relationships multiperspectives among internal movement parts maintaining orientation within space mentally manipulating shapes within two threedimensional space key features used spatialtemporal reasoning include transforming relating mental images space time use symmetries compare physical mental images temporal sequencing grandin et al skills highlevel mathematical abilities useful learning proportional reasoning grandin et al shaw induce advanced understanding mathematical concepts fractions proportions symmetry arithmetic himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music operations tran et al developing spatialtemporal thinking may also related geometrical skills early mathematical skills tend one two types number knowledge number operation griffin latter linked formulation mental number lines enable children understand magnitudes relations arithmetic operations jordan et al gunderson mental number lines linked spatialtemporal reasoning development mental number line fundamental mathematical understanding facilitates performance especially arithmetic ramani siegler booth siegler van nes doorman gunderson et al spatial skills also linked spatial structuring important determining quantities well comparing calculating butterworth mulligan mitchelmore undertaking tasks early development occurs unitarily takes time also lead errors children gradually learn organise objects ways enable count accurately efficiently helps understand decimal system spatial awareness contributes development patterning temporal element might used structuring strategy choice explanations relationship music spatialtemporal reasoning sought neuroscience two main approaches developed first concerns connectivity proposes processing music spatial tasks underpinned overlap brain functions fiske contrast neartransfer theory suggests music spatialtemporal reasoning share processes development one leads development rauscher schellenberg explanations links music spatialtemporal reasoning relate connectionismthe development neural connections sporns modular theory related neartransfer jordandecarbo nelson connectivity proposal supported shaw suggested musical spatial processing overlap brain result cortical connections development certain kinds musical spatial abilities especially spatialtemporal abilities intertwined neartransfer suggests several kinds thinking required order learn make music multidimensional music spatial reasoning mathematical performance processes range spatial skills might improved practice required making music jordandecarbo nelson particular interest relationship music spatial reasoning skills developed following study rauscher colleagues claimed listening mozarts sonata two pianos k ten minutes adult participants showed significantly better spatial reasoning skills periods listening relaxation instructions designed lower blood pressure listening silence mean spatial reasoning scores eight nine points higher listening music two conditions however effect lasted ten fifteen minutes early attempts replicate phenomenon unsuccessful chabris steele et al using logical rather spatial reasoning task newman colleagues tested students listening either eight minutes mozarts music relaxation instructions silence found participants showed practice effect particular enhancement music group similarly rideout laubach tested four female four male undergraduates two equivalent spatial tests following either presentation mozarts sonata two pianos major nonmusical activity eeg recorded baseline two task performance periods correlations generated task performance eeg variables performance improved significantly following presentation music later study rideout colleagues studied participants showed reliable improvement paperfolding cutting task listening mozarts sonata two pianos major enhanced performance also noted participants listening contemporary musical selection similar musical characteristics cases control procedure included ten minutes listening relaxation tape similarly wilson brown examined effect mozarts music college undergraduates listened selection mozarts music participant performed pencil paper maze task tenminute presentation three listening conditions piano concerto mozart repetitive relaxation music silence limited support previously obtained enhancing effect listening mozarts music revealed measures performance accuracy spatial task whereas effect found either power music number maze recursions overall quality maze solutions hetland b carried two metaanalyses found music significantly enhanced performance variety spatial tasks music mozart also enhanced spatialtemporal performance short period time research explored socalled mozart effect children instance part bbc programme tomorrows world replication rauschers study undertaken ten elevenyearold children hallam tested listened simultaneously either contemporary pop music blur oasis piece music mozart used rauchers study talk given experiments assigned random one three listening experiences child completed two tests spatial abilities statistically significant differences found performance three groups two tests spatial reasoning reanalysis data using different statistical approach schellenberg hallam showed performance one testssquare completiondid differ function listening experience performance paperfolding test superior children listened popular music compared two groups interpreted terms arousing effects popular music children also enjoyed leading increase motivation mixed although mainly negative evidence relating mozart effect led research focusing role music played alongside completion range different intellectual tasks impact background music considered depth chapter comparisons musicians nonmusicians correlation studies one strand research compared performance musicians nonmusicians spatialtemporal reasoning tasks strand compared performance mathematical tasks neuroscientific research brain structures confirmed areas brain spatial reasoning occurs pronounced music spatial reasoning mathematical performance adult musicians processing music spatialtemporal tasks activates similar neural structures sluming colleagues found musicians achieved better results controls line orientation test better finding middle line patston et al skills used two tasks may related ability manipulate mental number line taking account importance concept mental number line development mathematical thinking possible active engagement music enhances process siegler booth ramani siegler considerable evidence research professional musicians training become professional musicians better spatialtemporal reasoning abilities nonmusicians including mental rotation pietsch jansen compared students music sports education demonstrated better performance mental rotation tasks among first two groups sluming colleagues found members orchestras outperformed controls mental rotation tasks suggested linked pronounced development brocas area brains musicians mark showed areas brain activated whilst performing music spatialtemporal tasks proximate musicians better range visuospatial search tasks patston tippett administered language comprehension task visuospatial search task expert musicians matched non musicians conditions silence correct incorrect piano music playing background musicians performed poorly language comprehension task presence background music compared silence effect background music musicians performance visuospatial task contrast performance nonmusicians affected music either task suggests musicians process music recruit network overlaps network used language processing musicians better reaction times selective divided visual attention tasks rodrigues et al better matching set coloured blocks visual image stoesz et al better memory line drawings jakobson et al accurate asked mark centre horizontal line patston power music et al asked judge orientation line patston et al findings might particularly important linking music mathematics ability visualise horizontal line localise middle proportional distance closely related notion mental line used variety mathematical operations gunderson et al however helmbold colleagues compared adult musicians nonmusicians matched age sex level education performance different aspects primary mental abilities including verbal comprehension word fluency space flexibility closure perceptual speed reasoning number memorythey found significant differences except flexibility closure perceptual speed musicians performed reliably better nonmusicians pannenborg pannenborg compared individuals varying degrees musical talent found slightly higher level mathematical ability high levels musical ability contrast haecker ziehen administered self report questionnaire via internet musical unmusical male participants doctorallevel members american mathematical association modern language association questionnaire assessed musicality music perception music memory musicianship music performance music creation mathematics group exhibit higher levels either musicality musicianship mathematicians reporting highlevel music performance ability report significantly greater musicality literature language scholars similarly haimson colleagues b recruited participants online membership american mathematical society modern language association presented questionnaire assessing skills musicality musicianship members groups reported relatively low levels musicality statistically significant differences revesz also found reported levels interest aptitude mathematics musicians low vaughn metaanalysed studies comparing mathematics achievement students without selfselected music study reported small positive association mathematics musical engagement working fourthgrade children haley music spatial reasoning mathematical performance investigated effects participating instrumental music programme band orchestra academic achievement children placed three groups first consisted children studied instrument prior introduction band orchestra fourth grade second consisted children beginning study instrument third consisted children experience instrumental instruction findings showed students studied instrument prior fourth grade higher scores mathematics achievement students groups comparing performance reading mathematics two schools different levels music education one outstanding music programme music programme deere carried survey students experiencing highquality music education higher tennessee comprehensive assessment program tcap reading mathematics scores fourth grade also high correlation music education tcap scores reading mathematics eighth grade musical education high quality students also reported higher tcap reading mathematics scores study young children williams colleagues investigated parentchild home music activities sample australian children participating growing australia longitudinal study australian children frequency shared home music activities reported parents children two three years old range social emotional cognitive outcomes assessed parent teacher report direct testing two years later children four five years old series regression analyses found frequency shared home music activities small significant partial association measures childrens numeracy findings suggested may role parentchild home music activities supporting childrens mathematical development catterall colleagues using nels data studied low socioeconomic status students exhibited high mathematics proficiency twelfth grade found percent involved instrumental music compared percent involved miksza extended research examining potential power music relationship participation highschool music ensembles extra musical educational outcomes including achievement mathematics using data education longitudinal study sample students representative white minority highschool students rural suburban urban schools across united states students belonged school music ensembles higher scores standardised mathematics tests study controlled socioeconomic status mathematical performance prior music training similarly bergee weingarten used multilevel mixed modelling test extent students music achievement scores related reading mathematics achievement scores four levels examinedindividual students classrooms schools districts individuals districts accounted significant portion total variance achievement scores strong relationship music scores readingmathematics achievement higher education barroso colleagues aimed identify cognitive affective factors related mathematics music theory best explained undergraduate music theory achievement findings suggested mathematic scores music theory confidence important predictors grades undergraduate music theory examinations musical interventions spatialtemporal reasoning research comparing musicians nonmusicians showing relationships music spatialtemporal reasoning mathematics important able demonstrate causality demonstrate causality necessary carry experimental intervention studies impact musical engagement compared impact activities activity rhythm may particularly important infants engage significantly rhythmic movement music rhythmically regular sounds speech also extent exhibit tempo flexibility zentner eerola general music instructionincluding singing movement playing percussion instrumentshas shown assist four music spatial reasoning mathematical performance sixyearold children development spatial ability bilhartz et al zafranas studied kindergarten children received two piano keyboard lessons weekly one school year following piano keyboard instruction participants improved significantly hand movement gestalt closure triangles spatial memory arithmetic matrix analogies similarly gromko poorman investigated effect music training preschoolers performance subtests wechsler preschool primary intelligence scale threeyearolds study musically intellectually stimulating environment resulted increase ability perform spatialtemporal tasks rauscher colleagues assigned students three preschools music computer instruction groups instruction groups received training one following piano keyboard either individually coupled group singing lessons group singing lessons computer instruction children pre posttested using one spatialtemporal reasoning task object assembly three spatial recognition tasks geometric design block design animal pegs differences groups pre test scores instruction children piano group scored significantly higher spatial reasoning task compared children conditions differences amongst groups spatial recognition tasks computer group singing noinstruction groups improve significantly time tests later studies rauscher rauscher zupan undertaken three years uppermiddleincome children provided eight months weekly minute keyboard instruction groups eight ten beginning either kindergarten aged five first grade aged sixscored higher two spatialtemporal tasks puzzlesolving blockbuilding compared children receive music instruction enhancement found pictorial memory task however effects maintained music instruction terminated although lessons resumed second grade childrens scores increased surpassing levels reached lessons terminated children received instruction period three years scored higher spatialtemporal tasks compared power music children received instruction scores keyboard group improved every year although significantly kindergarten scores children began instruction second grade improve suggesting important training began early rauscher la mieux also reported children received keyboard lessons singing training rhythmic instruction scored higher controls spatial reasoning tasks studies examined effects musical instruction spatialtemporal reasoning middleincome elementaryschool children rauscher hinton two groupsa music group animated reading groupreceived minutes lessons groups eight ten nine months end study children received keyboard lessons scored significantly higher spatialtemporal reasoning tasks received animated reading lessons although improvement keyboard group girls working elementaryschool students johnson davis investigated effects programme combining musical ensembles residence regular classroom music instruction students auditory discrimination spatial intelligence combination regular sequential general music classes participants programme received two halfhour lessons week musical ensembles residence lasting four consecutive years chamber ensembles provided aural models reinforcing fundamental concepts data collected stratified random sample students grades two four five receiving experimental programme demographically similar comparison schools receive regular music instruction total elementary students participated study children participating programme chamber music ensembles showed consistent statistically significantly greater scores auditory discrimination spatial intelligence measures holmes hallam examined potential active music making improve mathematics achievement primaryschool pupils quasiexperimental design children aged five six participated music programme number pupils parallel classes made two control groups lessons contained variety musical predominantly rhythmical activities based popular nursery music spatial reasoning mathematical performance rhymes spatialtemporal skills tested beginning end study throughout intervention pupils assessed musical skills well general specific mathematical skills strong relationship musical spatialtemporal skills found age groups younger group scored higher peers picture test puzzle test results older children also higher music group spatialtemporal tests enhancement mathematics intervention group found although significant contribution spatial temporal abilities general mathematics achievement one strand research focused preschool children deprived backgrounds participating head start programmes rauscher rauscher et al first study head start children randomly assigned one three groupspiano computer instructionfor weeks two years end intervention children received music instruction scored significantly higher control groups visual auditory tasks required spatial temporal skills performance arithmetic task also improved following music instruction second study focused whether different types music instruction different effects head start children mixed ethnicity assigned randomly one four conditions piano singing rhythm instruction children music groups received weekly individual instruction period weeks two years data three music groups replicated data first study children music groups scored significantly higher posttest tasks requiring spatial temporal skills rhythm group scored significantly higher piano singing groups temporal arithmetic tasks third study conducted determine whether effects endured instruction stopped scores head start children received lessons first second studies compared three groups gradematched children participating head start receive music instruction atrisk children involved head start middle income children receive music instruction children received music instruction first study continued score higher groups children exception power music agematched middleincome children three four tests two years instruction ended data children participated second study progressed kindergarten showed singing piano rhythm groups scored higher head start atrisk children five tests addition rhythm group scored higher singing piano groups arithmetic subtest scored significantly higher middle income children temporal arithmetic mathematical reasoning numeracy tasks findings suggest rhythm instruction strongest impact range mathematically related tasks rauscher hinton summarised results several studies showed music groups higher scores arithmetic spatial abilities following musical interventions although equivalent initially rauscher several research projects undertaken within context el sistema approach musical engagement structured extracurricular orchestral programme instance osborne colleagues studied pupils lowincome neighbourhood participating el sistema showed greater improvement spatial reasoning verbal mathematical skills comparison groups evidence music responsible enhanced spatial reasoning atrisk children comes israeli study twoyear music training intervention two three hours per week introduced afterschool centres atrisk children centres portowitz et al children participating intervention showed larger improvements remembering reproducing complex line drawing effective music interventions enhancing spatial temporal reasoning children seem based rhythm hetland holmes holmes hallam rauscher le mieux children early years primary school seem benefit interventions costagiomi graziano et al holmes holmes hallam rauscher rauscher la mieux rauscher zupan schellenberg optimal length interventions required sustainable impact conclusively established rauscher zupan showed improvement music spatial reasoning mathematical performance spatialtemporal skills continued throughout fouryear programme whilst rauscher suggested need programmes last least two years achieve lasting change underpinnings accelerated progression disadvantaged pupils yet clear enhancements might mediated development general cognitive abilities also possible programmes raise participants motivation selfefficacy perseverance overall majority studies shown spatialtemporal skills improved musical training interestingly related cognitive abilities assessedfor instance pictorial memory rauscher zupan spatial recognition rauscher number recall rauscher la mieux significant improvement related musical engagement research shown impact music spatial reasoning instance hanson investigated effects sequenced kod\u00e1ly literacybased music programme spatial reasoning skills kindergarten students fiftyfour kindergarten children participated one group children received kod\u00e1ly music instruction second group computer instruction third group intervention programme lasted seven months spatialtemporal reasoning spatial reasoning nonspatial measure assessed analysis revealed statistically significant differences pre post gain scores measures relationships spatial skills mathematics children engage arithmetic long experience formal mathematics education number processing present prior development language preschool children understand estimation comparison quantities often count use number terminology sense ordinality kaufmann use develop strategies procedures solving problems bisanz et al young children discriminate small groups items containing different numbers objects understanding increasing quantity adding objects decreasing quantity removing power music depends observing ordinal relations among numbers bisanz et al skill related addition develops earlier subtraction children gradually develop greater accuracy provide exact solutions arithmetic problems usually achieved four five years old also begin develop rules concepts inform constrain growing ability manipulate numbers bisanz et al krajewski schneider developed three phase model process basic numeric skills quantity number concepts number relationships third level visualspatial skills play vital role nonverbal representations magnitudes essential problemsolving rasmussen bisanz model supports strong relationship spatial skills cheng mix visualspatial components working memory development mathematical abilities alternatively spelke proposes broader model outlines three main systems support young childrens mathematical learning system representing small exact numbers objects three system representing large approximate numerical magnitudesfor example system representing geometric properties relationships system malleable relatively independent young children basic concepts mathematical operations develop children learn connect three systems linking representations numbers representations space helps creating mental number lines central understanding relationships numbers calculations spatial structuring essential many mathematical activities numerical geometrical nature van nes de lange propose ability imagine spatial structure relates specific magnitude mentally manipulate helps understanding quantities process counting also speeds process van nes dorman describe mathematical skills rely spatial structures composing decomposing quantities counting grouping partwhole knowledge addition multiplication division comparing number objects patterning building construction blocks ordering generalising classifying music spatial reasoning mathematical performance sophisticated mathematical operations instance algebra proving predicting mental rotation structures booth siegler examined whether quality numerical magnitude representations firstgrade children mean age years correlated predictive causally related learning arithmetic childrens pretest numerical magnitude representations correlated pretest arithmetic knowledge predictive learning answers unfamiliar arithmetic problems relation learning solve unfamiliar problems remained controlling prior arithmetic knowledge shortterm memory numbers mathematics achievement test scores addition presenting randomly chosen children accurate visual representations magnitudes addends sums improved learning answers problems representations numerical magnitude correlationally causally related arithmetic learning abilities engaged geometry also number sense comparing calculating quantities effectively using strategies solve problems similarly gunderson colleagues using two longitudinal data sets found childrens spatial skills mental transformation ability beginning first second grades predictor improvement linear numberline knowledge course school year spatial skill age five predicted performance approximate symbolic calculation task age eight relationship mediated childrens linear numberline knowledge age six similarly working preadolescent college students high lowability college bound youths casey colleagues found spatial skill measured vandenberg mental rotation test highly related success mathematics female samples mental rotation predicted mathematics aptitude even verbal aptitude scores entered regression first male samples relationship varied function ability sample overall spatial skills widely used many levels mathematical thinking development considered strong predictor achievement mathematics primary school stages education power music relationships music spatial skills mathematics another strand research studied relationships music spatial skills mathematics understanding ratio enables children calculate fractions divisions proportions pattern recognition used spatialtemporal tasks broad variety mathematical tasks schlaug colleagues suggested link skills using rhythmic notation gordon saw link processing structures sound geist colleagues argue music childrens first patterning experience helps engage mathematics even though recognise research provided evidence relationships music spatialtemporal reasoning mathematics instance mcdonel found strong correlations musical aptitude rhythm achievement scores numeracy tests however sample size small findings interpreted cautiously spelke compared performance tasks measuring performance three main systems supporting young childrens mathematical learning representing small exact numbers objects large approximate numerical magnitudes representing geometric properties relationships students aged five seventeen music training sports training training art forms music training considered three levels intensity moderate intense highly intense first experiment children low levels music training show instruction enhanced core mathematical skills second experiment included students mixed levels music training children intense music instruction outperformed others tests related spatial awareness third experiment students extensive music training achieved higher scores tests sensitivity geometry including task assessed childrens ability relate numerical spatial magnitudes involved operations mental number line researching relationships complex musical training may associated aspects mathematics others instance bahnajames found highschool students music music spatial reasoning mathematical performance theory grades correlated grades algebra geometry pre calculus grades advanced mathematics course logic similarly bahr christensen reported performance mathematics test musicianship rating scale correlated areas music mathematics shared structural overlap pattern recognition symbol usage areas mathematics overlap however research supports instance helmbold colleagues failed demonstrate advantage musicians pattern recognition holmes hallam working primaryschool children showed correlations music rather mathematical skills related spatial reasoning changes mathematical skills reliant memory much smaller finding suggests development spatial skills may act moderator rhythmic instruction attainment mathematics correlations spatial reasoning scores music performance high picture test puzzle test score correlations music score two puzzle tests various mathematical performances showed strong correlations mathematical tests strongest correlations two threedimensional shapes lower correlations addition subtraction counting number recognition cranmore tunks adopted qualitative approach asking high school students share direct experiences music mathematics well perceptions two fields related participants divided four groups based school music participation level achievement mathematics students saw mathematics foundation musical ability suggesting different direction previous studies rhythm perceived connections mathematics musical engagement mathematical performance studies concentrated impact learning music might development specific cognitive skills considered useful acquiring mathematical understanding instance notions proportions fractions patterns gardiner colleagues power music showed children participating arts programmewhich included seven months supplementary music lessons lower score mathematics baselineoutperformed controls terms mathematics achievement participating longest period time highest scores overall groups participated music arts possible conclude music element produced effect whitehead examined effect orff schulwerk music instruction mathematical scores middle highschool students subjects randomly placed three groups full treatment group received music instruction minutes five times week limited treatment group received minutes instruction week treatment group received music instruction weeks full treatment group showed higher significant gains mathematics two groups limited treatment group showed limited mathematics improvement treatment group showed lowest gain ribeiro santos aimed verify efficacy non instrumental musical training numerical cognition children low achievement mathematics using cluster analysis examined whether children low scores numerical cognition would grouped cluster pre postmusical training primary school children divided two groups according scores arithmetic test testing battery numerical cognition tests revealed improvements children low achievement mathematics especially number production capacity compared normative data number children low scores numerical cognition decreased intervention neville colleagues examined differences results four groups preschoolers received music training attention training training general teaching delivered small group training general teaching large class music instruction delivered daily included listening music making music moving music singing intervention lasted eight weeks statistically significant change recorded numeracy visual cognition music group attention group children music group performed especially well verbal counting music spatial reasoning mathematical performance estimating magnitudes similarly geoghegan mitchelmore investigated impact weekly earlychildhood music programme mathematics achievement preschool children aged four five group children involved musical activities scored higher mathematics achievement test control group although home musical background may confounding factor children listened frequently adults singing music collection home performed better children cheek smith examined whether type music training related mathematics achievement levels eighthgrade students data collected iowa academic achievement tests basic skills survey participants music background including type musical instrument number years school music lessons number years private lessons demographics significant difference found mathematics scores students receive private music lessons however students two years private lessons significantly higher mean mathematics score students private lessons furthermore students keyboard lessons significantly higher mathematics scores students music lessons instruments innovative study kvet investigated whether significant differences existed sixthgrade reading language mathematics achievement students excused regular classroom activities study instrumental music students studying instrumental music sixthgrade students participated analyses showed significant difference sixth grade reading language mathematics achievement excused regular classroom activities study instrumental music studying instrumental music focusing emotions related mathematics well achievement colleagues studied thirdgrade elementary students preposttest control group design utilised examine changes two groups participating students mathematics achievement dispositions including beliefs success attitude confidence motivation usefulness students music group received musicmathematics integrated lessons students power music control group received traditional lecture textbookbased mathematics instruction analysis results demonstrated despite statistically equivalent pretest scores prior intervention intervention music group students statistically significantly higher positive mathematics disposition scores nonmusicgroup peers suggests advantages teachers utilising musicthemed activities context offering students opportunity learn mathematics challenging yet enjoyable learning environment evidence impact musical activity mathematics performance mixed authors proposed may link use fractions proportions rhythm point processing requires mathematic specific skills shaw schlaug et al jones instance courey colleagues examined effects academic music intervention conceptual understanding music notation fraction symbols fraction size equivalency thirdgraders multicultural mixed socioeconomic publicschool setting sixty seven students assigned class general education mathematics programme academic music instruction minutes twice week six weeks academic music students used conceptual understanding music fraction concepts inform solutions fraction computation problems statistical analysis revealed significant differences experimental comparison students music fraction concepts fraction computation following intervention large effect sizes students began instruction less fraction knowledge responded well intervention produced posttest scores similar higher achieving peers similarly azaryahu colleagues examined effect two integrated intervention programs representing holistic versus acoustic approaches teaching fraction knowledge three classes fourthgrade children attended lessons fractions one class attended musimath holistic programme focusing rhythm within melody second class attended academic music acoustic programme courey et al used rhythm third class children received regular mathematical lessons fractions students music programmes learned write musical notation music spatial reasoning mathematical performance perform rhythmic patterns clapping drumming part fraction lessons worked toward adding musical notes produce number fraction created additionsubtraction problems musical notes music programme used time signature crotchets quavers semiquavers mathematics lessons students learned analogy musical durations half quarter eighth fractions also practised fractions music mathematics skills assessed immediately following three six months intervention analysis indicated musimath group showed greater transfer intervention trained untrained fractions comparison group academic music group showed positive trend trained fractions despite music groups outperformed comparison group three six months intervention trained fractions musimath group demonstrated greater gains untrained fractions similarly hamilton colleagues describe pilot study aimed determine whether understanding mathematics specifically fractions equivalence ordinance division improved music musical rhythm used lessons preliminary data suggested students responded positively novel method teaching terms engagement also test performance focusing piano keyboard skills johnson edelson developed activity teaching children aspects mathematics musical concepts including use musical instruments musical symbols expand concepts serial order fractions sorting classification ratios concluded music potential assist developing mathematical skills also using piano keyboard lessons combined video game graziano colleagues demonstrated preschool children given six months piano keyboard lessons improved dramatically spatial temporal reasoning children appropriate control groups improve researchers also developed spatia maths video game designed teach fractions proportional mathematics extremely successful study involving secondgrade children aged six eight years old children participating piano keyboard training well maths video game scored significantly higher proportional mathematics fractions children power music experienced nonmusical training along maths video game lim colleagues investigated future teachers experiences perceptions using virtual reality game elementary maths education virtual reality game designed developed integrate musical activity beatmaking learning fractions mathematics education students participated perceived concept fractions effectively represented via beatmaking virtual reality game wentworth explored effectiveness integrated approach music mathematics high school four lessons taught intervention control class determine mathematically motivated music instruction affected students understanding operations functions composition functions inverse functions domain range preposttest design used determine effect achievement integrated lessons questionnaire also given identify differences students mathematical perceptions selfefficacy determination intervention group demonstrated significantly greater gains overall three major differences identified groupsthe intervention group used function notation frequently control group control group demonstrated confusion composition functions inverse functions intervention group intervention group showed mathematical work applications portion test control group integrated instruction led comparable cases significantly better mathematics outcomes control group giving students increased willingness work mathematical applications posttest moving forward research shown music positive effect learning mathematics instance costagiomi worked nine tenyearold children lowincome families involved three years weekly individual piano lessons children participated study given instrument could practise home selfesteem musical understanding enhanced music group academic achievement mathematics english different control group quality musical input crucial transfer skills illustrated threeyear study explore whether group music music spatial reasoning mathematical performance instruction could improve test scores economically disadvantaged elementaryschool children including almost kindergarten fifth grade students four elementary schools one school provided minutes keyboard lessons per week another minute lesson every six days remaining two schools acted controls lessons groups pupils participants pretested two subtests measuring verbal abilities two measuring quantitative abilities one measuring spatialtemporal abilities tests repeated months first two years study difficulties implementation music programme end study children received one year highquality tuition gains rauscher similarly yang colleagues examined relationship longterm music training child development based chinese elementaryschool students academic development first language second language mathematics found musician children outperformed nonmusician children musical achievement second language development although music training appeared correlated childrens final academic development first secondlanguage learning mathematics independently contribute development first language mathematical skills authors argued variables might important example parents level education two experiments rickard colleagues also revealed inconclusive results first based already existing music programme ten thirteenyearolds comparing participation drama art music groups improvement music group nonverbal iq test academic achievement second musical intervention provided externally six months included playing music percussion instruments composing improvising playing group singing active listening analysis wide range styles programme introduced private school students middle high economic status three groups participated music drama additional activity students music group achieved better results mathematics result also evidence drama group authors argued age children may factor outcomes research power music cox stephens compared highschool students different numbers music credits relation mean mathematics grade point averages mean cumulative grade point averages students separated two groups based number music credits earned least two music credits per grade level placed group included ninthgraders two music credits tenth graders four music credits eleventh graders six music credits twelfth graders eight music credits remaining students placed group b group students performed better group b students differences statistically significant although slight upward trend grade point average number music credits increased lower grade point averages nonexistent music credits increased overview number reviews impact music cognitive skills including spatial reasoning mathematics relation spatial reasoning hetland reviewed studies found strong reliable relationship concluded music instruction led dramatic improvement performance spatial temporal measures commented consistency effects likened differences one inch height points sat p showed effects likely stronger among younger children three five years aged six twelve years similarly \u010drn\u010dec colleagues reviewed evidence impact music teaching spatiotemporal reasoning skills found consistent effect although improvements associated academic domains arithmetic reliably shown recent research reviewed generally supports positive role music developing spatial temporal reasoning skills consistency findings suggesting near transfer automated effect spatial temporal skills well developed wider appropriate choice strategies efficient less erroneous mathematical operations rhythmbased instruction seems conducive improvement spatial temporal music spatial reasoning mathematical performance reasoning skills followed learning play piano singing leads smaller changes focusing impact engaging music broader range academic skills educational attainment including mathematics hodges oconnell suggest moderate position needs taken one extreme data support contention music improves academic performance extreme basis saying music instruction effect academic achievement hodges oconnell argue human learning complex simplistic explanations must rejected suggest music experiences positive impact academic performance certain circumstances neglected impact individual teacher excellent teachers enthusiastic relate well students may make greater difference educational outcomes particular methods used although overall quality tuition poor negative impact recent systematic review also suggests findings inconclusive contradictory jaschke et al jaschke colleagues attribute differences research design analytical methods used nature musical interventions differences neural activation processing tasks recent meta analyses come similar conclusions challenges faced research concluded overall music impact childrens cognitive skills including mathematics sala gobet conclude evidence suggests active engagement musical activities enhances range spatial processing skills particularly young children skills may support development simple mathematical skills mediated line number knowledge transfer mathematical skills remain many questions type training may effective involving rhythm seems likely candidate long training needs sustained type mathematical activities may influenced musical activity overall quality training offer impact musical engagement memory memory faculty brain data information encoded stored retrieved needed several different types memory broadly fall three groups sensory memory shortterm memory longterm memory sensory memory short typically acting less half second accurately retains material time acting buffer stimuli received five senses iconic memory refers immediate visual memories echoic memory auditory memories haptic memory sense touch olfactory memories relate smell gustatory memories taste shortterm memories slightly longer sensory memories still disappear minutes shortterm memory holds information briefly needed term shortterm memory often used interchangeably term working memory short term memory temporary limited capacity information processed either lost entered longterm memory longterm memory brains system storing managing recalling information complex serves different functions longterm memories include anything event occurred five minutes ago something years ago many different forms longterm memories sometimes conscious requiring us actively think order recall memories unconscious appear without active attempt recollection common forms longterm memory explicit memory intentional recall information declarative memory retention recall important facts dates information episodic memory enabling memory firsthand experiences ones life semantic memory storage vocabulary names general knowledge himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music implicit memory sometimes referred unconscious memory information moment time cannot specifically recalled procedural memory memory things auditory memory helps retain information based sounds individual heard visual spatial memory enables memory spatial objects manipulation working memory latter controversial forms memory cowan reviewing evidence suggests retention small amount information readily accessible form facilitates planning comprehension reasoning problemsolving research impact making music working memory mention often made executive control skills used manage information working memory cognitive processing information overall continues debate actual nature working memory although agreement similar research findings obtained specific test methods adopted chapter reports findings research impact music visual memory verbal memory working memory although seen much research explores several different aspects memory simultaneously visual memory one strand research explored impact musical training visual cognition early work focused memory musical notation instance sloboda demonstrated musically trained adults showed significantly greater capacity maintain musical notation shortterm memory nonmusicians george coch investigated neural behavioural aspects visual memory collegeaged nonprofessional musicians nonmusicians behaviourally musicians outperformed nonmusicians standardised subtests visual memory eventrelated potentials recorded standard visual paradigms participants responded infrequent deviant stimuli embedded lists standard stimuli electrophysiologically musicians demonstrated faster updating working memory visual domain findings demonstrated longterm music training related improvements visual impact musical engagement memory working memory similarly brochard colleagues used neuropsychological task participants detect position target dot relative vertical horizontal reference lines flashed onto screen perception condition reference line remained screen dot displayed imagery condition line disappeared target dot presented requiring participants keep mental image reference line conditions musicians shorter reaction times compared non musicians suggesting musicians enhanced visuospatial abilities authors concluded enhanced performance musicians resulted longterm reading musical notation requires finegrained recognition positions notes stave also efficient attentional processes explanation supported kopiez galley suggested patterns saccadic eye movements used indicator mental processing speed specific demands reading musical notation particularly begun early age may modify way visual information processed nervous system kopiez galley gruhn colleagues compared saccadic eye movements oculomotor tasks adult musicians nonmusicians reported efficient oculomotor strategies musicians argued may associated complex visual processes involved longterm practice reading musical notation alongside efficient attentional processes gruhn colleagues point evidence biscaldi et al currie et al kinsler carpenter sereno et al strong association attention saccadic eye movements control eye movements requires highly complex mental processes involving many cerebral areas tatler wade modalities attention impact oculomotor system kimmig rodrigues colleagues compared performance musicians members symphony orchestra symphonic band nonmusicians tasks involving visual attention used multiplechoice reactiontime test consisted specific motor responses various luminous stimuli test applied twice order assess divided visual attention ability second time used alongside continuously randomly changing visual power music stimuli presented video form participants asked respond verbally change musicians showed higher percentage correct responses test applied alone test applied together changing visual stimuli although musicians showed shorter reaction times verbal responses stimuli changes authors suggested musicians may augmented divided visual attention ability compared nonmusicians ascribed ensemble rehearsal argued professional activities musicians characterised constant demands divided visual attention including dealing several kinds visual stimuli simultaneouslyfor instance musical score conductors gestural instructions body movements musicianswhile also playing instrument patston colleagues compared righthanded musicians nonmusicians line bisection task entailed marking centre horizontal lines varying length cm displayed randomly page neurologically intact righthanders showed slight reliable tendency bisect two percent left centre task hausmann et al phenomenon attributed dominance right hemisphere visuospatial attention oliveri et al contrast patston colleagues demonstrated musicians showed slight rightward bias nonmusicians showed greater deviation left musicians also bisected lines accurately fewer intermanual differences nonmusicians researchers suggested musicians may develop increased ability left hemisphere perform cognitive functions typically right hemisphere dominant resulting balanced spatial attention later study patston colleagues compared reaction times accuracy musicians nonmusicians response stimuli presented left right vertical line groups performed accurately leftsided stimuli musicians significantly accurate nonmusicians rightsided stimuli overall faster reaction times suggested balanced attentional capacity musicians well enhanced visuomotor ability may also advantage line dot tasks type used study brochard colleagues familiar impact musical engagement memory componentsthey similar required reading musical notation although placement lines vertically rather horizontally means tasks truly equivalent patston colleagues b also studied lateralisation visuospatial attention using interhemispheric transfer time musicians non musicians responded stimuli presented left right visual fields submitted electroencephalography nonmusicians showed significantly faster responses right left direction opposite direction shorter latency left right hemisphere contrast musicians exhibited directional difference hemispheres hemispheric difference latency indicating bilateral neural connectivity patston colleagues concluded bimanual training musicians facilitates additional myelination results balanced connections hemispheres normally found without musical training stoesz colleagues investigated visual processing local details musicians nonmusicians utilising disembedding constructional tasks used group embedded figures test series complex figures presented containing one nine targets hidden design task examine test figure outline hidden target soon identified second study two tests used block design subtest requires participant replicate geometric pattern presented card using top surfaces several coloured blocks secondly task involving copying possible impossible drawings objects musicians outperformed nonmusicians embedded figures test block design subtest task copying drawings physically impossible objects findings suggest enhanced visual processing local details correlation block design scores accuracy scores impossible figures possible figures local processing ability correlate drawing ability per se stoesz colleagues concluded relative strength local processing contributed superior performance musicians drawing task suggested enhanced visual processing local details may reflect traininginduced changes frontoparietal system involved controlling exploratory eye movements shifts visual attentionskills important power music reading musical notation requires detailed analysis visual details su\u00e1rez colleagues carried crosssectional study exploring relationship music training visual working memory adult musicians nonmusicians twentyfour musicians nonmusicians matched age gender years formal education verbal intelligence performed several working memory tasks musicians outperformed nonmusicians tasks related visual motor coordination visual scanning ability visual processing speed spatial memory similarly jakobson colleagues studied visual memory pianists nonmusicians using visual design learning test required participants try learn remember sequentially presented set line drawings simple geometric figures containing two elements example circle line participants asked draw figures could remember five learning trials delay test delayed recognition also administered results suggested superior visual memory musicians since outperformed nonmusicians fourth fifth learning trials delayed recall delayed recognition tasks controlling general intelligence group difference delayed recall tasks persisted researchers suggested observed relationship visual memory musical training may related improvement processes supporting attention visual details increased skill musicians holding manipulating visual images working memorywhich confers advantage encoding processor superior use high level strategic memory processes research focused processing speedfor instance bugos mostafa examined effects music instruction information processing speed using neuropsychological tests paced auditory serial addition task trailmaking test examined role music information processing speed musicians nonmusicians musicians performed better tests suggesting musical training capacity enhance processing speed auditory visual content brain imaging studies also suggested efficient visual processes musicians instance platel colleagues showed activation impact musical engagement memory associative visual area musicians pitchdiscrimination task schmithorst holland investigated relationship musical practice cerebral processing relating melody harmony findings showed musicians nonmusicians used different neural networks process elements musicians inferior parietal areas activated melody harmony perception identified involved general visuospatial processing study comparing male symphony orchestra musicians nonmusicians increased density grey matter brocas area musiciansan area important spoken language visuospatial localisation sluming et al recently sluming colleagues showed enhanced performance visuospatial task orchestral musicians compared nonmusicians also associated increased activation brocas area research adults shown enhanced visual memory musicians instance cohen colleagues showed musicians superior auditory recognition memory musical nonmusical stimuli compared nonmusicians case visual domain groups memory auditory stimuli inferior memory visual objects although considerable musical training associated better musical nonmusical auditory memory increase ability remember sounds levels found visual stimuli suggests fundamental capacity difference auditory visual recognition memory persistent advantage visual domain using different task brandler rammsayer asked adult musicians nonmusicians indicate memory location buildings city map previously studied statistically significant differences performance musicians nonmusicians task chan colleagues also found benefit musical training relation visual task participants female college students chinese university hong konghad draw memory ten simple figures asked memorise thirty participants least six years training western musical instrument age received musical training participants power music matched terms age grade point average years education statistically significant differences musicians nonmusicians proportion drawings able create research children another strand research focused visual memory children instance deg\u00e9 colleagues b tested effect two year extended music curriculum secondary school childrens visual auditory memory curriculum consisted learning play musical instrument participating orchestra auditory perception music theory training tenyearold children started programme children without training tested visual aural memory start programme two years later prior training differences groups children participating musical training improved significantly time one time two visual auditory memory children receiving training effects apparent even range confounding variables taken account including intelligence socioeconomic status extracurricular schooling motivation avoid work musical aptitude seems musical training generally positive impact aural memory children necessarily case visual memory ho colleagues working group chinese children showed music training demonstrate better visual memory nonmusician counterparts performance children followed year changes visual memory significantly different groups similarly roden colleagues examined effects schoolbased instrumental training programme development visual memory skills primaryschool children participants either took part music programme weekly minutef instrumental lessons small groups school received extended natural science training third group children receive additional training child completed visual memory tests three times period months differences groups found impact musical engagement memory visual memory tests similarly rickard colleagues explored effect increasing frequency intensity classroombased instrumental training programme visual memory across twoyear period data participants aged eight nine analysed eightytwo children allocated intensive stringmusic training programme acted control group participated usual music classes intensive music training effect visual memory although improvement visual perceptual ability observed first year conclude number reasons evidence relating visual memory inconsistent first reason music essentially requires enhanced aural skills impact visual skills musicians required read musical notation likely would impact visual skills musicians play ear always case second research visual memory assessed using different methods including reaction times recall accuracy third participants studies chan et al ho et al chinese chinese language written symbols rather letters may led experimental control groups already skilled processing complex visual signs fourth participants research different ages fifth levels musical experience classified musicians varied sixth nature musical training different particularly extent involved learning read musical notation verbal memory research compared performance musicians non musicians variety verbal tasks instance parberyclark colleagues investigated effect musical training identifying speech noise complex task requiring integration working memory stream segregation well detection timevarying perceptual cues sixteen musicians nonmusicians aged normal hearing participated musicians outperformed nonmusicians hearing speech challenging listening environments second study parberyclark power music colleagues b compared subcortical neurophysiological responses speech quiet conditions noisy conditions group highly trained musicians nonmusician controls musicians found robust subcortical representation acoustic stimulus presence noise demonstrated faster neural timing enhanced representation speech harmonics less degraded response morphology noise neural measures associated better behavioural performance hearingin noise test musicians outperformed nonmusician controls findings suggest musical experience limits negative effects competing background noise thereby providing biological evidence musicians perceptual advantage speech noise studies found similar results instance strait kraus b assessed impact selective auditory attention cortical auditory evoked response variability musicians non musicians outcomes indicated strengthened brain networks selective auditory attention musicians strait colleagues administered standardised battery perceptual cognitive tests adult musicians nonmusicians tasks included either less susceptible cognitive controlfor instance backward versus simultaneous maskingand less dependent auditory visual processing instance auditory versus visual attention findings indicated lower perceptual thresholds musicians specifically auditory tasks related cognitive abilities backward masking auditory attention results suggested longterm musical practice strengthens cognitive functions functions benefit auditory skills intensity enhancement verbal memory auditory attention related start musical training long lasted kraus chandrasekaran cohen colleagues compared professional musicians music students nonmusicians verbal visual memory musicians significantly better nonmusicians remembering familiar music unfamiliar music speech environmental sound clips difference two groups performance tests visual memory also working music students kilgour colleagues studied whether impact musical engagement memory music training acted mediator recall spoken sung lyrics whether presentation rate materials important rather inclusion melody first experiment undergraduates half music training half without heard spoken sung lyrics recall sung lyrics superior spoken lyrics groups second third experiments presentation rate manipulated durations spoken sung materials equal presentation rate equated advantage sung spoken lyrics experiments participants music training outperformed without training overall results suggested music training leads enhanced memory verbal material similarly working highly trained pianists non musicians jakobson colleagues studied nonmusical perceptual cognitive abilities musicians showed superior immediate delayed recall word lists greater use semantic clustering strategy initial listlearning nonmusicians group differences delayed free recall words persisted even iq controlled brandler rammsayer tested psychometric performance adult musicians nonmusicians different aspects primary mental abilities verbal comprehension word fluency space closure perceptual speed reasoning number memory statistically significant differences found relation verbal memory reasoning performance verbal memory reliably higher musicians nonmusicians nonmusicians performed significantly better subscales culturefree intelligence test supports notion longterm musical training exerts beneficial effects verbal memory probably leads changes cortical organisation research exploring attention puschmann colleagues required participants varying amounts musical training attend one two speech streams detecting rare target words findings showed duration musical training associated reduced distracting effect competing speech target detection accuracy musical training related robust neural tracking speech stream attended speech stream ignored late cortical processing stages findings power music suggested musically trained persons able use additional information distracting verbal stream limit interference competing speech one strand research compared musicians performance opposed nonmusicians performance detecting pitch change spoken sentences native french sch\u00f6n et al unfamiliar portuguesemarques et al languages similarly deguchi colleagues studied effects familiarity intonational contour presence meaningful context using behavioural electrophysiological data italian musicians nonmusicians performance compared pitch incongruity detection task using sentences native italian foreign french languages jabberwocky meaningless sentences formed pseudowords examine whether differences depended enhanced auditory sensitivity pitch frequency discrimination threshold tones obtained using psychophysical procedure musicians accurate nonmusicians detecting small pitch changes languages showing smaller response bias overall findings confirmed musicians advantage detection subtle pitch changes tones also speech sentences native unfamiliar languages effects seemed emerge efficient pitch analysis acquired musical training enhancements shortterm memory related music may also support linguistic functions ludke colleagues randomly assigned adult participants one three listenand repeat learning conditions speaking rhythmic speaking singing participants singing condition showed superior overall performance collection hungarian language tests minute learning period compared participants speaking rhythmicspeaking conditions differences explained age gender mood phonological working memory ability musical ability training researchers suggested listen sing learning method could facilitate verbatim memory phrases spoken foreign language relationship musical expertise language processing well documented less evidence languagetomusic effects bidelman colleagues used crosssectional design compare performance musicians tonal language impact musical engagement memory cantonese speakers tasks auditory pitch acuity music perception general cognitive ability including fluid intelligence working memory musicians demonstrated superior performance auditory measures comparable perceptual enhancements observed cantonese participants relative englishspeaking non musicians results suggest tone language background associated higher auditory perceptual performance listening music musicians cantonese speakers also showed superior working memory capacity relative nonmusician controls suggesting addition basic perceptual enhancements background tonal languages music training might also associated enhanced general cognitive abilities findings support notion tonal language speakers musically trained individuals higher performance englishspeaking listeners perceptual cognitive processing necessary basic auditoryas well complex musicperception results illustrate bidirectional influences domains music language research children early work exploring relationship musical training verbal memory carried asian participants instance chan colleagues showed learning play musical instrument age enhanced ability remember words participants musical training could remember percent verbal information without musical training music training childhood may therefore longterm positive effects verbal memory ho colleagues supported findings later study boys aged six fifteen musical training significantly better verbal learning retention abilities duration music training learning play instrument verbal learning performance correlated positively even controlling age education level musical training learned approximately percent words word list retention also better minute delays followup study compared children cohort begun continued music training one year given playing children power music beginner advanced training groups significantly increased verbal learning retention performance case discontinued training although verbal memory performance remained stable least nine months ceasing play instrument ho colleagues concluded music training seemed longterm enhancing effects verbal memory studies demonstrate relationship musical training verbal memory demonstrate causality intervention studies required work chinese participants focused children aged four five years old nan colleagues studied mandarinspeaking children pseudorandomly assigned piano training reading training nocontact control group six months piano training improved behavioural auditory word discrimination general well word discrimination based vowels compared controls reading group yielded similar trends however piano group demonstrated unique advantages reading control groups consonant based word discrimination three groups improved general cognitive measures including tests iq working memory attention typical intervention study working kindergarten children hallberg colleagues investigated effects instrumental music instruction opposed tuition children received five hours instrumental instruction five weeks using suzuki method tested working memory efficiency visuospatial processing controlled attention statistically significant difference two groups related attentional control enhanced instrumental music instruction rickard colleagues researched children nine primary schools aged eight nine participated enhanced schoolbased music programme remainder children acted controls received standard class music lessons children tested three times within first two years study third year subset control sample tested verbal learning immediate recall scores significantly increased one year enhanced schoolbased music training increase found control group however advantages disappeared second year although second year study impact musical engagement memory significantly enhanced visual perception music training group similarly roden colleagues examined effects school based instrumental training programme development verbal memory skills primaryschool children aged seven eight years old participants either took part music programme weekly minute sessions instrumental lessons small groups school received extended natural science training third group children receive additional training child completed verbal memory tests three times period months children music group showed greater improvements children control groups controlling socioeconomic background age iq overall evidence suggested children musical training develop efficient memory strategies verbal materials likely playing music requires continued monitoring meaningful chunks information individual notes combined meaningful melodic phrases quasi syllabic structure based temporal frameworks metric structures parallel stresses syllables language patel daniele supported evidence auditory cortex structurally functionally shaped individuals experiences sound fritz et al fujioka colleagues recorded auditory evoked responses violin tone noiseburst stimulus four sixyearold children four occasions oneyear period using magnetoencephalography half children participated music lessons throughout year half music lessons clear musical training effect expressed larger earlier peak left hemisphere response violin sound musically trained children compared untrained children transition could related establishing neural network associated sound categorisation andor involuntary attention altered musical learning experiences also working primaryaged children piro ortiz adopted quasiexperimental approach examining effects scaffolded music instruction programme vocabulary verbal sequencing skills two cohorts secondgrade students one group children studied piano formally period three consecutive years part comprehensive instructional intervention programme power music second group children exposure music lessons either school private study findings showed experimental group significantly better vocabulary verbal sequencing scores following intervention control group interesting study brodsky sulkin focused childrens hand clapping reported positive effects classroom hand clapping intervention verbal memory examined whether children spontaneously engaged hand clapping song activity demonstrated improved motor cognitive abilities study also investigated outcome twogroup eightweek classroom intervention study found children skilful performing hand clapping songs efficient first grade second grade spontaneously engaged hand clapping songs advantaged bimanual coupling patterns verbal memory handwriting classroom hand clapping song training efficient music appreciation classes developing nonmusical skills among participating children adopting experimental design martens colleagues focused effect musical experience verbal memory individuals williams syndrome aged participants engaged formal music lessons scored significantly better verbal longterm memory task stimuli sung spoken comparison formal lessons showed benefit either sung spoken conditions working memory working memory time capacitylimited storage task relevant information generally requires mental manipulation flexible use inhibition distractors different shortterm memory requires mental manipulation encoded information inhibition goalirrelevant stimuli neuroscientific perspective working memory also requires integrity medialtemporal lobe regions whereas shortterm memory addition strong evidence linking behavioural measures working memory localised distributed patterns neural oscillations yurgil et al working memory typically studied using behavioural tasks require implementation impact musical engagement memory combination stored information manipulation information interference including nback ding et al backward digitspan clayton et al george coch zuk et al reading span dsouza et al franklin et al operation span tasks dsouza et al franklin et al nback task presents participants sequence visual auditory stimuli participant maintains information deciding whether subsequent stimulus item matches stimulus came specific number letters previously owen et al backward digit span task participants presented series digits asked report sequence digits reverse order hester et al central executive component working memory argued play important role performance span tasks particularly backward span forward backward span tasks recruit central executive resources necessary successful task performance hester et al reading span task number sentences presented one sentence time number sentences increases memory load required perform task two sentences presented sequentially sentence participant writes sentence verbatim last word sentence order daneman carpenter finally operation span task requires participants memorise sequence unrelated words simultaneously performing series mathematical operations operation word strings presented participant writes words displayed order presentation turner engle reading span operation span require participants hold information working secondary task cause interference tasks fulfils criteria maintenance manipulation information may occur differing levels interference aben et al research adults oechslin colleagues used functional magnetic resonance imaging nonmusicians amateur expert musicians listened comprehensive set specifically composed string quartets hierarchically manipulated endings two irregularities musical power music closure implemented differing salience within tonality piece behavioural sensitivity scores transgressions perfectly separated participants according level musical expertise functional brain imaging data showed compelling evidence stepwise modulation brain responses expertise level frontotemporal network hosting universal functions working memory attention additional independent testing evidenced advantage visual working memory professionals predicted musical training intensity similarly george coch using eventrelated potentials standardised test working memory investigated neural behavioural aspects working memory collegeaged nonprofessional musicians nonmusicians behaviourally musicians outperformed nonmusicians standardised subtests phonological executive memory eventrelated potentials recorded standard auditory oddball paradigms participants responded infrequent deviant stimuli embedded lists standard stimuli electrophysiologically musicians demonstrated faster updating working memory auditory domain allocated neural resources auditory stimuli showing increased sensitivity auditory standard deviant difference less effortful updating auditory working memory halpern bower pilot study musicians nonmusicians briefly presented visually similar melodies rated good bad followed second retention interval recall musicians remembered good melodies better bad ones nonmusicians distinguish one study six musicians six nonmusicians briefly presented good bad random melodies followed immediate recall advantage musicians nonmusicians decreased melody type progressed good bad random second study seven students professional musicians divided stimulus melodies groups melody consistency grouping correlated memory performance found first two experiments findings showed musicians used musical groupings simple visual strategy used nonmusicians talamini colleagues requested musicians non musicians perform digitspan task presented aurally impact musical engagement memory visually audiovisually task performed without concurrent task order explore role rehearsal strategies also manipulate task complexity musical abilities participants also assessed musicians larger digitspans nonmusicians regardless sensory modality concurrent task addition auditory audiovisual spans visual alone correlated one subscale music test findings suggested general advantage musicians nonmusicians verbal working memory tasks possible role sensory modality task complexity similarly hansen colleagues administered digitspan test spatial span test musical ear test nonmusicians amateur musicians expert musicians expert musicians significantly outperformed nonmusicians digitspan test scores also correlated musical scores rhythm subtest crossgroup differences found spatial span test fennell colleagues complex experimental study nonmusicians musicians presented participants memory element three nouns melody dot matrix followed sentence comprehension question trial participants answered comprehension question judge whether second memory element first one musicians performed accurately working memory tasks particularly related verbal musical working memory dsouza colleagues compared musicians bilinguals individuals expertise skills neither one hundred fiftythree young adults categorised one four groups monolingual musician bilingual musician bilingual nonmusician monolingual nonmusician multiple tasks relating cognitive ability used examine coherence training effects findings revealed musically trained individuals bilinguals enhanced working memory neither musical language skill led enhanced inhibitory control okhrei colleagues explored performance working memory musicians nonmusicians tests letters digits geometrical shapes participants students ten fifteen years engaged regular musical practice classed power music musicians peers previous musical experience classed nonmusicians computerised working memory test letters digits shapes successive presentation stimuli applied musicians nonmusicians differ overall number mistakes latency responses subtests letters digits shapes left hand made significantly mistakes right groups regularity typical nonmusicians righthand responded faster left carrying subtests groups motor asymmetry evident nonmusicians main musicians demonstrate increase latency responses task complexity nonmusicians overall efficiency working memory test performance differ among musicians nonmusicians musicians tighter interhemispheric cooperation memory test indicated less motor asymmetry musicians almost equal latency responses regardless task complexity non musicians required time responding stimuli growing task complexity investigating specific aspects working memory differed adult musicians nonmusicians su\u00e1rez colleagues compared performance musicians nonmusicians matched age gender years formal education verbal intelligence several working memory tasks musicians outperformed non musicians tasks related visual motor coordination visual scanning ability visual processing speed spatial memory although significant differences found phonological visual memory capacity findings support view musical training associated specific general working memory skills ding colleagues investigated degree number duration notes sequence influenced tonal working memory participants without professional musical training forward tonal discrimination task tested maintenance tonal information backward nback tonal task probed running memory span tonal information findings showed number notes duration notes tone sequence significantly affected tonal working memory performance musicians nonmusicians addition within minimum musical context musicians outperformed impact musical engagement memory nonmusicians nback tonal task forward tone sequence discrimination task findings indicate capacity tonal working memory determined number notes duration notes sequence memorised suggesting different mechanism underlying tonal working memory verbal working memory musicians held items memory tonal atonal auditory stimuli retained items longer nonmusicians tonal stimuli focusing role attention pallesen colleagues measured activation responses dependent blood oxygenation level musicians nonmusicians working memory performance relating musical sounds determine relationship performance musical competence generally enhanced cognition participants easily distinguished stimuli musicians performed better reflected reaction times error rates also larger activation responses dependent blood oxygenation level non musicians neuronal networks sustain attention cognitive control including regions lateral prefrontal cortex lateral parietal cortex insula putamen right hemisphere bilaterally posterior dorsal prefrontal cortex anterior cingulate gyrus relationship task performance magnitude response positive musicians nonmusicians particularly difficult working memory task results confirm previous findings neural activity increases enhanced working memory performance results also suggest superior working memory task performance musicians relies enhanced ability exert sustained cognitive control cognitive benefit musicians may consequence focused musical training similarly strait colleagues b assessed impact selective auditory attention cortical auditory evoked response variability musicians nonmusicians outcomes indicated strengthened brain networks selective auditory attention musicians nonmusicians demonstrated decreased pre frontal response variability auditory attention musicians neural proficiency selectively engaging sustaining auditory attention language indicates potential benefit music auditory training power music research children young people research professional expert musicians one strand research focused children behavioural investigations children shown music training musical aptitude associated enhanced auditory working memory example longitudinal study six eightyearold children half sample randomly assigned biweekly keyboard training six weeks half received training following intervention training group demonstrated significant improvement working memory capacity measured backward digitspan task guo et al christiner reiterer tested preschool childrens abilities imitate unknown languages remember strings digits sing discriminate musical statements intrinsic spontaneous singing behaviour also assessed findings showed working memory capacity phonetic aptitude linked high musical perception production ability early age five suggesting music foreign language learning capacity may linked childhood early developed abilities may responsible individual differences linguistic musical performances working kindergarten children hallberg colleagues studied impact instrumental music instruction cognitive processes children taught violin using suzuki method five weeks total hours instruction group compared control group assessments made using stanfordbinet five working memory visuospatial subscales kiddie connors continuous performance test attention subscales statistically significant differences means pre postchange scores groups stanfordbinet five subscales effect combined kiddie connors continuous performance test measures one effect specific subtest hit response time findings demonstrate attentional control psychological process necessary academic learning may enhanced instrumental music instruction engaged within early childhood longitudinal study bergman colleagues analysed association musical practice performance reasoning impact musical engagement memory processing speed working memory three hundred fifty two children young people ages six twenty five years old participated neuropsychological assessments neuroimaging investigations two three occasions two years apart multiple regression analysis revealed playing instrument overall positive association working memory capacity visuospatial working memory verbal working memory processing speed logical reasoning across three time points correcting effect parental education afterschool activities playing instrument also larger greymatter volume temporo occipital insular cortex areas previously reported related musical notation reading change working memory time points proportional weekly hours spent music practice working memory tests reasoning ability effects remained controlling parental education afterschool activities similarly lee colleagues examined effects music training children aged young adults forward digitspan backward digitspan simple spatial span complex spatial span tasks young adults performed better control group respect digitspan nonword span tests children performed better control group span tests similar study roden colleagues investigated influence group instrumental training working memory children learning instruments german sistema inspired programme quasiexperimental design used children receiving musical training compared receiving natural science training training music group received weekly lessons minutes musical instruments choice maximum group size five children could undertake practice home children tested three points course months battery tests including seven subtests addressed central executive phonological loop visuospatial sketchpad components baddeleys working memory model music group showed greater increase every measure verbal memory verbal learning delayed recall recognition science control groups large effect sizes differences remained statistical modelling took account age measured intelligence power music working schoolaged children strait colleagues assessed auditory working memory attention musical aptitude reading ability neural sensitivity acoustic regularities neural sensitivity acoustic regularities assessed recording brainstem responses speech sound presented predictable variable speech streams research revealed musical aptitude literacy related extent subcortical adaptation regularities ongoing speech well auditory working memory attention relationships music speech processing specifically driven performance musical rhythm task highlighting importance rhythmic regularity language music data suggest common brain mechanisms underlying reading music abilities relate nervous system responds regularities auditory input longitudinal study saarikivi colleagues investigated development working memory musically trained untrained children adolescents aged nine twenty working memory assessed participants using digitspan forwards backwards tests two trailmaking tests tests administered three timesin findings showed younger musically trained participants particular outperformed untrained peers trailmaking tests digitspan forwards tests require active maintenance rule memory immediate recall contrast group differences backwards test requires manipulation updating information working memory results suggest musical training strongly associated heightened working memory capacity maintenance enhanced working memory updating especially late childhood early adolescence ireland colleagues developed ageequivalent scores two measures musical ability rhythm synchronisation task melody discrimination task could reliably used schoolchildren aged seven thirteen without musical training tasks administered children attending music science camps childrens paced tapping nonpaced tapping phonemic discrimination measured baseline motor auditory abilities musically trained children outperformed without music impact musical engagement memory lessons although scores decreased difficulty increased older children performed best years lessons significantly predicted performance music tasks effect age deg\u00e9 schwarzer aimed investigate whether enhanced articulatory rehearsal mechanism might explain higher verbal memory scores musically trained children compared untrained children tested ten twelveyearold children musically trained untrained verbal memory assessed twoword lists children memorised one word list normal conditions word list repeat irrelevant word articulatory suppression gender socioeconomic status intelligence motivation musical aptitude personality controlled significant difference musically trained untrained children favour musically trained children verbal memory normal condition however articulatory suppression condition advantage musically trained children disappeared authors concluded enhanced verbal rehearsal mechanism might responsible better verbal memory musically trained children james colleagues undertook cluster randomised controlled trial focused musical instrumental practice comparison traditional sensitisation music last two years primary school children aged received group music instruction professional musicians twice week part regular school curriculum intervention group learned play stringed instruments whereas control group sensitised music via listening theory practice broad benefits manifested intervention group compared control group working memory attention processing speed cognitive flexibility matrix reasoning sensorimotor hand function bimanual coordination learning play complex instrument dynamic group setting impacted development strongly classical sensitisation music results highlighted added value intensive musical instrumental training group setting within school curriculum escobar colleagues investigated perception speech noise young musicians nonmusicians assigned subgroups high low assessed working memory based power music performance backward digitspan task effects music training working memory speechin noise performance assessed clinical tests speech perception background noise listening effort assessed dual task paradigm selfreport statistically significant difference musicians nonmusicians significant interaction music training working memory outcome measures however significant effect working memory speechin noise ability found suggests music training provide advantage adverse listening situations either terms improved speech understanding reduced listening effort musicians shown heightened basic auditory abilities effect speech noise listening effort may subtle regardless prior music training listeners high working memory capacity able perform significantly better speechin noise tasks research shown effect music training working memory instance banai ahissar researched whether pattern correlations auditory readingrelated skills differed children different amounts musical experience children third grade various degrees musical experience tested battery auditory readingrelated tasks poor auditory thresholds poor memory skills abundant among children musical education children indices auditory processing significantly correlated accounted percent variance readingrelated skills among children one year musical training auditory processing indices better readingrelated skills correlated poor auditory memory skills rare among children even short period musical training suggesting musical training could impact lack correlation musically trained population suggests short period musical training enhance readingrelated skills individuals normal auditory processing skills overall outlined previous section crosssectional studies shown higher working memory capacity associated better scores rhythmic subtests musical aptitude children young five children randomly assigned music impact musical engagement memory training control conditions causal effect training working memory capacity evidence close relationship musical practice working memory suggests training rather predisposition produces changes working memory capacity although associations working memory capacity measures musical aptitude suggest trainingrelated advantages independent existing abilities musical training musical aptitude may affect memory performance among children older adults experiences individuals throughout lifetime influence quality cognitive ageing older individuals former current musical practices associated enhanced verbal skills visual memory processing speed planning functions participating making music age limit thaut hodges adults take musical activities resume continue activities pursued earlier life older years several benefits supporting learning assisting slowing cognitive decline supporting rehabilitation instance taking piano lessons six months shown enhance levels concentration attention planning yearold adults compared control group piano lessons individualised consisted motor dexterity exercises learning music theory participants tested cognitive working memory measures three points time pretraining posttraining following delay three months experimental group obtained significantly higher scores posttraining trailmaking test digit symbols untrained controls indicating improvement visual scanning perceptual speed working memory bugos et al similarly bugos examined effects active pianoplaying instruction compared music listening instruction executive function healthy older adults aged seventy adults matched age education estimated intelligence two week training groups group piano instruction musiclistening instruction participants completed battery cognitive assessment tests pre postinstruction assess processing speed verbal fluency planning cognitive control power music fortysix participants completed study statistically significant differences groups measures executive function groups demonstrated increase scores although learning play piano significantly enhanced processing speed verbal fluency cognitive control later study bugos focused motor skills participants randomly allocated piano percussion musiclistening groups undertook weeks training three hours practice per week groups matched age education intelligence musical aptitude piano percussion groups improvements processing speed visual scanning working memory recorded three music conditions led improved rhythmic accuracy hand synchronisation similar results reported older adults sung choir engaged group musicmaking played percussion instruments hallam et al hallam creech fauvel compared performance musicians non musicians middle late adulthood longterm memory auditory verbal shortterm memory processing speed nonverbal reasoning verbal fluency musicians performed significantly better nonmusicians measures processing speed verbal shortterm memory groups displayed agerelated differences relation verbal fluency musicians scored higher controls displayed different age effects second study showed musical training started childhood adulthood associated phonemic semantic fluency performance musicians started play adulthood perform better phonemic fluency nonmusicians current frequency training account musicians scores either measures overall findings yielded little evidence reduced agerelated changes owing musical training phonemic fluency variable exemplified positive effect ageing influence music memory applies listening music well participating musical activities varvarigou et al hallam creech instance deg\u00e9 kerkovius investigated effect music training programme working memory verbal visual part central executive processing older adults experimental group trained drumming impact musical engagement memory singing one control group participated literature training programme second group untrained twentyfour female participants aged years old average randomly assigned either music literature untrained group training lasted weeks start programme three groups differ significantly age socioeconomic status music education musical aptitude cognitive abilities depressive symptoms following programme differences groups central executive function potential effect music training verbal memory impact music training visual memory musically trained participants remembered words word list symbol sequences correctly control groups musical improvisation used diaz abraham colleagues study impact verbal memory older adults two types verbal memory evaluated prior intervention one neutral emotional participants exposed musical improvisation experimental condition two control groups carried rhythmic reproduction experienced rest condition memory performance evaluated immediate deferred free recall recognition tests memory performance five years training defined musicians nonmusicians compared significant improvement neutral verbal memory among participants involved musical improvisation remembered words control conditions differences also found according musical experience sample musicians outperforming nonmusicians parberyclark colleagues compared older musicians nonmusicians auditory visual working memory ability perceive speech noise found musicians significantly better perceiving speech noise performed better auditory visuospatial working memory capacity tasks research also revealed linear relationship auditory working memory speechin noise performance suggesting two functions related similarly grassi colleagues reported older adult musicians outperformed older adult nonmusicians auditory visuospatial working memory tasks well auditory discrimination although groups differ tests shortterm power music memory amer colleagues also reported older adult musicians outperformed older adult nonmusicians several tests executive function including visuospatial working memory one strand research explored impact different levels longterm engagement music cognition instance hannapladdy mackay evaluated association musical instrumental participation cognitive ageing seventy older healthy adults aged participated varied musical activities completed comprehensive neuropsychological battery three groups nonmusicians low musical activityone nine years lifespan high musical activity ten years compared participants matched age education history physical exercise least ten years musical experience better performance nonverbal memory naming executive processes advanced age relative nonmusicians years musical activity age commencement activity type musical training predicted cognitive performance later study hannapladdy gajewski researched older adults aged musicians nonmusicians assessed neuropsychological tests general lifestyle activities musicians scored higher tests visuospatial judgment another strand research tested potential music intervention programmes reduce deleterious effects ageing cognition instance hars colleagues investigated whether six months musicbased multitask training beneficial effects cognitive functioning mood older adults aged increased risk falling intervention group consisted older people attended onceweekly hourly supervised group classes multitask exercises executed rhythm piano music control group individuals delayed intervention maintained usual lifestyle habits six months short neuropsychological test battery administered start intervention six months included mini mental state examination clockdrawing test frontal assessment battery anxiety depression scales participating musical activities improvement sensitivity interference subtest frontal assessment battery reduction anxiety level impact musical engagement memory increase mini mental state assessment score reduction number participants impaired global cognitive performance overall six months onceweekly musicbased multitask training associated improved cognitive function decreased anxiety communitydwelling older adults engagement music also found reduce risk dementia instance verghese colleagues examined relationship leisure activities risk dementia cohort participants aged years age resided community dementia beginning research examined frequency participation leisure activities enrolment measured cognitive activity physical activity terms number days week activity took place range possible confounding factors controlled including age sex educational level presence absence chronic medical illnesses baseline cognitive status followup period five years dementia developed participants alzheimers disease vascular dementia mixed dementia types dementia among leisure activities reading playing board games playing musical instruments dancing associated reduced risk dementia onepoint increment cognitive activity score significantly associated reduced risk dementia onepoint increment physical activity score association cognitive activity score persisted exclusion participants possible preclinical dementia start research findings similar alzheimers disease vascular dementia increased participation cognitive activities start research associated reduced rates decline memory overall participation leisure activities associated reduced risk dementia co twin study balbag colleagues showed twins played instrument percent less likely develop dementia co twins research examined association selfreported playing musical instrument whether twins developed dementia cognitive impairment controlling sex education physical activity playing musical instrument significantly associated less likelihood dementia cognitive impairment review schneider colleagues power music concluded playing musical instrument potential protective mechanism cognitive decline among older adults studies shown improvements cognition working memory patients dementia active singing interventions maguire et al singing groups engaged three vocal music sessions week including familiar nostalgic nonfamiliar novel vocal music selections four minute singing sessions programme progressively exercised individual vocal ranges vowel placements respiratory patterns recruited cognitive engagement melodic structures musical architecture story development participants predominantly caucasian aged years old two groups one living assisted accommodation secureward dementia accommodation group divided singers listeners participation singing groups voluntary levels participation assessed throughout programme attention dozing brief periods attention singing category participation included singing time singing time singing enthusiasm music varied month focused four separate musical genres valentines day patriotic musical theatre folk patriotic music selected arranged incorporate relaxing rhythmical elements rich harmonies increased vocal range exercise along vocal lines word articulation deep breaths appropriate posture vocal resonance consistently coached promoted throughout sessions two weekly vocal music sessions live music sessions vocal music leader sang played piano accompaniment session consisted minute taped dvd recordings norovirus outbreak assisted living group led quarantine period one month middle study resulting access participants time analysis data showed independent residents significantly higher scores dementia singers dementia significantly higher scores listeners end study significant difference clockdrawing ability singers listeners dementia initially singers scored significantly higher engaging singing overall findings living independently dementia groups showed impact musical engagement memory singers significantly higher satisfaction life scores listening music norovirus outbreak may affected scores independentliving participants lower scores mental state examination clock design test score findings showed active singing programme using innovative approach led significant improvement cognitive ability individuals dementia similarly pongan colleagues aimed determine efficacy choral singing versus painting sessions chronic pain mood quality life cognition patients alzheimers disease fiftynine patients mild alzheimers disease randomised week singing painting group chronic pain anxiety depression quality life assessed immediately one month sessions singing painting interventions led significant pain reduction reduced anxiety improved quality life improved digitspan inhibitory processes however depression reduced painting group verbal memory performance remained stable time singing group decreased painting group overall findings suggest singing painting interventions may reduce pain improve mood quality life cognition patients mild alzheimers disease differential effects painting depression singing memory performance also focusing singing camic colleagues worked ten people dementia family carers singingtogether group ten weeks measures mood quality life dementia behavioural psychological problems activities daily living cognitive status measured pre post tenweek followup engagement levels monitored sessions care partners asked rate session additional qualitative information obtained interviews pre postintervention followup results showed dementia sufferers deteriorating slowly course study measures carers quality life remained relatively stable engagement levels programme high attendance excellent interviews provided strong support intervention promoted wellbeing participants randomised controlled study s\u00e4rk\u00e4m\u00f6 colleagues compared effects three different interventions working power music memory group patients dementia participant assigned one three week groupbased interventions singing listening music usual care findings showed participants singing group showed temporary improvement working memory measured backward digitspan also using randomised controlled study narme colleagues studied patients alzheimers disease mixed dementia compared effects music versus cooking interventions emotions cognition behaviour well professional caregivers intervention lasted one hour twice week four weeks findings showed music cooking interventions led positive changes emotional state decreased severity behavioural disorders well reducing stress levels caregivers benefit participants cognitive status mansky colleagues carried posthoc observational analysis zurich disability prevention trial past present musical instrument playing correlated mini mental state assessment visual analogue scale using linear regression baseline mixed model linear regression one year two hundred community dwelling adults included percent participants played musical instrument percent played past percent continued play start programme currently playing instrument higher adjusted mini mental state assessment score never played month period continued play showed significantly improvement baseline mini mental state assessment never played association remained significant even restricting analysis participants undertaken higher education time differences observed visual analogue scale although past players largest decline healthrelated quality life months overall present past musicalinstrument playing able assist preserving cognitive function communitydwelling older adults ongoing study undertaken james colleagues hannover geneva month period elderly people receiving either piano instruction musical listening awareness testing carried four time points prior research impact musical engagement memory months following training cognitive perceptual motor aptitudes well wideranging functional structural neuroimaging blood sampling researchers hope show musical activities diminish cognitive perceptual motor decline overall research date suggests music training may protect agerelated decline working memory improve performance among older adults show decline working memory importantly music training may useful prevention treatment dementia although benefits may related general wellbeing rather cognitive enhancement research shows engaging music help stave dementia kuusi colleagues examined causes death finnish professional classical musicians performing artists church musicians showed overall appeared protective effect music health although increased mortality alcoholrelated disease among female performing artists neurodegenerative diseases among male performing artists reviews metaanalyses reviews role active musicmaking visual verbal working memory mixed findings basis review franklin colleagues concluded benefits music training working memory limited auditory domain could lead enhanced verbal working memory strait kraus suggested auditory expertise gained years consistent music practice finetuned human auditory system strengthening neurobiological cognitive underpinnings music speech processing subsequently bolstering neural mechanisms underpin language related skills reading hearing speech background noise later review kraus colleagues examined biological underpinnings musicians auditory advantages mediating role auditory working memory reported associations working memory performance music training aptitude neural encoding speech moreno bidelman argued programmes aimed impact nonauditory functions necessary higher order aspects power music cognition including working memory instance visual arts may yield widespread enhancement suggested musical expertise uniquely taps refines hierarchy brain networks subserve variety auditory well domaingeneral cognitive mechanisms inferred transfer specific music experience broad cognitive benefit might mediated degree listeners musical training finetuned lower higher order executive functions coordination processes dumont colleagues review five studies reported mixed results one experimental study showed improved performance participated formal music lessons remaining four studies although reporting positive partially positive results limited rigour methodology overall seem potential benefits active engagement music methodological limitations allow clear conclusions drawn basis review benz colleagues argued music training could positive effects frequently restricted auditory domain metaanalysis examining effects music training range cognitive skills sala gobet b using random effects models showed small overall effect size slightly greater effect sizes regard memoryrelated outcomes although overall inverse relationship size effects methodological quality design studies later metaanalysis sala gobet reanalysed data previous studies including total children found music training appeared ineffective enhancing cognitive academic skills regardless type skillverbal nonverbal speedrelated participants age duration music training studies highquality designs showed effect music education cognitive performance three metaanalyses carried talamini colleagues focused short longterm working memory studies involved young adult musicians nonmusicians using tonal verbal visuospatial stimuli studies analyses included memory tasks results showed musicians performed better nonmusicians tasks involving longterm memory shortterm memory working memory analysis included moderator type stimulus presented tonal verbal visuospatial impact musical engagement memory found influence effect size shortterm working memory longterm memory musicians advantage terms shortterm working memory large tonal stimuli moderate verbal stimuli small null visuospatial stimuli three metaanalyses revealed small effect size longterm memory medium effect size shortterm working memory suggesting musicians perform better nonmusicians memory tasks although advantage moderated type stimuli baird samson reviewed literature music cognition dementia pointing different types memory impaired ways dementia argued little rigorous scientific investigation undertaken largescale randomised control studies questioned specificity effect music found beneficial pleasant activities however acknowledged music unique power elicit memories emotions could provide important link individuals past means nonverbal communication carers walsh colleagues metaanalyse focused cognitive impairment dementia outcome included studies learning play musical instrument main intervention found percent reduction risk developing dementia playing musical instrument however advised caution interpreting findings evidence base limited size methodological issues overview evidence presented chapter suggests active engagement making music positive effects aspects memory effects strongest relate aural skills active engagement music acknowledged enhance memory music stimuli presented verbally evidence impact visual skills less strong likely depend extent musicians skills include reading musical notation musicians tend greater working memory capacity nonmusicians measures musical expertise suggest trainingrelated advantages independent existing abilities musical training musical aptitude may affect memory performance among children executive functioning selfregulation executive functions enable individuals optimise performance range tasks improve concentration facilitate planning help prioritisation information promote flexibility changing strategies switching tasks adapting change diamond models executive functions postulate three related separable components inhibition inhibitory control shifting cognitive flexibility switching updating working memory updating diamond gould lehto et al logue et al miyake et al inhibition inhibitory control requires control thoughts behaviour override response priority possible responses cognitive flexibility requires individual change perspective switch task demands updating requires individuals maintain add delete manipulate items within memory executive functions develop childhood adolescence improved practice diamond diamond et al miyake et al overall executive functions include activities working memory involve control actions thoughts emotions general abilities including planning solving problems able adjust novel changing task demands diamond lezak zelazo plasticity brain continue develop lifespan although friedman colleagues argue influenced highly heritable common factor additional genetic influences unique particular executive functions supporting presented data multivariate twin study examining participants varied three elements executive functioning abilities correlated separable research himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music shown development executive function complex neural changes affected synaptic proliferation pruning myelination neurofilament neurotransmitter levels developmental trajectory time neural networks settle stable states performance three complex executive functioning tasks shown improve least age although pace improvement slowed increasing age varied across tasks best et al understanding executive functions important impact quality life performance school workplace shown improve practice diamond diamond et al means possibility trained executive functions measured several different ways inhibition control assessed range tests including stroop test stopsignal task stroop test requires participants read colour wordsfor example red blue greenpresented screen say colour font aloud congruent trials colour font word incongruent trials colour font match word neutral trials string asterisks appears stroop effect difference average correct responses incongruent neutral trials stopsignal task participants required fixate cross centre screen replaced either square circle instructed push left quickly possible see square push right quickly possible see circle quarter trials participants presented shape hear stop signal beep computer instructed withhold response hear signal trial stop signal onset stop signal adjusted participants correctly inhibit half responses performance measured stopsignal reaction timean estimate long takes inhibit already initiated response cognitive flexibility setshifting assesses ability shift one task another participants shown set five cards different figure figures switch around element example one problem figures cards might three green stars one red circle two yellow blocks four yellow crosses two red executive functioning selfregulation crosses participant sees four cards lined row one told match card one four told rule matching participant know whether match shape colour number feedback given whether participant right wrong match made trial error participant needs work rule score many correct sorts made updating working memory element executive function tends assessed using various digitspan tests instance forward test participant repeats series numbers order given reverse digitspan numbers repeated backwards spatial spans assessor touches series blocks particular order participants copy order reverse tower hanoi test also used assess working memory requires participant rearrange disks match model following specific rules instance putting large disk top smaller one goal complete task moves possible various tests used research adults childrenboth young older people great interest whether making music might enhance executive functions musicians engage making music read decipher musical notation recall music memory may improvise new material produce musical sounds also planning ahead keeping notation rhythms mind performed must monitor performance also attend auditory streams produced performers flexibly coordinate adjust sounds producing match group okada slevel managing complexity may enable individuals become effective managing equally complex tasks situations cabanac et al musical activities formal informal promote analytical thinking planning prioritising attention problemsolving executive functions serpell esposito three components executive functioning linked musical activity instance overriding expectations unexpected resolutions musical ambiguity may draw general inhibitory control mechanisms slevc okada shifting implicated ensembleplaying power music musicians must coordinate playing others group jentzsch et al palmer playing others requires able flexibly shift auditory streams loehr et al also adjust dynamically members ensemble loehr palmer moore chen updating crucial reading musical notation particularly sightreading musicians need look ahead score prepare play next expert sightreaders typically look least four notes ahead playing drake palmer furneaux land goolsby requires constant updating contents working memory holding memory played still played indeed evidence able sightread well related nonmusical measures working memory capacity meinz hambrick music used enhance executive functions multifaceted activity learning play instrument usually although always requires learner read music translate printed notation planned motor sequences develop fine motor coordination hold great deal information memory peretz zatorre formal music practice involves controlled attention long periods time keeping musical passages working memory encoding longterm memory decoding musical scores translating motor programmes activities draw complex cognitive functions illustrated brain imaging research stewart et al schon colleagues investigated brain areas involved reading musical notation using functional magnetic resonance imaging compared reading musical notation reading verbal numerical notation professional musicians required play musical notation read verbal information read numbers displayed fivekey keyboard three tasks revealed similar pattern activated brain areas playing instrument also related increased rate cortical thickness maturation dorsolateral prefrontal cortex orbitofrontal cortex areas often involved executive functions hudziak et al musically trained children also show greater blood oxygenationleveldependent responses taskswitching paradigm bilateral ventrolateral prefrontal cortex supplementary motor area zuk et al regions linked executive functioning nachev et al nee et al executive functioning selfregulation listening tapping complex polyrhythmsfor instance tapping four threerequires inhibitory control associated activation broadmann area area brain implicated processing syntax oral sign languages musical syntax semantic aspects language also associated activity anterior cingulate cortex implicated empathy impulse control emotion decisionmaking vuust et al stewart colleagues scanned musically na\u00efve subjects using functional magnetic resonance imaging taught read music play keyboard participants played melodies musical notation training activation seen cluster voxels within right superior parietal cortex consistent view musicreading involves spatial sensorimotor mapping research adults much research adults based correlations examining relationship levels musical expertise performance various tests executive function research used continuous measures musical expertise research compared performance musicians nonmusicians seen chapter range studies demonstrated musicians may advantages performance working memory compared nonmusicians demonstrated measures auditory visual working memory franklin et al fujioka et al george coch lee et al pallensen et al parberyclark et al research explored elements executive functioning instance hansen colleagues administered digit spatial span tests musical ear test nonmusicians amateur expert musicians expert musicians significantly outperformed nonmusicians digitspan test digitspan forward scores also found correlated musical ear test scores scores rhythm subtest however differences groups spatialspan task similarly strait colleagues administered standardised battery perceptual cognitive tests adult musicians nonmusicians including tasks power music less susceptible cognitive control less dependent auditory visual processing outcomes indicated lower perceptual thresholds musicians specifically auditory tasks including auditory attention group differences simultaneous masking visual attention tasks overall longterm musical practice strengthened cognitive functions benefited auditory skills also focusing auditory skills clayton colleagues investigated whether musicians would outperform nonmusicians recognising speech target multitalker cocktailpartylike environment executive function assessment included measures cognitive flexibility inhibition control auditory working memory musicians performed significantly better nonmusicians spatial hearing measures auditory working memory multiple regression analysis revealed musicianship performance multipleobject tracking task significantly predicted performance spatial hearing task confirming relationship musicianship domaingeneral selective attention working memory solving cocktail party problem research focused role music might play enhancing attention instance medina barraza explored relationship longterm musical training efficiency attentional system compared performance alerting orienting executive attentional networks professional pianists compared matched group nonmusician adults executive attentional network efficient musicians nonmusicians although differences efficiency alerting orienting networks groups findings showed efficiency executive system improved years musical training even controlling age three attentional networks nonmusicians functionally independent musicians efficiency alerting orienting systems associated similarly pallensen colleagues examined working memory musical sounds found comparisons musicians nonmusicians musicians heightened activity neuronal networks sustained attention cognitive control including prefrontal regions supplementary motor area relationship task performance activation executive functioning selfregulation patterns strongest musicians periods load working memory heaviest also focusing attention rom\u00e1ncaballero colleagues investigated attentional vigilance abilities expert musicians measure allowed assessment functioning three networks concerned alerting orienting executive controlalong two different components vigilance executive arousal vigilance fortynine adult musicians years old matched extensive set confounding variables control group nonmusicians musicians showed advantages processing speed two components vigilance specific aspects musicianship years practice years lessons correlating measures another strand research considered relationship executive functions music training bilingualism instance moradzadeh colleagues investigated whether musical training bilingualism associated enhancements specific components executive function namely taskswitching dual task performance one hundred fiftythree participants belonged one four groups monolingual musician bilingual musician bilingual nonmusician monolingual nonmusician findings demonstrated reduced global local switch costs musicians compared nonmusicians suggesting musical training contribute increased efficiency ability shift flexibly mental sets musicians also outperformed nonmusicians dual task performance cognitive advantage bilinguals relative monolinguals interaction music language findings demonstrated longterm musical training language training associated improvements taskswitching dual task performance similarly moreno colleagues explored executive functions musicians bilinguals controls participants completed visual gono go task involved withholding key presses rare targets participants group achieved similar accuracy rates response times analysis cortical responses revealed significant differences success withholding prepotent response associated enhanced stimuluslocked neural activity particularly case power music musicians compared bilinguals findings showed bilingualism music training different effects brain networks supporting executive control behaviour small amount research examined differences executive functioning different types musicians instance percussionists found outperform vocalists nonmusician controls integrated visual auditoryplus continuous performancetest inhibition slater et al much research revealed inconsistency terms impact musical activity different elements executive functioning instance zuk colleagues carried experiment adults without musical training using standardised battery executive function tests compared nonmusicians musicians showed enhanced performance measures executive function cognitive flexibility working memory verbal fluency inhibition shifting similarly helmbold colleagues studied psychometric performance musicians nonmusicians different aspects primary mental abilities verbal comprehension word fluency space flexibility closure perceptual speed reasoning number memory significant differences found musicians non musicians except flexibility closure perceptual speed musicians performed reliably better nonmusicians research older adults amer colleagues also found inconsistency investigated whether longterm music training practice associated enhancement general cognitive abilities late middleaged older adults professional musicians non musicians matched age education vocabulary general health compared neartransfer task involving auditory processing fartransfer tasks measured spatial span aspects cognitive control musicians outperformed nonmusicians neartransfer task fartransfer tasks composite measure cognitive control results suggested sustained music training involvement associated improved aspects elements cognitive functioning middleaged older adults using continuous assessment musical expertise slevc colleagues investigated relationship musical ability executive functioning selfregulation executive functions evaluating musical experience ability large group participants exploring whether predicted individual differences inhibition updating switching auditory visual modalities musical ability predicted better performance auditory visual updating tasks even controlling variety potential confounds musical ability clearly related inhibitory control unrelated switching performance similarly okada slevc used large test battery tasks related working memory inhibitory control cognitive flexibility well assessment musical training one hundred fifty participants completed tests overall data showed positive relationship individual differences musical training working memory updating ability relationship inhibition shifting authors suggested inclusion intelligence covariate may eliminated positive association musical training tasks assessing inhibition similarly brooke colleagues administered executive function battery tests containing multiple tasks assessing inhibition shifting working memory updating well comprehensive continuous measure musical training sophistication undergraduates overall data showed positive relationship individual differences musical training working memory updating ability relationship inhibition shifting differences tasks used assess shiftingor use comparisons musicians nonmusicians rather use continuous musical measures may account inconsistencies findings relation inhibition measures intelligence may acted mediators working chinese participants chen colleagues examined relationship musical training inhibitory control gono go response inhibition stroop tasks using eventrelated potentials gono go task participants press keyboard button response white shapes inhibit responding purple shapes stroop task participants presented chinese colour words printed different colours behavioural results showed music group enhanced performance compared control group stroop task groups performed similarly gono go task results power music showed individuals received music training stronger conflictmonitoring motorinhibition abilities completing interference control task musical training appeared enhance inhibitory control suggested might support psychiatric disorders addictions attention deficit hyperactivity disorder obsessivecompulsive disorder shown involve deficits inhibitory control research highlighted differences performance depending nature tasks instance fischer colleagues tested healthy adults performed magnitude pitch comparisons numbers sung variable pitch stimuli response alternatives identical relevant stimulus attribute pitch number differed tasks concomitant tasks required retention either colour location findings showed spatial association pitch powerful magnitude appeared automaticity spatial mappings either stimulus dimension travis colleagues expanded area investigation beyond executive functioning develop unified theory performance compared professional amateur classical musicians matched age gender education reaction times stroop colourword test brain waves auditory eventrelated potential task paired reactiontime tasks responses sociomoral reflection questionnaire selfreported frequencies peak experiences professional musicians characterised lower colourword interference effects faster categorisation rare expected stimuli trend faster processing rare unexpected stimuli higher scores sociomoral reflection questionnaire frequent peak experiences rest tasks sleep authors suggested findings could interpreted effectiveness influenced level mindbrain development emotional cognitive moral ego cortical development higher mindbrain development supporting greater effectiveness domain working health context siponkoskhifors colleagues explored use musical activity traumatic brain injuries particularly impairments executive functioning forty patients moderate severe traumatic brain injuries randomly allocated receive threemonth neurological executive functioning selfregulation music therapy intervention either first second half sixmonth followup period neuropsychological testing motor testing magnetic resonance imaging performed baseline three six months findings showed general executive functioning setshifting improved first group second first threemonth period effect general executive functioning maintained sixmonth followup voxelbased morphometry analysis structural magnetic resonance imaging data indicated greymatter volume right inferior frontal gyrus increased significantly groups intervention versus control periods also correlated cognitive improvement setshifting findings suggest neurological music therapy enhance executive functioning induce fine grained neuroanatomical changes prefrontal areas traumatic brain injuries furthermore kuriansky nemeth developed musical intervention work children experienced environmental trauma lead deficits executive functioning research children research indicated participation formal early music education classes linked better selfregulation skills winsler colleagues compared group three fouryearold children receiving weekly music movement classes kindermusik group experienced structured early childhood music classes enrolled music classes showed better selfregulation enrolled measured battery tests required children wait slow initiate suppress response kindermusik children also likely use range positive selfregulatory strategies including private speech attention task singing humming waiting task parentchild music therapy efficacy studies also indicated joint active music participation supports improved child parent interactions enhances impulse control selfregulation skills malloch et al pasiali galarce colleagues reported enhanced self regulation terms speaking inappropriately others brown power music sax found artsenriched programme including music helped emotional regulation skills lowincome children compared nonarts programmes several studies explored relationships active engagement music executive functions preschool children instance bugos demarie studied effects shortterm music programme including creative activities bimanual gross motor training vocal development preschool childrens inhibition thirtysix preschool children randomly assigned musical activities lego training results pre postprogramme matching familiarfigures testrequiring inhibition visual discriminationindicated fewer errors posttraining music group compared controls overall findings showed music interventions involving vocal activity improvisation pitched nonpitched instruments enhanced inhibition matching familiar figures test daynight stroop test sixweeklong intervention minutes weekly musical training compared children undertook lego training similarly development inhibition observed study finnish children undertaking musical activities home showed greater attention tasks brains responded less strongly auditory distractors compared peers putkinen et al working schoolaged children putkinen colleagues conducted longitudinal study showed children received formal musical training showed superior performance tests executive functions putkinen colleagues found musically trained preschool schoolaged children attending musical playschool showed rapid maturation neural sound discrimination comparison group china shen colleagues examined whether musical training enhanced executive function preschool children undergone previous systematic music learning participants preschool children universityaffiliated kindergarten north china experimental group underwent weeks integrated musical training including music theory singing dancing roleplay control group performed typical daily classroom activities three components executive function inhibitory control working memory cognitive executive functioning selfregulation flexibilitywere assessed executive functions tested musical training results showed childrens executive functions could promoted music training tests undertaken weeks later effects sustained highly controlled study moreno colleagues assigned four sixyearold children either computerised music training programme computerised visual arts training programme two programmes learning goals graphics design duration number breaks number teaching staff music curriculum based combination motor perceptual cognitive tasks relying primarily listening tasks included training rhythm pitch melody voice basic musical concepts visual art curriculum focused development visuospatial skills children engaged training programme two daily sessions one hour five days per week four weeks daily training children received music training showed greater gains inhibitory control children received visual arts training well greater index brain plasticity go trials gono go task children music group also showed greater improvements ability identify geometric figures basis colour ignoring irrelevant variation shape changes positively correlated changes functional brain plasticity executive function task however difference reaction times music visual arts groups similar longitudinal study netherlands jaschke colleagues examined cognitive skills primaryschool children aged six seven randomly allocated music visual art passive control groups music group significantly outperformed groups planning inhibition verbal intelligence neuropsychological tests assessed verbal intelligence executive functions findings showed children visual arts group performed better visuospatial memory tasks compared three conditions however test scores inhibition planning verbal intelligence increased significantly two music groups time compared groups quasiexperimental study children able self select take music lessons roden colleagues worked power music children aged seven eight years old month period selfselected take music lessons instrument choosing outperformed children received science lessons two tasks assessing updating ability countingspan test complexspan test working older children aged nine twelve different lengths time spent music lessons deg\u00e9 colleagues assessed five different executive functions set shifting selective attention planning inhibition fluency significant associations emerged months music lessons measures executive function adopting approach musical notation used guo colleagues investigated effect sixweek instrumental practice programme playing keyboard harmonica forty children aged six eight years old randomly assigned either experimental group untrained control group cognitive measurements included verbal ability processing speed working memory inhibitory control sixweek training experimental group showed significant improvement digitspan test especially digitspan backward test measures working memory significant influences found cognitive tests saarikivi colleagues investigated whether individual differences executive functions predicted trainingrelated changes neural sound discrimination measured eventrelated potentials induced sound changes coupled tests executive functions musically trained nontrained children two age groups high performance setshifting task indicating cognitive flexibility linked enhanced maturation neural sound discrimination musically trained nontrained children musically trained children good performance showed large neural responses sound age ranges indicating accurate sound discrimination contrast musically trained lowperforming children showed increase sound responses age suggesting behind highperforming peers development sound discrimination nontrained group highperforming children showed evidence agerelated increase neural responses lowperforming children showed small increase executive functioning selfregulation agerelated change findings suggest advantage neural development highperforming nontrained individuals agerelated increase response children performed well setshifting task irrespective music training indicating enhanced attentionrelated processes children research provided evidence children cognitive flexibility may influence agerelated trainingrelated plasticity neural sound discrimination also studying primaryaged children james colleagues performed research children aged ten twelve children received group music instruction professional musicians twice week part regular school curriculum learned play stringed instruments contrast control group sensitised music listening theory practice benefits intervention group compared control group working memory attention processing speed cognitive flexibility matrix reasoning sensorimotor hand function bimanual coordination findings highlighted added value intensive musical instrument training group setting within school curriculum working musically trained untrained children aged nine twelve zuk colleagues found musically trained children better shifting inhibition updating showed enhanced performance measures verbal fluency processing speed significantly greater neural activation rule representation taskswitching regions brain known involved executive functions compared musically untrained children focusing older children aged without musical training kausal colleagues assessed attention working memory brain activity measured functional magnetic resonance imaging participants presented pair bimodal stimuli auditory visual asked pay attention auditory visual time groups higher accuracy items instructed attend musicians overall better performance memory tasks across attention conditions musicians showed higher activation controls cognitive control regions frontoparietal control network encoding phases addition facilitated encoding power music auditory stimuli musicians positively correlated years training higher activity left inferior frontal gyrus left supramarginal gyrus structures support phonological loop working adolescents gonzalez colleagues examined whether relationship time spent musical training executive function adolescents ages completed three tests executive function tower hanoi test assess working memory wisconsin card sort test assess cognitive flexibility stroop task assess inhibition also completed musical experience questionnaire included lifetime musical practice hours adolescent musicians found improved inhibitory control relative nonmusicians inhibition scores correlated music practice time elements executive function found associated musical training findings suggest impact musical training may executive functions may unique associations certain types training inhibitory control studies worked mixed age groups instance holochwost colleagues examined whether music education associated improved performance measures executive functions participants schoolaged children first eighth grade selected lottery participate ofschool programme offering individual large ensemble training orchestral instruments executive functions assessed students performance computerised battery common executive function tasks findings showed relative controls students music education programme exhibited superior performance multiple tasks inhibitory control shortterm performance largest differences performance observed students control group participated music programme two three years although conditional effects also observed three executive function tasks students programme one year similarly hudziak colleagues assessed extent playing musical instrument associated cortical thickness development among healthy youths aged six eighteen twoyear period association cortical thickness years playing executive functioning selfregulation musical instrument followup analysis revealed music training associated increased rate cortical thickness maturation within areas implicated motor planning coordination emotion impulse regulation another mixedage study nutley colleagues focused children young people aged longitudinal study testing two years apart demonstrated musical practice positive association working memory capacity visuospatial verbal processing speed reasoning skills time points taking account parental education participation school activities participating musical activities larger greymatter volume temporo occipital insular cortexareas known associated reading musical notation changes working memory proportional number hours spent weekly practice apply measures verbal reasoning may reading notation important development least executive functions requires visuospatial working memory rapid information processing visuospatial decoding constant updating musical notation research comparisons made music training interventions similar effects found instance using secondlanguage learning control janus colleagues compared effects shortterm music training tuition french executive control pseudorandomly assigned four sixyearold children matched age maternal education cognitive scores day training programme offering instruction either music conversational french children tested verbal nonverbal tasks requiring executive control children improved tasks following training children groups better scores challenging condition judgement task correct grammar sentence necessary ignore conflict introduced misleading semantic content children training groups also showed better accuracy easier condition nonverbal visual search task posttest children french training group showed significant improvement challenging condition task research showed music may able enhance executive power music functioning alone able similarly habibi colleagues compared children receiving music training receiving sports training enrolled systematic afterschool training children music training showed stronger neural activation regions involved response inhibition cognitive inhibition task compared noactivity control group despite differences performance behavioural measures executive function however differences found music sports groups also using sport comparison group sachs colleagues investigated effects music training executive function functional magnetic resonance imaging several behavioural tasks including colourword stroop task children involved ongoing music training aged eight nine years old compared two groups children comparable general cognitive abilities socioeconomic status one involved sporting activities involved music sports stroop task children music training showed significantly greater bilateral activation trials required cognitive control compared control group despite differences performance behavioural measures executive function significant differences brain activation task performance found music sports groups results suggest systematic extracurricular training associated changes cognitive control network brain even absence changes behavioural performance whether intervention music sportsbased taken together studies indicate music may able support development executive functions children alone able research found positive relationships musical training executive functions selfregulation instance schellenberg found link music lessons measures executive function assessed trained untrained musicians aged nine twelve years old musically trained children higher digitspan scores remained range socioeconomic factors taken account differences measures overall association musical training executive function negligible similarly executive functioning selfregulation mehr colleagues conducted two randomly controlled trials preschool children investigating cognitive effects brief series music classes compared similar visual arts class notreatment control parents attended classes children participating variety developmentally appropriate arts activities six weeks childrens skills assessed four cognitive areas spatial navigational reasoning visual form analysis numerical discrimination receptive vocabulary initially children music class showed greater spatial navigational ability children visual arts class children visual arts class showed greater visual form analysis ability children music class however partial replication attempt comparing music training notreatment control failed confirm findings combined results two studies negative overall children provided music classes performed better visual arts classes assessment similarly grinspun colleagues conducted empirical study sample secondgrade school students two elementary schools one ghent belgium santiago chilewere administered musical aptitude test attention inhibitory control test statistically significant effect musical experience sustained attention cognitive flexibility audiation study explored impact different musical activities norgaard colleagues studied seventh eighth grade middleschool band students divided groups based type musical training received key area interest researchers whether students learned improvise groups received two months instruction jazz phrasing scales vocabulary experimental group taught improvise instruction part warmup routine regular band classes students tested instruction cognitive flexibility inhibitory control findings showed improvisation training different effects executive function depending students grade levels seventh grade results showed improvisation training enhanced students abilities inhibit irrelevant information although change marginally significant effect inhibition power music eighthgrade students significant change cognitive flexibility may advanced technique allowed engaged directly tonal jazz improvisation compared seventhgraders realtime evaluation musical output according tonal convention may resulted making quick adjustments performance may contributed enhanced cognitive flexibility study similar complexity bowmer colleagues investigated effect weekly musicianship training executive function abilities three fouryearold children london preschool using two phase experimental design phase one children took part eight weekly musicianship classes provided specialist music teacher children engaged nursery freeplay children receiving musicianship training improved measures relating planning inhibition skills phase two musicianship group continued music classes second group began music classes first time third group took part art intervention significant differences performance improvement three groups phase two although performance differences groups nearing statistical significance pegtapping task research older people research supported beneficial effects music training executive functions older musicians instance hannapladdy mackay studied older healthy adultsaged varying musical ability completed comprehensive neuropsychological battery groups nonmusicians low highactivity musicians matched age education history physical exercise musicians matched age starting play instrument formal years musical training musicians classified lowlevel musical group one nine years experience highlevel musical group ten years musical activity based years musical experience throughout lifespan findings showed participants least ten years musical experience performed better nonverbal memory executive functioning selfregulation naming executive processes advanced age relative non musicians several regression analyses evaluated years musical activity age commencing musical training type training variables predicted cognitive performance similarly hannapladdy gajewski researched age educationmatched older musicians nonmusicians aged assessed neuropsychological tests general lifestyle activities musicians scored higher tests phonemic fluency verbal working memory verbal immediate recall visuospatial judgement motor dexterity although differ level general leisure activities nonmusicians level education best predicted visuospatial functions musicians followed recent musical engagement offset low levels education early age engaging musical activity less nine years old predicted enhanced verbal working memory musicians analyses measures predictive recent past musical activity predicted variability across verbal visuospatial domains ageing implying early age musical engagement sustained maintained advanced age may enhance cognitive functions act buffer age education influences similarly strong mast examined similarities differences cognitive profiles olderadult instrumental musicians nonmusicians compared neuropsychological test scores among older adult nonmusicians lowactivity musicians less ten years lessons highactivity musicians ten years lessons controlling selfreported physical social activity years education overall health significant differences among groups found tasks visuospatial ability naming executive functioning significant differences found tests attention processing speed episodic memory findings support latelife cognitive benefits early musical training cognitive domains including language executive functioning visuospatial ability research adopted selfreport methods study impact making music older age instance gembris carried questionnaire study members senior amateur orchestras average age years old found music seen helping cope deal difficult situations participants singing power music activities clift et al wide range musical activities creech et al reported making music stimulates cognitive capacity including improving attention concentration memory learning executive functions attention inhibition planning monitoring meeting new challenges also selfreported improved relation musical activity hallam creech varvarigou et al intervention study older adults aged bugos et al randomly assigned six months individual piano lessons nonlesson control group found music group outperformed control group test assessed processing speed matching symbols digits significant improvements attention concentration planning cognitive flexibility working memory benefits maintained regular practice tuition needed decline followed activities ceased another study supported benefit group piano lessons executive functions verbal flexibility inhibition control older adults bugos improvement executive function significantly greater receiving music tuition compared music appreciation group consisting older adults learned musical elements listening music however groups demonstrated significantly improved executive performance similar study bugos kochar found older adults short term piano lessons improved categoryswitching verbal fluency task research aimed evaluate efficacy shortterm music programme executive functions healthy older adults thirtyfour adult participants little formal music training recruited completed battery standardised cognitive measures three time points training completion control time period training piano training programme included hours focused music theory finger dexterity exercises bimanual coordination exercises technical exercises performance duets standard piano repertoire findings showed significantly enhanced verbal fluency processing speed following training although difference found verbal memory performance study bugos examined effects bimanual coordination music interventions cognitive performance healthy older adults aged one executive functioning selfregulation hundred thirtyfive participants completed motor measures battery standardised cognitive measures week music training programme threehour practice requirement participants matched age education estimate intelligence allocated one three training programmes piano training fine motor percussion instruction gross motor music listening instruction findings revealed significant enhancements bimanual synchronisation visual scanning working memory abilities fine gross motor training groups compared listening group pairwise comparisons revealed piano training significantly improved motor synchronisation skills compared percussion instruction music listening findings suggest active music performance may benefit working memory extent benefits may depend upon coordination demands another study using piano lessons fourmonth weekly group piano lesson designed implemented professional music teacher pianist resulted improved performance stroop test older adults cognitive improvement observed older adults control group seinfeld also focusing type activity biasutti mangiacotti investigated whether cognitive training based rhythmic musical activities music improvisation exercises could positive effects executive functions older participants thirtyfive residents residential home mild moderate cognitive impairment healthy ageing randomly assigned experimental group participated cognitive music training composed biweekly minute sessions control group attended biweekly minute sessions gymnastic activities neuropsychological test battery administered baseline end programme significant improvement experimental group mental state examination verbal fluency test clockdrawing test control group show significant improvements improvement found performance attentional matrices test music group although participating gymnastics activities showed significant reduction performance evidence neuroscience shown differences frontal cortex musicians nonmusicians area power music brain implicated regulation attention gaser schlaug sluming et al musical engagement increases greymatter density frontal brain areas involved controlling musical tasks hyde et al musicians continue engage musicmaking beyond years old show less degeneration greymatter density frontal cortex practising musical instrument seems help prevent deterioration executive functions involving monitoring planning sluming et al alain colleagues using electroencephalogram investigated effects musicmaking inhibition control interference healthy older nonmusicians received three months musical visual art training musicbased intervention included use body percussion voice nonpitched musical instruments well learning basic music theory melody harmony concepts singing simple songs training provided professional music teacher transient differential neural activities observed frontocentral sites intervention groups improvement task performance using electroencephalography moussard colleagues used visual gono go task demonstrated group older musicians exhibited neural response indicating conflictdetect signal inhibition prepotent response central midline sites go go conditions compared group older nonmusicians reviews literature reviews literature drawn different conclusions relating role music enhancing executive functions moreno bidelman concluded research demonstrated robust longlasting biological benefits music training auditory function behavioural advantages conferred musical experience extend beyond enhancements perceptual abilities impact nonauditory functions necessary higherorder aspects cognition instance working memory suggest findings indicate alternative forms arts engagementfor instance visual arts training may yield enhancements suggesting musical expertise uniquely executive functioning selfregulation refines hierarchy brain networks subserving auditory well domaingeneral cognitive mechanisms argue transfer specific music experience broad cognitive benefit might mediated degree listeners musical training enhances lower higherorder executive functions coordination argued understanding impact music brain provide holistic picture auditory processing plasticity may also help inform tailor remediation training programmes designed improve perceptual cognitive benefits whether structural changes lead higher intelligence better memory stronger cognitive processing childhood continues debated later review moreno farzan concluded music training leads robust longlasting benefits behaviour extend inhibitory control neural correlates forms art engagement brain training appear yield enhancements suggest music uniquely taps brain networks concerned inhibitory control miendlarewska trost go suggest rhythmic entrainment essential mechanism supporting learning development executive functions turn may underlie enhancements reading verbal memory review loui guetta point music intrinsically creative art form requires bottomup top perceptual processing attention integration executive functions attention subset executive functioning underpins goaldirected processes including conflictmonitoring taskswitching working memory considerable research addressed effects musical training executive functions loui guetta argue findings research mixed inconclusive similarly okada slevc b argue relationships musical ability executive functions mostly demonstrated correlational studies relationships could range different explanations musical experience could draw aspects existing executive functions musical training could improve executive functions broadly observed relationships could merely reflect selection bias individuals preexisting skills useful musiclearning power music likely pursue persist continued music lessons alternatively explanations might relevant music lessons may exaggerate preexisting differences issues continue debated agreement musical experience draws particular cognitive abilities relationships musical experience cognitive abilities reflect specific abilities critical musical experience however difficult know exactly executive functions reliably related musical experience focusing issues relating ageing sutcliffe colleagues note lack intervention studies random assignment participants conditions lack wellmatched control conditions factors make difficult draw firm conclusions argue music training might valuable tool supporting healthy neuropsychological ageing mental wellbeing wellcontrolled intervention studies necessary provide clear evidence similarly review focusing older adults koshimori thaut suggest crosssectional correlational studies undertaken musicians shed light potential benefit formal musical training executive functioning brain changes prefrontal area taskbased studies consistently demonstrated individuals formal musical training differential brain activity executive function tasks relative without musical training however studies allow direct causal effects music training executive functioning brain changes demonstrated furthermore specific effects different types musical training executive function brain structure function prefrontal area still unclear examining evidence related playing piano concluded activity may beneficial effects executive functions healthy older nonmusicians complex process requiring coordination multiple sensory modalities motor control monitoring working memory inhibition attentional shifting however sample sizes studies frequently small often additional methodological limitations meant findings interpreted caution executive functioning selfregulation overview drawing firm conclusions impact musical activity executive functioning challenging range reasons studies investigate one cognitive process different assessment tasks used measure executive function makes comparisons difficult correlation studies useful identifying areas research tend use different ways categorising individuals groups musicians nonmusicians assessing different levels musical expertise research undertaken infants elderly sometimes mixedage groups leading possibility wide range confounding factors evidence also shows musical interventions different effects three elements executive functioning different research projects shown benefits working memory inhibition cognitive flexibility although clear elements executive functioning enhanced musical training might beneficial effects musical experience would pronounced populations relatively lower executive functions young children elderly adults patients neuropsychological issues overall evidence studies children adults older adults relating impact actively making music executive functions inconclusive definite conclusions drawn attention needs given type programme adopted nature musical content quality delivery participants ideally music lessons incorporate skills build one another gradual increases complexity enhance executive functions activities might usefully include reading musical notation sightreading playing ensemble practice complex polyrhythms also start children young continue many years ideally throughout lifespan generally jury still possible impact music training executive functions future research needs attempt establish clearly executive functions may implicated transfer whether relate skills become automated related requiring conscious cognitive processing combination chapter consider relationship power music executive functions measured intelligence music advantage many possible interventions enhancing executive functioning generally intrinsically motivating activity frequently offering opportunities enjoyable social interactions many aspects music trainingreading music practising playing ensemblesare likely engage executive functions many people enjoy music lessons intrinsic value music training may provide relatively easy implement naturalistic executive training programme intellectual development term intelligence used everyday life identify differences individuals way able learn carry particular tasks beyond general everyday usage clear agreement amongst scientific community regarding nature intelligence first test intelligence developed france binet simon differentiate childrens ability learn order subsequently help teachers tailor instruction meet childrens needs test included ability name objects define words draw pictures complete sentences compare items construct sentences statistical analysis data use test revealed responses highly correlated leading spearman suggest single underlying general intelligence factor became known g factor generally accepted relate abstract thinking including ability acquire knowledge adapt novel situations benefit instruction experience terman developed american version binets test stanfordbinet intelligence test similarly made tests vocabulary memory pictures naming familiar objects repeating sentences following commands also evidence specific intelligences one distinction fluid intelligencewhich refers capacity learn new ways solving problems learning crystallised intelligence refers accumulated knowledge crystallised intelligence increases age fluid intelligence tends decrease age since initial conceptualisations many types intelligence proposed instance thurstone proposed seven clusters primary mental abilities word fluency verbal comprehension spatial ability perceptual speed numerical ability inductive reasoning memory recently sternberg proposed triarchic theory intelligence includes analytical himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music creative practical intelligence contrast gardner proposed eight intelligences linguistic logicomathematical spatial musical kinaesthetic related movement intrapersonal personal insights interpersonal interacting others naturalistic relating plants nature research exploring impact musical activities intelligence tended focus general intelligence although exceptions one commonly used tests research wechsler adult intelligence scale wais consists different tasks including working memory arithmetic ability spatial ability general knowledge world waisiv yields scores four domains verbal perceptual working memory processing speed tests nonverbal reasoning rely literacy skills also developed ravens progressive matrices one commonly used element requires testee identify missing element complete pattern recently concept emotional intelligence emerged traced back work thorndike referred concept social intelligence described ability understand manage people gardner within framework multiple intelligences elaborated concept include intrapersonal interpersonal intelligence former relating capacity understand oneself use information regulate ones life latter capacity understand intentions motivation desires others currently two constructs emotional intelligence ability emotional intelligence focuses ability process emotional information use navigate social environment mayer et al although evolved include abilities accurately perceive emotions access generate emotions assist thought understand emotions emotional knowledge reflectively regulate emotions promote emotional intellectual growth mayer et al contrast trait emotional intelligence trait emotional selfefficacy concerns emotionrelated selfperceptions trait emotional intelligence proposed petrides furnham conceptualised aspect personality measured selfreport daniel golemans book popularised concept emotional intelligence intellectual development model proposed seen combining ability trait emotional intelligence empathy typically associated emotional intelligence relates individual able connect personal experiences others role music development empathy discussed chapter nature nurture ongoing contentious debate intelligence whether determined genetic environmental factors clearly intelligence determined genetic factors alone musical interventions impact nowadays increasingly recognised measured intelligence iq determined genetic predisposition environmental factors although whether operate additively interact continues fiercely debated considerable research undertaken attempt identify gene genes responsible intelligence research shown intelligence within normal range polygenic traitin words influenced one gene case intelligence least genes traditional additive genetic models shown intelligence extremely high heritability levels research shown extremely malleable sauce matzel suggest intelligence unusual properties create large number hidden gene environment networks allow contribution high genetic environmental influences individual differences iq argue current research methods underestimate gene environment interplay inflate estimates genetic effects turn deflate estimates impact environment provide evidence shows cognitive gains children adoption immigration changes heritability across life span also present evidence gains population iq time relating societal development slowdown agerelated cognitive decline gains intelligence early education acknowledge high heritability intelligence could emerged independent genetic effects high malleability could arisen independent environmental effects suggest cannot account individual differences conclude gene environment power music interplay key understanding intelligence given present state evidence brain imaging provided basis research neurobiology intelligence highlighting important functional structural anatomical regions implicated greymatter volume thickness whitematter integrity function temporal frontal parietal cortices goriounova mansvelder genomewide association studies made possible show percent associated genetic variants coded functional protein likely regulatory function different stages neural development genes produce functional proteins implicated range neuronal functions including synaptic function plasticity cell interactions metabolism energy recent research cellular neuroscience shown positive correlations dendritic size action potential speed iq much still understood underpins individual differences intelligence considering relationship music language intelligence jung haier developed model parietofrontal integration theory highlights structural links common areas specifically shared neural structures prefrontal cortex anterior cingandulate region within temporal lobes research along indicating malleability intelligence suggests music interventions may able enhance intelligence also exploring genetic environmental influences music iq mosing colleagues undertook co twin study based twins phenotypic associations moderate although relationship disappeared controlling genetic shared environmental influence twin highly trained music higher iq untrained twin findings strongly suggested associations musical training iq causal correlational comparative research adults correlational studies shown engagement music enhance skills contribute scores intelligence tests evidence suggests longer training greater intellectual development impact corrigall et al deg\u00e9 et al schellenberg relationships musical training intelligence remain range confounding variables related family background taken account corrigall et al deg\u00e9 et al schellenberg b schellenberg mankarious example schellenberg b studied undergraduates ranging age years old either least eight years extracurricular private music lessons lessons musically trained participants higher scores untrained counterparts iq composite score verbal nonverbal subtests advantages evident even gender parents education family income first language held constant similarly corrigal schellenberg studied relationships cognition personality participation music lessons length participation one hundred eighteen adults children aged ten twelve completed personality cognitive ability tests cognitive ability associated duration musical involvement even demographic variables controlled swaminathan colleagues examined whether link intelligence musical expertise better explained formal music lessons musical aptitude musically trained untrained adults completed tests nonverbal intelligence ravens advanced progressive matrices musical aptitude also provided information music lessons socioeconomic status duration music training associated positively socioeconomic status nonverbal intelligence melodic rhythmic aptitude intelligence music aptitude also positively associated association musical training intelligence remained controlling socioeconomic status disappeared controlling musical aptitude although musical aptitude strong correlation intelligence even accounting music training socioeconomic status association music training intelligence may arise highfunctioning individuals likely individuals strong aptitude music therefore take music lessons research focused particular aspects intelligence instance anaya colleagues assessed visuospatial power music sequence learning memory abilities longterm musicians recruited highly trained musicians nonmusicians completed visuospatial sequence learning task receptive vocabulary nonverbal reasoning shortterm memory tasks findings showed musicians enhanced visuospatial sequence learning abilities relative nonmusicians also performed better vocabulary nonverbal reasoning measures large difference observed visuospatial sequencing task remained even controlling vocabulary nonverbal reasoning short term memory abilities criscuolo colleagues explored relationships general intelligence executive functions musical expertise one hundred one finnish healthy adults grouped musicians amateur musicians nonmusicians administered wechsler adult intelligence scale iii weschler memory scale iii stroop test matched range variables musicians exhibited higher cognitive performance nonmusicians tests linear regression showed significant positive relationships executive functions working memory attention duration musical engagement controlling possible confounding variables focusing fluid intelligence meyer colleagues administered test battery including measures episodic memory working memory attention executive function processing speed undergraduate students range musical expertise three groups students identified expert group begun musical training age ten younger engaged music ten years longer selfrated three five two likert scales relating sightreading skills improvisation skill musical amateurs included one year musical training nonmusicians less one year musical training typically training findings showed musicians extensive experience scored significantly higher fluid cognition attention working memory tests executive functions processing speed intellectual development nonmusicians less welltrained musicians statistically significant difference amateur nonmusicians subtests one exception executive function test amateur musicians performed better nonmusicians regression analysis using age onset training length music training relation fluid intelligence showed two factors accounted almost percent variance age onset predicted fluid intelligence relationship length music education significant subscores two factors accounted almost percent variance subscore speed processing age starting musical training predicted speed processing relationship length music education significant regression analyses subscores yielded nonsignificant results silvia colleagues adopted bifactor modelling approach study data sample young adults varied substantially musical expertise participants completed range tasks measured several lowerorder abilities fluid intelligence crystallised intelligence verbal fluency auditory discrimination ability simple correlations showed music training correlated four lower order abilities bifactor model however found music training general strong association general intelligence g specific moderate association auditory ability relationships research adults focused relationship musical reading skills instance swaminathan colleagues sought clarify whether positive association music lessons reading ability found adults explained better shared resources processing pitch temporal information general cognitive abilities participants varying levels musical training native nonnative speakers english research assessed reading ability music perception skills general cognitive ability including nonverbal intelligence shortterm working memory socioeconomic status association reading music training significant socioeconomic status native language music perception skills controlled general cognitive abilities held constant longer association reading music training suggested power music association reading ability music training consequence general cognitive abilities research shown positive relationships musical training intelligence instance schellenberg moreno recruited undergraduates basis musical background half extensive training music least eight years lessons played regularly three years less participating remaining participants little musical training participants responded tests pitch processing completed ravens progressive matrices assess nonverbal reasoning musicians exhibited superior performance musical tests measure general intelligence similarly helmbold colleagues compared adult musicians nonmusicians psychometric performance verbal comprehension word fluency space flexibility closure perceptual speed reasoning number memory significant differences found either mean fullscale scores specific aspects mental abilities except flexibility closure perceptual speed subtests musicians performed reliably better nonmusicians also comparing musicians nonmusicians brandler rammsayer studied differences range cognitive tasks including verbal comprehension word fluency space closure perceptual speed reasoning number memory significant differences found either mean full scale scores specific aspects intelligence except verbal memory reasoning performance verbal memory reliably higher musicians nonmusicians nonmusicians performed significantly better four subscales cattells culture free intelligence test correlation comparative research children long interest relationship musical training intellectual development many early studies focused general intelligence might underpin musical ability beckham fracker howard hollingworth later studies explored nature relationships antrim bienstock ross address issues causality intellectual development led arguing reason relationships intelligent children drawn participate musical activities farnsworth ross since early studies evidence children take musical instrument frequently higherlevel academic skills prior participating musical activities feldman matjasko fitzpatrick gibson et al hille et al kinney ruthsatz et al schellenberg schellenberg mankarious however always case habibi et al learning play musical instrument often related socioeconomic status families family makeup support opportunities musical engagement bugaj brenner costagiomi elpus abril kinney schellenberg weiss intervention studies establish direction causality overall number correlational comparative studies children adopting crosssectional approach schlaug colleagues compared nine elevenyearold instrumentalists average four years training control group findings showed instrumental group performed significantly better control group musical audiation lefthand index finger tapping rate vocabulary subtest wisciii intelligence test however nonsignificant trends phonemic awareness test ravens progressive matrices mathematics test similarly loui colleagues showed children played musical instrument half hour week higher scores verbal ability intellectual ability well higher axial diffusivity left superior longitudinal fasciculus play correlation number hours practice week axial diffusivity left superior longitudinal fasciculus suggested relationship musical practice intellectual ability related maturation whitematter pathways auditory motor system research focused multiple intelligences instance singh colleagues studied performance multiple intelligences indian children comparing iq scores recruited school children ages government private schools towns cities villages across power music india children administered multipleintelligences questionnaire consisting truefalse questions assess intelligences seven domains including linguistic skills logical mathematical abilities musical skills spatial intelligence bodily kinaesthetic skills intrapersonal intelligence interpersonal intelligence iq scores assessed ravens standard progressive matrices findings showed different students possessed different forms intelligences students one form intelligence seven forms intelligence threelogicomathematical musical spatialwere positively correlated iq scores swaminathan schellenberg focused links musical expertise language ability sample six nineyearold children language ability measured tests speech perception grammar musical expertise assessed range tests musical ability musical training associated positively performance grammar test musical ability iq openness age overall findings showed musical ability predicted language ability independent iq confounding variables links music language seemed arise primarily pre existing factors formal training music schellenberg colleagues undertook series studies exploring relationships musical engagement intelligence children instance schellenberg administered standardised tests intelligence approximately children adults varied widely extent musical experiences outside school findings showed among children cognitive performance positively associated months music lessons even holding constant parents education family income duration involvement associations strongest aggregate measure intelligence association musical activity particular subtests general intelligence held constant later study schellenberg compared musically trained untrained nine twelveyearolds measure iq five measures executive function musically trained children outperformed untrained children across four subtests three iq scores test used findings replicated reported earlier schellenberg b however association musical training intellectual development executive function negligible corrigal schellenberg collected data ten twelveyearold children including demographic information measured cognitive ability duration music lessons associated positively age socioeconomic status duration nonmusical extracurricular activities iq school performance concluded observed associations musical involvement cognition highly unlikely solely consequence music training comparative study hille colleagues explored impact different types musical activities intelligence tested boys aged eight nine years old half learned play musical instrument nonverbal measures intelligence higher boys playing instrument moderate effect size difference nonverbal measures intelligence found boys sang choir overall active participation choir lessons called first experiences music show benefits associated learning play instrument deg\u00e9 colleagues investigated whether association music lessons intelligence mediated executive functions intelligence five different executive functions set shifting selective attention planning inhibition fluencywere assessed nine twelveyearold children varying amounts music lessons significant associations emerged music lessons measures executive function executive functions mediated association music lessons intelligence measures selective attention inhibition strongest contributors effect results suggested least part association music lessons intelligence explained positive influence music lessons executive functions turn improved performance intelligence tests also focusing executive functions schellenberg compared musically trained untrained nine twelveyearolds measure iq five measures executive function findings showed iq executive function correlated musically trained group higher iqs untrained counterparts advantage extended across iq subtests however association music training executive function negligible results power music support hypothesis association music training iq mediated executive function jaschke colleagues adopted different approach assessing exposure musically enriched environment including listening music home play attending concerts questionnaire administered sample primaryschool children also completed verbal intelligence section wechsler intelligence scale wisc iii performed executive sub function tasks planning working memory inhibition short term memory task linear multiple regression analyses showed significant relationship exposure musically enriched environment executive subfunctions planning inhibition working memory shortterm memory experiencing musically enriched environment serve predictor higher performance executive sub functions although influence verbal intelligence intervention studies research adopted retrospective approach studying relationship active engagement music intelligence showing enhanced performance musicians range intellectual skillsis able address issue causality take playing musical instruments may higher iq scores first place although evidence regarding mixed intervention studies address issue also served demonstrate complexity issues involved establishing relationship musical engagement intelligence early study hurwitz colleagues assigned firstgrade children two groups one receiving kodaly music lessons five days week seven months one control group receive musical tuition end study experimental group scored significantly higher control group three five sequencing tasks four five spatial tasks statistically significant differences found verbal measures although children experimental group higher reading achievement scores control group maintained two academic years following early study gromko poorman compared preschool children group engaging weekly musical activities intellectual development control group found threeyearolds participating study intellectually stimulating environment resulted gain ability perform spatialtemporal task element intelligence test similarly bilhartz colleagues studied relationship participation structured music curriculum cognitive development four sixyearolds half children participated week minute weekly music curriculum parent involvement following children tested six subtests stanfordbinet intelligence test young child music skills assessment test significant gains music group music test stanfordbinet bead memory subtest series studies costagiomi colleagues costa giomi ryan completed longitudinal study effects piano instruction childrens cognitive abilities children randomly assigned experimental control group child received free instruction two groups children comparable start study terms musical ability cognitive abilities academic achievement mathematics language motor skills two years instruction children experimental group obtained significantly higher scores cognitive ability tests spatial scores however differences found three years additionally differences quantitative verbal cognitive abilities two groups found two years study followup study conducted seven years completion lessons showed differences groups similarly analysis tenyear followup costagiomi ryan showed differences iq memory initial gains became negligible time improvements small temporary seem depended level childrens commitment effort three years percent variance cognitive improvement explained childrens attendance lessons time spent practising committed gained costagiomi carefully controlled study schellenberg randomly assigned large sample children four different groupstwo received music lessons standard keyboard kodaly voice lessons year control groups received instruction non musical artistic activity drama lessons four groups exhibited increases iq would expected time period music power music groups reliably larger increases fullscale iq effect size children control groups average increases points music groups increases points two subtests music group larger increases control groups notably music groups larger increases four indexes measured specific abilities verbal ability spatial ability processing speed attention catterall rauscher review literature reanalysis schellenbergs data argue gains seen general iq likely result specific gains visuospatial intelligence although may also effects related enhanced development language literacy skills recent study moreno colleagues b devised two interactive computerised training programmes focus music art days training children music group exhibited enhanced performance measure verbal intelligence changes positively correlated changes functional brain plasticity executive function task authors suggested indicated impact musical engagement intelligence could related executive functions similarly jaschke colleagues b studied primaryschool children aged six seven years old followed years participants randomised four groups two music intervention groups one active visual arts group noarts control group neuropsychological tests assessed verbal intelligence executive functions additionally national data academic performance available children visual arts group performed better visuospatial memory tasks compared three conditions however test scores inhibition planning verbal intelligence increased significantly two music groups time compared visual art noarts controls mediation analysis executive functions verbal iq mediators academic performance showed possible fartransfer effect executive subfunction academic performance scores tehran iran kaviani colleagues worked preschool children kindergarten sixty children aged five six years old randomly assigned two groups one receiving twelve minute music lessons othermatched sex age mothers educational levelnot receiving music classes intellectual development children tested start music lessons end four subtests intelligence scale findings showed statistically significant increase iq participants receiving music lessons specifically verbal reasoning shortterm memory subtests although differences numerical visual abstract reasoning abilities israel research children aged six twelve also found causal effect music training intelligence children assigned twoyear music training programme larger increases general intelligence compared control group intervention portowitz klein portowitz et al working spain carioti colleagues tested students middle school beginning first class beginning second class seventytwo students able access music curriculum previous music experience without accessed standard curriculum prior music experience without longitudinal comparison four groups students revealed students experiencing music curriculum better performance tests general cognitive abilities visuospatial skills memory tests studying children low socioeconomic backgrounds barbaroux et al evaluated impact classical music training programme particular reference general intelligence auditory visual attention working shortterm memory findings showed music training improved total iq symbolsearch scores well concentration abilities rose colleagues investigated effects musical instrument learning development cognitive skills seven nineyearold children pre posttest measures intelligence memory compared children received either extracurricular musical training statutory school music lessons results showed significant association musical aptitude intelligence overall children receiving extracurricular lessons showed significant increase iq pointsin comparison points receiving standard school music lessons significant differences found memory comparison two different music interventions james colleagues undertook cluster randomised controlled trial showed musical instrumental practice comparison traditional power music sensitisation music led multiple transfer effects cognition sixtynine children aged ten twelve received group music instruction professional musicians twice week part regular school curriculum intervention group learned play string instruments whereas control group sensitised music listening theory practice broad benefits manifested intervention group compared control group working memory attention processing speed cognitive flexibility matrix reasoning research shown increases iq relating active participation musical activities instance mehr colleagues conducted two randomised controlled trials american preschool children average aged four years old compared participation music classes participation visual arts classes parents attended classes children classes ran six weeks total hours relatively unstructured musical activity involved singing work percussion instruments movement children tested spatial navigational reasoning visual form analysis numerical discrimination receptive vocabulary first experiment children music group showed greater spatial navigational ability children visual arts class showed greater visual form analysis however partial replication another group children confirm findings working secondary primaryaged students two studies rickard colleagues reported impact increase schoolbased music training range cognitive psychosocial measures ten thirteenyearolds first study benefits increased frequency classroombased music classes compared drama art lessons second study compared effects introducing new classroombased music programme new drama programme primaryschool students assessments obtained baseline approximately six months implementation programme benefits school music classes apparent although trends interest observed nonverbal intelligence verbal memory intellectual development music emotional intelligence evidence group musicmaking support development emotional intelligence instance petrides colleagues investigated trait emotional intelligence study music students found positive relationship trait emotional intelligence scores length musical training research supported conceptualisation trait emotional intelligence construct general emotionality contrast research assessing ability emotional intelligence resnicow colleagues worked undergraduate students found relationship ability recognise emotions performances classical piano music measures emotional intelligence required individuals identify understand reason manage emotions using hypothetical scenarios emotional intelligence emotion recognition music task significantly correlated suggests identification emotion music performance draws sensibilities make everyday emotional intelligence also evidence music training enhances sensitivity emotions speech thompson colleagues revealed music lessons promoted sensitivity emotions conveyed speech prosody musically trained adults outperformed untrained adults identifying sadness fear neutral emotion sixyear olds randomly assigned one year keyboard lessons performed equivalently drama group better nolessons group identifying anger fear adopting different approach theorell colleagues explored whether musical activities contributed prevention alexithymia inability describe ones emotions eight thousand swedish twins aged studied completed toronto alexithymia scalea musical achievement scaleand estimated number hours musical practice different periods life findings showed alexithymia negatively associated musical creative achievement played musical instrument total hours musical training ensembleplaying associations musical training alexithymia remained significant controlling education depression intelligence power music musical achievement musical practice associated lower levels alexithymia concluded musical engagement associated higher emotional competence although effect sizes small research exploring relationships music making emotional intelligence found positive relationships seems depend whether emotional intelligence measured trait behavioural disposition abilitya skill processing emotional information using everyday life music training seems related emotional intelligence trait petrides et al rather ability trimmer cuddy working undergraduates found emotional intelligence music training music perception abilities successfully predicted identification intended emotion speech melodic analogues ability recognise cues emotion accurately efficiently across domains may reflect operation crossmodal processor rely gains perceptual sensitivity related music training similarly schellenberg b studied undergraduates ranging age years old least eight years extracurricular private music lessons lessons musically trained participants scored higher untrained counterparts test emotional intelligence despite research children found positive relationships understanding emotions music training instance schellenberg mankarious found seven eightyearolds least eight months formal musical training mainly private individual lessons showed positive association music training emotional ability although seemed mediated higher levels general intelligence also evidence music enhance emotional competence among children supports engagement learning adushkina korea two studiesshin lee examined effect music therapy lowincome elementaryschool childrens emotional intelligence music programme consisted singing listening music songwriting findings showed intellectual development statistically significant increases emotional intelligence compared control group also korea kim kim adopted quasiexperimental design children received weekly group musical instrument performance class regular music class control group children received regular music class part elementaryschool curriculum emotional intelligence anxiety aggression assessed beginning end week intervention musical instrument performance programme improved ability perceive emotions reduced physical verbal aggression statistically significant effect level total emotional intelligence anxiety aggression studies older adults research focused general cognitive functions older adults saw chapters evidence impact music cognition older people instance executive functions including various aspects memory attention processing speed planning amer et al bugos et al bugos bugos deg\u00e9 kerkovius diaz abrahan et al grassi et al hannapladdy gajewski hannapladdy mackay hars et al strong mast also improvements cognition working memory patients dementia evidence musical activity prevent cognitive decline camic et al maguire et al mansky et al pongan et al s\u00e4rk\u00e4m\u00f6 et al pilot study socioeconomically diverse older adults macaulay colleagues presented interim data effect music training thirtyfive socioeconomically diverse older adults mean age completed programme participants took part weekly onehour recorder lessons underwent comprehensive pre postintervention neuropsychological assessments results indicated improved executive function global cognition verbal fluency visual memory performance following intervention research suggested music training cognitively stimulating activity reallife applications older people retrospective study fancourt colleagues examined whether lifetime musical training associated power music neuropsychological performance memoryclinic population older patients total patients average age almost years old included crosssectional analysis participating patients referred memory clinic due cognitive impairments participants assessed using neuropsychological assessment battery also provided information whether played musical instrument least five years lives outcomes neuropsychological test results differed based extent musical training overall differences domains cognitive functioning patients musical training performed worse wordlist memory tasks however relationship varied based extent cognitive impairment patients cognitively unimpaired musical training showed better wordlist learning whereas patients cognitive impairments musical training performed worse wordlist learning word list recall overall little evidence associations specific neuropsychological test results musical training cognitively unimpaired patients evidence musical training beneficial associations patients cognitive impairment suggestions negative associations verbal memory largescale study mansens colleagues used data participants aged older longitudinal aging study amsterdam multivariable linear regression analyses performed test association time spent making music cognitive functioning making music significantly positively associated letter fluency learning attention shortterm memory although time spent making music yielded significant results participants played instrument compared participants made music performed better learning working memory processing speed processing speed instrumentonly group also higher score participants sang making music least every two weeksand especially playing musical instrumentwas associated better attention episodic memory executive functions overall research date suggests music training may protect agerelated decline working memory may improve performance among older adults show decline working intellectual development memory music training may also useful prevention treatment dementia reviews metaanalyses reviews metaanalyses relating role music general cognition inconsistent findings \u010drn\u010dec colleagues concluded music instruction conferred consistent benefits spatialtemporal reasoning skills however improvements associated academic domains arithmetic reliably shown similarly jaschke colleagues review research children aged four thirteen suggested results research exploring effects active engagement music cognitive development either inconclusive contradictory differences methods adopted different types music education studied dumont colleagues focused role music child development based detailed examination studies argued research impact music interventions indicated positive effects variety skills may support educational processes childrens development although possible draw definitive conclusions seven studies sufficient evidence results random controlled trial showed effects two experimental studies yielded mixed results three quasiexperimental longitudinal studies longitudinal development study suggested partial positive impact music evidence five experimental longitudinal studies suggested benefits memory although methodological limitations six quasiexperimental studies exploring impact attention executive functions two reported positive outcomes five studies focusing working memory seemed suggest positive influence music protzko colleagues reviewed five metaanalyses randomised controlled trials raising iq children found supplementing deficient child multivitamins raised iq providing iodine supplements learning play musical instrument also enhanced iq although role iron supplements executive function training unreliable papageorgi also concluded active engagement musicmaking particularly power music playing musical instrument benefits cognitive development kraus chandrasekaran argued although convincing evidence overall benefits engagement music many questions remain unanswered evidence suggests music training facilitates cognitive development clear whether improvements effect music training cognitive load involved process learning playing musical instrument facilitates development range cognitive skills sala gobet carried two metaanalyses establish whether available data supported association music cognitive skills first analysis examined studies results random effect models showed small overall effect size slightly greater effect sizes regard intelligence memoryrelated outcomes also inverse relationship size effects methodological quality study design results suggested music training reliably enhance children young adolescents cognitive academic skills later metaanalyses sala gobet reanalysed data previous studies conducted included total children analysis revealed music training appeared ineffective enhancing cognitive academic skills regardless type skill verbal nonverbal speedrelated participants age duration music training authors found studies highquality design used group active controlslike children learned different skill dance sportsshowed effect music education cognitive academic performance small effects found studies include controls participants randomly assigned intervention control groups similarly cooper conducted random effect metaanalysis measure overall mean effects music training cognitive measures schoolchildren results showed small medium overall effects compared active control groups music training yielded improvement range cognitive measurements studies result large effect sizes significant moderators related methodological quality rendered overall findings non significant additional moderator analysis showed clear advantage intellectual development cognitive function findings differ relation type music intervention overall suggested music training may positive impact cognition schoolchildren may advantages compared interventions overview overall taking findings together would appear active engagement making music impact intelligence cognitive development although frequently however research highlights great many issues firstly nature intelligence problematic research point view includes many different subskills likely benefit musical interventions others demonstrated previous chapters nature relative importance relationship executive functions measured intelligence also problematic area type musical interventions duration intensity quality continue possible confounding factors also issue relation role active control groupsfor instance sport drama dance visual art difference outcomes musical training activities indeed taking dietary supplements seems assumption impact musical activities fact may activities make contribution cognitive development music greater impact cognition sport necessarily mean music impact indeed preference individual activities contribute motivation subsequent propensity maintain activity long period time high levels intensity great commitment factors important determining impact cognition might expected active engagement music would support development emotional intelligence question music profound impact moods emotions arousal levels understanding music develops may support development understanding emotions generally research date entirely support although evidence impact musical training trait emotional intelligence power music stronger ability intelligence trait emotional intelligence conceptualised aware ones emotions musicians relates performance musica key element convey emotionis clear musicians creativity understanding researching creativity presents many challenges several different approaches adopted one strand research focused characteristics creative people second considered process creativity various stages research concerned outcomes creativity words products another strand considered environment emphasising social cultural influences development expression creativity hennessey amabile describe creativity process original suit particular purpose others viewed creativity process normal cognitive processes lead moment insight order discover produce something new perkins torrance argues key component creativity ability generate something novel unique guilford proposed heart creativity divergent thinkingthe ability generate new information solutions given information goal divergent thinking generate many associations solutions possible without relying guidelines constraints gibson et al many approaches assessing creativity example cs\u00edkszentmih\u00e1lyi studied characteristics individuals judged made significant creative contributions society simonton differentiated big c creativity said occur person solves problem creates object major impact society little c creativity seen daily basis someone adapts change comes new ways understanding problem measure little c divergent thinking guilfords alternative uses task participants list several possible creative uses common household items newspaper brick paperclip correct himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music answers participants produce many unique creative uses domainspecific theories creativity emphasise non transferability expertise one creative domain another baer theories supported findings creative individuals rarely creative domainsfor instance individual known creativity physics rarely also renowned creativity musician kaufman baer baer also low correlations individuals creative output different domains baer domainspecific theories consistent evidence big c creativityideas represent huge leap forward fieldrequire specific knowledge skills domain turn requires extensive practice learning contrast domaingeneral theories emphasise generalisability creative thinking across different domains hong milgram domaingeneral view supported personality studies suggest creative personality type martindale daily feist batey furnham evidence people express different creative domains outputs bear recognisable style gabora et al attempting address issue rootbernstein focused scientists musicians ways used musical knowledge inform scientific work rootbernstein argued music science two ways using common set tools thinking unify disciplines explored notion creative individuals usually polymaths think ways cross disciplines increasingly scholars taking less dichotomous view creativity incorporates domainspecific domaingeneral elements kaufman baer b gabora mechanisms crossdomain creativity suggested tested empirical studies instance palmiero colleagues even creative individuals tend express one domain necessarily mean prior phases creative process domainspecific instance rootbernstein demonstrated artistic ideas stimulate creativity scientists scotney colleagues demonstrated influences creativity come diverse sources conducted musicians creativity two studiesone creative experts recruited internet undergraduate students diverse academic backgrounds participants listed creative outputs things influenced sources inspiration associated outputs categorised groups within subject domain outside subject domain studies cross domain influences creativity found widespread indeed frequent within domain sources inspiration results demonstrate even individuals primarily express creativity single domain often employing crossdomain thinking engaged creative activities neurological studies creativity one strand research explored neurological basis creativity instance limb braun studied neural substrates spontaneous musical performance jazz improvisation using functional mri found improvisation compared production overlearned musical sequences consistently characterised dissociated pattern activity prefrontal cortex extensive deactivation dorsolateral prefrontal lateral orbital regions focal activation medial prefrontal cortex may reflect combination psychological processes required spontaneous improvisation internally motivated stimulusindependent behaviours unfold absence central processes typically mediate selfmonitoring conscious volitional control ongoing performance changes prefrontal activity improvisation accompanied widespread activation neocortical sensorimotor areas mediate organisation execution musical performance well deactivation limbic structures regulate motivation emotional tone distributed neural pattern may provide cognitive context enables emergence spontaneous creative activity similarly liu colleagues used functional mri study neural correlates creativity using freestyle rap multidimensional form creativity interface music language participants scanned performed two tasks used identical power music eightbar musical background track spontaneous improvised freestyle rap conventional performance overlearned wellrehearsed set lyrics task contrast analyses indicated improvised performance characterised dissociated activity medial dorsolateral prefrontal cortices providing context stimulusindependent behaviours may unfold absence conscious monitoring volitional control connectivity analyses revealed widespread improvisationrelated correlations medial prefrontal cingulate motor perisylvian cortices amygdala suggesting emergence network linking motivation language affect movement lyrical improvisation appeared characterised altered relationships regions coupling intention action conventional executive control may bypassed motor control directed cingulate motor mechanisms functional reorganisations may facilitate initial improvisatory phase creative behaviour freestyle rap compared conventional rehearsed performance using functional magnetic resonance imaging results showed activation medial deactivation dorsolateral cortices may provide context selfgenerated action freed conventional constraints supervisory attention executive control facilitating generation novel ideas altered relationships within prefrontal cortex appeared widespread functional consequences affecting motivation emotion language well motor control may generalise forms spontaneous creative behaviour gibson colleagues compared classical music students similar students behavioural tasks using near infrared spectroscopy uses near infrared region electromagnetic spectrum nm nm findings showed musicians increased convergent divergent thinking compared nonmusicians infrared spectroscopy revealed greater bilateral frontal activity may nonmusicians rely left hemisphere undertaking divergent thinking musicians using fmri de aquino colleagues found different role supplementary motor area insula musicians nonmusicians controlled musical creativity task rhythmic improvisation task musicians musicians creativity showed greater activation motor supplementary area anterior cingulate cortex dorsolateral prefrontal cortex insula along greater deactivation default mode network comparison nonmusicians also positive correlation time improvising activation supplementary motor area musicians nonmusicians improvisation time correlated activation insula appears musicians supplementary motor area plays role representation execution musical behaviour nonmusicians insula plays role processing novel musical information findings also showed correlations general creativity score brain activity performance magnetic resonance task absence correlations suggests musical creativity cerebral behavioural point view specific musical field related creativity capacities general domains correlational comparative research musicians one strand research compared performance musicians nonmusicians tests creativity instance research higher education musicians engineers charyton snelbecker found musicians scored higher general artistic creativity significant differences scientific creativity musicians statistically higher levels measured general creativity creative attributes creative temperament cognitive risk tolerance similarly gibson colleagues compared classical music students similar students musicians scored higher creativity tasks including version guilfords alternative uses task nonmusicians infrared spectroscopy revealed greater bilateral frontal activity musicians palmiero colleagues studied relationship musical expertise involve improvisation training divergent thinking expert selftaught musicians tested musical verbal visual divergent thinking compared group nonmusicians verbal visual divergent thinking musical task required participants generate different pieces music using happy birthday starting point verbal task power music required participants list unusual uses cardboard box visual task asked complete drawings adding details basic stimuli fluency flexibility originality scores measured task overall expert musicians showed higher creative scores musical verbal domains selftaught musicians verbal creative tests performed better nonmusicians group difference found relation visual creative task musical expertise enhanced musical divergent thinking also verbal divergent thinking effect seemed specifically supported formal musical training similarly sovansky colleagues investigated level musical expertise engagement creation music related divergent thinking musically trained adults sixty participants varying musical expertise tested divergent thinking using modified version alternative uses task participants listed creative uses two music items two nonmusic items findings showed musicians created music listed creative uses music items nonmusicians musicians create music nonmusic items differences divergent thinking kleinmintz colleagues adopted different approach comparing performance divergent thinking tasks three groups musicians trained improvisation trained improvisation group nonmusicians participants shown list five common objectsshoe button stapler drinking glass cardboard boxand asked list many alternative uses possible object within period ten minutes trying think original uses participants also instructed evaluate deviance rating item fivepoint rating scale ranging deviant highly deviant improvisation group scored higher fluency originality compared two groups authors concluded deliberate practice improvisation enhanced creativity non improvisation group participants reported playing classical music well styles improvisation group much diverse styles played quarter reporting playing jazz findings study suggested musicians trained improvisation creative musicians without improvisation training nonmusicians musicians creativity high school university music students shown score higher tests creativity nonmusic majors particularly marked ten years music education hamann et al hamann colleagues assessed creativity among highschool students determine whether significant differences existed creativity scores taking account gender grade point average varying degrees participation arts significant differences found among creativity scores participants gender jazz experience visual art experience combined arts experience almost variation could attributed influence grade point average significant creative mean score differences however found relation participants musical experience theatre experience influence grade point average covariate considered differences music students working areas arts however greater musical expertise assessed number units music classes taken greater creativity students ten years music education higher creativity scores fewer ten years experience hamann et al working highschool music students nonmusic students simpson found music students scored higher several elements guildford tests creativity working younger children grades two four six kiehn compared music improvisation eightynine randomly selected participants given two measures creativity vaughan test musical creativity torrance test creative thinking two independent judges scored responses vaughan test determine music improvisational creativity significant gradelevel difference emerged music creativity scores grade two students scoring significantly lower grade four six students suggests may musical creativity growth stage grades two four followed levelling significant changes test scores grade four six weak statistically significant correlation found music creativity figural creativity power music personality musicians creativity domaingeneral theories creativity emphasise generalisability creative thinking across different domains suggesting creativity transfer across domains hong milgram personality research supports suggesting may creative personality type batey furnham feist martindale daily additionally individuals express different creative domains outputs often recognisable style gabora et al hughes colleagues studied relationship personality selfrated creativity participants completed multidimensional measure selfestimated creativity selfrated personal characteristics questionnaire big five personality measure trait openness predicted measures selfestimated creativity similarly dollinger colleagues studied relationship personality measures creativity college students completed test creative thinking inventory past creative accomplishments big five personality test creative personality adjective check list related creativity measures big five openness experience measure findings latter particularly compelling together studies suggest general personality characteristic related creativity research shown musicians tend personalities high levels openness experience means potential creative supporting corrigall colleagues study adults ten twelveyear old children collected demographic information measured aspects cognitive ability administered big five personality test findings showed personality characteristic openness associated duration musical involvement exploring issue different types musicians benedek colleagues researched college students studying jazz classical folk music collected data musical practice attainment personalities jazz musicians showed higher levels divergent thinking engaged creative musical activities higher levels achievement activities classical musicians spent great deal time practising competitions musicians creativity folk musicians extroverted jazz musicians showed higher ideational creativity measured divergent thinking tasks tended open new experiences classical musicians overall jazz musicians showed particularly high creativity respect domainspecific musical accomplishments also terms domaingeneral indicators divergent thinking ability may related differences formal informal ways practising learning adopted different musical groups jazz musicians attaching importance informal practice placing lower value technical perfection competitions may individual differences creative potential may relevant realisation domainspecific creative activities achievements case musical improvisation well researching personality differences subgroups musicians according types employment instrument group vaag colleagues investigated differences personality traits professional musicians general workforce members norwegian musicians union answered questionnaire regarding type employment instrument group shortened version big five personality inventory responses compared sample general norwegian workforce answered personality questionnaire norwegian generation gender survey findings showed musicians displayed higher degrees openness experience general workforce especially evident among freelance musicians combined freelance work employment within instrument groups vocalists scored highest openness experience similarly gjermunds colleagues investigated big five personality traits musicians nonmusicians found musicians significantly higher scores openness nonmusicians typical personality trait musicians focusing rock popular musicians gillespie myors examined personality characteristics rock popular musicians aged years old completed selfreport versions personality inventory questionnaires musical background group whole scored significantly norm openness background factorssuch instrument played power music type music performed time spent playing level musicianship commercial successmoderated findings yondem colleagues compared music art students found differences groups openness sandgren found musicians score highly measures openness nonmusicians intervention studies major national reports arts emphasised importance developing range transferable skills including related creativity critical thinking naccce evidence demonstrating relationship musical skills creativity address issue causality requires intervention research controls compared participating musical activities intervention intervention studies focusing impact active musicmaking general measured creativity early study wolff studied effects minutes daily music instruction entire year firstgraders participating exhibited significant increases creativity perceptual motor skills compared controls similarly kalmar studied effects singing musicalgroup play twice weekly three years preschool children three four years age found children scored higher controls creativity higher levels abstraction showed greater creativity improvised puppet play passanisia colleagues conducted study determine whether participation group musical activity would enhance interpersonal relationships creativity nineyearold students significantly greater degree participation musical activities performances williams creative thinking test wctt test interpersonal relationships two class groupsa musical group nonmusical group compared measuring changes pre posttest data results indicated experimental group compared control group made significant gains scores imagination interpersonal relationships particularly peers focusing improvisation lewis lovatt musicians creativity carried two experiments showed minutes verbal musical improvisation significantly improved scores divergent thinking assessed alternative uses task also showed novel generation music increased scores playing learned melodies development creative skills seems particularly dependent type musical engagement supported koutsoupidou hargreaves compared two matched groups sixyearolds period six months music lessons experimental group enriched variety improvisatory activities control group include improvisation didactic teachercentred children experimental group offered opportunities experience improvisation voices bodies musical instruments websters measure creative thinking music administered sixmonth teaching programme assess childrens creative thinking terms four musical parameters extensiveness flexibility originality syntax analysis revealed improvisation significantly improved development creative thinking particular promoted musical flexibility originality syntax childrens musicmaking similarly sowden colleagues focused potential simple artsbased improvisation activities enhance divergent thinking skills creativity primary schoolaged children undertook two experiments first compared effect children taking part improvised versus non improvised dance class subsequent performance instances task creative toy design task second experiment children took part verbal acting improvisation games matched control games completing figural activity experiments children took part improvisation interventions showed better divergent thinking creativity fritz colleagues attempted see making music physical exercise combined would beneficial divergent thinking investigated relationship physical exertion control music divergent thinking wondering whether interaction effect seventyseven young german participants tested measurements divergent thinking collected either physical exercise music listening making music without power music physical effort undertaking physical exercise musical feedback music feedback exercise condition exercise machine modified movement sensor continually transmitted position computer modified musical material create musical feedback fritz et al b based current position sensor effectively transformed machine analogue musical instrument music produced included harmonically rhythmically complex components described experimental electronic music participants completed three questionnaires assessing demographic information alternative uses task perceived musical control mood feelings touch music perceived creativity experiment demonstrated music feedback exercise condition significantly increased participants scores alternative uses task effects divergent thinking observed physical exercise music listening music controlonly conditions investigating whether background music would impact creative performance ritter ferguson tested whether listening specific pieces music four classical music excerpts systematically varying valence arousal compared silence control condition would facilitate divergent convergent creativity creativity higher participants listened classical music high arousal positive mood performing divergent creativity task participants performed task silence effect music found convergent creativity creativity later life much research considering impact creative musical activity wellbeing later life despite relatively little research considering whether engaging musical activities specifically enhances creativity generally exception research studied songwriting activities studies reported range positive findings relating wellbeing creech et al baker ballantyne found group songwriting among older adult retirees promoted happiness meaningfulness engagement perceived enhance creativity broadly musicians creativity although musical creativity continue throughout lifespan also develop first time later life instance varvarigou colleagues reported yearold previous musical training participating community music project wrote song support musical expert subsequently performed publicly reviews metaanalyses compared areas research relatively reviews relating role music enhancing creativity running drew firm conclusions concluding research needed loui guetta argued music performance requires perceptual processing bottomup topdown attention integration executive functions creativity entails unconstrained thought processes yield novel output argued considering seemingly disparate aspects cognitive function tandem might promote cohesive conceptualisation music within cognitive science generally overview evidence shows musicians whole tend score higher nonmusicians tests creativity personality characteristic openness related creativity whose musical activities creative instance improvisation composition tend respond positively however mean actively engaging music enhances creativity may tend towards openness drawn musical activities require creativity little evidence intervention research suggesting making music improves creativity unless musical activities creative nature implications music education general attainment considerable research exploring relationship actively making music academic attainment correlational nature although intervention studies researching impact musical activity academic attainment extremely challenging range reasons instance may areas academic achievement affected equally various ways music may impact learning children young people interactive models needed begin unravel complexity one bronfenbrenners bioecological model bronfenbrenner morris takes account interactions process person context time case music means considering length time engaged music learning demands musical training characteristics individual immediate learning environment broader social environment individual inhabits research must also take account different types attainment outcomes general attainment attainment particular subject domains nature musical activities engaged quality implies need complex statistical analysis take account interactions earlier chapters explored impact literacy numeracy visual auditory competence chapter mainly focuses attainment across several subjects correlation comparative studies kinney examined sixth eighthgrade urban middleschool students achievement test scores fourth grade sixth eighthgrade enrolment performing group ensemble participation band choir none well socioeconomic status home himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music environment included fourth sixthgrade achievement tests consisted reading mathematics citizenship science eighth grade tests included reading mathematics social studies science language arts reading writing listening speaking viewing visual representation analyses indicated significant differences socioeconomic status ensemble participation higher socioeconomic status students scored significantly higher subtests except fourth sixth eighthgrade reading sixthgrade band students scored significantly higher choir students nonparticipants every subtest sixth fourthgrade achievement tests eighthgrade band students scored significantly higher nonparticipants fourth grade reading mathematics every subtest eighthgrade achievement test except social studies similar results cohorts suggested playing band may attract higher achieving students outset test score differences remained stable time rather enhanced musical activities india swaminathan gopinath examined english secondlanguage abilities musically trained untrained primary school children participants tested verbal subscales intelligence test designed indian children english word reading test musically trained participants performed significantly better tests comprehension vocabulary persisted comparisons made untrained group taking account academic subjects hong kong tai colleagues investigated relationship extent outcome hong kong students musical training perceptions value subjects studied academic achievement total students primary grades four five six single school reported extent outcome musical training including number instruments studied number years spent training highest grade level achieved findings showed music training positively predicted academic achievement chinese english mathematics similarly yang colleagues examined relationship longterm music training child development based chinese elementary school students academic development first second language mathematics findings showed musician children outperformed nonmusician children musical general attainment achievement secondlanguage development although music training correlated childrens final academic development first second language mathematics independently contribute development first language mathematical skills focusing attainment across school subjects wetter colleagues retrospective study compared school performance children engaged active musicmaking controls engaged musicmaking overall average marks well average marks school subjects except sport significantly higher children actively engaged making music multiple regression analysis musical training parents income educational level correlated significantly overall average marks slight decrease overall average marks four years grades three six found control group musical training appeared help maintain school performance high level time schellenberg studied relationship music lessons intelligence academic performance two studies first examined relationship music lessons intelligence academic achievement social adjustment six elevenyearolds second examined association childhood music lessons academic achievement undergraduates findings showed music lessons associated academic achievement studies greater exposure music lessons childhood associated higher scores measure academic achievement higher elementary school high school grade point average associations held even taking account parental education family income study participants involvement nonmusical ofschool activities england hallam rogers drew nationally available data attainment age relating students played musical instrument explore impact music training academic progress ages findings showed young people playing instrument showed greater progress better academic outcomes impact greater longer young person engaged playing instrument instrumentalists performed nearly one standard power music deviation better almost measures play instrument age despite negligible differences age learning four five years best results multiple regression analyses undertaken length time playing instrument better predictor attainment english age total points score calculated across examination subjects total number points scored performance best eight examinations age playing instrument made statistically significant contribution performance age across measures musicians showed greater progress two examinations nonmusicians learning longest period time made greatest progress also considering influence music progression time dos santos colleagues analysed academic performance music non music students seventh ninth grade controlling socioeconomic status intelligence motivation prior academic achievement data collected adolescents two time points students eleven fourteen years old seventh grade three years later findings showed music students performed better academically non music students seventh grade ninth grade difference particularly evident scores portuguese language natural science difference weaker history geography least pronounced mathematics english longitudinal analysis revealed better academic performance music students controlling prior academic achievement indicating greater progress two assessment points change remained intelligence socioeconomic status motivation controlled research clear cut results instance schneider klotz compared impact enrolment music performance classes band choir athletic extracurricular activities activities academic achievement students grades five nine participating schools adopted cross section different types music programmes results showed although mean scores musicians higher non musicians non athletes participation music conclusive factor predicting statistically higher academic scores general attainment groups although musicians score higher athletes time gap widened findings indicated factors enrolment performing music class affected outcomes findings also indicated overall drop standardized test scores ninth grade students seen student musicians largescale research considerable amount research based large statewide national datasets evidence correlation studies usa shown students participate music education better peers many measures academic achievement instance using statewide data abeles reported groups second grade children participated weekly violin programme three lessons every two weeks outperformed non violin group controls performance mathematics language arts tests morrison using data national centre educational statistics representing students showed high school students participated music reported higher grades english mathematics history science participate similar outcomes reported cardarelli fitzpatrick trent number doctoral theses also supported findings cobb gregory miranda schneider underwood zanutto china yang investigated whether music participation related academic achievement within context representative population level data adjusted array socio demographic factors well early academic achievement impact music practice educational outcomes analysed using multivariate regression individual fixed effects findings suggested childhood musical activity either playing instrument singing related positively educational achievements adolescence magnitude significance estimated music coefficients different music indicators robust increasing amount individual family control variables size music estimates decreased effect parental education leisure activities previous educational achievements held constant power music usa fitzpatrick studied students attending columbus public schools ohio compared performance statewide test academic attainment instrumental music students non instrumental classmates students fourth sixth ninth grades students like socioeconomic status compared performance tests citizenship mathematics science reading findings showed instrumental students outperformed noninstrumental students every subject every grade level instrumental students levels socioeconomic status higher scores noninstrumental classmates fourth grade suggesting instrumental music programmes attracted higher scorers outset instruction however findings also showed pattern increased achievement lower socioeconomic status instrumental students surpassed higher socioeconomic status noninstrumental classmates ninth grade subjects similarly thorton conducted statewide comparison test scores students involved voluntary music classes ensembles students involved activities scores almost students three grades tested state grades five eight eleven included significantly higher scores found students involved music compared students involved would seem additional time spent music activities disadvantage students academically also using statewide data research focused students participate statewide ensembles instance henry braucht found successful young musicians usa participated statewide ensembles also higher sat scores state averages southgate roscigno using two national data sets eclsk us kindergarten students nels adolescents three measures music participationin school outside school parental involvement form concert attendancefound music involvement varied systematically class gender involvement implications mathematics reading achievement young children adolescents associations music achievement persisted even prior achievement taken account evidence social class variation within school music involvement adolescents early general attainment childhood effects class parental music involvement strong consistent samples mediator educational outcomes music involvement significant mathematics reading achievement generally increased achievement levels although gains distributed equally among students white student advantage existed may relate type musical activity engaged opportunities afforded students performance may contribute enhanced selfesteem increased motivation working young children families australia williams colleagues investigated parentchild home music activities sample children participating programme growing australia longitudinal study australian children frequency shared home music activities reported parents children two three years old outcomes measured parent teacher report direct testing two years later children four five years old series regression analyses controlling sociodemographic variables found frequency shared home music activities small significant partial association measures childrens vocabulary numeracy bookreading shared home music activities frequency shared home music activities maintained small partial associations measures attention numeracy evidence largescale studies shown positive outcomes music tuition instance elpus examined college entrance examination scores music nonmusic students united states drawing data education longitudinal study nationally representative education study analyses highschool transcript data showed million students graduated high school earned least one course credit music fixed effects regression procedures used compare standardised test scores music students nonmusic peers controlling demography prior academic achievement time use attitudes toward school findings indicated music students outperform nonmusic students standard assessment tests systematic differences controlled statistically pattern results remained consistent robust internal replications another standardised mathematics test disaggregating power music music students type music studied similarly miksza using data national education longitudinal study sample created composite item assessed student participation music entire duration study eighth twelfth grade measured academic achievement mathematics reading comprehension science social studies significant differences subtests initial testing favour participated band choir orchestra rates change mathematics science social studies greater music participants reading achievement music participants increased slowly nonparticipants later study miszka using data educational longitudinal study multilevel modelling able take account wide range individual factors including socioeconomic status minority status peer influence music participation school level factors including number music teachers outcome variables standardised mathematics scores composite community ethics score included strong friendships helping people community working correct social economic inequalities composite school commitment variable including late arrival skipping class absence school music participation related outcome variables controlling individual schoollevel factors students highschool music ensembles likely higher standardised mathematics achievement scores concerned community ethics committed school study germany hille schupp used german socioeconomic panel study longitudinal data establish impact musical training attainment database included detailed assessment intensity duration music activities representative youth cohorts school results allowed consideration wide range parental characteristics findings attainment age taking account wide range individual family characteristics showed children playing instrument age eight seventeen taken lessons outside school scored one sixth standard deviation higher children playing instrument similarly canada gouzouasis colleagues found positive relationship music achievement grade general attainment academic achievement grade courses among representative dataset comprising secondary school students british columbia taking account prior attainment thus able focus progress guhn colleagues carried multilevel mixed model analysis british columbia canada students grades seven twelve compared mean examination grades students took school music courses took none across courses english science mathematics students took school music courses significantly higher raw mean examination grades students took music courses mean differences ranged english science results multilevel model adjusting previous academic achievement socio demographic covariates cultural background neighbourhood showed exam grade means across academic subjects significantly higher took music relative students took music adjusted mean differences grades ranged english science comparisons made type music engagement instrumental vocal academic achievement throughout secondary school grades ten twelve results indicated differences examination means students took school music took school music significantly differed type school music significant interaction music participation type music observed outcomes english grades science grade mathematics grade students took instrumental music courses significantly higher examination mean scores students took vocal music courses across academic subjects instrumental versus vocal music differences mean examination grades particularly pronounced mathematics science grade compared english grades additionally compared students took music classes students took vocal music well students took instrumental music average significantly higher examination means vocal music students examination means higher students took music students took instrumental music examination means grade power music english grade mathematics higher students took music grades vocal instrumental school music classes predicted academic achievement regression results indicating significant positive linear associations grades vocal instrumental school music classes academic grades adjusting covariates results indicated associations music grades academic achievement examination scores significantly varied type school music solely vocal solely instrumental interaction music grades type music significant subjects english grades science grade mathematics grade vocal music oneunit increase overall mean music vocal grade associated predicted increases examination means subjects ranging english grade mathematics grade associations music grades academic examination scores significantly higher overall mean instrumental music grades coefficients ranging english grade mathematics grade higher levels music engagement assessed number courses taken related higher examination scores subjects pattern pronounced high engagement instrumental music medium effect sizes compared vocal music small effect sizes effect sizes group differences greater effect sizes corresponding average annual gains students academic achievement high school words highly engaged instrumental music students average academically one year ahead peers positive relationships music engagement academic achievement independent students previous grade achievement sex cultural background neighbourhood socioeconomic status considerable magnitude findings suggest multiyear engagement music especially instrumental music may benefit high school academic achievement although quality music teaching clearly important whether music impact academic attainment relatively little research taken account exception work johnson memmott studied elementary middleschool students four states usa showed strong relationship general attainment third fourthgrade students academic achievement participation music programmes analysis elementary school data indicated students exemplary music education programmes scored higher english mathematics standardised tests counterparts highquality instruction although effect sizes small analysis middleschool data indicated english mathematics students exceptional music programmes deficient instrumental programmes scored better music classes poorquality choral programmes effect sizes moderate overall higher quality programme higher academic attainment usa exploring issues related college entrance kaufman gabler assessed cultural capital extracurricular activities girls boys college attainment process using data national education longitudinal survey aimed assess specific causal role activities played college attainment process research examined extracurricular activities relation two different levels college attainment enrolment fouryear college university enrolment one nations elite selective universities found general college level handson training arts appeared improve students chances going college enhancing human capital cultural capital contrast direct exposure arts appear improve students chances going elite college although parents interested arts research disadvantaged populations evidence el sistema sistema inspired projects indicated positive impact participating musical activities attainment uk programme based schools deprived areas smithhurst reported one year participation programme children years one four one school achieving better scores mathematics reading writing compared peers involved ninety percent children reaching target grades maths compared percent involved programme similar trends evident reading power music percent programme children reaching target grades compared percent programme writing percent compared percent burns bewick reported two years participating programme children engaged music hours per week percent children progressed four levels maths percent reading percent writing compared national average three levels despite fact participants included high proportion children special educational needs however rate improvement slowed participation continued programme chile ega\u00f1a de sol showed positive effect academic attainment verbal mathematics skills attributed part participants holding higher expectations academic achievements although evaluations programmes chile mixed results programmes positive results others impact evaluaci\u00f3n de impacto programa prequestas juveniles e infantiles programmes usa indicated increased academic attainment outcome participation children achieving roll honour status particularly children participated extended period time creech et al creech colleagues review el sistema sistema inspired programmes concluded exceptions studies demonstrate significant steady improvement academic attainment achieving targets cases outperforming comparison groups maths reading writing evidence effects may cumulative related prolonged engagement programmes page intervention research research exploring links participation musical activities attainment based correlation analysis precludes demonstration causality particularly many possible confounding factors also possibility music programmes may attract students already amongst highest attaining arnettgary costagiomi harrison hodges oconnell klinedinst schellenberg general attainment shobo yoon overall evidence correlation studies shown students participate music education tend better peers many measures academic achievement although exceptions demonstrate causality requires intervention studies small number experimental studies effects participation music general attainment findings mixed several smallscale doctoral theses focused issue including hoffman legette found effect music instruction hines studying students learning difficulties kindergarten ninth grade found neither reading mathematics achievement affected type music instruction motoric non motoric another smallscale study cabanac colleagues compared performance students participated music programme single school canada found music students consistently higher attainment subjects merh colleagues conducted two random controlled trials preschool children investigating cognitive effects brief series music classes compared similar nonmusical form arts instruction visual arts classes notreatment control consistent typical preschool arts enrichment programmes parents attended classes children participating variety developmentally appropriate arts activities six weeks classes childrens skills four distinct cognitive areas assessed older arts trained students reported excel spatial navigational reasoning visual form analysis numerical discrimination receptive vocabulary findings showed initially children music class showed greater spatial navigational ability children visual arts class children visual arts class showed greater visual form analysis ability children music class however partial replication attempt comparing music training notreatment control failed confirm findings combined results two comparisons negative overall children provided music classes performed better visual arts classes assessment holochwost colleagues examined whether music education associated improved performance measures power music academic achievement executive functions school aged children grades fiftyeight percent female percent africanamerican selected lottery participate outofschool programme offering individual large ensemble training orchestral instruments measures academic achievement standardised test scores grades english language arts mathematics taken participants academic records executive functions assessed students performance computerised battery common executive function tasks findings indicated relative controls students music education programme scored higher standardised tests earned better grades english language arts mathematics exhibited superior performance selected executive function tasks shortterm memory analyses revealed although largest differences performance observed students control group received music programme two three years conditional effects also observed three executive function tasks students programme one year wallick examined effects pullout string programme student achievement writing reading mathematics citizenship sections ohio proficiency test one hundred fortyeight fourthgrade string students fourthgrade non string students southwestern ohio city school district abilitymatched according performance verbal section cognitive abilities test scores ohio proficiency test recorded compared results revealed significant difference favour string students achievement reading citizenship although significant differences two matched groups writing mathematics also usa barr colleagues described programme improvement listening skills order increase academic performance sample consisted elementary students middleclass community problem ineffective listening skills documented data revealing number students whose lowered academic performance thought deficiency listening skills staff reported students weaknesses effective listening skills negatively impacted academic performance three major categories intervention general attainment adopted direct teaching effective listening skills student ownership selfmonitoring effects using music classroom week period interventions students showed notable improvement academic achievement adopting drama comparison group haywood colleagues evaluated act sing play programme offered music drama tuition year two pupils aim programme evaluate whether music workshops greater impact drama workshops terms pupils mathematics literacy attainment programme ran one academic year pupils participated schools england participating year two class pupils randomly allocated one three groups violin cello workshops singing lessons drama workshops workshops held week weeks findings provided evidence music workshops greater impact maths literacy attainment drama workshops also applied children disadvantaged families unusual study undertaken schiltz researched highly gifted children adolescents suffering school failure beginning adolescence treated integrated form music psychotherapy verbal psychotherapy five separate groups treatment combined active musical improvisation writing stories production drawings induced music followed verbal elaboration cognitive psychodynamic psychotherapeutic tradition metaanalysis confirmatory results five subgroups showed significant increase concentration school marks reviews metaanalyses years several reviews impact engagement music academic attainment arnettgary costagiomi hodges oconnell schellenberg shobo yoon undertaken recently benz et al dumont et al sala gobet discussed challenges limitations research offered explanations variability empirical findings complexity power music musical activities potential affect childrens social emotional cognitive experiences together made challenging formulate theoretical frameworks account wide range empirical findings miendlarzewska trost synthesised large body studies demonstrating benefits musical training extended beyond skills music aims train last adulthood argued children undergo musical training better verbal memory second language pronunciation accuracy reading ability executive functions learning play instrument child may even predict academic performance iq young adulthood addition degree observed structural functional adaptation brain correlates intensity duration practice effects cognitive development depend timing musical initiation well moderating variables suggest motivation reward social context musical education important yet neglected factors affect longterm benefits musical training propose notion rhythmic entrainment mechanism may support learning development executive functions temporal processingorienting attention time may underlie enhancements observed reading verbal memory overall conclude musical training uniquely engenders near fartransfer effects preparing foundation range skills thus fostering cognitive development winner cooper quantified results existing research conducting five metaanalyses studies assessing effects arts education academic achievement studies examined effects arts general rather specific art forms instance music dance researchers found evidence positive relationship arts education academic achievement found increase verbal mathematics achievement sala gobet undertook two metaanalyses assessing effect chess music instruction childrens cognitive academic skills third metaanalysis evaluated effects working memory training findings showed effect sizes studies inversely related quality experimental design pattern results cast serious doubts effectiveness chess general attainment music working memory training later review sala gobet presented metaanalysis music intervention studies children found small overall effect size active controls implemented effect practically null even later review revealed similar findings sala gobet analysis data children showed quality study design controlled overall effect music training programmes null highly consistent across studies small statistically significant overall effects obtained studies implementing random allocation participants employing nonactive controls concluded music training ineffective regardless type outcome measure verbal nonverbal speedrelated participants age duration training concluded researchers optimism benefits music training empirically unjustified stemmed misinterpretation empirical data possibly confirmation bias also adopting metaanalytic approach gordon colleagues considered impact music engagement reading studies included music training control groups pre postcomparison measures indication reading instruction constant across groups thirteen studies identified including children two classes outcome measures emerged sufficient overlap support metaanalysis phonological awareness reading fluency hours training age type control intervention examined potential moderators results supported hypothesis music training led gains phonological awareness skills analyses revealed transfer effects rhyming skills tended grow stronger increased hours training contrast significant aggregate transfer effect emerged reading fluency measures although studies reported large training effects explanations research findings many different explanations mixed research findings proposed suggested changes music participation brain responsible range cognitive academic benefits explanations relate enhanced executive functions length types programme quality power music personality characteristics motivation participating children young people neurological studies kinds skills gained learning play instrument including auditory audiation reading executive skills different instruments example keyboard string percussion wind instruments shown impact auditory motor regions brain hyde et al discussed earlier chapters music processing playing instruments related activity many different areas brain gaser schlaug koelsch et al koelsch siebel musicians compared nonmusicians tend enlarged structures parts brain instance left planum temporale cerebellum gaser schlaug hutchinson et al schlaug et al b changes suggested implications cognitive functions chan et al ho et al number studies shown structural differences grey matter white matter children engage music particularly early childhood compared fernandez groussard et al habibi et al huotilainen tervaniemi pantev herholz benner colleagues found heschls gyrus multiplications occurred much frequently musicians general population constituted functional unit heschls gyrus schneider colleagues observed increases greymatter volume heschls gyrus hg musicians compared nonmusicians linked greater musical aptitude audiation gordon gouzouasis audiation involves complex internal musical processing memory anticipation cognitive processes overlap executive functions research reported neural changes alongside significant differences associated reading skills sound processing skills speech chobert et al moreno et al trainor et al structural changes observed brain may impact enhanced cognitive processes lead enhanced academic attainment evidence supports research findings mixed dumont et al gordon et al jaschke et al sala gobet general attainment adding complexity understanding findings research impact music attainment schlaug tervaniemi point research musicians treated unified group demands musical activities equal terms perceptual cognitive motor functions clearly case differentiated terms instrument play musical genre engage well approach practice saw chapter neuroscientific evidence shown differences musicians parts brain develop response musical activities diversity generally taken account research general attainment length engagement music several studies shown longer engagement music greater impact attainmentfor instance catterall corrigal colleagues hallam rogers schellenberg despite authors described changes observed participants one month several studies effects largest two three years holochwost et al observed two years learning music holmes hallam schneider klotz overall evidence suggests longer programme greater impact corrigall et al deg\u00e9 et al hetland time intensity programmes also pointed important habibi et al learning play orchestral band instrument high level expertise involves cumulative learning students typically beginning learn early age putting many hours practice become professional musician takes years dedicated work process perceptual cognitive motor skills refined enable musicians undertake complex tasks required solo ensemble work intervention studies cannot mirror level engagement subsequent impact musicrelated skills possible transfer areas comparisons expert musicians nonmusicians revealed power music type nature quality musical training type musical training quality important determining impact academic attainment significant variation quality training instruction studies dumont et al foster jenkins sala gobet musical activities take many forms composition improvisation theory vocal instrumental music require different forms learning practice instance learning play musical instrument usually entails reading musical notation handeye spatial coordination physically playing instrument skills distinct involved vocal training particularly choral singing differences impact neurological change may impact executive functions factors motivation typically research taken account differences however exceptionsfor instance kinney considered multiple forms music education elementary school found positive associations instrumental music participation academic achievement tests association choral students habibi colleagues suggested playing others associated greater development auditory skills executive functioning need overcome organise auditory information well improve attention concentration guhn colleagues took account many variables well level commitment interactions found higher levels musical achievement may indicate higher levels commitment may lead greater exposure various cognitive social emotional motivationrelated experiences turn may support academic achievement quality music interventions also raised example johnson memmott examined relationship academic achievement participation music activities across nearly participants concluded higher quality programme stronger relationship similarly rauscher experienced difficulties implementation first two years music programme end study children received one year highquality tuition gains students general attainment role executive functions attainment one possible explanation impact actively engaging music making enhanced academic attainment mediating role executive functions deg\u00e9 et al jaschkeet al slevc et al core competencies executive functioning include self regulation informationmonitoring working memory flexibility changing tasks diamond required musicmaking particularly ensembles musicians shown outperform nonmusicians various executive functions moradzadeh et al zuk et al benefits memory particularly aural verbal memory also demonstrated bergman et al oechslin et al roden et al frontal lobe hypothesised particularly salient executive functions miyake et al stuss alexander music training childhood early adolescence found related lasting changes corpus callosum superior temporal gyrus middle temporal gyrus schlaug et al steele et al executive functions saw chapter shown linked academic performance best et al cort\u00e9s pascual et al slevc et al visupetra et al cognitive flexibility working memory processing speed planning zuk et al may support academic attainment audiation may represent underlying mechanism differences executive function abilities well various facets instrumental music learning connected music learning may enhance executive functions audiation turn may benefit learning capacity broadly previous research suggests even though musicrelated cognitive gains may extent domainspecificfor instance verbal visual memory ho et al commonly relate range cognitive domains forgeard et al schellenberg personality factors music students may also conscientious nonmusic students may explain successful school would indicated iq scores one personality factor particular power music interest relation attainment conscientiousness may mediating factor explaining differences young musicians nonmusicians certainly evidence undergraduate music students exhibit conscientiouslike traits kemp marchant haycox wilson although composers rock musicians less conscientious general population gillespie myors kemp corrigall colleagues pointed participation music might influence changes personality way interact better achievement school found individual differences conscientiousness helped explain school grades may selfdisciplined likely persevere learning musical instrument costagiomi observed children three years began continued discontinued lessons completed three years lessons responsible disciplined able concentrate however traits characterised students started learn instrument change result music instruction another explanation comes research butkovic colleagues found musicspecific flow proneness best predictor time spent practising openness experience motivation intelligence taken account motivation motivation clearly key factor development highlevel musical expertise also enhancing academic attainment motivation discussed depth chapter however process music trainingwhich frequently includes hours practice typically solitude lengthy time commitmentmight develop habit selfdiscipline desire achieve likely support enhanced academic attainment students learn hard work lead mastery complex skills desired learning outcomes may develop sense selfefficacy selfbelief impact areas study musicbased intervention programmes shown improvements selfesteem confidence discipline motivation among young people hallam et al students involved music appear show high levels intrinsic motivation general attainment diaz higher levels musical engagement relate stronger academic selfconcept deg\u00e9 et al students engaging musical activities part group may experience sense team bonding accomplishment adderley et al contribute positive learning climate various elements may interact time context learning also important music academic work supportive enhance attainment rewarded success musically academically also promotes motivation motivational socioemotional pathways may underlie associations music learning learning subjects complex interplay internal external factors likely influence learners motivation participate continue longterm engagement school musicmaking eccles wigfield shape adolescents conception musical ability value place music sichivitsa largescale study mcpherson oneill found learning play instrument sing seemed contribute higher motivation subjects language mathematics science participating musical activities also affect aspirations enhance motivation subsequently attainment particularly case children deprived areas devroop instance engaging el sistema sistema inspired programmes creech et al participating musical activities may enhance attainment providing opportunities explore develop different ways learning including focused perception making connections imagining new possibilities burton et al overview overall evidence regarding impact engaging music academic attainment mixed evidence intervention studies limited correlational comparative studies identify clear links criticised demonstrating causality research adopted retrospective longitudinal approach able demonstrate actively engaged making music make greater progress academically time compared actively engaged making music underpins power music greater improvement attainment time less clear relationship may mediated neurological changes relating aural phonemic spatial memory skills executive functions length type quality training personality motivational factors research able take account factors able develop credible explanatory models music studying great deal research impact music cognitive activities related studying many different factors contribute outcomes including type music nature task undertaken individual differences relationship individual particular music involved considered chapter many studies address several issues simultaneously study considered relation main focus theories attempting explain various findings also outlined confusion reporting research studies music presented prior task undertaken become known mozart effect research music played background task undertaken different approaches frequently considered equivalent considered separately listening music prior completing task positive effect listening music prior undertaking cognitive task first associated music mozart group college students performed spatialtemporal task listened mozarts sonata two pianos major kv performance compared groups either listened relaxation recording sat silence completing task group listening mozart performed significantly better groups rauscher et al second study using mozart composition repetitive music short story replicated findings rauscher et al since research many studies attempting replication findings mixed examples set himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music rideout taylor studied undergraduates completed two equivalent spatial reasoning tests one following control procedure one following presentation mozarts sonata two pianos major performance showed small significant improvement immediately following presentation music similarly wilson brown studied spatial reasoning college undergraduates exposed ten minutes mozart piano concerto repetitive relaxation music silence prior undertaking pencil paper maze task mazes varied complexity size limited support mozart effect obtained number maze recursions overall quality maze solutions adopting neurological perspective jau\u0161ovec colleagues two experiments investigated influence mozarts sonata k brain activity process learning first experiment individuals trained solve spatial rotation tasks required solve similar tasks fiftysix students divided four groups control group prior training relaxed three experimental groupsone group prior training listened mozart one prior training listened mozart subsequently relaxed fourth group prior training relaxed afterwards listened mozart second experiment respondents divided three groups control group second group listened mozart prior training third group prior training listened brahms hungarian dance experiments eeg data collected problemsolving first experiment respondents various music groups showed better task performance control group although experiencing music task displayed less complex eeg patterns alphaband synchronisation respondents three groups second experiment individuals listened mozart showed better task performance respondents groups also displayed less complex eeg patterns lower alphaband synchronisation respondents brahms music group authors argued mozarts music activating taskrelevant brain areas enhanced learning spatialtemporal rotation tasks results supported rauscher colleagues priming explanation mozart effect music studying working children hallam schellenberg hallam replicated rauschers study children final year primary school children randomly allocated within school one three groups group listening mozart piano sonata rauscher study one pop music performed pop groups blur oasis third talk experiments sessions lasted ten minutes following children completed two spatial reasoning tasks paper folding task rotational task initial analysis hallam showed statistically significant difference groups either task second analysis schellenberg hallam showed slight statistical advantage children listening popular music interpreted terms raised arousal levels higher motivation children liked popular music schellenberg argued shortterm effects resulted impact music changes arousal level mood following schellenberg colleagues undertook two experiments first canadian undergraduates performed better symbolsearch test listening tempo piece music composed mozart comparison slow piece albinoni however effect evident two pieces music induced reliable differences arousal mood performance intellectual tasks affected second experiment japanese fiveyearolds drew longer periods time singing hearing familiar childrens songs hearing mozart albinoni hearing childrens songs drawings judged adults creative energetic technically proficient findings illustrate prior exposure different types music enhance performance variety tasks effects mediated changes emotional state generalise across cultures age groups exploring whether arousal mood responsible rauschers original findings thompson colleagues studied college students aged years old completed test spatial abilities either listening pleasant energetic sonata mozart sitting silence listening albinonis adagio slow reflective piece enjoyment arousal mood also assessed performance spatial task better following exposure power music composition mozart two pieces music induced differential responding measures enjoyment arousal mood controlled mozart effect disappeared focusing role mood smith colleagues carried two studies first explored effects prior exposure office noise working memory second replication rauscher colleagues study first study showed mental arithmetic tasks initially impaired office noise effects noise disappeared following ten minutes exposure office noise tasks second experiment successfully replicated rauscher colleagues study showing enhanced spatial reasoning following listening mozart young adults although assessment mood participants demonstrated effect caused mood change also focusing impact mood arousal spatial reasoning hussain colleagues examined effects tempo mode mozart sonata performed skilled pianist recorded edited produce four versions varied tempo fast slow mode major minor participants listened single version completed measures spatial ability arousal mood performance spatial task superior listening music fast rather slow tempo music presented major rather minor mode tempo manipulations affected arousal mood whereas mode manipulations affected mood arousal nantais schellenberg found performance spatialtemporal task better participants listened piece composed mozart schubert sat silence second study advantage music condition disappeared control condition consisted narrated story instead silence participants performance function preference either music story better performance following preferred condition similarly perham withey found preferred music increased spatial rotation performance regardless tempo music participants listened liked disliked music either fast slow tempo prior completing series spatial rotation tasks tempos liked music associated significantly better spatial rotation performance disliked music research focused music acting primer memory tasks participants varied ages instance hirokawa music studying examined effects preferred music relaxation instructions older adults arousal working memory fifteen female older adults participated ten minutes three experimental conditions participants preferred music relaxation instructions silence four subcategories arousal level energy tiredness tension calmness measured experimental treatment using adjective checklist experimental condition participants completed working memory test findings showed music increased participants energy levels relaxation silence significantly decreased relaxation silence interventions also increased tiredness calmness experimental conditions decreased tension levels although working memory performance significantly different groups also focusing working memory steele colleagues studied undergraduate students completed backwards digitspan task followed exposure ten minutes music composed mozart recording rain silence repetition task significant differences among treatment conditions found although significant effect practice later study steele colleagues followed detailed procedural guidance offered rauscher colleagues needed produce mozart effect despite steele colleagues unable produce either statistically significant mozart effect effect size suggesting practical significance concluded little evidence support existence mozart effect also offering limited support mozart effect twomey esgate compared performance musicians non musicians spatialtemporal reasoning tasks following exposure mozarts sonata k based research trion model neural functioning highly structured time spatial connections predicts increased synchrony musical spatial temporal centres right cerebral hemisphere since increased left hemispheric involvement music processing occurs result musical training possibility increased synchrony left hemispheric areas musicians tested results improved performance language well spatialtemporal tasks addition spatialtemporal tasks synonym generation rhymingword generation tasks employed mozart effect demonstrated spatialtemporal task although greater power music nonmusicians effect musical priming either group verbal tasks although musicians scored higher rhymingword generation systematic link found performance task number years spent musical training failure induce mozart effect musicians verbal tasks well limited impact performance spatial temporal tasks may associated ceiling effect due longterm effects music training working younger older adults mean ages respectively giannouli colleagues provided participants novel excerpts mozart vivaldi glass silenceafter completed forward digitspan test wordfluency test assess verbal working memory phonologically cued semantic retrieval individual preference condition also assessed brief exposure music beneficial effect verbal working memory transient impairment listening vivaldi although vivaldi excerpt induce marked enhancement word fluency young adults contrast listening mozarts music followed decreased wordfluency test scores age groups findings suggest depending specific musical features listening music selectively facilitate inhibit ongoing verbal functions similarly borella colleagues examined whether short longterm working memory training older adults could enhanced listening music mozarts sonata k albinonis adagio g minor played participants aged years old started workingmemory training activities one group participants listened mozart another albinoni one white noise eighteen participants served controls engaged activities specific training gains task similar one used training transfer effects visuospatial abilities executive functioning reasoning assessed irrespective specific listening condition trained groups generally outperformed control group white noise group differ performance two music groups although group listening albinoni composition showed larger specific training gains criterion task shortterm transfer effects reasoning task short longterm compared group listening composition mozart music studying also working older adults case mild cognitive impairment lake goldstein exposed participants music silence condition following performed digitspan coding tasks require attention maximal performance listening music enhance performance either group researching wider age range carr rickard tested whether listening emotionally arousing music enhanced memory participants aged listened two highly enjoyed music tracks two selfrated neutral tracks participants selections fiveminute radio interview listening episode participants memorised unique array images subjective physiological emotional arousal monitored throughout experiment free recall images within five image arrays tested end compared music non music controls selfselected enjoyed music elicited greater subjective physiological changes consistent changes emotion details images presented recalled enjoyed music listening radio interview physiological changes consistent emotional arousal response enjoyed music reliably predicted memory performance study exploring impact music different cultures giroux colleagues examined whether listening pleasant stimulating familiar music prior completing task improved working memory performance one hundred nineteen rwandan participants randomly assigned control group read short story prior completing task one four different musical conditions varying two dimensions arousing relaxing music western rwandan music working memory measured using nback paradigm participants presented sequence stimuli one one need decide current stimulus one presented previously gap current previous stimuli varied greater distance harder task findings showed positive effects familiar pleasant stimulating music working memory performance nback task tended improve listening music across conditions improvement less participants listened familiar rwandan music compared listened unfamiliar western music short story power music contrast silva colleagues investigated impact music episodic memory two potential enhancers music effects stopping music task performance eliminate musicrelated distraction using preferred music maximise rewardwere adopted main study included sample healthy younger adults pilot study conducted older adults divided classified low versus highfunctioning according cognitive performance screening test strong evidence music advantage relation episodic memory silence environmental sounds younger adults preferred music advantage either among older adults low highfunctioning participants item memory improved music particularly nonpreferred music compared silence findings suggest healthy adults music played prior task may less effective background music episodic memory enhancement despite decreased distraction possibly reward becomes irrelevant music stopped task begins lowfunctioning older participants may relate priortotask auditory stimulation deviant ways comes episodic memory enhancement overall episodic memory arousal mood reward effects usually afforded music played background blood zatorre ferreri verga salimpoor et al schellenberg may lost attenuated music stopped task begins given preference also null effects preference strongly linked reward possible reward may key factor musicrelated reward may longer favour episodic memory music stopped task begins gilleta colleagues studied gender differences working females males completed paper folding cutting task mental rotation task following listening condition mozart piano sonata played participants sat silence statistically significant threeway interaction among gender listening condition task indicated effect present female participants mental rotations task exploring differential effects breaks filled diverse activities common everyday life kuschpel colleagues exposed young adults breaks involving eyesopen resting listening music playing video game angry birds performing music studying nback working memory task playing angry birds video game short learning break led decline task performance course task compared eyesopen resting listening music although overall task performance impaired effect associated high levels daily mindwandering low self reported ability concentrate working children learning difficulties gregoire focused impact prior listening music concentration subsequent performance matchingnumbers classroom task six elevenyearold children intervention condition consisted brief taped story illustrated felt board rest period relaxing music five minutes individual numbermatching control condition identical without music significant differences overall although older participants exhibited significantly fewer behavioural issues music period rest phase overall evidence priming benefits music cognitive tasks inconclusive evidence musical neurological priming directly enhance performance spatial reasoning tasks proposed rauscher colleagues although evidence consistent music also priming effects relating arousal mood may affect performance variety tasks range different ways begin understand mixed findings needs greater focus underlying neural priming processes background music substantial body research examined impact background music performance range cognitive tasks individuals across lifespan music also used stimulus creative writing practice needs distinguished music played background studying donlan radio became commonplace concerns raised feared listening radio completing homework would negatively affect childrens learning early studies addressing issues always well controlled many specify type music played nature task power music undertaken made interpreting findings extremely difficult remainder chapter divided sections outline research providing detailed evidence relating nature music played including preferred music familiarity liking preference music ones culture nature task completed including memory attention reading comprehension secondlanguage learning english second language individual differences including musical expertise gender personality metacognition childrens behaviour task performance including primaryschool children older students children emotional behavioural difficulties adhd developmental difficulties older adults cognitive impairment reviews metaanalyses explaining impact background music cognitive performance including explanatory framework research categorised relation main focus although single research project may outcomes related one outcome nature music research ignored characteristics music played assuming music would similar impact instance cockerton colleagues simply compared music music repeated measures design undergraduates completed two cognitive tests one silence background music students completed questions answered questions correctly music playing although difference heart rate participating condition attempts made address issues relating nature music music studying differentiating music basis genre perceived potential stimulate relax whether vocal instrumental cognitive complexity despite categorisations always capture complexity music listened particularly applies western classical music frequent changes mood tempo timbre volume examine issues research investigated exposing participants different types music affected performance various cognitive tasks control groups listened music genres spoken text rather sitting silence early detailed study usa henderson colleagues explored effect music reading efficiency firstyear female undergraduates participants divided three equally matched groups basis psychological examination reading test scores one group listened popular music completing reading tasks another classical music third worked silence participants completed questionnaire determined whether accustomed studying radio whether thought radio reduced study efficiency amount studying done radio type programme usually listened studying popular music used two oclock jump harry james thats think krupa sunday monday always frank sinatra mr five five harry james prince charming harry james tuxedo junction glenn miller idaho benny goodman crosstown glenn miller close frank sinatra classical music symphony minor cesar franck tests administered three successive afternoons participants asked assume rooms studying radio differences averages pretest scores final test scores group calculated significance averages analysed findings showed popular music acted distract students paragraph comprehension vocabulary test classical music negative impact either test authors explained results terms simpler rhythms melodies popular music easily understood therefore listened participants diverting attention task hand argued classical music likely perceived vague listened power music providing background assigned task accomplished without interference popular music may greater impact comprehension task task complex required sustained effort vocabulary materials intermittent unrelated overall authors concluded whether music real distraction depends complexity music complexity test materials significant differences depending whether students accustomed studying radio playing also using reading comprehension outcome measure thompson colleagues manipulated changes tempo intensity create four conditions slow low intensity slow highintensity fast lowintensity fast highintensity condition participants given four minutes read passage followed three minutes answer six multiplechoice questions baseline performance established control participants complete reading task silence significant tempo byintensity interaction observed comprehension fast highintensity condition falling significantly baseline findings demonstrated listening background instrumental music likely disrupt reading comprehension music fast loud similarly chou colleagues working taiwanese college students studied whether light classical music less distracting hiphop music silence comprehension task findings showed music higher intensity distracting greater effect task performance concentration yang colleagues conducted two experiments first tested differences perception distractibility tonal atonal music second tested tonal music atonal music affected visual working memory comparing musicians nonmusicians placed contexts background tonal music atonal music silence participants instructed complete delayed matching memory task results showed musicians nonmusicians different evaluations distractibility tonal atonal music possibly indicating longterm training may lead higher auditoryperception threshold among musicians working memory task musicians reacted faster nonmusicians music studying background music cases although musicians took time respond tonal background music condition conditions results suggest visual memory task background tonal music may occupy cognitive resources atonal music silence musicians leaving resources left memory task despite musicians outperformed nonmusicians similarly tze chou explored whether different types background music affected performance reading comprehension task taiwanese college students study explored whether listening music affected learners concentration reading task also whether light classical music less distracting hiphop music silence findings showed music higher intensity distracting greater effect task performance concentration using two contrasting tasks angel colleagues assessed effects fast tempo music cognitive performance among male female university students linguistic processing task spatial processing task selected assess verbal nonverbal performance ten excerpts mozarts compositions matched tempo selected played background music increased speed spatial processing accuracy linguistic processing focusing performance arithmetic tasks dolegui used different genres music played different volumes thirtytwo undergraduate students ranging age years old participated voluntary basis five different arithmetic tests used consisting different operations similar difficulty five multiplication five division five addition five subtraction problems loud music defined heavy rock metal music represented song ready die demon hunters soft music defined classical piano music morning light beeson participants exposed five conditions first test conducted soft music low intensity second loud music low intensity third complete silence fourth fifth tests conducted soft loud music tests graded accuracy performance scores significantly higher silence four music conditions intensity levels types music combined although overall performance significantly worse presence power music loud music high intensity similarly cassidy macdonald investigated effects music high arousal potential negative affect music low arousal potential positive affect everyday noise cognitive task performance introverts extroverts forty participants completed five cognitive tasks immediate recall free recall numerical delayed recall stroop test ten participants completed tasks one four sound conditions high arousal negative affect low arousal positive affect everyday noise silence participants also assessed levels introversion extroversion reported preferences music versus noise studying performance lessened across cognitive tasks presence background sound music noise compared silence two music conditions produced differential distraction effects performance tasks poorer presence higharousal negativeaffect music compared low arousal positiveaffect music silence performance moderated internal arousal introverts performing better overall task except stroop test appearing detrimentally affected presence high arousal negative affect music noise research focused differential impact vocal instrumental music instance j\u00e4ncke colleagues studied participants randomly assigned one five groups completed verbal learning task one group served control group working silence four groups exposed vocal instrumental music learning different subjective intensity valence four music listening conditions vocal instrumental music high low intensity high low intensity groups differ terms rated intensity main experiment groups put together reduced sample three groups control group one listening vocal music one listening instrumental music recall number learned words assessed immediately minutes days later verbal learning improved across recall sessions without strong differences control experimental groups exposure vocal instrumental background music encoding influence verbal learning adopting neuroscientific approach nemati colleagues investigated neural correlates pleasure induced music studying listening highly pleasant neutral musical excerpts using electroencephalography analysis data showed distinct gradual change power lowfrequency oscillations response highly pleasant neutral musical excerpts correlation analysis behavioural electrophysiological data revealed theta power correlated subjective assessment pleasantness study link attention positive valence volunteers performed delayed matchtosample memory task listening musical excerpts performance significantly lower highly pleasant conditions compared neutral conditions listening pleasant music required high degrees attention leading observed decline memory performance gradual development lowfrequency oscillations frontal posterior areas may least partly due gradual recruitment higher levels attention time response pleasurable music exploring impact music simple perceptual motor task nittono colleagues compared performance undergraduates selfpaced linetracing task fast slow classical music metronome tones background findings showed fast music accelerated performance compared slow music whereas tempo metronome tones affect performance similarly bottiroli colleagues measured different types music affected performance processingspeed task using music white noise music positive emotion high arousal levels mozart music negative mood lower arousal mahler performance processingspeed task improved listening mozart however participants faced freerecall phonemicfluency tasks mahlers music provided beneficial conditions types music advantageous white noise silence types task reallife simulation kallinen studied effects tempo background music reading business news crowded cafeteria environment three conditions music fast slow music findings suggested type music silence significantly affected reading performance emotional evaluation news content men evaluated news positively slowmusic condition whereas women evaluated news positively nomusic power music condition reading rate efficiency significantly lower slowmusic group fastmusic group also simulating reallife situation mayfield moss undertook two studies evaluate effect music tempo task performance first study undergraduate business students asked workers stockmarket project collecting closing stock prices calculating percentage change price week week participants randomly divided groups either listened fast slowpaced music worked music quantity quality work assessed using musiclistening habits covariate statistically significant differences performance two groups second study students completed task conditions study women performed significantly better men performance significantly higher rockmusic condition heartbeat condition although participants rockmusic condition perceived higher level distraction preferred music familiarity liking one strand research explored whether participants familiarity preference liking background music impact task outcomes instance hilliard tolin studied effect familiarity background music performance undergraduates simple difficult reading comprehension tasks unsurprisingly scores easier sections higher difficult sections overall scores higher familiar music playing series studies perham colleagues explored issues relating preferred different types music perham vizard tested serial recall quiet liked disliked music conditions well steadystate changingstate speech findings showed performance poorer music conditions changingstate speech compared quiet steadystate speech conditions findings suggested musical preference affect serial recall performance similarly perham sykora asked participants serially recall eight item lists either quiet liked disliked music conditions performance poorer music music studying played compared quiet liked opposed disliked music condition addition participants inaccurate perceiving performance roughly equivalent music conditions liked music exhibited task impairment disliked music changing task reading comprehension perham currie studied undergraduate students ranging age background music adopted included disliked lyrical music thrash metal liked lyrical music non lyrical music quiet thrash metal music selected deaths angels seemingly endless time ultra violence students reported liking genre omitted study liked music selected students included music one direction frank ocean katy perry study participants told attend music listened headphones short questionnaire administered participants upon completion comprised likertscale questions asked participants rate likeable familiar distracting sound condition well well thought performed condition students read four passages text answered six multiplechoice questions reading comprehension performance greatest quiet non lyrical music conditions poorest two lyrical music conditions participants perceived performed best liked lyrical quiet non lyrical conditions well feeling familiar experiences felt liked disliked lyrical conditions distracting performance quiet much less distracting seems case reading comprehension category recall conflict processing participants attempt process taskrelated information background sound simultaneously chew colleagues recruited undergraduate students mean age almost years old completed arithmetic reading comprehension wordmemory tasks exposed familiar unfamiliar foreign firstlanguage music music significant impact wordmemory task familiarity music relation whether foreign first language overall depending task familiarity language music affected learning task performance compared power music nomusic condition similarly sutton lowis studied effect musical mode verbal spatial task performance forty eight participants completed written verbal spatial reasoning tests piece music major key handel played piece digitally manipulated create version minor mode findings showed music major mode rated emotionally positive sexes minor mode females scored higher males performance verbal tasks significantly enhanced majormode music males scored higher females spatial reasoning music major mode smith morris studied effects sedative stimulative music memory performance anxiety concentration sixty undergraduate students exposed one five types music classical jazz blues country bluegrass easy listening rock music participants indicated preferred genre requested repeat set numbers backwards listening either stimulative sedative music asked concerns test emotionality physiological affective arousal ability concentrate expectations performance whether liked disliked music compared sedative music stimulative music increased worry scores interfered concentration resulted lower performance expectancies participants performed best nomusic condition worst listening preferred music performance sedative music extremes authors argued preferred music may serve distract trying complete demanding task perhaps fewer cognitive resources available attention drawn lyrics emotions memories music evoke complex interactive effects task performance reported suggesting effects music need understood terms cognitive processes rather primarily basis physiological affective responses musical stimuli another explanation advantage preferred music rewarding blood zatorre ferreri verga reward may one additional mechanism underpinning positive effects music cognition ferreri verga music studying preference music ones culture preference music predominantly determined individuals cultural background instance preference indian classical music western classical music seen indians average socioeconomic background schafer et al individuals way responding music influenced liking preference music instance mohan thomas explored effect background music performance indian adolescents aged comprehension words sentences english participants average verbal ability preference indian music comprised final sample two types music used indian classical music raga shanmukhapriyawhich said induce sense calm increase concentrationand mozarts symphony findings revealed playing music background resulted significant increase adolescents performance reading comprehension task effect greater indian classical music played highlighting importance culture similarly kasiri studied impact non lyrical iranian traditional music reading comprehension performance iranians learning speak english sixty englishasaforeignlanguage learners completed two itemed reading comprehension tests nomusic well backgroundmusic condition results revealed negative influence music reading comprehension nature task completed addition research focusing different types music variety different tasks usedfor instance related various different kinds memory tasks requiring high levels attention reading comprehension learning second language background music memory research relating memorisation findings differed music played concurrently material remembered aurally furman task involves paired associate recall power music myers phonological shortterm memory salame baddeley recall written sentences presented visually hallam et al background music vocal nature may greater negative impact reading comprehension literacy tasks martin et al research focused visual memory might expected would less interference music instance chraif colleagues studied influence relaxing music abstract visual shortterm memory retrieval task sixtyeight undergraduate students aged years old participated findings showed listening relaxing music significant positive effect increasing number correct abstract forms recognised nguyen grahn examined effect background music different types memory one hypothesis impact background music memory modulates mood arousal creating optimal levels enhance memory performance another hypothesis background music establishes context reinstated cues memory performance researchers presented music study time test also assessed mood arousal context affected performance recall recognition associative memory tasks participants recalled words listened lowarousal music higharousal music regardless mood whether context consistent study test recognition memory participants also recognised words listened lowarousal music higharousal music music negative associative memory significant effects mood arousal context found recognition previously studied word pairs across elements research background music compared silence significantly improve verbal memory performance mood arousal affected recall recognition memory overall background music enhance memory j\u00e4ncke sandmann used musical excerpts specifically composed research ensure unknown participants designed vary tempo fast versus slow consonance tune versus tune noise used control stimulus seventyfive participants randomly assigned music studying one five groups learned verbal material nonwords without semantic connotation without background music group exposed one five different background stimuli intune fast music intune slow outoftune fast outoftune slow noise substantial consistent influence background music verbal learning however differences eeg measurements word presentation group exposed intune fast music learned verbal material group exposed outoftune fast music word presentation although different cortical activations response music relate behavioural outcomes unusual study liu colleagues studied recognition processes chinese characters background music real chinese characters upright rotated used target stimuli pseudowords used background stimuli participants required detect real characters listening mozarts sonata k silence findings showed music mainly served distracter recognition processes real chinese characters impact greater real rotated characters research focused episodic memory verbal materials generally effects music positive ferreri et al tend consistent across younger older adults ferreri et al music facilitates encoding printed verbal materials music compared silent context also compared nonmusical auditory contexts environmental sounds noise music specific effect rather general advantage related sound research extended range tasks explored instance fassbender explored use background music game technology effect learning virtual history lesson presented participants different background stimulimusic musicto test effect music memory test role immersion memory possible relationship music two different display systems threemonitor display system immersive reality centre used overall participants remembered significantly higher number facts using threemonitor display system particularly background music played similarly power music richards colleagues studied benefits immersive virtual worlds learning environment role music plays within environments investigated whether background music genre typically found computerbased roleplaying games effect learning computeranimated history lesson macquarie lighthouse within immersive virtual world first experiment musical stimuli created four different computer game soundtracks seventytwo undergraduate students watched presentation completed survey including biographical details questions historical material presented questions relating perceived level immersion tempo pitch music unrelated learning music conditions resulted higher number accurately remembered facts nomusic condition one soundtrack particular showed statistically significant improvement memorisation facts music conditions also interaction levels perceived immersion ability accurately remember facts second experiment involved undergraduate students soundtrack successful experiment one oblivion used silent condition experiment participants completed tasks conditions one version tempo pitch manipulations used slow tempo low pitch effect different display systems feelings immersion tested half participants watched computeranimated history lesson cone display system half allocated threemonitor display system computer desk statistically significant differences music nomusic conditions however threemonitor display system led enhanced memory performance similarly linek colleagues investigated influence background music within educational adventure game motivational cognitive variables results suggested music high motivational potential neither positive negative effects learning detected background music may considered motivating design element educational games using piped music langan sachs explored impact piping music information literacy classroom student engagement retention information literacy concepts findings music studying study indicated positive relationships background music student comfort confidence retention similarly musliu colleagues researched whether music could help memorisation different materials instance nonsense syllables numbers poems rhyme seventyfour students aged years participated experiment included four different tests first included nonsense syllables following students separated three groups similar outcomes performance first test first group took subsequent tests silence second listening music lyrics third listening relaxing music students given five minutes memorise different nonsense syllables lines poems different orders numbers wrote could remember music memorising writing phases significant differences memorising students without music favour learning silence adopting neuroscientific approach ferreri colleagues addressed debate link music memory wordsin particular whether music specifically benefits encoding element verbal memory tasks providing richer context encoding therefore less demand dorsolateral prefrontal cortex twentytwo healthy young adults subjected functional near infrared spectroscopy imaging bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex encoding words presence either musical silent background behavioural data confirmed facilitating effect background music encoding subsequent item recognition functional near infrared spectroscopy imaging results revealed significantly greater activation left hemisphere encoding sustained bilateral decrease activity dorsolateral prefrontal cortex music condition compared silence findings suggest music modulates role played dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dorsolateral prefrontal cortex verbal encoding opens possibility applications clinical populations prefrontal impairments elderly adults alzheimers patients later study ferreri colleagues investigated whether verbal episodic memory could improved background instrumental music twenty young adults asked power music memorise different lists words presented background music environmental sounds silence episodic memory performance tested terms item sourcememory scores findings revealed better memory performance music condition environmental sounds silence retrieval findings indicate music specifically act facilitating encoding context verbal episodic memory may implications music rehabilitation tool episodic memory deficits ferreri colleagues based functional near infrared spectroscopy imaging studies music episodic encoding dorsolateral prefrontal cortexmonitored entire lateral prefrontal cortex encoding retrieval verbal material nineteen participants asked encode lists words presented either background music silence subsequently tested freerecall task meanwhile prefrontal cortex monitored using channel functional near infrared spectroscopy system behavioural results showed greater chunking words music condition suggesting employment associative strategies items encoded music functional near infrared spectroscopy results showed music provided less demanding way modulating episodic encoding retrieval general prefrontal decreased activity music versus silence condition suggests musicrelated memory processes rely specific neural mechanisms music positively influence episodic encoding retrieval verbal information background music attention considerable research impact music attention instance jiang colleagues investigated influence mood attentional networks normal population participants performed attentionnetwork test provided functional measures alerting orienting executive attention positive negative mood induced listening music positive negative valence neutral mood induced reading collection basic facts china results revealed negative mood led significantly higher alerting efficiency relative music studying moods significant mood effects orienting executive attention efficiency specifically increase alerting function negative mood states may due modulation effect negative mood noradrenergic system andor survival benefit resulting increase automatic vigilance towards negative information another strand work concerned impact music attentional controlan executive function allows individual focus attention specific stimulus inhibiting distractors environment instance fernandez colleagues reported improved perceptual judgment young adults flanker task individuals respond one letter group ignore others joyful arousing sad tender music playing sat silence overall effect background music attentional control performance per se similarly burkhard colleagues studied influence background music executive functions particularly inhibitory functions participants completed standardised gono go task three conditions background music relaxing exciting background music eeg recorded along reaction times omissions commissions event related potentials revealed differences three conditions reaction times omissions commissions findings suggested background music detrimental effects performance gono go task neural underpinnings using visuospatial flanker task cloutier colleagues studied older younger adults three auditory conditions stimulating music relaxing music silence participants indicate fast accurately possible direction central arrow flanked congruent incongruent arrows expected reaction times slower incongruent compared congruent trials difference significantly greater relaxingmusic condition compared auditory conditions age groups focusing impact mood attention shih colleagues studied participants aged concentration attention music without lyrics findings revealed background music lyrics significant negative effects concentration attention later study shih colleagues studied adults power music ranging age completed attention test emotion questionnaire findings showed background music lyrics adversely impacted attention performance without lyrics listeners also selfreported feeling loved music playing adopting neuroscientific approach using vivaldis four seasons leigh explored consequence music exposure cognitive eventrelated potentials seventeen participants performed three stimulus visual oddball task set stimuli presented one different stimulus various points oddball eventrelated potentials recorded participants required differentiate rare target stimulus rare novel stimulus frequent nontarget stimulus task performance participants listened four vivaldi concertosspring summer autumn winterand experienced silent control condition research also examined impact different tempi data revealed spring particularly first movement enhanced mental alertness brain measures attention memory similarly du colleagues used eventrelated potentials examine effects background music neural responses reading comprehension modulation musical arousal thirtynine postgraduates judged correctness sentences world knowledge without high low arousal background music results showed effect elicited world knowledge violations versus correct controls significantly smaller silence high low arousalmusic backgrounds significant difference two musical backgrounds reading comprehension reading plays important role lives many people considerable research used reading comprehension task studies impact background music instance demers compared two classes reading prior onset study establish equity performance experimental group also practised prior study mozarts concerto c major k playing background several weeks prior study music studying familiarise working music groups also practiced undertaking test prior experiment findings showed group background music performed significantly better reading comprehension test similarly cooper colleagues gave participants three different reading comprehension tests three different conditions music classical music lyrical music results showed slightly better performance reading comprehension test nomusic condition difference statistically significant similar study liapis colleagues tested impact lyrical non lyrical music reading comprehension participants non lyrical condition performed better group although difference statistically significant drowns focused effect classical background music silent reading comprehension found improvement music background harmon colleagues showed significant difference among three groups either listened rock music mozart worked silence reading comprehension test martin colleagues carried series studies first demonstrated speech music interfered reading comprehension music greater interfering effect speech music identification task two experiments showed detrimental effect speech background reading due semantic rather phonological properties adopting different approach zhang colleagues examined listening music affected eye movements college students read comprehension two studies found effects music depended word frequency musical dynamics first showed lexical linguistic features text remained highly robust predictors looking times even listening music however exposed music readers spent time rereading gaze duration words low frequency less predicted word length suggesting disrupted sublexical processing second study showed effects exacerbated short time soon new song played results showed word recognition generally unaffected despite music exposure extensive rereading could extent compensate disruption power music secondlanguage learning area interest secondlanguage learning kang williamson examined effect background music participants taking beginners course cd either mandarin chinese arabic groups matched age gender verbal intelligence musical training working memory ability randomly assigned cd contained accompanying music music individuals chose learn chinese performed better outcome tests compared learned arabic within chinese learners received music cds performed significantly better tests recall translation compared received music cds music effects observed arabic learners pronunciation ability chinese k\u00fcssner hillen investigated individual differences effects background music foreignvocabulary learning predicted individuals high level cortical arousal perform worse learning background music compared silence whereas individuals low level cortical arousal would unaffected background music may even benefit participants tested paired associate learning paradigm consisting three immediate word recall tasks well delayed recall task one week later baseline cortical arousal assessed spontaneous eeg measurement silence prior learning sessions used analysis findings revealed interaction cortical arousal learning condition background music versus silence however main effect cortical arousal beta band recall indicating individuals high beta power learned vocabulary low beta power substantiate finding study replicated combined analysis data experiments suggested beta power predicted performance word recall task effect background music foreign vocabulary learning de groot smedinga studied participants learning foreign language vocabulary means paired associates method silence vocal music lyrics familiar language playing background vocal music lyrics unfamiliar language music studying playing background vocabulary learned varied concreteness phonological typicality foreign words tested immediately training learning outcomes poorer familiar language music condition unfamiliar language music silence conditions effect shortlived shown delayed test one week training learning outcomes better concrete words abstract words better typical foreign forms atypical ones studying impact background music writing rather learning second language cho also took account writerssecond language proficiency twentyeight students wrote argumentative essay music nonmusic conditions respectively findings analysed terms fluency writing quality showed significant differences pause frequency music music conditions comparison high low proficiency groups showed significant group condition interaction indicating marginally different effects music depending writers proficiency level background music english second language iran khaghaninejad colleagues evaluated effect classical music mozart sonata reading comprehension performance iranian students four months tuition private college teaching english participants required learn reading passages take two tests reading comprehension either music mozart condition nomusic quiet condition music group outperformed background music also iran rashidi faham studied effect classical music students reading comprehension standardised text used students answered multiplechoice items two groups students total period three months taught reading comprehension music background music group taught music background outperformed taught music similarly sahebdel khodadust studied effect background music reading comprehension iranian english foreignlanguage learners participants iranian learners power music ages two thirdgrade highschool classes preintermediate proficiency level research experimental control groups took reading comprehension researchers played mozart sonatas background music experimental group asked read passage silently answer reading comprehension questions procedure control group music ten sessions students groups asked take parallel form reading comprehension test findings showed experimental group outperformed control group reading comprehension listening background music reading silently significantly positive effect reading comprehension iranian learners english foreign language individual differences research taking account individual differences taken account personality musical expertise gender metacognition musical expertise research considered whether musical expertise makes difference possible enhancing detrimental effects music instance darrow colleagues explored whether music compromised selective attention differently majoring music nonmusic majors eightyseven undergraduate graduate students participated required bring study music typically listened driving studying engaged activities music brought represented musical periods styles participants completed test attention alternating music music conditions significant effects nonmusic majors however music majors heard music first completed significantly fewer total items following nonmusic condition music majors listened instrumental music completed significantly total items listened music vocals overall findings showed participants processed significantly items music condition music music studying majors processed significantly items nonmusic majors significant differences based music music relation number errors made number items processed minus errors concentration performance however differences three measures based musical training music majors made significantly fewer errors nonmusic majors processed significantly items correctly concentration performance scores significantly higher nonmusic majors scores similarly yang colleagues investigated background music different instruments affected trained musicians performance cognitive tasks participants completed three sets cognitively demanding intelligence tests design group listened different piece music involving musical instruments results showed musicians performance cognitive tasks impaired listening music featuring instruments listening instruments patston tippett administered language comprehension task visuospatial search task expert musicians matched nonmusicians conditions silence piano music played correctly incorrectly musicians performed poorly language comprehension task presence background music compared silence effect background music musicians performance visuospatial task contrast performance nonmusicians affected music either task additionally musicians outperformed nonmusicians tasks reflecting either general cognitive advantage musicians enhancement specific cognitive abilities processing speed executive functioning similarly haning studied whether background music impaired language comprehension scores musicians nonmusicians thirtyfive participants musical training without musical training completed item reading comprehension test participants completed test instrument silence presence background music findings indicated significant main effect either music training presence background music significant interaction two conditions gold colleagues studied dopamine release ventral striatum plays major role rewarding aspect music power music listening striatal dopamine also influences reinforcement learning people greater dopamine efficacy better learn approach rewards lesser dopamine efficacy better learn avoid punishments research explored practical implications musical pleasure ability facilitate reinforcement learning via non pharmacological dopamine elicitation participants wide variety musical backgrounds chose pleasurable neutral piece music experimentercompiled database listened one pieces according pseudorandom group assignment performed reinforcement learning task dependent dopamine transmission participants musical backgrounds well typical listening patterns assessed behaviour training test phases learning task assessed separately participants musical experience trained better neutral music tested better pleasurable music less musical experience exhibited opposite effect assessment results regarding listening behaviours subjective music ratings indicated effects arose different listening styles namely affective listening nonmusicians analytical listening musicians conclusion musical pleasure able influence task performance shape effect depended group individual factors gender palmiero colleagues studied gender differences visuospatial navigational working memory background music designed induce positive negative moods playing findings showed positive music group scored significantly higher groups male participants outperformed females one task negative background music playing personality personality factors implicated creating optimal arousal levels completing cognitive tasks introverts higher resting levels arousal extroverts susceptible overarousal impacts task performance certain types background music studying music cassidy macdonald furnham colleagues examined effects vocal instrumental music upon performance introverts extroverts three cognitive tasks one hundred fortyfour sixthform pupils introverts extroverts completed reading comprehension task logic problem coding task interaction predicted instrumental music would impair enhance test performance introverts extroverts respectively effects would magnified vocal music condition significant interactions found although trend introverts impaired introduction music environment extroverts enhanced particularly reading coding tasks main effect extroversion found reading comprehension task condition effect logic task participants best presence instrumental music similarly macdonald examined relationship music preference extroversion complex task performance sample college students students separated two groups high low extroversion participant experienced three different music conditions preferred preset silence performing complex reading comprehension task results revealed significant interaction effect level extroversion music condition individuals higher levels extroversion performed significantly better listening preferred music complex task compared silence preset music selection statistically significant outcomes avila colleagues investigated effect familiar musical distractors cognitive performance introverts extroverts participants completed verbal numerical logic test three music conditions vocal music instrumental music silence findings showed verbal test overall performance participants significantly better silence suggesting lyrics interfere processing verbal information however significant music personality interactions found dobbs colleagues studied cognitive test performance introverts extroverts presence silence uk garage music background noise one hundred eighteen female secondary school students carried three cognitive tests predicted introverts would perform badly tasks extroverts power music presence music noise silence performance would significant interaction found three tasks also predicted would main effect background sound performance would worse presence music noise silence findings confirmed prediction one exception furnham strbac extended previous work examining whether background noise would distracting music presence silence background garage music office noise introverts extroverts carried reading comprehension task proserecall task mental arithmetic task predicted would interaction personality background sound three tasks introverts would badly tasks extroverts presence music noise silence performance would significant interaction found reading comprehension task although trend effect clearly present two tasks also predicted would main effect background sound performance would worse presence music noise silence results confirmed prediction findings support hypothesis difference optimum cortical arousal introverts extroverts adopting different approach doyle furnham explored distracting effects music reading comprehension creative noncreative individuals presence musical distraction silence individuals participated significant interactions found although trends indicated creative individuals performed better noncreative individuals music distraction condition creative individuals tended listen music studying reported lower distraction levels background music metacognition extent learners used working music playing background may important extent disrupts enhances task performance instance etaugh michal gave male female college students tests reading comprehension completed quiet surroundings listening preferred music frequently students reported music studying studying music less music impaired performance similarly su wang studied relationship cognitive memory background music according whether testees used listening background music author divided two groups participants exposed three different music scenes impact different background music testees cognitive memory differed results showed pure pop music disturbed groups pure soft music improved performance used background music hindered statistically significant differences groups music conditions also taking account familiarity working background music crawford strapp used three timed visuospatial verbal tests undertaken vocal instrumental music playing vocal music disrupted performance significantly instrumental music mazetracing speed logical reasoning tests vocal music instrumental music disturbed performance music objectnumber test assessed associative learning longterm memory moderated studying preference test typically study music showed deterioration across conditions music instrumental music vocal music typically studied music performed better nomusic condition either music condition although extroversion significant covariate performance typically studied music extroverted reported greater skills focusing attention distracting situations reported less sensitivity noise general test noise sensitivity students may able control responses music better others instance christopher shelton explored whether existing differences working memory might impact outcomes research looking effect music working memory performance undergraduate students worked reading comprehension mathematics tasks music silence conditions completing battery workingmemory capacity assessments although music led significant decline performance overall workingmemory capacity moderated effect reading comprehension tasks suggests individuals better able power music control attention indicated workingmemory capacity may protected musicrelated distraction completing certain kinds academically relevant tasks addition performance may influenced metacognition extent participants aware music interfering task performance consciously adopt strategies prevent kotsopoulou hallam administered ratingscale questionnaires students three age groups japan uk greece usa questionnaires explored extent playing music studying kinds tasks undertaken music played perceived effects music studying characteristics types music played factors influenced decision play music statistical analysis revealed commonality differences playing music studying related age culture tasks frequently accompanied music others students reported able make decisions impact background music performance various tasks taking action arrange music support learning competence managing use music interfere task performance increased age impact background music childrens behaviour task performance historically research background music educational contexts explored impact children different ages special educational needs undertaking range different tasks instance young children evidence arousing music increases activity instance rieber studied activity five sixyearold children specially designed playroom conditions silence two types music fast slow activity rates higher intervals music played fast music marked effect music affect variability activity showed steady decline time spent room also evidence type play may change instance gunsberg found increase interactive play arousing music playing ziv goshen explored music studying effect sad happy background music interpretation story five sixyearold children children heard story background happy sad melody findings showed background music affected childrens interpretation story happy background music led positive interpretations whereas sad background music led negative interpretations effect happy music stronger sad music koolidge holmes explored effects background music puzzleassembly task performance young children participants primarily europeanamerican children aged four five years old enrolled early childhood classes children given one minute complete piece puzzle task one three background music conditions music lyrics music without lyrics music music selection youre welcome disney movie moana findings revealed children heard music without lyrics completed puzzle pieces children either musicwithlyrics nomusic condition background music without distracting lyrics may beneficial superior background music lyrics young childrens cognitive performance even engaged independently nonverbal task focusing drawing gur investigated effect classical music cognitive content childrens drawings sample consisted six yearold children private kindergartens higher socioeconomic status areas ankara turkey sample divided three groups first engaged free drawing listening classical music second engaged free drawing music third group acted control results showed positive effect classical music cognitive content drawings background music primaryschool children mitchell interested effect radio programmes silent reading achievement sixthgrade students time study radio become integral part american culture seemed pertinent therefore determine whether radio broadcasts effect ability pupils concentrate sufficiently studies order acquire knowledge information ninetyone power music students carried silent reading tests either music variety radio programme playing background worked silence overall variety programme disrupted performance strongly boys girls performance listening music programme unaffected fact boys performed slightly better music playing working taiwan su colleagues tested whether mozart sonata two pianos k playing background impacted learning anxiety reading rates reading comprehension students reading ebooks sixtytwo elementary students participated findings showed compared reading without music music positive effect reducing learning anxiety improved students reading rates reading comprehension direct process performance however music negative effect students attention interpret read explained terms music taking attentional resources required task working school setting ivanov geake found evidence impact related playing mozart background upperprimaryschoolaged children scores paperfolding task class listened mozart testing significantly higher scores control class similar result obtained another class listened bach testing musical educational experience children significantly contribute variance scores koppelman scott explored impact different kinds music childrens writing content nineteen students second grade class participated ten minute writing sessions accompanied session one type background music classical jazz popular country silence writing analysed tone consistency number words findings showed students wrote words classical music condition fewer inconsistencies writing listening jazz popular music top significant negative effect writing perhaps students familiar hallam godwin explored impact music creative writing primaryschool children children aged ten eleven asked write exciting story listening arousing calming music completed questionnaire music studying establish awareness music effects music appeared little effect basic literacy skills children stories rated exciting calming music playing children little conception detrimental effects exciting music writing mowsesian heyer studied whether music would distract performance testing situation four groups participants randomly assigned one four music conditions control group experienced optimal testing conditions defined accepted standards results arithmetic spelling selfconcept measures indicated differences mean test scores across groups regardless test condition authors suggested since variety noises normal part environment music distractor issue hallam colleagues working primaryschool children aged ten twelve undertook two studies exploring effects music perceived calming relaxing performance arithmetic memory task found calming music led improvement childrens performance memory mathematics tasks compared nomusic condition music perceived arousing aggressive unpleasant disrupted performance memory task led lower level reported altruistic behaviour children suggests effects music task performance mediated arousal mood rather directly affecting cognition also uk bloor administered four tests three classes different primary schools two music two silence see music impact behaviour attainment children testing results crossreferenced childrens self evaluation musicality ascertain children experienced disruption attainment behaviour musicians findings suggested music may supported performance reading tests conversely disrupted mathematics tests batur formed experimental control groups students fifth sixth grades basis scores turkish language exams overall students participated grade half participating intervention half acting controls students given minutes write subject wished intervention groups worked background music playing power music others worked silence findings showed wrote music background used words essays control group wrote fluently focusing task behaviour davidson colleagues determined effect background music pupils fifth grade science class children observed class sessions period four months observational data recorded every three minutes time series analyses performed determine effects significant increase task performance male students total class music playing although ceiling effect females background music older students considerable research highschool students age music often played homework completed kiger studied effects music information load reading comprehension task twentyseven male female highschool students read passage literature presence silence low highinformationload music comprehension best low informationload music condition worst highinformation load music playing similarly fogelson explored whether music acted distracter reading playing popular instrumental music test proved distracting lowered reading test performance eighthgrade students less able students adversely affected higher levels competence hall studied effect background music reading comprehension eighth ninthgrade students studyhall conditions almost percent students tested exclusive control group showed increase score test administered background music difference means showed substantial gain background music first lesson morning first second afternoon lessons percent students periods showed increase score music background also studying reading comprehension anderson fuller investigated effect lyrical music music studying performance adolescents reading comprehension test administered seventh eighthgrade students nonmusic environment accompanying music comprising top hit singles following music portion test students completed survey assess preference listening music studying findings showed performance declined significantly background music playing students exhibiting strong preference listening music studying pronounced detrimental effect comprehension college level taylor rowe focused assessment mathematics specifically trigonometry six major tests trigonometry students played music mozart results compared performance students took tests background music results indicated students performed significantly better mozart played background music assessment research children emotional behavioural difficulties adhd developmental difficulties calming music positive impact behaviour children emotional behavioural difficulties reducing stress anxiety variety settings although children learning difficultiesfor instance attention deficit disorder add attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adhdstimulating music effective improving behaviour replacing childrens need activity self stimulation differences response mean music interventions aimed changing behaviour need tailored requirements specific groups children children attention deficit hyperactivity disorder attention deficit disorder music used help reduce hyperactivity children attention deficit disorder add attention deficit hyperactivity power music disorder adhd scott cripe proposed rock music could used adjunctive therapy conventional treatments rock music advantage administered without need training staff hypothesised rock music would decrease activity level children add increase attention span eight males add aged six eight years old introduced rock music playroom activity level number activities attention span length time attending one task assessed results indicated statistically significant reduction number motor activities music periods within test sessions although significant differences regarding attention span pelham colleagues examined effects music video classroom behaviour performance boys without adhd well effects drug methylphenidate fortyone boys adhd controls worked presence distraction music video video produced significant distraction particularly boys adhd music improved performance individual differences response music boys adversely affected others benefited relative distractor second study music methylphenidate assessed additional boys adhd examine music results presence absence music methylphenidate improved performance relative placebo similar individual differences found first experiment similarly abikoff colleagues evaluated impact extra task stimulation academic performance children adhd twenty boys adhd boys without adhd worked arithmetic task high stimulation music low stimulation speech stimulation silence music distractors individualised child arithmetic problems set childs ability level non adhd young people performed similarly three auditory conditions children adhd significantly better music condition speech silence conditions however arithmetic performance enhanced children adhd exposed music first condition maloy peterson undertook metaanalysis effectiveness music studying music interventions children adolescents adhd analysis revealed music interventions minimally effective intervention increasing task performance emotional behavioural difficulties savan observed children behavioural difficulties science lessons suggested behaviour pupils special educational needs part resulting frustration due lack physical coordination consequent inability perform manual tasks effectively efficiently investigated possibility specific properties certain mozart orchestral compositions might combination improve coordination skills pupils emotional behavioural difficulties audio tapes mozart orchestral compositions provided sound stimulus ten boys aged twelve identified special educational needs emotional behavioural difficulties tapes edited attempt establish musical qualities produced effects measurements blood pressure body temperature pulse rate taken establish sound stimulus effect physiology metabolism participants case improvement coordination observed accompanied corresponding drop physiological measures observed improvement behaviour improvements also observed cooperation aggression reduced lessons immediately following science lessons hallam price studied effects providing background music classroom behaviour performance mathematical tasks ten children aged nine ten attending school children emotional behavioural difficulties exhibited high frequency disruptive behaviour music consisted songs childrens films music popular well known childrenthe music previously identified children school calming relaxing significant improvement behaviour mathematics performance children effects particularly marked whose problems related constant stimulusseeking overactivity reardon bell tested three predictions effects musical stimulation activity level six seventeenyearold power music institutionalised boys severe developmental delay participants activity scores sedative stimulating music compared levels silent baseline nonmusical spoken recording conditions fourteen behavioural categories rated trained observers eight hours observations four conditions activity level varied significantly day experimental work suggesting novelty recordings significant factor differences activity due conditions tended confirm prediction lower activity levels stimulating music older adults cognitive impairment increasing interest ways actively making music listening may help older people particularly dementia section focuses issues related background music learning instance foster valentine studied elderly individuals mild moderate highability moderate low ability dementia answered autobiographical memory questions drawn three life eras remote mediumremote recent backgrounds familiar music novel music cafeteria noise quiet recall significantly better highability lowability group sound quiet music noise recall significantly related life era declining remote recent memory superiority recall music compared noise apparent recall remote mediumremote recent eras findings may interpreted terms enhanced arousal attention deployment possible subsidiary role associative facilitation particular music thompson colleagues investigated effect listening excerpt vivaldis four seasons category fluency healthy olderadult controls alzheimers disease patients participants completed two oneminute categoryfluency tasks whilst listening excerpt vivaldi two oneminute categoryfluency tasks without music findings showed positive effect music category fluency performance music condition exceeding performance without music healthy olderadult control music studying participants alzheimers disease patients findings suggested music enhanced attentional processes healthy adults alzheimers disease irish colleagues studied enhancing effect music autobiographical memory recall ten individuals mild alzheimers disease ten healthy elderly matched individuals participant assessed two occasions music condition listening spring vivaldis four seasons silence considerable improvement found alzheimer individuals recall autobiographical memory music condition differences terms overall arousal using galvanic skin response recordings attentional errors sustained attention response task significant reduction state anxiety found music condition suggesting anxiety reduction may potential mechanism underlying enhancing effect music autobiographical memory recall also using vivaldis four seasons mammarella colleagues examined whether listening music positive effect older adults cognitive performance two workingmemory tasks participants presented forward version digitspan task phonemicfluency tests accompanied classical music white noise music classical music significantly increased working memory performance compared nomusic condition effect occur white noise particularly important study effect background music older adults since attentional control impaired normal cognitive ageing older adults tend sensitive distractions environment darowski et al although also tend accurate cognitive tasks younger counterparts slower hsieh lin reaves colleagues investigated impact background music concurrent pairedassociate learning task healthy young older adults young older adults listened music sat silence simultaneously studying facename pairs participants memory pairs tested listening either different music participants also made subjective ratings distracting found song despite fact participants rated music distracting silence older adults associative memory performance impaired power music music findings consistent theories older adults may fail inhibit processing distracting taskirrelevant information alain woods andr\u00e9s colleagues demonstrated adding irrelevant sounds visual discrimination task impaired reaction times older adults young adults well amplitude eventrelated potential linked processing distraction fernandez colleagues demonstrated compared silence sad tender music joyful highly arousing background music enhanced perceptual judgements flanker task older young adults although background music effect found older adults attentional control performance however study used modified version flanker task measured several components attention included cues trials challenging task measuring attentional control specifically might produced different results music also found impact arousal older people instance hirokawa examined effects participants preferred music relaxation instructions older adults arousal working memory fifteen female older adults participated ten minutes three experimental conditions participant preferred music relaxation instructions silence four subcategories arousal levelenergy tiredness tension calmnesswere measured experimental treatment condition participants completed workingmemory test findings indicated music increased participants energy levels relaxation silence significantly decreased energy levels increased tiredness calmness experimental conditions decreased tension scores workingmemory test significantly different among conditions clear relationships four arousal levels workingmemory scores overall findings indicated preferred music potential increase older adults energetic arousal reduce tension literature episodic memory suggests background music may positive effects younger healthy older adults bottiroli et al ferreri et al although may particularly beneficial among older adults cognitive impairment contributing arousal mood reward systems music may also recruit brain music studying areas spared degeneration elicit compensatory mechanisms ferreri verga activated healthy participants music stimulation alternatively music may reduce taskrelated anxiety expected higher cognitively impaired participants instance ferreri colleagues investigated whether music could improve episodic memory older adults decreasing prefrontal cortex activity sixteen healthy older adults aged encoded lists words presented without musical background dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activity monitored using eightchannel continuous wave near infrared spectroscopy system behavioural results indicated better source memory performance words encoded music compared words encoded silence bilateral decrease oxyhaemoglobin values musicencoding condition compared silence condition suggesting music modulated activity dorsolateral prefrontal cortex encoding less demanding direction overall results indicated music help older adults memory performance decreasing prefrontal cortex activity reviews metaanalyses number reviews metaanalyses impact background music cognitive tasks relatively limited compared areas research review studies adopting priming condition performance cognitive task pietschnig colleagues observed mozart effect first researched rauscher colleagues difficult replicate leading abundance conflicting results conducted metaanalysis nearly studies involving participants found small overall estimated effect samples exposed mozart sonata k samples exposed nonmusical stimulus stimulus preceding spatialtask performance calculation effect sizes samples exposed musical stimuli samples exposed nonmusical stimuli stimuli yielded effects similar strength also evidence confounding publication bias requiring downward correction effects overall pietschnig colleagues concluded noticeably higher overall effects power music studies performed rauscher colleagues studies performed researchers overall found little evidence specific performanceenhancing mozart effect metaanalysis undertaken k\u00e4mpfe colleagues overall effect listening background music established null examination led authors conclusion finding likely caused averagingout specific effects improved arousal positively influencing achievement sports detrimental effects reading memory reviews come quite negative conclusions part focus different instance schwartz colleagues undertook systematic literature review identified studies focusing role contingent noncontingent background music facilitate task engagement enhance performance alter behaviour concluded although research addressing background music mixed results evidence suggesting could effective strategy increasing task engagement performance decreasing stimulatory behaviour individuals developmental disabilities providing musical stimuli relatively inexpensive may less intrusive comparison strategies argued use merited additional study explore extent music could affect behaviour similarly peck colleagues reviewed existing anecdotal empirical evidence related enhancing effects music exposure cognitive function provided discussion potential underlying mechanisms might explain musics effects specifically outlined potential role dopaminergic system autonomic nervous system default network explaining music may enhance memory functions persons alzheimers disease de la mora velasco hirumi synthesised findings studies examined effects background music learning frequencies percentages used describe background musics effects learning across studies methods used background music characteristics manipulated concluded results inconclusive findings research inconsistent drawing similar conclusions ferreri verga reviewed evidence role background music music studying verbal learning memory argued existing research provided conflicting findings although several studies shown positive effect music encoding retrieval verbal stimuli music also suggested hinder mnemonic performance dividing attention argued extent music boosted cognitive functions relied relative complexity musical verbal stimuli employed overall background music found beneficial detrimental effect variety behavioural psychological outcome measures reasons might case discussed explaining impact background music cognitive performance several theories attempted explain listening music prior undertaking cognitive task may enhance performance first neural priming effect associated specifically spatial temporal reasoning second arousal mood hypothesis thompson et al suggests music enhances arousal promotes positive mood consequently affecting benefiting attentional processes husain et al theory postulates introducing preferred auditory background prior task makes task increasingly interesting thereby enhancing learners levels arousal level heightened increased arousal leads increase attention thus enhancing performance explanations effects background music terms arousal mood also apply music played background research demonstrated effect music presented simultaneously variety executive tasks cognitive flexibility working memory attentional control fernandez et al jiang et al shih et al thompson et al however available research findings fit well within theoretical relationship music cognitive performance example research suggests highly pleasant music requires attentional resources thus may impair cognitive performance context attentional tasks nemati et al instance music positively affect working memory revelle loftus results material power music processed learner consecutively enhancing performance mood improvement enhances cognitive performance increased dopamine levels brain ashby et al explanations relating arousal also need take account anxiety studies shown high anxiety associated lower task efficiency tanaka et al byrne eysenck also found task efficiency participants high anxiety lower low anxiety participants individuals select background music may rewarding effect terms enjoyment may bring arnett music may also interfere cognitive processes concentrated listening music requires cognitive effort processing analysis extracting meaning berlyne listening complex arousal evoking music may therefore reduce attentional space available task performance individuals play music carrying cognitive task attend music task simultaneously attention switches two madsen depending interest focus may greater task music another explanation impact music comes ability provide rewards salimpoor colleagues point listening music amongst rewarding experiences humans music functional resemblance rewarding stimuli demonstrated biological value yet individuals continue listening music pleasure suggested pleasurable aspects music listening related changes emotional arousal although link directly investigated salimpoor colleagues using methods high temporal sensitivity investigated whether systematic relationship dynamic increases pleasure states physiological indicators emotional arousal including changes heart rate respiration electrodermal activity body temperature blood volume pulse twentysix participants listened selfselected intensely pleasurable music neutral music individually selected based low pleasure ratings provided based participants music chills phenomenon used index intensely pleasurable responses music music listening continuous realtime recordings subjective pleasure states music studying simultaneous recordings sympathetic nervous system activity objective measure emotional arousal obtained findings revealed strong positive correlation ratings pleasure emotional arousal importantly dissociation revealed individuals experience pleasure also showed significant increases emotional arousal broader implications findings strongly felt emotions rewarding absence physically tangible reward specific functional goal neuroscientific studies established relationship music emotion changed brain activity instance blood colleagues used positron emission tomography examine cerebral bloodflow changes related affective responses music ten volunteers scanned listening six versions novel musical passage varying systematically degree dissonance reciprocal cerebral bloodflow covariations observed several distinct paralimbic neocortical regions function dissonance perceived pleasantness versus unpleasantness findings suggested music may recruit neural mechanisms similar previously associated pleasant unpleasant emotional states different underlying components music perception emotions fear later study blood zatorre showed intensely pleasurable responses music correlated activity brain regions implicated reward emotion positron emission tomography used study neural mechanisms underlying intensely pleasant emotional responses music ten university students aged least eight years music training participant selected one piece music consistently elicited intensely pleasant emotional responses including chills music classical genre included pieces rachmaninovs piano concerto minor opus intermezzo adagio barbers adagio strings instrumental works lyrics participants reported emotional responses intrinsic music producing minimal personal associations memories cerebral bloodflow changes measured response participantselected music elicited highly pleasurable experience shivers spine chills subjective reports chills accompanied power music changes heart rate electromyogram measures respiration intensity chills increased cerebral blood flow increases decreases observed brain regions thought involved reward motivation emotion arousal including ventral striatum midbrain amygdala orbitofrontal cortex ventral medial prefrontal cortex brain structures known active response euphoriainducing stimuli food sex recreational drugs finding links music biologically relevant survivalrelated stimuli via common recruitment brain circuitry involved pleasure reward activity regions relation reward processes known involve dopamine opioid systems well neurotransmitters dopaminergic activity appears common mechanism underlying reward response naturally rewarding stimuli support involvement opioid systems specifically response music comes preliminary study demonstrated blocking opioid receptors naloxone decreased inhibited chills response participants possibility direct functional interaction hippocampus amygdala midbrain supported exactly opposite correlation dorsomedial midbrain left hippocampus amygdala chills intensity thus activation reward system music may maximise pleasure activating reward system also simultaneously decreasing activity brain structures associated negative emotions amygdala hippocampus receive inhibitory presynaptic input cholinergic neurons suggesting possible mechanism decreased activity regions consequence activity increases ventral striatum brain structures correlating intensely pleasant emotion differed considerably observed unpleasant pleasant responses musical dissonance consonance earlier study blood particular right parahippocampal activitypreviously observed correlate unpleasant responses dissonancedid correlate chills intensity supporting notion parahippocampal activity may specifically related negative emotion addition regions associated reward motivation circuitry ventral striatum dorsomedial midbrain amygdala hippocampus found correlate chills intensity mildly music studying pleasant emotion associated consonance discrepancies provide evidence different emotions associated activity different groups brain structures nemati colleagues also investigated neural correlates pleasure induced listening highly pleasant neutral musical excerpts using electroencephalography powerspectrum analysis data showed distinct gradual change power lowfrequency oscillations response highly pleasant neutral musical excerpts specifically listening highly pleasant music associated relatively higher oscillatory activity theta band frontocentral area alpha band parieto occipital area gradual increase oscillatory power time correlation analysis behavioural electrophysiological data revealed theta power frontocentral electrodes correlated subjective assessment pleasantness listening music study link attention positive valence volunteers performed delayed matchtosample memory task listening musical excerpts performances significantly lower highly pleasant conditions compared neutral conditions listening pleasant music requires higher degrees attention leading observed decline memory performance gradual development lowfrequency oscillations frontal posterior areas may least partly due gradual recruitment higher levels attention time response pleasurable music demonstrated earlier sections chapter single research project generally limited focus cannot take account complexity underlying impact background music task performance also methodological issues relating types task considered included reading comprehension completion mathematical tasks range memory tasks relating attention also issue relating impact performance tasks assessedfor instance physiologically neurologically task performance observation rating scales particularly important relationships different measures frequently inconsistent challenges systematically categorising nature music used terms potential arouse generate different moods power music extent liked disliked music vary genre tempo timbre intensity type instrumental vocal use consonance versus dissonance relationships complex salimpoor et al although generally music influences physiological arousal expected direction exciting music leads increased arousal calming music reverse abeles chung responses based prewired connections related primitive elements musicfor example loudness timbre pitch tempo peretz favourite music whether stimulating relaxing tends lower experience tension although necessarily similar impact physiological responses iwanaga moroki may also act distraction completion task finally subjective aspects music perception individuals respond music different ways depending musical preferences individual characteristics structural features music tempo modality instrumentation genre cultural factors aspects environment including tonality way musical associations culturally shaped learned associative factors example personal subjective meanings placed particular piece music depending musical experiences play part responses music associative factors come play structural cultural aspects music superseded personal associative aspects see figure preference may therefore render different types music functionally equivalent example music young people may choose play studying may differ widely lead similar physiological effects music may linked particular experiences individuals life evoking pleasant distressing memories robazza et al also related identity macdonald et al quite different music thus change mood direction field et al formal music training perhaps impact identity affects responses clear patterns relating gender age social class abeles chung complex interacting nature factors influence responses mean difficult predict exact effects particular piece music individual music studying figure course interactions various factors relation undertaking cognitive tasks key one relationship difficulty task optimal level arousal needed undertake yerkesdodson law provides one explanation stating arousal levels increase performance optimal level beyond overarousal leads deterioration arousal known act according inverted u shape extremely low extremely high arousal damages performance moderate levels benefit occurs quickly task performed complex underlearned completing simple task requires higher level arousal concentration maintained complex tasks require lower arousal levels evidence way loud fast music disrupts reading comprehension complex task supports explanation thompson et al personality factors also implicated optimal arousal levels introverts higher resting levels arousal extroverts susceptible overarousal impacts task performance background music cassidy macdonald dobbs et al related attention drainage effect describes attention reservoir mental energy resources drawn meet situational attentional demands task processing kahneman chou music may circumstances draw attention away task possible pay attention one thing time madsen instance music lyrics likely interfere reading comprehension task instrumental music music played concurrently task completion may apply music used prime activity music lyrics may interfere task completion task nonverbal power music general shared attentional resources involved processing stimuli different modalities including music lead impairment processing one modalities recently particular interest impact music elderly shown different factors may come play age group particularly experiencing cognitive impairment music played concurrently may distract task completion music played prior task may act enhance motivation arousal thus enhancing task performance addressing issues gonzalez aiello considered interactions musicbased taskbased performerbased characteristics hypothesised music along complexity volume would facilitate simple task performance impair complex task performance individuals preference external stimulation dimension boredom proneness would moderate effects test participants completed cognitive tasks either silence music varying complexity volume findings showed music generally impaired complex task performance complex music facilitated simple task performance preference external stimulation moderated effects explanatory framework hallam macdonald discussed subjective aspects music perception individuals benefited music considered varied could even fluctuate within listener individuals respond differently music depending features music individuals cultural context additional experiencedriven associative aspects individual preferences ways responding music determine whether music influences mood level arousal capacity perform better physiological effects overall impact background music performance particular task depends many interacting factors figure sets model possible contributory factors including nature music genre whether stimulating relaxing complexity whether familiar liked vocal instrumental selected individual listening music studying imposed others model suggests effects music mediated characteristics individual age ability personality metacognitive skills musical expertise familiarity music played frequency normally listen music studying current emotional arousal mood state individual may also influenced individual characteristics recent life events individual characteristics also direct effect learning outcomes indirect effect metacognitive activity environment within activity taking place may also importantfor instance whether individual alone familiar place whether distractions characteristics task instance nature processing required difficulty whether perceived interesting boring also play part currently little research takes account factors individuals need aware impact music task performance adjust behaviour accordingly general rule background music creates high levels arousal disrupt work complex tasks although may prevent boredom task repetitive boring working silence relaxing music may enhance performance difficult task preferred music likely advantages disliked music music lyrics may disruptive particularly task verbal nature see figure overview clear understanding music affect task performance complex requires many factors taken account individual needs assess situation task facing given time make decision whether music assist disrupt performance act accordingly classroom unless calming music used simply lessen general exuberant behaviour working silence likely beneficial majority students unless particular behavioural difficulties problems attention instance adhd add power music figure model effects background music behaviour learning derived hallam macdonald reengagement motivation active engagement music shown support positive development young people areas high deprivation may risk disaffection fully engaged education exhibiting poor behaviour involved criminal justice system music also found help rehabilitation prisoners successful reintegration society chapter begins setting various influences individuals motivation followed exploration evidence active engagement music may contribute bringing change motivation lack motivation problem formal education across much developed world concern high levels student boredom disaffection high dropout rates poor attendance poor behaviour leading exclusions school particularly urban areas students report viewing school boring game try well little effort possible disaffection increases students progress school particularly final years compulsory education issues particularly acute boys ethnic minorities special educational needs young people lower socioeconomic groups underrepresented higher education take opportunities participate formal education mature adults tend already relatively successful substantial group individuals whose motivation insufficient sustain engagement formal learning short medium longterm himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music complex interactions occur environment individual influence selfdevelopment motivation ultimately behaviour set figure individuals identity selfconcept represents way thinks relationships others mead rogers sullivan identity developed response feedback received environment desire social approval particularly admire respect leads us behave particular ways time values beliefs leading behaviour associated praise internalised positive feedback others raises selfesteem enhances confidence identity develops result processes family crucial role play process early years childs social contacts broaden others including teachers peers become important individuals set goals determine behaviour goals influenced identity ideal possible selves well environmental factors behaviour end link chain time enactment influenced changed environmental factors interaction environment individual every level long short term individuals also act upon environment change seek new environments conducive needs behaviour influenced individuals interpretation situations events expectations goals mediate regulate behaviour mischel individual needs desires tempered consideration consequences actions prior attempts satisfy cognition plays role ways attempt enhance selfesteem leading us attribute success failure causes allow us maintain consistent view learner completed learning task successfully impact selfesteem motivation carried forward subsequent learning tasks conversely learning outcomes negative motivation usually always impaired complex interactions learning motivation successful enjoyable learning domain likely motivated continue engaging time interested motivated domain reengagement motivation likely persist fail face difficulties particularly believe ultimately successful early engagement learning particular domain enjoyable positively rewarded self efficacy beliefs supported learning continues brings rewards positive possible self develops domainenhancing motivation increasing persistence future motivation learn related identity goals individuals set short medium longterm value attached learning tasks related extent support developing identity goals derived throughout life individual engage learning across several domains inevitable successful interested domains others closely linked personal goals time time personal goals may conflict individuals may make choices based relative importance difficulty years compulsory schooling occasion individuals may required undertake training circumstances individuals freedom choose learn removed little relationship personal goals determined educational system teachers working within motivation likely poor learners likely become disaffected closely goals learners teachers educational systems matched likely effective learning occur motivation crucial well children perform school closely linked selfperceptions ability selfefficacy aspirations hallam actively engaging music help enhance motivation change behaviour changing self beliefs aspirations transferable skills develop study norwegian research council science humanities supported finding connection musical competence high motivation led greater likelihood success school lillemyr high correlations positive selfperception cognitive competence selfesteem interest involvement school music power music motivation developed engagement music process learning play instrument sing frequently requires hours practice typically solitude commitment music even competing curricular extracurricular activities may foster motivationrelated characteristics evans evans liu students learn repeated music practice lead mastery complex skills achievement desired outcomes positive examination outcomes successful performances develop masteryfocused learning approach deg\u00e9 schwarzer may lead internalisation sense selfefficacy may applied learning nonmusical domains bandura suggests efficacy beliefs multifaceted although may covary across distinct domains functioning selfefficacy developed one area learning may generalise areas instance selfefficacy developed learning music may generalise areas learning particularly similar subskills involved similarly selfregulation acquired music may generalise areas transfer selfefficacy motivationrelated characteristics plausible given parallels music education traditional academic subjects instruction feedback required tangible outcomes relation examinations performance selfefficacy associated achievement caprara et al masterylearning selfefficacy develop iterative mutually reinforcing manner mcpherson renwich research demonstrated recognition achievement music leading high levels self efficacy enhance selfefficacy selfesteem transfers motivation schoolwork instance mcpherson oneill found students engaged learning music reported higher competence beliefs values lower task difficulty across school subjects comparison engaged making music overall experience learning play instrument sing enhanced motivation school subjects burnard explored attempts three secondaryschool music teachers reengage disaffected young people music reengagement motivation lessons reported democratised musiclearning emphasised creative projects used digital resources similarly musical futures project designed devise new ways engaging young people aged music activities initially entailed young people working small groups learning copy recordings popular music ear largescale evaluation project showed music teachers perceived students motivated better behaved demonstrating higher levels participation greater focus enhanced musical skills confidence improved smallgroup independentlearning skills enhanced leadership skills benefited lower middleability students hallam et al pupils reported improved listening skills impact schoolwork including less reliance teacher enhanced concentration using music help subjects instance making songs help remembering facts team working skills also transferred lessons hallam et al non music staff participating schools also reported musical futures approach positive impact student motivation wellbeing selfesteem concentration organisation attitudes towards learning progression teamworking hallam et al similarly students randomly assigned weekly piano lessons course three years demonstrated gains selfesteem particularly academic dimension whereas control group showed gains costagiomi quasiexperimental study revealed students received higher number music lessons several years reported gains academic selfconcept unmatched comparison group rickard et al positive relationships also reported number music lessons taken academic selfconcept deg\u00e9 et al higher levels musical engagement deg\u00e9 et al deg\u00e9 schwarzer experiences students musical groups may also contribute general sense accomplishment collaboration may support enhanced interactions school leading positive school climate greater academic achievement decreased disaffection rumberger lim power music figure model motivation reengagement motivation children young people facing challenging life circumstances children born areas high deprivation face considerable life challenges typically acquire lowlevel skills qualifications adulthood less likely employed likely lower earnings affluent areas blanden et al longterm consequences include relating health mental physical involvement criminal activity feinstein sabates parental involvement childs education lack cultural social capital negative experiences school low aspirations exposure multiple risk factors implicated relationship deprivation poor educational outcomes relation music evidence children deprived areas less likely played musical instrument scharff likely negative experiences instrumental teachers interpreting failure feeling less comfortable confident learning classical music bull group musicmaking offers opportunity engage wider cultural experiences explore new ideas places perspectives support social cohesion broadening experience israel benefits participants also increases parents attendance cultural events exposure culture generally creech et al range musical projects focused role music play enhancing lives vulnerable children providing range transferable skills programmes discussed others addressed detail chapter addresses issues social inclusion instance inclusion refugee children chapter considers programmes supporting psychological wellbeing children war zones music vehicle reengaging young people education supporting risk making changes lives context within projects operate important success musical genres adopted quality musical facilitators deane colleagues found whilst musicmaking acted hook terms initial project engagement frequently power music building trusting non judgemental relationship young person mentor supported change el sistema sistema inspired programmes internationally largest group programmes supporting children living deprived areas risk disaffection el sistema programmes inspired el sistema el sistema founded social action music jean antonio abreu premised utopian dream orchestra represented ideal society idea child nurtured environment would better society el sistema survived many different administrations large network youth childrens orchestras addition many programmes around world inspired el sistema share values goal el sistema use music protection childhood training rehabilitation prevention criminal behaviour evaluations el sistema sistema inspired programmes show offer safe structured environment ensures children occupied reduced risk participating less desirable activities creech et al evaluations individual programmes report childrens sense individual group identity enhanced children take pride accomplishments show increased determination persistence become better able cope anger express emotions effectively creech et al raised aspirations motivation learning england lewis colleagues showed participants sistemainspired programme harmony exhibited positive attitudes improved behaviour parents teachers indicated pupils greater sense purpose selfconfidence aspirations raised part attributed contact role models form harmony teachers visiting artists lewis et al prominent theme reported evaluation big noise scotland gcph raised aspirations participants reengagement motivation researchers reported qualitative evidence demonstrating enhanced motivation determination willingness challenged ability imagine achieve goals particularly amongst secondary school participants particular aspirations year olds raised gcph qualitative interviews parents children involved big noise scotland gen provided strong evidence considered programme enriched childrens lives twentynine parents took part quantitative survey revealed positive impact attributed big noise regard confidence friendships hope future happiness concentration behaviour research sistema inspired projects positive instance rimmer explored childrens reflections value participation english programme harmony interviews undertaken primaryschool children aged six eleven three programmes newcastle telford norwich parents siblings school environment important way participating children viewed programme value engaging music family particularly important influencing children challenges handling holding instrumentsand perceptions sounds created somehow lacking desirable qualitiesemerged absence within programme valued visual representational kinetic aspects popular music emerged many accounts compulsory nature harmony participation contrasted valued dimensions popular music related activities associated freedom choice self directedness play raised aspirations noted uy chicago n\u00facleo chacao students enrolled high school university conservatoires percent studying music others pursued careers engineering medicine subjects comparison underprivileged communities uy described astounding programmes reported similar raised aspirations selfbeliefs including boston conservatory lab charter school el sistema colorado harmony stockton kalamazoo kids tune kidznotes orchkids san diego community opus project yola peoples music school youth orchestras el sistema chicago numerous power music usa programmes included measures evaluations demonstrate successes achieved realising motivational goals case duckworth harmony stockton orchestrating diversity silk et al smith review see creech et al programmes report similar findings instance devroop explored effects music tuition career plans disadvantaged southafrican youth found positive outcomes galarce colleagues reported academic aspirations improved result engagement programme students less likely procrastinate schoolwork similarly cuesta found percent participants achieved better outcomes school compared percent nonparticipants wald researched two sistema inspired programmes argentina found evidence enhanced motivation commitment programmes scotland ireland also showed enhanced aspirations engagement learning improved behaviour kenny moore review overall creech colleagues concluded raised aspirations one frequently cited positive outcomes el sistema sistema inspired programmes programmes instance harmony liverpool changes aspirations restricted children participating programme extended across community burns showed progress academic attainment age enhanced musical attainment enhanced perceptions childrens social emotional wellbeing parents carers noted changes musical ability communication confidence focus concentration behaviour families engaged musical activities children took home new skills shared family members direct impact family life individual aspiration community pride changed creating virtuous cycle change perceived severely deprived area residents saw hope also working liverpool robinson found parents participating research actively supporting children felt lives transformed children developed new skills greater opportunities experiences places greater appreciation music reengagement motivation evaluation english sistema inspired programmes lord colleagues collected evidence pupil surveys including matchedcomparison sample drawn schools participating harmony well case study interviews findings showed improvements pupils attitudes learning self confidence selfesteem wellbeing aspirations improve borne national inspection agency schools ofsted whose reports highlighted pupils social emotional spiritual wellbeing attributed least part participation harmony positive wellbeing outcomes thought influenced group work ethic involved discipline focus teamwork comparison wellestablished harmony programmes england liverpool lambeth recently established programmes revealed statistically significant differences regard childrens application self learning view future prospects children established harmony schools participated programme longer positive scores suggesting programme positive impact regards dispositions towards learning future aspirations established harmony schools compared matched comparison schools accessing harmony statistically significant differences also found relation application self learning childrens views future prospects well selfassurance security happiness seemed time programme impacted childrens wellbeing leading become young confident learners clear future aspirations evaluation summer residential orchestral programme also demonstrated impact personal wellbeing amongst participants npc hay thirtyfive young people aged nine eighteen including special educational needs completed survey wellbeing course caution must exercised interpreting dataas sample size smallthere indications enhancement selfesteem emotional wellbeing resilience life satisfaction large effect size reported measures although girls seemed benefit boys compared national baseline scores measures boys post course scores selfesteem resilience top quartile might expected national sample power music uy carried crosscultural comparison el sistema venezuela usa reported consistency regard positive outcomes relating personal development overall parents students contexts reported improvements focus discipline time management relaxation coping communication ability work others academic performance aspirations creative thinking selfesteem south america considering impact batuta colombia programmes offer strategies social educational cultural development support national system youth orchestras colombia cu\u00e9llar drew key findings crece report matijasevic et al qualitative data provided examples personal development similar reported elsewhere students reported positive changes respect tolerance honesty solidarity teamwork sense responsibility emotional regulation helped control aggressiveness intolerance impatience selfesteem enhanced particularly selfefficacy feeling competent students also reported greater selfcare resilience happiness enhanced aspirations social networks greater enhanced family interactions many usa programmes identified elevated aspirations goals key bringing change included evaluations measures assess demonstrated success case conservatory lab charter school duckworth harmony stockton orchestrating diversity renaissance arts academy b silk et al smith peoples music school youth orchestras el sistema chicago instance renaissance arts academy los angeles demonstrated elevated academic professional aspirations students result participating academically musically rigorous intense programme high graduation rate percent coupled percentage students continued education university percent exemplified huge transformations occurred terms students believed could accomplish also goals expectations set result realisation accomplishments music arts transferred beliefs academic capabilities elevated goals achievements areas showed shifts take place reengagement motivation possibilities result many programmes measured reported raised aspirations greater selfesteem amongst students caribbean oasis sistema inspired orchestral programme established youth riskshowed sixmonth period participation students significantly less likely provoked anger display aggressive behaviours including teasing shoving hitting kicking fighting involved delinquent peers also higher educational aspirations months findings showed positive overall outcomes galarce et al terms academic aspirations percent oasis group compared percent control group expressed hopes able obtain doctoral degree increases selfregulation also seen seven percent oasis group compared percent non oasis students reported speaking inappropriately others also less likely report pleasurable activities prevented achieving work goals less likely procrastinate schoolwork involved fights use alcohol marijuana sixmonth stage results haitian programme similar jamaica oasis students significantly less likely angered easily less likely involved aggressive behaviours delinquent peer relationships within months results haitian oasis students mirrored jamaica terms academic aspirations percent opposed percent hoping attain doctoral degree also less likely disagreements parents caregivers likely involved sports selfbeliefs positive selfbeliefs regarding achieved selfefficacy possible possible selves crucial motivation el sistema sistema inspired programmes prioritised personal social development participants many evaluations point positive impact programme selfbeliefs esquaea torres galarce et al israel uy participation two argentinean sistema inspired orchestras explored wald b found students parents coordinators directors perceived participation orchestras related selfesteem power music selfworth selfconfidence pride achievements motivation commitment frequent opportunities performance helped raise aspirations billaux created safe opportunities risktaking uy allowed children experience success many occasions enhancing selfefficacy selfesteem school attendance positive attitudes towards school creech colleagues review el sistema sistema inspired programmes showed major area focus many american programmes impact students rates attendance punctuality school several programmes documented positive evidence regarding school attendance including austin soundwaves harmony stockton kalamazoo kids tune kidznotes orchkids potter renaissance arts academy b san diego community opus project smith programme evaluation findings america showed sistema participants generally increased attendance school b sharp programme schurgin reported decrease absenteeism average days days per child many sistema participants attended schools majority students qualified free reducedprice school meals attendance rates schools attended sistema students higher state local average evaluation results usa showed sistema students generally improved attendance higher rate average schools england primary school harmony liverpool based saw drop absence almost eight percent six percent burns bewick compared sector average five percent although absenteeism rose analysis attendance rates showed overall significant improvement school average rate absence percent burns bewick contrast scotland evidence showing involvement big noise improved attendance gen although qualitative data suggest programme making difference regard recently report reengagement motivation suggested programme associated improved school attendance raploch school attendance percent among big noise participants four percent higher eligible population govanhill school data showed attendance among big noise participants almost percentnearly two percent higher eligible population glasgow centre population health canada morin found improvements school attendance although new zealand wilson colleagues reporting sistema aorearoaindicated reasonable improvement overall attainment engagement social skills school insufficient data comment attendance overall although data relating attendance mixed evidence enhanced achievement emotional behavioural difficulties alem\u00e1n colleagues assessed effects sistema inspired music programme childrens developmental functioning context high rates exposure violence trial conducted music centres total children aged six fourteen participated approximately half receiving offer admission programme september half september children treatment group participated one semester controlgroup children one year evidence improved selfcontrol reduced behavioural difficulties effects larger among boys children less educated mothers especially exposed violence following participation programme group exhibited lower levels aggressive behaviour programme improved selfcontrol reduced behavioural difficulties effects concentrated among subgroups vulnerable children columbia castanedacastaneda explored impact intensive guitar workshops offered part rehabilitation programme young people youth detention centre findings showed improvements musical citizenship skills power music transferable skills parents teachers children participating el sistema sistema inspired programmes referred way programme developed transferable skills including concentration hallam burns one parent commented impact kids enormous concentration ive got nephews schools difference huge kids sit massive big place listening classical music without coughing fidgeting sit well behaved length time theres many primary kids weve got special education kids well another parent emphasised impact learning generally children dedicated areas learning come leaps bounds without doubt music parents recognised impact confidence confidence gone sky high says shes really nervous seems calm another parent commented music brought daughter shell confident young lady older students able selfreflect wider benefits participation learn things dont learn school learn lots skills life make links people like able talk new people like able work things like team work listening others even dont want music career five years time youll skills youll able say learnt orchestra paid young people also able develop leadership skills mentoring engaged recognised staff parents music interventions unrelated el sistema several music interventions addition el sistema sistema inspired programmes designed support disadvantaged children instance pasiali clark worked children aged five eleven years old programme reengagement motivation consisted eight minute music sessions teaching social skills song lyrics improvisation central social competence antisocial behaviour academic competence assessed outcomes showed number lowperformance highrisk skills decreased significantly teacher assessment indicated significant improvement communication decrease hyperactivity autistic behavioural tendencies overall problem behaviours internalisation parent ratings generally mirrored teachers similarly millar colleagues reported positive outcomes cool project month intervention involved sessions participatory musicmaking hardtoreach young people aged programme aimed increase confidence selfesteem improve social skills music resonated young peoples lived experience one study examined impact singing programme sing children young people hampshire matthijsse findings indicated participants selfconfidence aspirations enhanced developed new friendships better connections parents however hampshire matthijsse cautioned children young people privileged backgrounds benefited disadvantaged backgrounds latter risked rejection existing friends due programme perceived cheesy gay emphasises importance musical intervention seen relevant participants school music lessons therapeutic instance case study general music class spanish public secondary school undertaken disaffected learners received total reprimands throughout school year poor behaviour systematically rejecting school rules rusinek established enjoyed music lessons may music teacher generated enthusiasm inclusive pedagogy principle music adopted arrangements percussion instruments four twelve parts pop classical film music played class goal performance shared children teacher widely accepted important part school culture similarly australian study showed group boys identified behavioural issues engaged power music proactive musicmaking activity showed notable improvements classroom cooperation selfesteem drumming exercises programme among popular connected closely participants sense maleness activities fun provided opportunities students enhance positive values group cohesion selfesteem along behavioural social competence smith drumming seems particularly effective form musical intervention children disaffected support anger management teambuilding substanceabuse recovery leading increase selfesteem development leadership skills mikenas group drumming foster sense cohesion teaches coordination teamwork participants assume different roles work together drake faulkner colleagues developed drumming programme way engaging risk youth simultaneously incorporating themes discussions relating healthy relationships others evaluation programme sample participants western australias wheatbelt region used quantitative qualitative methods including informal discussions staff participants observation participant teacher questionnaires school attendance behavioural incident records findings showed increase scores range social indicators demonstrated increased connection school community also australia obrien donelan reported effectiveness creative arts diversionary intervention young people risk threeyear government funded study ten arts programmes conducted across urban rural areas findings demonstrated arts programmes could significant positive impact marginalised young people offering opportunities skill development social inclusion canada wright argued music education schools could lead social transformation research impact musicmaking children living care lookedafter children uk shown engagement high quality musicmaking projects support development resilience dealing challenges salmon rickaby researched developing musical play could facilitate skills development improve reengagement motivation mental health strengthen resilience young people care participants able develop new skills confidence resilience felt socially connected review dillon showed musicmaking could contribute improved negotiation skills cooperative working learning trust peers developing capacity selfexpression stronger sense selfawareness increased selfdiscipline responsibility sense achievement feelings belonging shared identity opportunity make friends develop positive relationships adults musicmaking provided respite problems opportunities fun addition evidence increased confidence acquisition wide range skills norway waaktaar colleagues study young people experienced serious multiple life stresses leading behaviour difficulties found music programme able enhance resilience positive peer relationships selfefficacy also improved young men demonstrated coherence creativity produced music video public viewing zanders also showed music therapy could support young people foster care helping create stability find resources meaning lives promote healing addressing displacements abuse grief loss many experienced england evaluation youth music mentoring programme included total mentees showed participants aware musical opportunities available increased agency assessed feeling respected capable control mentees indicated enhanced ability work others express respect peoples views punctual lonie similarly brown nicklin explored impact global youthwork project aimed engage young people social issues medium hip hop participantswho range british ethnic backgroundswere education employment training otherwise identified marginalised due criminal record excluded mainstream education project aimed challenge exclusion implied labels marginalised value participants experiences aiming engage global social issues sessions ran three years considered financial independence political identity mental health overarching power music focus money power respect activities creative including lyricwriting art interviews developing tracks build self esteem outcomes showed project built selfesteem positive attitudes learning participant perceptions suggested programme provided positive experiences learning skills development thus enhancing selfesteem reducing risk factors antisocial behaviour hip hop used connect young people social issues engage learning developing transferable skills building confidence well increasing employability prosocial behaviour engagement social issues sessions interactive facilitating dialogue providing peer mentoring studio facilities recording equipment available data included project reports interviews field notes session plans feedback findings suggested opening informal spaces opportunities creative experiential learning hip hop positive outcomes young people facilitated engagement prosocial behaviours review projects funded youth music qa research showed range positive outcomes associated engaging education employment training risk music making activity outcomes included increased motivation engage education employment voluntary activity including gaining qualifications heightened aspirations positive attitude towards learning participants also developed range transferable skills including basic academic skills listening reasoning decision making concentration focus teamworking timekeeping goalsetting meeting deadlines also evidence enhanced wellbeing including increased selfesteem self respect pride empowerment sense achievement confidence expansion friendships trust improved relationships adults aggression hyperactivity impulsivity decreased participants learned control emotions projects also broadened horizons including increased awareness different cultures traditions evaluation european social fund project engaging disaffected young people lancashire learning skills council found music sport activities could encourage participants back learning changing negative attitudes perceptions towards education following completion project percent reengagement motivation project participants working towards qualification alvaro colleagues evaluated pilot phase european unions emotion project designed utilise youthfriendly music software order engage yearolds dropped school risk dropping three experimental pilot programmes delivered groups containing students single schools three different countries italy romania uk teachers completed scorecard student beginning end programme overall improvements range basic academic skills personal skills including listening speaking alcohol avoidance interviews also indicated reduction offending antisocial behaviour substance abuse participants enhanced interest schoolwork improved school attendance attention selfconfidence selfbelief motivation cultural awareness communication skills school attendance attitudes towards school taetle investigated relationship daily school attendance enrolment fine arts electives three secondary schools participated students divided three groups according elective participation fine arts courses nonfine arts courses combination fine arts nonfine arts courses students stratified according grade point average low risk medium high attendance rates computed percentage days absent findings showed students lower absence rates higher grade point average students enrolled fine arts electives significantly higher absence rates students least one fine arts elective students low grade point average risk enrolled fine arts electives significantly higher absence rates students enrolled least one fine arts elective similarly oreck colleagues reported participants artsbased programme stated involvement enabled make friends establish support networks feel accepted valued davalos colleagues examined extracurricular activity perception school ethnic identification association school retention rates among mexican american power music white nonhispanics participants engaging extracurricular activities considerably likely enrolled school participating similarly lashua lashua fox studied recreation project taught young people aged mainly aboriginal backgrounds make music using computers studio production software showed participants literacy problems able create complex spontaneous rhymes medium rap participants reported programme meaningful made school enjoyable helping stay trouble activities rap battles provided acceptable outlet aggression enabled participants demonstrate skills gain respect learn humility integration young people special educational needs mainstream education increasingly europe young people social emotional behavioural difficulties taught mainstream schools presents particular challenges teachers many children difficulties learning may may related behaviour result prominent area work music therapy become integration children special educational needs particularly case germany italy government strategies focused integration children special educational needs mainstream schools germany hippel laabs kartz kochtemming kok mahns neels colleagues palmowski explored music therapy could help children special educational needs integrate mainstream classrooms similarly italy pecoraro reviewed music therapy could help young children special educational needs learn mainstream classes dulisse colleagues also considered music therapy could applied schools uk student music therapists focused role music therapy supporting children special educational needs mainstream schools carson crookes hitch historically improvisation individuals principal method adopted music therapy darnleysmith patey reengagement motivation increasingly music therapists work range different contexts including child adolescent mental health services social services educational settings working schools developing area carr undertook review relevant papers included outcomes although successive governments uk concerned wellbeing children schools music therapy played limited role review carr wigram found ten papers specifically addressed work within mainstream schools main recipients children mild emotional behavioural social problems different therapeutic approaches adopted instance jenkins advocated flexible approach strange adopted clientcentred music therapy emotionally disturbed teenagers moderate language disabilities butterton used music pastoral care emotionally disturbed children aged using psychotherapy music improvisation drawing n\u00f6ckerribaupierre w\u00f6lfl described preventative approach introducing music therapy two secondary boarding schools germany aim helping students express emotional state release aggressive tension project proved particularly successful classes migrant students diverse cultures able communicate effectively shared improvisation pethybridge robertson suggested music lessons schools consist improvisation believed potential guide student areas learning result experiences acquired musical interaction students language communication unit attached mainstream school participated study involved childled creative music making structured activities enhance social skills findings showed working small groups led greater ability address educational objectives musical nonmusical pethybridge evaluated ways music therapists might support teachers offer interactive group musicmaking children additional support needs working nursery teacher pethybridge planned delivered week intervention three children autistic spectrum findings showed experiential music therapy groups offered level transferable learning power music teaching support staff potential developing indirect approaches derrington series papers derrington neale also argued need offer music therapy mainstream schools pupil referral units disaffected young people emphasis creative activities including songwriting mcferran reviewed research literature education mental health community music suggesting grouping knowledge way offered new perspectives types programmes offered way evaluated schoolbased music therapy interventions children emotional behavioural difficulties examples use music therapy young children instance brackley describes increasingly common need music therapy work behavioural support programmes pupil referral units children aged five nine excluded mainstream education referred music therapys potential recreate conditions early mother infant relationship allowing music therapist revisit problematic stages pupils early development aid ego development similarly de silva also illustrated music therapy could bring radical transformation behaviour emotional interaction younger children thomas undertook qualitative case study two primaryschool children social emotional behavioural difficulties one exhibited withdrawn behaviour poor behaviour music lesson interventions period one year benefited children terms personal competence selfregulation self confidence selfesteem task competence enjoyment engagement motivation social competence collaboration social connectedness montello coon also studied impact active passive group music therapy preadolescents emotional learning behavioural disorders teachers asked rate confirm changes students attention motivation period four months significant changes aggression brought facilitation selfexpression provided channel frustration anger aggression similarly horton showed reengagement motivation group music therapy female adolescents educational treatment centreinvolving stepping series body percussive movements footstamping hand clapping chanting singingsignificantly increased group cohesion participating adolescents identified risk dropping school engaged violent risky sexual behaviours stepping procedure promoted positive social behaviour gold colleagues assessed benefits music therapy emotional behavioural difficulties showed childrens needs relationships opportunities emotional expression met therapy review gold colleagues analysed music therapy studies comprising total children adolescents found benefits greater behavioural problems similarly mcintyre showed nine weeks music therapy adolescent boys behavioural emotional disorders helped develop new skills enjoy music experience group cohesion increase selfesteem hirst robertshaw investigated impact otherwise creative project intervention involved wide range arts activities including music production songwriting targeting young people pupil referral units range emotional behavioural difficulties following engagement project participants demonstrated growth confidence selfesteem enhanced ability communicate staff resist negative peer pressure chong kim examined afterschool educationoriented music therapy programme impacted students intervention lasted weeks used musical activities promote academic social emotional skills rating system completed teachers assessed change showed social skills problem behaviour improved significantly although improvements academic competency using drumming promote selfexpression ho colleagues compared effects weeks schoolcounsellorled drumming social emotional behaviour two fifthgrade intervention classes two standard control classes children intervention classes improved significantly compared controls multiple areas social emotional behaviour assessed power music teachers thompson tawell studied effects arts based intervention young people deemed risk school exclusion social emotional behavioural difficulties eleven young people aged studied using observations interviews interventions offered young people provided alternatives personal cultural historical ways experiencing world experimenting different arts media trying ideas enabled develop new identity findings suggested imagination invoked intervention helped disengaged young people change perceptions future sausser waller showed proper planning musical activities students could benefit music therapy programme structured success individual reviewed music therapy used students emotional behavioural difficulties proposed model music therapy students psychoeducational setting model designed combine music therapy process nineweek grading period school setting suggested ways music therapy therapeutic modalities work collaboratively students emotional behavioural difficulties kr\u00fcger set work contemporary secondary school norway part new strategy helping secondaryaged students emotional behavioural problems students labelled bad guys living name gaining attention challenging behaviour able maintain role within school kr\u00fcger found computer source new meaning learned play instrument technology led broad possibilities exploring mastering arranging creating improvising music participants quickly became confident using control kr\u00fcger showed one child threatened pupils low respect authority difficult talk able engage therapy shared use information technology process developing trusting communicative relationship enabled kr\u00fcger reported encouraged boy master recording techniques also allowed child express anger shout show would always helped create bond opportunity reengagement motivation talk wrong childs life ultimately process using information technology led product child became involved musicmaking burning cds creating covers cd cases selling work even publishing music school radio research focused interventions children exhibiting highly aggressive behaviour instance choi colleagues investigated children allocated either music intervention control group music intervention group engaged minutes musical activities twice weekly consecutive weeks weeks music intervention group showed significant reduction aggression improvement selfesteem compared control group findings suggested music could reduce aggressive behaviour improve selfesteem children highly aggressive behaviours similarly hashemian colleagues studied whether minute music therapy sessions could reduce aggression visually impaired iranian adolescents compared control group matched relation age socioeconomic status education level parents two behaviour questionnaires showed significant decline aggression intervention group ye colleagues carried metaanalysis research exploring whether music therapy could reduce aggressive behaviour children adolescents ten studies included research showed significant decrease aggressive behaviour significant increase selfcontrol compared control groups whereas differences music medicine group control group music interventions durations less weeks sessions per week efficient reducing aggressive behaviour work undertaken refugee students instance baker jones studied effects music therapy programme stabilising behaviours newly arrived refugee students research examined effects shortterm music therapy programme changes behaviour refugee youths attending englishlanguage reception centre brisbane two five week intervention periods employed group music therapy sessions conducted twice week findings indicated music therapy led significant decrease externalising behaviours particular reference hyperactivity aggression power music one main aims music therapy children emotional behavioural difficulties address behaviour within classroom particularly prevalent research usa instance eidson studied effect behavioural music therapy generalisation interpersonal skills therapy sessions classroom middleschool students emotional difficulties also usa haines studied effects music therapy selfesteem emotionally disturbed adolescents showed music therapy enhanced group cohesion cooperation krout mason using computers electronic music resources worked behaviourally disordered students aged either self contained integrated classroom students option enrolling music elective class met three times week receiving individual music therapy services focused learning musical instrument programmes emphasised targeted social behaviours skills learning music kivland noted effect individual music therapy sessions selfesteem adolescent boy diagnosis conduct disorder selfesteem measured frequency positive negative selfstatements ability accept positive comments appropriately twelfth week therapy able list independently done well session able accept positive comments others appropriately addition ability list done well needed improve transferred disciplines canada buchanan working mainstream services studied effects music therapy interventions adolescents aged designated risk intervention gave opportunity selfexpression group setting similarly cheongclinch studied use music tool engage young people english second language high school residential care facility particular newly arrived immigrant refugee students carr wigram identified existing research clinical activity utilising music therapy mainstream children well potential need music therapy group children undertook systematic review relating work children mainstream schools sixty papers identified outcome studies evidence music therapy used reengagement motivation children mainstream schools uk abroad showed literature time review suggested music therapy effective addressing needs mainstream schoolchildren several therapists documented benefits music therapy way increase students selfesteem address challenging behaviour motivate learning help develop interpersonal relationships procter although evidence needed derrington studied whether music therapy could improve emotional wellbeing adolescents risk exclusion underachievement research took place mainstream secondary school federated special school students emotional behavioural difficulties months intervention group received weekly individual music sessions waitinglist comparison group received treatment later quantitative data collected four times research students teaching staff school records students also interviewed pupils dropped majority teachers reported improvement students social development overall attitude role rap hip hop therapy school contexts cultural significance music youth populations long recognised terms performance production music stylised identities surrounding consumption perhaps surprising therefore musicbased interventions particularly effective positively impacting mental health wellbeing young people kind music adolescents prefer related experience emotional behavioural difficulties took weiss including expressions anger epstein et al armstrong ricard suggest rap hip hop rhythm blues provide cultural lens many urban adolescents forge identity express music therefore potential combat emotional interpersonal distress creative techniques incorporate genres music used help adolescents understand regulate coping responses difficult emotionally sensitive situations schwartz fouts power music studying adolescents preferred light heavy qualities music eclectic preferences found three music preference groups inclined demonstrate unique profile personality dimensions developmental issues preferring heavy light music qualities indicated least moderate difficulty negotiating aspects personality andor developmental issues eclectic music preferences indicate similar difficulties despite gardstrom examined offenders perceptions relationship exposure music criminal behaviour four percent perceived connection musical preferences deviant behaviour although percent believe music influenced way felt least time believed music mirrored lives rather causative factor behaviour music perceived cathartic harmful applied preexisting states negative arousal elligan introduced rap therapy psychotherapeutic intervention working atrisk youths primarily african american males whose identities highly influenced rap music rap able engage population youth often enter counselling apprehensively elligan allen gonzalez grant hayes reviewed rap culture relationship inner city youth benefits elligans rap therapy atrisk youth kobin tyson also used rap lyrics impetus therapeutic dialogue facilitation empathic connections clients therapists aided breaking ice encouraging participants engage projective narration helped therapist establish relevant clientcentred treatment goals australia de roeper savelsberg showed taking part communitybased hip hop culture project helped atrisk young people develop confidence skills ambition stronger sense identity although urged caution interpreting findings data limited cobbett illustrated integrative approach working therapeutically individual children experiencing emotional behavioural difficulties combined music therapy creative therapies particularly play therapy drama therapy cobbett developed approach suggesting interventions would effective available schools utilised reengagement motivation materials relevant young people concerned eg rap music electronic music cobbett compared young people receiving arts therapyincluding music drama visual artsand control sample young people waiting list yearlong period two schools children emotional behavioural difficulties two outcome measures used staffrated goodmans strengths difficulties questionnaire selfrated scoring system strengths difficulties questionnaire outcomes showed significant difference improvement therapy group compared control group measures related emotional conduct difficulties effect sizes large three four selfrated categories also showed significant differences improvement groups interviews six young participants suggested young people felt arts brought benefits augmented verbal interventions examples interviews set box paper b cobbett outlined systemic approach would support young people box teenagers comments music therapy derived cobbett helped find music like music lot play instruments made discover lot stuff things able music therapy easy know use fruity loops music software programme make stick beats sometimes music helped get stuff head sometimes calm helped cool get away rest world bit good session wouldnt get speak problems day could also put music made realize wanted focus future blatant therapy would put like need speak things dont want talk maybe youre music something feel expression jamming away could speak whats kind bothering whatever kind leads power music parker colleagues undertook smallscale qualitative interview study secondary school ten weeks marginalised atrisk children programme delivered team young people aged majority previous experience criminal justice system facilitated single twohour music session week approximately pupils sessions took place course normal school day consisted series activities involved lyricwriting usually rap composing beats mostly using logic pro software mac computers although pupils could play musical instruments also music composed recorded performed students aged selected participate general behaviour disruptive demonstrated defiant angry aggressive behaviour towards pupils teachers remain programme maintain positive interactions students teachers considered risk previous involvement criminal justice system involvement gangs students revealed interviews musicmaking increased confidence improved attitudes towards teachers peers induced feelings calm improved communication skills parker colleagues concluded musicmaking activities could provide significant psychosocial benefits young people particularly combined mentoring support series papers uhlig b considered voice could used primary therapeutic instrument initially uhlig worked children special educational needs publicschool setting new york showed atrisk children demonstrated honesty expressing personal desires fears vocal music therapy cursing shouting singing rapping chanting songwriting helped survive personal familiar environments increased learning potential together therapeutic relationship based sharing rap behavioural changes occurred later research uhlig colleagues carried systematic review reported many studies demonstrated effects music emotion emotionally evoked processes uhlig colleagues investigated performance rapmusic therapy nonclinical schoolbased programme support reengagement motivation development selfregulative abilities promote wellbeing reduce risk low academic performance attributable troubled mental health adolescents grade public school invited participate randomly assigned either rapmusic therapy regular classes rapmusic classes took place week period four months measures change taken four monthly intervals primary outcome data included measures psychological wellbeing emotion regulation selfesteem selfdescription language development executive functioning secondary outcome data consisted subjective experiences participants collected followup interviews members experimental group uhlig colleagues carried survey netherlands use rap singing qualified music therapists results indicated rapping singing applications music therapy could enhance selfregulative skills process emotional expression rapping occurred considerably less frequently singing considered decrease aggressive behaviour singing applied daily associated support deeper emotional involvement however findings suggested need consistent descriptions therapeutic interventions using rap styles music therapy practice development specialised protocols research studying effects uhlig colleagues investigated rap sing music therapy schoolbased programme designed support self regulative abilities onehundred ninety adolescents grade public school netherlands randomly assigned participate act control group intervention took place week period four months significant differences groups found teacher strength difficulties questionnaire indicating stabilisation rap sing music group opposed increased problems control group porter also planned trial determine improvised music therapy could lead clinically significant improvement communication interaction skills young people experiencing social emotional behavioural problems porter colleagues studied children aged eight sixteen social emotional behavioural developmental difficulties six child adolescent mental health service communitycare facilities power music northern ireland children randomly allocated weekly sessions music therapy addition usual care acted control group followup occurred weeks participants aged intervention group communication significantly improved although case carers overall selfesteem significantly improved depression scores significantly lower week although significant difference family social functioning time point findings provided evidence benefits integration music therapy clinical practice differences subgroups secondary outcomes indicated research needed olsonmcbride page described implementation specialised poetry therapy intervention incorporated hiphop rap music highrisk youths programme supported young peoples use selfdisclosure intervention involved creative writing use popular music primarily rap rhythm blues genres receptive prescriptive component session sessions facilitator chose music others group members group members created collaborative poem structured individual poem unstructured individual poem symbolic ceremonial component session involved group members reading poems created session aloud group soliciting appropriate feedback poetrytherapy group intervention ten sessions length lasting minutes three interventions conducted participants selected two facilitiesan alternative school transitional living program designed meet needs individuals ages deemed risk due problems family poverty family instability academic problems behaviour problems majority group participants histories serious externalising behaviour problems participants state custody result involvement juvenile justice system data collected group session via video camera overall intervention fostered group environment guarded difficulttoengage atrisk adolescents felt comfortable connected enough engage surprisingly honest bold selfdisclosure initial step addressing problems reengagement motivation zarobe bungay undertook rapid review exploring role arts activities promoting mental wellbeing resilience children young people aged studies related activities took place within community settings related extracurricular activities based within schools included eight papers covering wide range interventions included found participating arts activities could positive effect selfconfidence selfesteem relationships sense belonging qualities associated resilience music programmes young offenders adolescents secure residential accommodation frequently angry detached frustrated conflict peers may experienced trauma abuse drug alcohol use peer pressure gangrelated activities often lack structured home environment may also learning difficulties mental health problems presents challenges attempting rehabilitate music suggested one possible means engaging mckay argued music could benefit young people juvenile institutions helping teamwork providing means letting steam south africa lotter developed music programme adolescents referred courts means social rehabilitation programme based circle courage includes four components belonging mastery independence generosity research explored circle courage might integrated music therapy thompson studied role rap music composition experience incarceration african american youth nelson focused highrisk adolescent males selfefficacy relation choral performance systematic review research impact active musicmaking young people risk within criminal justice system uk australia usa canada south africaundertaken daykin colleagues showed music offered potential improvement self efficacy selfesteem selfconcept overall review concluded music projects could help positive identity construction providing safe means young offenders express difficult emotions anger power music although short projects participants unable meet goals could lead frustration de roeper savelsberg fouch\u00e9 torrance south africa successfully worked rival gang members young people brought venue police escort volunteered join project met week participants shared stories improvised music together within gangs music perceived cool activity rap hiphop culture made musicians heroes supported process rapppaglicci colleagues evaluated prodigy cultural arts programme early prevention programme atrisk young people aged five eighteen programme used visual performing arts help young people develop life skills including communication leadership problemsolving anger management career aspirations goalsetting class conducted professional artist served teacher mentor art young people built confidence learned showcase skills developed lifelong habits future success percent enrolled contact law enforcement committed minor offences percent reoffend prodigy students showed improvement ability control behaviour affective responsiveness academic selfefficacy significant decrease anger depression anxiety suicidal thoughts somatic problems risk behaviours mental health symptoms improved behavioural regulation addition increases academic performance yun investigated music therapy programme experienced violent juvenile offenders six adolescents participated consecutive weeks group music therapy sessions interviewed individually based openended questions addressed autonomy competence relatedness analysis also investigated change brought music therapy transferred everyday life autonomy promoted making choices songs instruments deciding play expressing opinions music competence associated developing skills musical instruments creating music concentrating project demonstrating abilities relatedness concerned collaborating exchanging opinions reengagement motivation playing part musical projects addition participants behaviour changed became selfaware greater mutual exchange group support changes evident school life uk de viggiani colleagues reported threeyear music project young people youth justice programmes music programme ten participants ran six halfdays lasting oneandahalf three hours approach active participatory including singing word association lyrics artwork instrumental work music composition production cd giving live performance participants identified music familiar safe brought credibility celebrity success peers also expression criminal identity genres associated drugs guns gangs misogyny great many challenges tutors implementing programme including highly varied demographics participants transience dropouts lack opportunities followup dependence gatekeepers difficult group dynamics lack decisionmaking skills participants passivity resistance selfpreservation strategy despite programme showed potential support young people coping difficult circumstances delivering lifechanging benefits also uk anderson overy examined whether music art classes could engage young offenders ongoing education fourteen young offenders scotland voluntarily participated tenweek study participants divided three groups music art control education group completed pre postinterviews measures examined emotions selfesteem selfcontrol literacy skills behavioural reports enrolment education courses reviewed three months project findings indicated increased engagement education project individuals music art groups overall findings mixed increases selfesteem music intervention control groups art group participants felt less control behaviour following project although emotion scores showed improvement music art groups control group music art group indicated found sessions engaging power music meaningful decrease behaviourrelated incidents instance breaking prison rules music groupas well increased engagement education project music art groups largest increase music group south africa mathiti woodward colleagues evaluated programme provided instruction african marimba djembe ensemble performance behaviour young juvenile offenders programme integrated musicteaching mentoring intercultural exchanges aimed acquisition musical skills offered opportunities diversion crime successful reintegration society participants matched mentors reported enjoying sessions stating musicmaking helped stay away crime providing sense purpose alternative ways spend time someone listen confide also important programme allowed participants take new identities result sharing skills others respond positively researchers observed musicmaking therapeutic effect participants triggering positive emotions giving chance selfexpression turn learning new skill gave mentees sense achievement increased selfesteem interviews parents revealed family relationships improved students cooperative helpful demonstrating respect acting responsibly also positive outcomes terms attitudes towards school reoffending rate pilot group six months postprogramme nine percent second six months dropped zero repeat offences committed programme successful aiding young people connect families communities culture usa kennedy assessed effects music activities selfesteem selfefficacy participants two homes atrisk youth juvenile detention centre musical performance supported instrumental coaching compared interventions including cognitive behaviour strategies vicarious experience form observation videotaped performance others selfefficacy scores involved musical performance alone combined cognitive behaviour reengagement motivation interventions significantly higher receiving cognitive behaviour interventions alone vicarious experience alone selfesteem scores involved musical performance also improved significantly following intervention although results differ significantly compared alternative interventions involved either vicarious experience cognitive intervention alone scored lower control group intervention suggesting two intervention groups better without treatment participants showed improvements mood reduced anger increased motivation improved behaviour similarly baker homan studied implementation music programme including piano guitar rapping computerbased music sequencing composition group predominantly black youths within detention centre offering highly practical direct means allowing youth offenders express particular form creativity connection existing music cultural interests treatment centre programme based dealt primarily angermanagement substanceabuse problems young people remained facility average days good behaviour allowed participate musical activities lessons conducted individuals small groups many benefits programme also considerable challenges including time pressure access lessons depended accumulation privileges lack opportunities practice lack opportunities continuation release process writing music help young people redefine especially projects promote positive expression seek challenge lyrics glorify criminal lifestyles contain profane sexist discriminatory language findings showed censorship often met resistance young people felt served diminish truth feelings experiences lyricwriting allowed custody explore express thoughts emotions may otherwise repressedfor instance forgiveness healing overcoming regret also usa tyson studied effects hiphop therapy selfconcept peer relations residential setting atrisk youth programme comprised hip hop bibliotherapy music power music therapy involved discussion rap lyrics emphasising positive themes including positive racial identity group identity peace unity participants spoke highly project although statistically significant changes quantitative measures outcomes similar findings reported gann assessed effects rap therapy selfconcept peer support small sample atrisk pupils two urban schools results mixed anticipated improvements selfconcept social support confirmed statistical analysis bittman colleagues evaluated effectiveness novel creative musical expression protocol young people juvenile justice system participants randomly assigned participate adolescent health rhythms drumming protocol normal structured routines included therapeutic educational programmes focusing current events independent living housing social skills grief loss health drug alcohol use employment sexual abuse sexuality anger management conflict resolution instruments included hand drums variety auxiliary percussion instruments bells maracas clavinova computerised electronic keyboard first session began brief welcome discussion expectations overview followed immediately five tenminute nonstructured jam session total africanamerican asian caucasian puertorican participants ranging age participated statistically significant differences intervention versus control groups emerged improvements schoolwork role performance depression negative selfevaluations anger addition extended impact characterised statistically significant improvements six weeks completion protocol reported benefits included improved social skills attention span stress management anger management emotional expression anxiety depression coping skills selfesteem young people adults reduction rates reoffending skills development employment supported employing people marginalised groups exoffenders deliver arts activities groups clennon examined music workshops mainly consisting group composition process learning play rock reengagement motivation band bass keys guitar vocals drums electronic composition using software logic transformative effect participating community music sessions young peoples attitudes towards offending behaviour assessed results suggested small measurable improvement attitudes towards offending young people participated music workshops especially relating perceptions life problems problems could contribute potential offending behaviour similarly hickey undertook longterm qualitative study assess impact music composition programme urban youth detention centre period five years youths participated programme created primarily rapmusic compositions comments feedback well interviews showed enjoyed programme gave positive feelings sense competence creativity emerged key element enhancing competence autonomy chong yun introduced music therapy project young offenders community collaboration project carried collaboration educational institution district prosecutors office corporate sponsor forming tripartite networking system project implementation evaluated adolescents involved juvenile justice system music therapy programme developed sessions musicmaking songwriting three scales selfconcept resilience stress coping skills used improvement following music intervention basis interviews intervention reported helpful gaining new perspectives providing courage challenge persevere selfknowledge ezell levy evaluated impact programme integrated arts therapy young female delinquents experienced emotional behavioural problems correctional institution intervention introduced part curriculum involving art therapy drama therapy music therapy dance movement therapy sessions facilitated twice week fiveweek period participants aged either participated intervention acted controls selfreport questionnaires administered prior intervention screen conduct emotional peer power music problems hyperactivity prosocial behaviourand investigate frequencies aggressive withdrawn prosocial behaviour statistically significant reductions three five emotional behavioural problems measured strengths difficulties questionnaire including conduct emotional problems increase prosocial behaviour significant differences frequency aggressive behaviour rio tenney developed programme juvenile offenders residential treatment setting many clients difficulty establishing positive relationships severely dysfunctional relationships throughout lives music therapy process designed improve social interaction relatedness increase selfexpression selfesteem decrease hostile disruptive behaviour programme also emphasised development empathy appropriate channels energy release client groups evolved somewhat differently illustrating individual personalities abilities affected group dynamic relationships group members therapists australia barrett baker along australian childrens music foundation implemented number music programmes juvenile detention centres means assist young people develop sense selfworth build skills selfdiscipline communication foster resilience reengage life community qualitative case study participants perceptions learning outcomes soughtmusical extra musicalthat emerged participation learning teaching practices contextual factors supported outcomes findings indicated programme generated significant musical extra musical learning outcomes particular learning identity skaggs reported musiccentred creative arts therapy programme residential treatment programme male juvenile sex offenders seoul korea district attorney provided arts programmes instead social labour hours youths conditional suspension one year reported recidivism rate decreased percent percent ewha music wellness research center reengagement motivation music programmes adult offenders music education prisons existed since midnineteenth century research field sparse lee however recently surge activity positive outcomes music interventions reported adult offenders participants enhanced communication social skills increased confidence became better able reflect situation believed could change attain goals early studies undertaken baron benedict evidence participation projects prisoners sought opportunities education training daykin et al number masters doctoral theses explored issuesfor instance apicella aimed establish music activities used part correctional education prisons similarly hodson carried survey music education programmes state prisons littell sporny explored value music correctional settings hess appraised music programme single institution retrospective study richmiller studied residual effects music education experiences prison choir years participation doctoral thesis cohen studied choral singing prison contexts elliot studied way teaching instrumental music adult offenders cohen duncan explored relationship restorative transformative justice music education prison contexts cohen henley examined musicmaking usa uk prison contexts pointing wide variations practice inmates opportunities selfexpression could restricted however community music approaches within prisons improved selfesteem social support sense accomplishment reduced reoffending complex power dynamics prison contexts emphasised importance welcome hospitality offered community music power music choirs many interventions evaluations prison focused choirs instance usa weber evaluated voice hope womens prison choir cohen australia explored inmate volunteer experiences singing prisonbased choir similarly cohen carried two experiments first choir ten inmates performed within prison second larger choir included inmates volunteers performed externally significant differences wellbeing two groups overall group able perform externally scored higher measures emotional stability sociability happiness joviality later cohen trachsel discussed voice intersection music language context writing component prison choir cohen considered music programmes restorative practices prisons across usa uk cohen wilson examined pedagogical strategies facilitating developing songwriting skills males incarcerated usa mediumsecurity prison investigated participants sense selfworth purpose social adjustment related participation songwriters workshop songwriting sessions spanned two week minute workshops one week minute workshop totalling weeks researchers analysed sets original lyrics written reflections three instructors transcriptions four workshop sessions narrative data participants findings showed collaborative social nature songwriting workshops provided supportive atmosphere participants generated new songs enjoyment expression wrote struggles hardships especially relationship problems data suggested discussions song topics helped cope incarceration cohen showed choral singing prisons could help incarcerated individuals identify returning citizens instead felons maruna argued many legal penal rituals exist convince individuals identify offenders rituals place reconnect formerly incarcerated people identify community members outside prison maruna described reengagement motivation successful reintegration rituals symbolic emotive repetitive communitybased infused challenge achievement choral singing models positive reintegration rituals promote prosocial connections returning citizens societies restored messerschmidt explored effects singing incarcerated choir members effects listening live prison choir perform non incarcerated peoplein particular attitudes towards prisoners fortyone singers four choirs sang prison choirs control group experience prison choirs audience members prison choir concert completed attitudetowards prisoners scale answered openended questions findings showed possible people change attitudes towards prisoners experiences prison choir almost percent volunteering said attitudes towards prisoners positive since joining choir audience members also positive attending concert roma examined mens prison chorus highsecurity ohio prison research aimed understand mens prison choral community impacted inmate selfperception intragroup relationships external connections cd recordings made choir sold sales benefited charities inmates choosing helped prisoners connect larger society outside prison researchers explored musical performance especially inmate composed choral repertoire affected choir community projects using gamelan several programmes used gamelan prison interventions affiliations may alienate anyone generally easy learn requiring previous experience groups learn quickly one twohour session players master composition leader conductor players swap instruments changes dynamics tempo decided group good vibrations programme set aim trying gamelan workshops prisons eastburn evaluated gamelan indonesian percussion programme prison setting data collected power music participants selfesteem basic key skills questionnaires prison contacts workshop leaders one hundred twenty four prisoners participated taster sessions completed indepth workshops project helped prisoners develop basic key skills enhanced selfesteem start programme quarter prisoners low literacy numeracy skills half never engaged musical activity nearly percent never participated kind prison workshop prison education staff rated taster sessions providing good opportunities people deploy basic key skills including teamwork communication listening concentrating numeracy motor skills agreed prisoner selfconfidence grown teamwork skills agreed programme effective short arts projects eightynine percent participants indicated felt better sense achievement pride increased confidence percent adult respondents percent young offenders spontaneously mentioned enjoying learning experience working team two prison education managers reported improved behaviour performance education one reported participants signing prison education activities henley colleagues investigated short medium longterm impact gamelan project found participation good vibrations project acted catalyst positive change research found participants feel able communicate offenders within project found confidence voice continue develop communication coping skills within prison exoffenders community furthermore project contributed development anger management skills provided outlet selfexpression leading feeling normal henley investigated learning processes occurring within javanese gamelan project young offenders institution highlighted parallels musical learning processes development certain attributes linked desistance crime desistance paradigm centres changing criminal identity development social personal attributes resonates recent research transformative effects music musical identity changed positively active successful reengagement motivation musicmaking research carried uk young offenders institution involved young people ages period eight weeks observation revealed personal social development occurred participation mendon\u00e7a also focused good vibrations programme examining approach perspectives prisoners administrators teachers assorted music therapies wilson colleagues argued growing awareness amongst policymakers working criminal justice system contribution could made arts prisonsin particular innovative projects offer participants creative outlet positive impact offenders least encouraging engage learning education tuastad ogrady explored concept music freedom practice outside prisons two studies prisoners exprisoners participating reported music helped feel momentarily free harsh realities prison life world outside findings described music prisoners found free space authoritative suppressing institutionalised environment music activities helped building ties world outside prison connecting personal emotions becoming humanised dehumanising setting chen colleagues investigated effects group music therapy improving anxiety depression selfesteem chinese prisoners twohundred male prisoners randomly assigned music therapy standard care music therapy consisted sessions group therapy compared standard care anxiety depression selfesteem measured standardised scales baseline mid postprogramme anxiety depression music therapy condition decreased significantly mid post test selfesteem improved significantly midtest posttest improvements greater younger participants lower level education overall group music therapy effective improving anxiety depression selfesteem particularly younger lower educated prisoners programmes employed power music people marginalised groups exoffenders deliver activities thus supporting skills development employment reported benefits included improved social skills attention span stress management anger management emotional expression anxiety depression coping skills selfesteem reduction rates reoffending gold colleagues also showed music therapy reduced mental health problems could beneficial rehabilitation prisoners compared group music therapy standard care prisoners randomised controlled trial started establishment music therapy services prison near bergen norway one hundred thirteen prisoners agreed participate anxiety depression social relationships assessed baseline every two weeks intervention group one three six months control group release restrictions placed frequency duration contents music therapy duration stay institution short typically less one month minority participants reached clinical cutoffs anxiety depression baseline music therapy well accepted attractive prisoners reduction anxiety two weeks music therapy positive outcomes music interventions also reported relation selfharm among women prisoners digard et al participants enhanced communication social skills increased confidence better able reflect situation believed could change attain goals hakvoort colleagues studied effect music therapy anger management coping skills dysfunctional behaviour pre posttest design used random assignment fourteen patients either treatment control conditions participants received treatment usual nine received standardised music therapy anger management programme five controls received unplanned aggression management programme findings suggested anger management skills improved participants improvement positive coping skills diminishing avoidance coping skill measured showed greater changes music therapy participants controlling exact number treatment hours outcomes suggested music therapy might accelerate process behavioural change reengagement motivation maruna showed music teaching rehearsing recording performance improvisation composition could aid rehabilitation prisoners exprisoners participants almost uniformly expressed passionate support organisation providing music intervention many insisted music changed lives changing tunes logic model developed sense collective ownership responsibility emotional energy increased confidence therapeutic alliance facilitator led management depression programme also led participants find voice developed creativity group bonding mutual support anger management identity separate offender provided way participants test limits drugfree way escape coping imprisonment increased employability public performance acknowledgement led calmer prison environment praise fostered sense achievement participants reported programme provided form escape cycle punishment shame anger defiance prisoners exprisoners found trapped maruna discovered increased confidence commonly cited longterm benefit participation changing tunes project result many participants felt optimistic futures small number participants reported taking part music sessions improved symptoms depression posttraumatic stress disorder respondents often spoke respectful way treated project leaders humanising effect participation arts programmes appears provide prisoners new ways thinking allowing move away previously entrenched offender identities assigning prosocial labels musician often brought new aspirations ascenso reported outcomes lullaby project royal philharmonic orchestra worked refugees migrant mothers fathers london prison programme paired expectant new mothers professional musicians create lullaby children programme developed wellbeing enabling strong sense accomplishment meaning connectedness along experience positive emotions encouraged proactivity promoting initiative musical power music relational reflection stimulating richer perspective life positive coping mechanisms project motivating offering challenge highly valued goal geared towards connecting human level placing centrality individuality positive agenda maintaining two universals core music parental love similarly rodrigues colleagues studied bbbb project combined education artistic performance process centred music babies parents findings showed strong bonding developed among parents babies families community alaska warfield reported study bed facility multilevel adult female offenders offered unique educational programme orchestra founded volunteer membership grew eight twentytwo female offenders bilby colleagues considered possible relationships process abstaining crime influence taking part form artbased enrichment activity might participants research specifically explored arts interventions contributed towards enabling people form positive identities build new narratives build positive relationships peers staff family also began investigate arts interventions enabled people make significant behavioural changes research team investigated five arts projects four criminal justice settings including practising visual arts highsecurity adult male prison music djing skills young offenders community musicmaking project resettlement open prison creative writing bookbinding closed female prison research team spent least four sessions projects observing activities interviewing participants arts practitioners prison staff evidence included participants written work evaluations examples work produced arts activities findings demonstrated clear link taking part artbased activities movement towards secondary desistance analysis data across five projects showed participation arts activities enabled individuals begin redefine arts projects facilitated high levels engagement led greater participation education workrelated activities could positive impact people managed sentence reengagement motivation particularly ability cooperate others including participants staff related increased selfcontrol better problemsolving skills engagement arts projects facilitated increased compliance criminal justice orders regimes arts projects could responsive participants individual needs overall art provided safe space explore challenging questions create allowed prisoners discover could thus enhancing confidence cox gelsthorpe evaluated eight beats bars projects including participants research showed reduction adjudications rulebreaking project increase confidence participate educational programmes confirmation music projects play role fulfilling seven pathways reducing offending mens experiences project particularly feelings encouragement try things without judgement work together clearly facilitated development individual competencies selfesteem participants learned cooperate relate others negotiate share lead improved outcomes following release prison following cartwright evaluated first phase sounding exprisoner programme tracking participants ninemonth period research showed sounding successful offering programme multidimensional support participants took form financial support making new friends contacts ongoing help access training performing opportunities lift motivation hope selfesteem clear sense achievement positive use time found paid appropriately time commitment acted incentive reoffend support face financial hardship additionally paid engendered sense professionalism pride taking part also contributed rebuilding positive family relationships seen positive light others conceived yearlong intervention programme structured around initial rehearsal period concert followed two highprofile performances within period afterwards participants given support access additional opportunities music training employment sounding participants paid rate power music per day rehearsals performances case shorter time periods sum adjusted hourly rate additionally travel food expenses provided built programme opportunity number participants undertake roles supporting musicians making tracks programme support young people risk coming contact criminal justice system making tracks focused intense musicwriting rehearsal period followed performance additionally offered weekly sessions young people intensive project allowing hone musical skills total seven former prisoners recruited project two prison number years since release involved various projects one board trustees advisor took supporting role excellent musicians proven team members exprisoners successfully made challenging transition prison release remaining five participant members recruited within year release ranged age midtwenties fifties offending histories participants varied however participants licence served custodial sentences minimum three years convicted relatively serious crimes two spent previous years periodically offending returning prison regular frequent intervals time sounding project none group employment undertaking training education five receiving state benefits four members accommodation regulated probation service sounding made significant impact reducing participant reoffending levels music found primary motivation given participants passionate playing performing process creative musicmaking preparing performances fostered participants teamworking negotiation skills selfconfidence achievement sense pride participants reported one striking aspects programme level trust placed outset treated way led participants foster strong sense responsibility organisation staff additionally sense responsibility strong motivation reoffend risk letting others later evaluation massie et al showed similar outcomes reengagement motivation number reviews research music therapy adult offenders instance hughes examined application impact arts practice three key areas criminal justice service provision prevention arts practice young people years old risk offending escalation existing offending custodial community sentencing arts interventions sentencing prison community contexts resettlement arts intervention made assist reintegration society findings showed time review paucity highquality research evaluation field survey findings showed clearly arts capacity potential offer range innovative practical approaches could enhance extend provision educational developmental therapeutic programmes across criminal justice sector review showed arts associated positive outcomes play important part changing individual institutional social circumstances sponsor criminal behaviour grey literature highlighted depth breadth arts provision many examples interesting challenging creative projects range settings analysis variety practice identified series common effective programme practice models features however flexibility responsiveness key indicators success quantity consistency findings key areas suggested strong case made effectiveness arts practice across range areas arts interventions criminal justice contexts successful offer nontraditional noninstitutional social emotional environment non judgemental nonauthoritarian model engagement opportunity participate creative process involves structure freedom time engagement participatory arts requires respect responsibility cooperation collaboration coutinho colleagues b reviewed articles mainly qualitative narrative reports group music therapy educational musicmaking choir interventions individual music therapy sessions power music range musical projects case studies cohen henley examined musicmaking prisons uk usa contrasting different approaches practices imprisonment impact music therapy pointing community music within prisons provided means toward desistance improved self esteem social support sense accomplishment cheliotis jordanoska critically reviewed empirical research literature contributions artsbased programmes make process desistance crime focused evaluations programmes run practitioners inside prisons effects artsbased prison programmes participants released community kougiali colleagues carried qualitative metaanalyses articles published worldwide findings suggested music programmes prison perceived participating prisoners liberating encourages participation allows noncoercive personal development therapeutic potential music programmes located combination benefits emanating effect practice music creation mental spatial temporal zones free expression well derive egalitarian nonauthoritative approach employed facilitators chen colleagues metaanalysis assessed effectiveness music therapy improving mental health offenders correctional settings five studies predominantly male participants included showed music therapy effective promoting offenders selfesteem social functioning effects anxiety depression depended number sessions outcomes studies sessions larger effects significant effects found behaviour management different music therapy approaches overview great deal written role music supporting young people disadvantaged backgrounds helping disengaged back education employment well supporting criminal justice system successfully reintegrate community reoffend across areas much reengagement motivation literature descriptive sets details particular interventions advocates use papers argue generally music therapy important role play set theoretical stance research assessed outcomes interventions frequently based single case studies small group interventions nevertheless possible draw conclusions clear making music positive benefits instance generating positive attitudes towards school improving attendance enhancing motivation academic schoolwork helping improve basic key skills across range environments music offers potential enhanced selfefficacy selfesteem self concept improvements mood reduced anger reduced aggression improved behaviour music programmes reduce rulebreaking levels disruption institutions well improving relationships programmes aimed resettlement success supporting exoffenders training employment helping develop range personal social skills increase employability well facilitating acquisition formally accredited educational skills qualifications participants make career music becoming mentors workshop leaders means participants less likely reoffend programmes changed wider communitys views criminal justice system common elements success whatever nature programme seem creating safe space providing highquality musical experience providing highly interactive enjoyable musical activities using music participants relate engage facilitator acts role model treats participants respect enabling trusting non judgemental relationships develop music facilitators mentors engendering feelings belonging group encouraging learning work others power music supporting development interpersonal bonds shared goals creating opportunities developing new skills enabling musical progression providing opportunities perform maintaining regular frequent contact recognising rewarding excellence facilitating positive affirmation others relating musical activities particularly performance providing opportunities reflect articulate emotions providing opportunities feel sense pride providing opportunities creativity develop selfefficacy express feelings facilitating opportunities participants gain respect musicians providing opportunities learn transferable skills providing opportunities develop communication skills promoting giving receiving criticism supporting development confidence resilience allowing time developing understanding self issues related long interventions need ten mentoring sessions usually weekly fortnightly intervals seem minimum although suggest mentoring relationship needs last year effective personal social physical development chapter focuses way active engagement music listening preferences affect way individuals develop personally socially physically personal development section personal development includes way individuals identity personality selfbeliefs shaped interactions environment including activities related music music identity point time individual may hold multiple identities depending current social context identities constantly evolve challenged reconstructed based feedback received interactions others may complementary contradictory denora identified several properties personal identity including status infers identity raised lowered relation others malleable nature identities means combined form new ones form hybridisation music play important role process individuals use music express explore identities macdonald et al active listening music supports exploration integration identities larson helping individuals decide aspire addition music assists sending message decisions others music used himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music consciously unconsciously demonstrate attitudes values beliefs larson lull north hargreaves also used gain knowledge others macdonald et al expression identity connected young peoples lifestyle language personality development music listen schwartz fouts adolescents musical identity may contextspecific different school outofschool contexts rideout et al defined attending concerts actively making music listening specific musical genres engagement musical activities develops several aspects identity relation family school environment contributes physical cognitive social emotional affective development hargreaves lamont musical preferences used self identifying member specific peer group musical subculture miranda claes north hargreaves creating social identities membership ingroup bakagiannis tarrant hargreaves et al rentfrow et al adolescents also use musical preferences acquire valid reliable information others rentfrow gosling young people spend great deal time listening music keen north hargreaves beneficial tarrant et al help regulate emotions north et al act support face problems help alleviate loneliness increase emotional sensitivity cook music also helps adolescents develop sense connection belonging make friends similar musical tastes lewis et al selfhout et al adolescents belong minority ethnic groups use music means developing ethnic identity resilience buffam lundstr\u00f6m schweigman et al travis bowman found positive ethnic identity associated music music could empowering example rap music inspire young people connect others consider experiences others think critically environment want change communities bring change requires agencythe ability act regardless barriers key achieving positive outcomes dedman argues actively engage hiphop personal social physical development culture responding continuously resisting mainstream images messages feel disconnected way identities change explains findings many studies effects music migrant communities baily collyer lenette et al marsh ilari discusses role ethnic identity perceptions interactions minority groups living among ethnic racial groups mexicans usa southeastern asians eastern europeans uk affects developing selfperceptions ilari argues important aspect ability deal experience immigrant refugee able negotiate multiple identities hybrid identities provide wider family feel welcome one main ways achieved music childrens cultural musical heritage cannot removed result external circumstances ilari cultural diversity impacts development construction social musical identities across lifespan wide range contexts including educational settings musical identity part selfsystem refers self listens creates music macdonald et al support building positive selfidentity effective learning routines hallam et al discussed chapter disaffected young people engaged juvenile adult justice systems develop new identities musicians leading positive changes behaviour creating possible positive musical selves way lead broader changes selfbeliefs ole\u015b aspirations subsequent career plans taylor hallam developing positive possible musical self occur point lifespan creech et al music personality considerable research exploring personalities musicians compared musicians nonmusicians examined differences musicians playing different instruments engaging different genres difficulty interpreting research terms personal development possible determine whether individuals certain personality types drawn playing particular instruments engaging power music particular genres whether playing particular instruments engaging specific genres develops certain personality characteristics may elements apply interactions musicians require great many skills able perform imagination flexibility discipline concentrated attention emotional expression intellectual communication motor skills juslin palmer skills may related personality evidence range studies shows group musicians tend open new experiences overall creative imaginative interested change general population gibson et al kemp research ten twelveyear old children corrigal colleagues showed duration music training associated openness experience also associated conscientiousness seven eight years old children frequently begin take formal music lessons best predictors participating music training parents openness experiences childs agreeableness corrigall schellenberg may indicate tendency young musicians comply parental wishes beyond evidence regarding openness experiences saw chapter differences musicians aspects personality seminal study kemp identified common personality traits among western classical musicians showed bold introverts directed energy inwards appeared outwardly reserved argued nature solitary practice may encourage autonomy independence thought string players tended introverted imaginative radical brass players extroverted lower levels selfdiscipline comparison performing groups percussionists also tended towards extroversion findings suggested extent practice required different instrumentstypically string players brass wind percussion playerseither attracted people personality characteristics suited roles caused characteristics develop response particular demands made chosen roles music profession kemp wills cooper personal social physical development cribb gregory studied folk fiddle players salvation army brass band members completed personality inventory questionnaire concerning opinions personality characteristics orchestral violinists orchestral brass players folk fiddlers salvation army brass band members findings showed greater neuroticism among string players greater extroversion brass players found previous research participants views personality characteristics orchestral brass players orchestral violinists echoed found previous research views salvation army brass players folk fiddlers findings showed personality differences stereotypes musicians probably determined history traditions group perceived belong instruments play since kemps research many studies undertaken instance bell cresswell assessed personality traits sample secondaryschool musical instrumentalists student instrumentalists attending college music samples significant differences found musical sample normative population drawn college sample differences found students whose main instrument study strings woodwind brass authors suggested personality characteristics predisposed individuals pursue instrumental performance studies whilst others reflected habitual performance different types musical instrument also studying music students shuterdyson found scored higher extroversion nonmusicians female music students neurotic tenderminded female non musicians undergraduate music students also exhibit conscientious like traits kemp marchanthaycox wilson although composers rock musicians tend less conscientious general population gillespie myors kemp buttsworth smith comparing personality profiles performing musicians aged years old nonmusicians found musicians less intelligent emotionally stable sensitive conservative male musicians sensitive shrewd female counterparts brass power music players suspicious imaginative apprehensive radical compared singers extroverted less anxious creative compared string players keyboard players warmhearted emotionally stable shrewd instrumental groups maclellan explored personality differences among highschool band string orchestra choir students according ensemble membership participants high school students participated musical group one years personality differences members different ensembles indicating choir students likely extroverted compared orchestral students significant differences among ensembles sensing intuition thinking feeling judgingperceiving scales compared highschool norms students ensemble significantly likely intuitive feeling band students likely perceiving choir students extroverted hille schupp using large data set german socioeconomic panel soep found yearold adolescents music training conscientious open ambitious nonmusicians effects stronger among adolescents families lower socioeconomic status comparing musicians representative sample general workforce vaag colleagues found lower levels conscientiousness higher levels neuroticism openness significant differences extroversion agreeableness gjermunds colleagues compared responses musicians nonmusicians big five personality traits findings confirmed higher levels openness musicians frequently found previous research musicians scored lower conscientiousness significant differences groups extroversion agreeableness emotional stability neuroticism similarly kuckelkorn colleagues gathered data respondents professional amateur nonmusicians playing different instruments findings showed professional musicians scored higher amateurs turn scored higher nonmusicians openness experience singers scored higher extroversion instrumentalists professional personal social physical development musicians scored higher neuroticism lower agreeableness lower conscientiousness amateurs although personality differences playing different instruments consistent patterns emerged suggested differences related instrument choice per se perhaps moderated musical genre social context musicmaking group langend\u00f6rfer examined personality differences among professional orchestral groups six toplevel professional orchestras germany three instrumental groupsstrings woodwind brass playersdisplayed fewer differences personality traits stereotyped view suggested apart finding string players conscientious musicians differences found studies replicated butkovic modrusan examined whether differences personality attributed musicians based actual differences stereotypical views one hundred eightytwo string brass woodwind students singers pianists music pedagogy students evaluated personality traits personality traits groups comparison selfreports ingroup outgroup peer reports showed stereotypes different groups musicians pronounced differences selfreports peer reports relation openness agreeableness similarly sandgren investigated whether differences personality traits vocalists instrumentalists findings participants indicated vocalists significantly higher levels extroversion agreeableness openness control groupbut instrumentalists exploring motivational intensity selfesteem macintyre potter online survey recruiting international sample musicians examined differences guitar piano players composed music planned compose future compose intend compose findings revealed instrumentbased differences pianists guitarists levels motivational intensity desire learn introjected regulation perceived competence willingness play group composed music also significantly higher levels musical selfesteem willingness play motivational intensity desire power music learn perceived competence overall findings suggested pianists guitarists intrinsically motivated different reasons authors concluded underlying motivational needs met instruments culture appear focus competence pianists autonomy relatedness guitarists examining differences genre butkovic rancic dopudj compared musicians playing either classical heavy metal music found significant differences personality traits groups although differed significantly personality population norms higher scores extroversion agreeableness intellect similarly comparisons classical pop rock musicians measures sensationseeking found higher levels pop rock musicians vuust et al benedek colleagues compared students classical jazz folk music respect musical activities creativity personality jazz musicians frequently engaged extracurricular musical activities completed higher number creative musical achievements demonstrated higher ideational creativity tended open new experiences classical musicians overall basis existing evidence possible say certainty systematic personality differences musicians playing different instruments although group appear open new experiences members general population emerging differences may related genre within musicians workfor instance jazz pop rock classical music research sheds light whether observed differences influenced different environments musicians play whether existed prior choice instrument genre kemp studying young classical musicians found motivated almost point obsession high degree perfectionism intrinsic motivation seemed associated classical musician may indicated greater conscientiousness although mixed findings relating stoeber eismann found elevated scores conscientiousness among young musicians whereas y\u00f6ndem colleagues found lower scores metaanalysis studies general population smith colleagues showed relationship personal social physical development perfectionistic concerns conscientiousness although moderated gender age perfectionism subscale used considerable evidence many musicians experience performance anxiety distress across variety musical genres including classical jazz popular music papageorgi et al vaag colleagues also showed symptoms anxiety depression highly prevalent among professional musicians findings related perfectionism adverse healthrelated consequences perfectionistic overinvolvement work however stoeber eismann shown facets perfectionism associated anxiety distress whereas facets associated positive characteristics outcomes motivation achievement investigate different facets perfectionism related motivation effort achievement distress musicians young musicians completed measures perfectionism striving perfection negative reactions imperfection perceived pressure perfect intrinsic extrinsic motivation effort achievement distress findings showed striving perfection associated intrinsic motivation higher effort higher achievement perceived pressure music teachers also associated intrinsic motivation negative reactions imperfection associated extrinsic motivation higher distress findings demonstrated perfectionism musicians positive negative aspects negative reactions imperfection clearly unhealthy striving perfection regarded healthy pursuit excellence similarly working students music academies poland lawendowski colleagues investigated study addiction seven core addiction symptoms related studying assessed along measures personality wellbeing study addiction positively related learning engagement also low extroversion high social anxiety longer learning time lower academic performance indicators decreased wellbeing overall evidence suggests professional musician preparing career professional musician negative impact aspects personality power music selfbeliefs historically term selfconcept used refer individuals perceive evaluate different areas lives way individual hold multiple identities selfsystem made number selfimages including relating selfesteem selfefficacy ideal selves possible selves often context situationspecific develop interaction environment hallam active engagement music support development musical identities also impact selfbeliefs depending feedback received others impact may positive negative much evidence supports positive impact music selfesteem self confidence exceptions typically feedback negative performance receiving feedback crucial process lead positive negative responses maintaining positive self esteem argued help maintain positive emotions motivates individuals act shields anxiety pyszczynski et al positive selfesteem essential individuals agency act rather feeling powerless depressed kuhl bae kyungsuk examined effects creation musical play selfesteem selfexpression social skills children first third grade fourth sixth grade half children acted controls activity involved making script composing song lyrics music performing completed musical play selfesteem socialskill scales administered intervention experimental group exhibited significantly higher scores control group scales except selfexpression social skills results showed group music therapy could facilitate childrens engagement groupwork playing important role group could positively impact self perceptions uk harland showed frequent overall influences pupils derived engagement arts school related personal social development music played instruments referred increase selfesteem sense identity research benefits playing instrument participating extracurricular music groups shown impact personal social physical development participants selfconfidence selfesteem tolfree hallam qualitative study children latter years primary education early years secondary education showed children sense achievement playing instrument prevalent amongst younger boys older girls also expressed pride playing well frequently groups age groups reported frustration achieve mentioned least older boys university music students reflecting previous musical experiences school highlighted contribution making music development strong sense selfesteem satisfaction reported enhanced personal skills encouraging development selfachievement selfconfidence intrinsic motivation study nonmusic students previously participated musical groups established similar benefits particular preoccupation impact group musicmaking self personal development kokotsaki hallam early studies exploring role music education self esteem showed positive relationships participation choir band formal music instruction selfesteem amchin et al nolin vander ark wood wig boyle studied effects keyboard learning approach traditional general music approach sixthgrade general music students music achievement selfconcept regarding music ability keyboard group made significantly greater gains musical attainment musical selfconcept control group duke colleagues administered questionnaires large number children studying piano various regions usa parents piano teachers found children parents piano teachers believed piano instruction improved students lives many ways including enhanced selfesteem similarly austin found relationship music selfesteem degree participation school outofschool music activities among upper elementary students england evaluation national singing programme involving approximately children found participating positive selfconcepts nonparticipating children welch positive linear relationship singing development power music selfconcept similarly welch colleagues using data participants showed higher normalised singing development rating positive childs selfconcept sense socially included irrespective singer age sex ethnicity also england evaluation musical futures approach young people work classroom small groups copying popular song ultimately creating ownshowed non music teachers senior staff participating schools reported approach positive impact students selfesteem confidence motivation independent learning hallam et al study norwegian research council science humanities found high correlations positive selfperception cognitive competence scores selfesteem interest involvement school music lillemyr whitwell argued creative participation music improved selfimage selfawareness created positive self attitudes similar findings found urban black middleschool students marshall dege colleagues showed number music lessons experienced yearolds contributed significantly prediction academic selfconcept also motivational characteristics instance perseverance deg\u00e9 schwarzer investigated influence extended music curriculum school academic self concept compared academic selfconcept children years old started extended music curriculum one year participation compared nonparticipation thirty children assessed relation academic selfconcept amount nonmusical outofschool activities controlled extended music curriculum positive influence academic selfconcept following year engagement rickard colleagues studied impact young children grades kodaly music classes youngest children grade instrumental classes predominantly string based children grade comparison control groups findings showed schoolbased music classes prevented decline global selfesteem measures experienced control group younger older cohorts general academic selfesteem older cohort data suggested personal social physical development increasing frequency quality artsbased activities beneficial selfesteem primaryschoolaged children clements cortes chow also showed music could prevent decline selfesteem music interventions proven protective factor positive social experiences instil confidence active engagement music improve emotional regulation resilience foster identity selfimage facilitating social acceptance sense belonging nurturing community research shown positive outcomes several doctoral dissertations failed find impact engagement music selfesteem linch legette compared effects two types music instruction first thirdgraders selfconcepts found difference two types musical activity impact selfconcept research shown different outcomes boys girls instance lomen found increase one element selfconcept boys wamhoff noticed decrease one element selfconcept girls taking instrumental lessons compared nonparticipants girls dropped lessons selfbeliefs deprivation disaffection chapter range evidence presented showed engagement musical activities enhanced selfbeliefs self esteem positive possible selves young people adults involved range criminal justice systems also set music could enhance selfbeliefs communities suffering deprivation instance evaluations outcomes young people participating el sistema sistema inspired programmes pointed positive impact selfbeliefs el sistema sistema inspired programmes prioritised personal social development participants many evaluations point positive impact selfbeliefs esqueda torres galarce et al israel uy however lewis colleagues found significant changes selfesteem time although comparisons selfesteem children two participating schools differences beginning project disappeared time second survey children power music low selfesteem start programme benefited lopez berrios showed el sistema orchestras perceived providing positive space selfaffirmation identity formation participation perceived show openness new realities values tolerance diversity development personal identity selfaffirmation provenzano colleagues studied effects elsistema inspired universitypartnered afterschool music programme developmental health social educational outcomes participants fifthgrade students racially ethnically diverse lowincome elementary school period four years outcomes assessed surveys interviews music instructors school principal parent participant focus groups significant changes students perceptions musicmaking ability connection students enhanced sense school pride creech colleagues attributed impact el sistema sistema inspired programmes selfesteem recognition participants abilities acknowledged families friends shin investigated participation weekly music workshops affected academic selfconcept selfesteem middleschool students lowincome communities programme lasted seven weeks consisted playing percussion instruments singing improvisation jamming group dancing dynamic rhythmic exploration assessment included selfdescription questionnaire parent survey student interviews findings demonstrated significant differences general school selfconcept mathematics selfconcept pre posttest parents students indicated participation programme positively influenced students selfesteem similarly zapata hargreaves researched impact project undertaken school located deprived neighbourhood bogot\u00e1 capital colombia two groups six eightyearold children participated experimental group followed week programme singing workshops colombian traditional songs musical improvisation whereas control group experience children teachers parents involved assessing outcomes perceived competence scale children administered personal social physical development singing programme analysis revealed musical activities significant impact childrens selfesteem especially cognitive component wood colleagues tenweek intervention included group drumming showed atrisk twelveyearolds schools ten percent increase selfesteem scores improved relationships peers evaluated teachers school data showed decrease reported behaviour incidents percent participants overall evaluation indicated drumbeat programme provided creative medium working atrisk young people helped develop selfesteem social relationship skills research found differences instance costagiomi randomly assigned nineyearolds three years individual piano lessons nolesson control group two groups differ selfesteem point time similarly children received twoyear music intervention differ control groups beginning end study portowitz et al studies children received individual music instruction engaged group musicmaking contrast devroop investigated socialemotional impact group instrumental music instruction disadvantaged southafrican students period two years findings showed generally increased levels self esteem optimism happiness perseverance participation instrumental music programme seems important element enhancing selfesteem musicmaking may participation ensembles children special educational needs disabilities early research children low selfesteem behavioural difficulties showed impact musical engagement selfesteem instance michel researched black disadvantaged students low selfconcept learned play rhythm guitar automated instruction effect selfesteem second study students special educational needs also showed impact similarly michel farrell worked disadvantaged boys power music aged ten twelve range problems allblack elementary school found boyswho taught play perform simple chords ukuleleshowed enhancement selfesteem choi colleagues working children exhibiting aggressive behaviour showed participation music programme children showed enhanced selfesteem compared controls qualitative study two children social behavioural difficulties thomas showed experiencing music lessons period year children demonstrated enhanced selfconfidence selfesteem broh showed students participated musical activities talked parents teachers concluded social activities likely lead higher selfesteem selfefficacy keen worked troubled adolescents often low selfesteem found music therapy successful raising selfesteem various techniques adopted including song discussion listening writing lyrics composing music performing macdonald miell demonstrated educational programmes music composition learning play instrument could increase selfesteem children learning disabilities developmental disorders children face particular challenges struggle intellectual motor issues physically differentiate peers lead shunned around participating public performances highlighted healthy elements may gone unnoticed children assigned label disability engaging music rightful member musical group change disabled people see enhancing selfesteem improving relationships others ensemble participation one strand research focused impact ensemble participation selfesteem usa research explored impact member school band instance brown found percent nonband parents percent non band students percent dropout band parents percent personal social physical development dropout band students agreed participating band built selfesteem selfconfidence sense accomplishment study students participated band festivals gouzouasis henderson found students valued instrumental music participation band festivals positive rich educational experience experienced sense accomplishment good performance evans liu examined impact psychological need satisfaction frustration highschool orchestra programme seven hundred four participants surveyed orchestra programmes three schools midwestern united states influence psychological need satisfaction frustration assessed predictors time spent practising intentions continue participation selfesteem psychological need satisfaction predicted three outcomes although psychological need frustration contrast showed mixed results predicted selfesteem negatively musical preferences selfesteem research focused relationship selfesteem musical preferences rentfrow gosling failed uncover significant relationships selfesteem musical preferences suggesting perceived selfworth effect musical preference vice versa contrast shepherd sigg assessed differences music preferences selfesteem university students found music preference scores clusters music genres found significantly correlate selfesteem review including studies lawendowski bieleninik examined evidence regarding music therapy participation selfesteem argued participation offered opportunities engage identity work defining developing reflecting personal understanding cultivating new expressions self identity suggested selfunderstanding developed led selfacceptance personal growth also drew attention marked variation research depending type music therapy used participants settings outcomes measurement tools qualitative analysis showed expression emotion sense agency valuable participants around power music way providing damaged selves ways heal thus improving selfesteem social development music early social development review creighton argued early experiences emotional communication contribute mother infant attachment impact upon infants neurological social emotional development similar conclusions drawn ilari review examined young childrens musical engagement social perspective integrating research wide range fields theoretical orientations children begin develop social skills caregivers birth music play role development way mothers bond newborn children instance cevasko examined effects mothers singing adjustment bonding newborn infants well use music home environment first two weeks infants birth fiftyfour fullterm infants mothers premature infants alongside mothers randomly assigned experimental control conditions mothers groups recorded singing songs choice use home recordings preterm mothers voice played minutes three five times week time mother able visit infant hospital fullterm preterm mothers experimental control groups completed posttest survey two weeks infants discharged significant difference mothers perceived value music preterm experimental group valuing music also sang infants control group preterm mothers strongly agreed knowing child listening singing helped cope infants stay hospital addition preterm infants listened cd recording mothers singing left hospital average two days earlier control group although difference statistically significant personal social physical development considerable evidence mother infant singing leads increased perceived emotional closeness strengthening mother infant bond fancourt perkins fancourt perkins compared effects singing babies listening music singing babies daily basis associated enhanced wellbeing selfesteem selfreported mother infant bonding persico colleagues compared groups women engaged singing lullabies antenatal classes th week pregnancy followup three months birth postnatal bonding significantly greater singing group three months birth gerry colleagues found sixmonthold infants exposed active music lessons encouraged repeat songs rhymes every day home led superior development prelinguistic communicative gestures social behaviour compared infants assigned passive musical experience similarly pitt hargreaves investigated role rationale parent child three years old group musicmaking activities childrens centres perceptions parents practitioners sought questionnaire completed practitioners parents questionnaire based previous qualitative study revealed seven thematic categories perceived benefits music social emotional learning teaching links home parenting organisational statistical analyses revealed significant differences expressed views parent practitioner groups well parents different broad age groups practitioners expressed positive views perceived benefits music parents expressed parents parents majority age group years expressed significantly positive opinions variety questionnaire items parents younger older age groups researching older children williams colleagues investigated parentchild home music activities sample australian children aged two five years old found shared home music activities small significant partial association measures childrens prosocial skills however hartas found relationship parents reported frequency singing songs power music rhymes playing music three years old teacherrated performance social emotional development five years old kawase colleagues focused age onset group music lessons music school childrens levels sociability preliminary survey association age onset extracurricular musical training activity nonmusic majors implied musical experience early age positively influenced social skills adulthood main study kawase colleagues conducted survey children aged four five six seven years old commenced music lessons ages one two four six findings showed empathy scores children aged six seven began lessons one year old greater began lessons four years old communication scores children aged four five began lessons one year old greater began lessons older one year old empathy extroversion scores high aged six seven began lessons age range lessons young children simultaneous parentchild musical activities also likely lead enhanced attachment overall findings suggested participation group music lessons two four times month effective social training young children foster later sociability research disadvantaged children parents also demonstrated benefits participation musical activities instance nicholson colleagues explored effectiveness tenweek group music therapy programme parents socially disadvantaged young child disability children five years age musical activities used promote positive parentchild relationships childrens behavioural communicative social development significant improvements found therapistobserved parent child behaviours parent reported irritable parenting educational activities home parent mental health child communication social play skills research shown group music lessons children improve accompanying parents mood kawase ogawa personal social physical development role synchronisation synchronisation movement plays important role social development engagement musical rhythms young age supports synchrony altruistic behaviour children adults trainor cirelli parentchild attachment induced synchronisation increases childrens social cognitive skills thompson behrends colleagues basis literature argued coordinated movement fosters empathy prosocial behaviour synchronous imitated movement associated liking prosocial behaviour supporting cirelli colleagues arranged monthold infants held assistant gently bounced music facing experimenter bounced either synchrony way infant bounced infants observed placed situation opportunity help experimenter handing objects accidentally dropped infants likely engage altruistic behaviour help experimenter pick objects bounced music synchrony compared infants bounced asynchronously experiment using antiphase bouncing suggested due contingency synchronous movements opposed movement symmetry findings supported hypothesis interpersonal motor synchrony might key component musical engagement encourages social bonds among group members also motor synchrony music may promote early development altruistic behaviour kirschner tomasello hypothesised children would spontaneously synchronise body movements external beat earlier ages higher accuracy stimulus presented social context total children three age groups years oldwere invited drum along either human partner drumming machine drum sound coming speaker drumming social partner children young years old able adjust drumming tempo beat outside range spontaneous motor tempo children ages synchronised drumming higher accuracy social condition similarly power music kirschner tomasello examined relationship collaborative music activity helping behaviour fouryearold children engaged three minutes musical collaboration suggested children synchronised peers showed spontaneous cooperative helpful behaviour relative carefully matched control condition level social linguistic interaction music ability synchronise children group music lessons also predicts attentional behaviour khalil et al parentchild coordination musical activity shown beneficial good relationships instance wallace harwood assessed parentchild musical engagement childhood adolescence predictor relational quality emerging adulthood findings persisted controlling forms positive parentchild activity since younger children require support parents attachment might increase musical engagement younger classes compared older classes synchronising movements others encourages collective social identity leading increased cooperation within group instance good colleagues investigated whether movement synchrony impacted social categorisation cooperation across intergroup boundaries two threeperson groups brought together movement synchrony conditions designed emphasise different social categorisations individuals moved beat minimal group moved different beat individual moved different beat findings demonstrated movement synchrony influenced social categorisation cooperation across intergroup boundaries valdesolo colleagues showed rocking synchrony enhanced individuals perceptual sensitivity motion others increased success subsequent jointaction task required ability dynamically detect respond appropriately partners movements findings support view addition fostering social cohesion synchrony enhances abilities allow individuals functionally direct cooperative motives similarly valdesolo desteno manipulated rhythmic synchrony showed synchronous others perceived similar participating individual also evoked compassion personal social physical development altruistic behaviour asynchronous others experience findings support view primary function synchrony mark others similar self synchrony induced affiliation modulates emotional responding altruism keller colleagues reviewed psychological processes brain mechanisms enable rhythmic interpersonal coordination including overview research cognitive motor processes enable individuals represent jointaction goals anticipate attend adapt others actions real time concluded music supports social cognitive tendencies including empathy affects coordination affects interpersonal affiliation trust prosocial behaviour musical ensembles teamwork making music others small large groups requires teamwork particularly music performed teamwork relies participating individuals supporting developing trust respect group musicmaking provides ideal vehicle developing prosocial teamworking skills musical ensemble performance constitutes refined form joint action involves nonverbal communication information musical structure expressive intentions co performers sounds body movements psychological perspective ensemble performance necessitates precise yet flexible interpersonal coordination sensorimotor cognitive emotional social processes interpersonal coordination facilitated representations shared performance goals consolidated rehearsal actual performance shared goal representations interact sensorimotor cognitive processes allow co performers anticipate attend adapt others actions real time shared representations involve integration information related ones part others parts jointaction outcome shared musical representations facilitate real time interpersonal coordination dynamically embodying intended action outcomes related self others ensemble whole keller power music small ensembles string quartets argued significant examples selfmanaged teams members contribute equally task larger ensembles orchestras relationship conductor orchestra clearly emerges come know volpe et al within small musical groups social relationships development trust respect crucial functioning davidson good davidson king goodman young colman longterm success rehearsals underpinned strong social frameworks interactions typically characterised conflict compromise related mainly musical content coordination although interactions personal nature instance approval murninghan conlon young colman smaller group important personal friendship seems kawase studied relationship daily social skills styles handling interpersonal conflict nonverbal behaviour leadership requested female music majors complete questionnaires assessing different skills behaviours showed performers daily social skills integrating style handling interpersonal conflict leadership daily communication affected evaluation ensemble performance social behaviours ensemble practice overall daily social skills correlated behaviours ensemble practice performers high evaluation ensemble performance tended employ two types social behaviours integrating style handling interpersonal conflict leadership daily communication correlation observed nonverbal skills daily communication evaluation ensemble performance impact making music others studied children instance pasiali colleagues examined potential benefit music therapy social skills development programme improve social skills schoolaged children limited resources afterschool programme twenty students aged five eleven years old participated programme consisted eight minute sessions results showed music therapy potential promote social competence schoolaged children limited resources particularly areas communication lowperformance high risk behaviours personal social physical development uk peripatetic instrumental teachers working schools reported considerable benefits learning play instrument including development social skills teamwork sense achievement enhanced confidence selfdiscipline physical coordination hallam prince also uk evaluation informal music learning students work small groups copy popular songs ear ultimately create songs showed positive impact listening skills collaborative peer teamworking reported music nonmusic teachers senior staff schools hallam et al involved extracurricular rehearsal performance school show shown facilitate development friendships likeminded individuals make contribution social life widespread awareness show nonparticipants pitts participation increased pupils confidence social networks sense belonging despite time commitment inevitably impinged activities similarly cuadrado colleagues researched musicalizatech collaborative music production project secondary highschool students fortysix participants secondary education high schools seville cordoba grouped preformed bands joined project research used questionnaires focus group online diaries interactions online chatroom results showed impact participants development social emotional skills ability problemsolve work teams development technological skills clear improvements process musical creation research usa shown involvement group music activities high school helped individuals learn support maintain commitment bond together group goals sward benefits band participation reported include maturing relationships instance band directors talked general terms benefits teamwork cooperation sense belonging companionship social development brown adderley colleagues investigated meaning value music ensembles engendered participants social climate music classroom structured interviews conducted students band choir orchestra ensemble participation power music yielded musical academic psychological social benefits social climate emerged important element students noted importance relationships wellbeing growth uk reflecting previous current group musicmaking activities university music students reported benefits terms pride active contributor group outcome developing strong sense belonging gaining popularity making friends likeminded people enhancement social skills kokosaki hallam similarly study members college choral society showed percent believed benefited socially percent emotionally percent spiritually participation meeting new people feeling positive uplifted spiritually referred clift hancox school climate research focused way collaborative non competitive elements ensemble musicmaking enhance school climate social interactions within school contexts bastian gouzouasis henderson finland eerola eerola explored whether music education could create social benefits school environment ten schools extended music curricular class quality school life assessed representative sample pupils aged nine twelve years old results showed extended music education enhanced quality school life particularly areas related general satisfaction school sense achievement opportunities students followup study examined whether increase critical quality schoollife variables related music analysis utilised data classes extended curriculum sports visual arts classes confer similar benefits overall results suggested extended music education positive effect social aspects schooling major study switzerland spychiger colleagues found increasing amount classroom music within curriculum increased social cohesion within class led greater selfreliance better social adjustment positive attitudes particularly low ability disaffected pupils personal social physical development sistema programmes evaluations individual el sistema sistema inspired programmes children experience intensive prolonged engagement orchestral community reported strengthening childrens sense individual group identity children taking pride accomplishments enhancement determination persistence children valued participation social activity way enjoy music others strengthen friendships peers working teams acquiring musical skills many evaluations sistema inspired programmes usa refer enhanced peer relationships demonstrating respect consideration others experiences orchestras ensembles participants understood importance working cooperatively creech et al intensive ensemble activities seen rich opportunity nurturing positive citizenship skills including respect equality sharing cohesion teamwork enhancement listening major constituent understanding cooperation majno slevin slevin suggested programmes offered safe nurturing space children learned meant pursue ideal argued type teamwork goal depended individual effort enabled personal development similarly lewis colleagues revealed improvements social skills development positive group identity elsistema inspired programme pupil surveys administered two years apart indicated statistically significant change relation social skills relationships children reported tried help others take turns interviews parents teachers reinforced findings parents suggested children proud musical achievements programme offered opportunities developing social skills discipline teachers also indicated pupils greater sense purpose selfconfidence smithhurst burns berwick found enhanced confidence social skills outcomes programmes scotland showed enhanced confidence happiness teamworking skills gen b ireland three years sistema inspired programme found foster strong positive group identity asked design new school crest every child produced power music design included musical symbol kenny moore parents others evaluations campe kaufman savoie indicated playing sistema inspired musical groups supported students social development providing important scaffold developing collaborative skills skills transferred school home settings galarce colleagues based findings focus group data found students participating sistema inspired programme caribbean demonstrated improved social skills cooperation teamwork communication protective social network six months participation quantitative data showed students significantly less likely get angry aggressive less involved teasing shoving hitting kicking fighting similarly bergerson motto found students experienced greater empathy others shared interests argentina wald b researching two sistema inspired programmes found evidence enhanced selfesteem selfworth self confidence pride motivation commitment social responsibility socialisation comparing programmes venezuela usa uy reported improvements relaxation coping communication ability work others selfesteem osborne colleagues explored academic psychosocial impact elsistema inspired music programmes two low socioeconomic schools students experienced generational poverty current first generation immigrant refugee status ninetytwo students years completed audiovisual assessments psychosocial wellbeing comparisons school programme participation period months indicated improved psychosocial wellbeing students one school overall many positive social outcomes sistema programmes reported internationally creech et al although exceptions instance villalba found students feel completely integrated others bored suggests nature musical activities programmes plays important role mediating wider nonmusical outcomes personal social physical development prosocial skills empathy one frequently cited benefits group musicmaking impact prosocial behaviour evolutionary perspective hagen bryant argued group musicmaking dancing evolved ways demonstrating internal stability group ability act collectively establishing meaningful relationships groups music dance also act effective tools maintain bonds within social groups increasing cooperation prosocial behaviour huron members musical groups pay attention actions intentions players physical emotional states cross et al promotes states togetherness huron cross understanding emotional state others key developing empathythe ability produce appropriate responses situation others approximate responses experiences well awareness identification emotions lieberman cross colleagues suggest music empathypromoting components lead shared intentionality understanding intentions others adoption common object attention tomasello et al intersubjectivity rabinowitch et al evidence engagement making music enhance childrens prosocial behaviour empathy ritblatt colleagues examined effects school readiness music programme preschool childrens socioemotional readiness transition kindergarten found participating musical activities improved range social skills including social cooperation social interaction social independence research preschool primaryschool children participated special music empathy programmewhich highlighted importance empathy singing composing songs empathy well discussing children empathisealso demonstrated high empathy levels kalliopuska ruokonen kalliopuska tiitinen schellenberg corrigall investigated whether group music training childhood associated prosocial skills children third fourth grade attended ten months music lessons taught groups compared control power music group children matched socioeconomic status children administered tests prosocial skills near beginning end tenmonth period compared control group children music group larger increases sympathy prosocial behaviour effect limited children poor prosocial skills lessons began effect evident even lessons compulsory minimised role selfselection rabinowitch colleagues studied children aged eight eleven years old randomly assigned musical activities games acted control group musical intervention consisted range musical games designed encourage musical interactions working together creatively entrainment games designed encourage rhythmic coordination imitation games highlight imitative gestural encounters shared intentionality intersubjectivity children took battery tests beginning end study included three measures emotional empathy two three empathy measures increased children music group similarly hietolahtiansten kalliopuska surveyed yearold children musically active six years sameage control children musical activity found musically trained children scored significantly higher scores empathy related empathy concept emotional sensitivity music closely linked emotions possible active music making capacity increase emotional sensitivity hunter schellenberg instance resnicow colleagues found relationship ability recognise emotions performances classical piano music measures emotional intelligence required individuals identify understand reason manage emotions using hypothetical scenarios two significantly correlated suggests identification emotion music performance draws skills make everyday emotional intelligence also evidence music training enhances sensitivity emotions speech thompson et al similarly schellenberg mankarious studied relationship understanding emotions music training seven eightyearolds musically trained children least personal social physical development eight months formal musical training school mainly private individual lessons findings showed positive association music training emotional ability comparing effects different musical interventions rose colleagues investigated effects musical instrument learning development seven nineyearold children pre posttest measures socioemotional behaviour compared children received either extracurricular musical training statutory school music lessons statistically significant differences socioemotional behaviour groups retrospective study theorell colleagues assessed whether musical creative achievement musical practice associated emotional competence eight thousand swedish twins aged studied musical achievement musical practice related higher emotional competence although effect sizes small focusing impact listening observation haner colleagues studied effects childrens opera bullying presented five classrooms three schools data available children grades four five knowledge bullying increased significantly participation significant decrease selfreported victimisation interventions children special educational needs disabilities one strand research focused children range special educational needs disabilities instance music therapy studies young autistic children shown enhanced social verbal communication skills emotional development oldfield dezfoolian colleagues studied five children autism previous experience music play therapy social interaction verbal communication repetitive behaviour participants scored orff music therapy participants improved significantly social interactions verbal communication similarly kim colleagues studied improvisational music therapy toyplaying sessions using dvd analysis sessions children autistic spectrum improvisational music therapy power music produced markedly longer events emotional synchronicity initiation engagement behaviours children toy playing sessions response therapists interpersonal demands compliant positive responses observed music therapy toyplaying sessions responses twice frequent toyplaying sessions music therapy findings supported value music therapy promoting social emotional motivational development children autistic spectrum hillier colleagues reported findings pilot music programme adolescents young adults autism spectrum disorder evaluation programme focused selfesteem anxiety attitudes toward relationships peers pre postoutcome measures showed significant increase selfesteem reduced selfreported anxiety positive attitudes toward peers zyga colleagues focused children intellectual disabilities cause child significant deficits social skills emotional regulation abilities investigated feasibility delivering schoolbased musical theatre programme students intellectual disability across range school settings video recordings coded socioemotional ability across participants findings showed significant gains across domains although gains related school individuallevel student factors grade level severity disability baseline socialskill level one project explored impact musical engagement part national orchestra young people special educational needs following summer residential programme statistically significant increases large effect size selfesteem emotional wellbeing resilience life satisfaction participating girls seemed benefit boys hay npc physical development saw chapter research field neuroscience shown intensive instrumental music training affects anatomy brain greater greymatter volume seen motorrelated areas elbert et al hyde et al pascualleone personal social physical development greater whitematter volume motor tracts bengtsson et al differences emerging one year music training hyde et al schlaug et al also specific differences relation instruments played bangert schlaug despite relatively little research exploring impact active engagement making music physical development although children adults frequently respond music movement instance overy studied impact beat childrens natural responses music showed fouryearold children showed spontaneous energetic movement responses highly periodic repetitivesuch jumping swaying twistingoften close synchrony auditory beat pattern although always time concluded human motor system responds powerfully auditory beat pattern large individual differences preferred movements also individuals frequently use music motivator exercising research related discussed fully chapter evidence learning play instrument improves fine motor skills schlaug et al early training may important watanabe colleagues showed musicians trained age seven better performance timed motor sequence task musicians began training later early latetrained musicians matched years musical experience years formal training hours current practice earlytrained musicians performed better latetrained musicians advantage persisted five days practice performance differences greatest measure response synchronisation suggesting early training greatest effect neural systems involved sensorimotor integration timing research focused fine motor abilities instance costagiomi compared fine motor abilities children participated two years piano instruction never received formal music training significant improvement fine motor skills found children received music lessons also significant difference speed response two groups end two years instruction similarly james colleagues carried cluster randomised controlled trial power music provided evidence focused musical instrumental practice comparison traditional sensitisation music provoked multiple transfer effects sensorimotor domain last two years primary school ten twelveyearold children received group music instruction professional musicians twice week part regular school curriculum intervention group learned play string instruments whereas control group peers parallel classes sensitised music listening theory practice benefits intervention group compared control group sensorimotor hand function bimanual coordination learning play complex instrument dynamic group setting appears impact development strongly classical sensitisation music martins colleagues conducted longitudinal training study examine collective orffbased music training enhanced fine motor abilities compared homogeneous training programme basketball specific training training programmes music sport duration weeks homogeneous structure design including tests prior training posttraining followup adopted seventyfour children attending third grade aged eight years old pseudorandomly divided three groupsmusic sport controlthat matched demographic intellectual characteristics fine motor abilities relating hand eye coordination motor speed subsumed manual dexterity bimanual coordination manipulative dexterity tested groups improved manipulative dexterity children engaged music programme showed advantage relation bimanual coordination manual dexterity persisted four months programme ended music locomotor performance coordinated motor skills research explored whether rhythmic accompaniment improve performance physical education programmes early research anshel marisi observed positive results performance accuracy endurance music rhythmically synchronised motor performance painter found similar personal social physical development results beisman showed throwing catching jumping leaping improved children participated programme involving rhythm brown colleagues studied two approaches facilitating perceptual motor development children aged four six years old experimental group children received sessions integrated physical education music instruction based methods developed kodaly dalcroze control group children received sessions movement exploration selftesting instruction experimental group showed significant improvement changes motor auditory language aspects perceptual motor performance well total score derri colleagues investigated effect tenweek music movement programme quality locomotor performance four sixyearold children children assessed running skipping galloping hopping leaping sliding horizontal jumping thirtyfive children participated exercise programme twice week control group participate organised physical activity programme findings showed experimental group improved galloping leaping horizontal jumping skipping later study showed programme compared favourably freeplay activities deli et al similarly zachopoupou colleagues compared effect developmentally appropriate music movement programme developmentally appropriate physical education programme development jumping dynamic balance children aged four six years old ninety children participated fifty followed music movement programme lasted two months remainder served control group followed physical education programme period time results showed experimental group improved significantly jumping dynamic balance rose colleagues investigated effects musical instrument learning development seven nineyearold children pre posttest measures motor ability visual motor integration compared children received either extracurricular musical training statutory school music lessons children receiving extracurricular lessons showed significant increase visual motor integration gross motor ability aiming catching measures seems power music musical activities may support development childs ability judge distance consider velocity focus use proprioceptive interoceptive exteroceptive nervous system overview clear evidence music plays important role development maintenance identity although extent applies may vary among individuals depending hobbies interests musicians group shown open new experiences general population beyond clear personality differences musicians general population playing different instruments however differences emerged clarity relation genre music musicians engaged suggests context music rehearsed performed influences personality development strong evidence across genres professional musicians training become professional musicians experience performance anxiety may experience perfectionistic work tendencies latter positive benefits terms motivation conscientiousness may detrimental musician becomes focused imperfect performances music positive impact selfesteem children young people providing feedback peers teachers families positive particularly evident disadvantaged backgrounds special educational needs disabilities feedback performance even practising home negative rather constructive impact selfesteem detrimental children young people group musicmaking large small groups generally promotes development social skills teamwork empathy although may exceptions instance group member contribute equitably issues arise working small groups professional musicians although need prepare public performance may support development skills help resolve challengesfor instance compromise leadership skillsin order group perform well synchronisation movement plays role supporting group working may evolved order enhance group cohesion personal social physical development learning play musical instrument requires coordinated complex movements enhances fine motor skills young children children able engage movement music impacts positively range athletic skills including jumping skipping throwing catching psychological wellbeing psychological wellbeing typically viewed comprising hedonic feeling good eudaimonic functioning well components emphasis given varies conceptualisations seligman proposed concept authentic happiness consists pleasure engagement meaning recently concepts relationships accomplishment added forgeard et al seligman leading acronym perma stands positive emotion engagement relationships meaning accomplishment others argued positive human experience related hedonic wellbeing positive emotion absence negative emotions evaluative component termed life satisfaction diener et al recently diener colleagues added concept flourishing includes purpose life positive relationships engagement competence selfesteem optimism contribution wellbeing others despite different conceptualisations agreement wellbeing multi dimensional approaching conceptualisation wellbeing different perspective huppert equated high levels wellbeing positive mental health argue wellbeing lies opposite end spectrum common mental disorders depression anxiety examining internationally agreed criteria depression anxiety defining opposite symptom identified features positive wellbeing combined feeling functioning elements emerged competence concentration attention decisionmaking general competence emotional stability feeling calm relaxed eventempered engagement interest pleasure enjoyment himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music meaning purpose worth value life positive relationships social relationships positive affirmation optimism hopeful future positive emotion positive mood happy cheerful contented resilience managing anxiety worry emotional resilience selfesteem feelings selfworth confidence vitality feeling energetic fatigued lethargic life satisfaction positive appraisal life general previous chapters set role music play relation many elements including competence engagement positive relationships selfesteem lesser extent resilience optimism elements met active engagement music others listening music although overlap actively making music offers opportunities supporting competence selfesteem resilience listening music likely support emotional stability positive emotions support engagement meaning optimism positive relationships vitality everincreasing body research benefits engaging music relation psychological wellbeing chapter consider impact listening actively engaging music different phases lifespan positive associations engaging music wellbeing demonstrated early childhood linnavalli et al trainor et al terms childrens educational outcomes guhn et al sense social inclusion welch et al social cohesion elvers et al adolescence mcferran et al adulthood greasley lamont older age laukka lindblad de boise overall development biasutti et al drawing conclusions research without difficulties instance recent review daykin colleagues pointed lack consistency wellbeing assessed range musical interventions implemented overall reported music associated reduced anxiety young adults enhanced psychological wellbeing mood purpose adults mental wellbeing quality life selfawareness coping people diagnosed health conditions music listening singing shown effective enhancing morale reducing risk depression older people studies addressed wellbeing individuals dementia sheppard broughton also reviewed literature showed music dance related key social determinants health social cultural physical mental health perspectives similarly odonnell colleagues systematic review included studies participants focusing wellbeing adults years age showed participatory arts interventions benefited mental health improved connectedness emotional regulation meaningmaking redefining identity personal growth empowerment benefits relating wellbeing found whether individuals volunteer participate referred health social care professionals music recognised beneficial effects physical health fancourt finn hanser jones et al macdonald et al pelletier van den elzen et al research focusing way music used medical contexts discussed chapter remainder chapter set way music enhance wellbeing consider role across lifespan infancy school years adolescence young adulthood adult years older age concluding section music wellbeing covid pandemic impact music psychological wellbeing good health largely although exclusively emotions evokes music elicits emotions changes moods stimulation autonomic nervous system limbic related biological systems including endocrine hormonal responses krout bodily responses linked emotion include changes dopamine serotonin cortisol endorphin oxytocin levels kreutz et al cardiovascular indicators blood pressure pulse lee et al changes response music occur without individuals conscious awareness two multilevel metaanalyses studies participants de witte colleagues showed interventions using music overall significant positive effect power music stress reduction physiologically psychologically although greater effects found heart rate compared blood pressure overall music reduce stress increase relaxation fukui yamashita kreutz et al outcomes depend nature music kimberley et al instance gerra colleagues investigated emotional endocrine changes response listening techno music sixteen young people exposed techno classical music minutes concentrations plasma norepinephrine epinephrine growth hormone prolactin adrenocorticotropic hormone cortisol \u03b2 endorphin assessed listening activity techno music significantly increased heart rate systolic blood pressure led changes assessed neurotransmitters peptides hormones related mental state emotional involvement classical music also enhanced emotional state lead significant changes hormonal concentrations similarly evers suhr working adults investigated shortterm effects listening different musical excerpts serum concentrations prolactin adrenocorticotropic hormone serotonin latter contributing feelings wellbeing excerpts characterised pleasantfor instance brahms symphony opus others perceived unpleasant instance pendereckis threnos part composed quarter tones exaggerate dissonance music listening threnos led reduction concentrations serotonin suggesting negative impact wellbeing comprehensive attempt outline mechanisms may underpin musics impact emotions brecvema framework juslin features eight mechanisms music affects emotions brain stem reflex hardwired attention response simple acoustic features extreme increasing loudness speed juslin et al rhythmic entrainment gradual adjustment internal body rhythmfor instance heart ratetowards external rhythm music harrer harrer psychological wellbeing evaluative conditioning regular pairing piece music positive negative stimuli leading conditioned association blair shimp emotional contagion perception emotionally relevant expressions music copied juslin lundqvist et al visual imagery images emotional qualities evoked music osborne episodic memory conscious recollection particular event listeners past triggered music baumgartner musical expectancy reaction gradual unfolding musical structure expected unexpected continuation meyer aesthetic judgment subjective evaluation aesthetic value music based individual set weighted criteria juslin sloboda specific way emotions invoked depends complex interactions nature music individual context individual preferences play major role individual familiar particular genres pieces music preferred north hargreaves process begins early childhood explains music pleasurable individuals may unpleasant others greatest positive benefits music wellbeing health occur individuals able select music listen krause et al mitchell et al b particularly important music used reduce anxiety pain bernatzky et al mitchell macdonald individuals exposed music like contexts control may remove situation possible music cause extreme distress although individuals react music different ways musical characteristics tend relatively consistent effect arousal levels implicated emotional responses power music quiet slow music tends lead lowering arousal levels fast loud music tends increase arousal north hargreaves music engender intense strong emotional experiences generally occur listening music rather performing gabrielsson gabrielsson lindstr\u00f6m wik experiences overall general characteristics including physical reactions behaviours perceptual cognitive responses changes feelings emotions existential transcendental aspects personal social aspects individuals report sensations joy happiness rapture euphoria calm peace high significance lead longterm benefits lives becoming fulfilling spiritual increasingly harmonious sch\u00e4fer et al positive impact wellbeing lamont memories experiences used sources selftherapy inspiration motivation provide insights alternative ways gabrielsson gabrielsson lindstr\u00f6m occur adolescence early adulthood gabrielsson lindstr\u00f6m wik use music support emotional stability manage moods key human ability capacity regulate emotion modifying positive negative aspects intensity time course barrett gross cole et al physiological processes emotion related behaviour eisenberg eisenberg spinrad gross emotional selfregulation also includes management moods generally differentiated emotions terms longer duration lack specific cause greater focus internal experiences rather overt behaviour gross mood regulation refers processes involved modifying maintaining occurrence duration intensity moods cole et al eisenberg spinrad gross music promote subjective feelings wellbeing provide means working difficult emotions often linked spirituality juslin sloboda frequently used regulatory strategy maintaining changing moods emotions arousal levels psychological wellbeing reminisce denora juslin laukka parker brown rippere sch\u00e4fer et al silk thayer et al induce positive affective states north et al help achieve desired moodswhatever may vastfjall act supporting strategy coping negative moods emotions miranda claes shifriss bodner may one reasons music plays important role lives people sloboda et al certainly mood regulation reported one important reasons people listen music christenson roberts north et al sloboda oneill wells hakanen even adolescents play instrument report best activity mood regulation listening music alone saarikallio music used selfregulation adolescents behne laiho roe adults greasley lamont elderly davidson et al used maintain positive moods revival energising create strong sensations diversion discharge mental work solace psyching saarikallio extent music relates wellbeing demonstrated several reviews instance sch\u00e4fer colleagues identified functions listening music ratings respondents led emergence three underlying dimensions listening music regulate arousal mood achieving selfawareness expression social relatedness similarly krause colleagues identified benefits music based review published articles reduced benefits wellbeing perceived associated musical participation five dimensions identified mood coping selfesteem worth socialisation cognition selfactualisation saarikallio colleagues collected data online participants established pleasure derived music based part sensations relaxation power passion also feelings kinship relating social values mental contemplation reminiscence also frequent function selfchosen music listening particularly prevalent older adults hays minichiello juslin laukka although also found young people tolfree hallam overall music one form attending reappraising emotional power music experiences ruud sloboda oneill van goethem sloboda carried diary studies alongside interviews established music helped individuals use several regulation strategies instance could help distract someone emotion situation help consider either rational way plays major role assisting relaxation promoting happiness cognitive reappraisal seems play important role way music impacts wellbeing listening music making music social engagement coupled tendency regulate emotions thoughts suppressing emotion may negative outcomes suppressing outward expressions emotions decrease negative feelings emotional arousal high levels engagement music listening participating associated greater use cognitive reappraisal may music provides safe platform exploring expressing emotions positive negative huron way process emotion regulation may act mediate relationship musical engagement wellbeing chin rickard thoma colleagues demonstrated clear preference music congruent specific emotional situation individual time randall colleagues suggested listeners adopted particular regulation strategies based initial mood emotional wellbeing health would enable reach desired emotional goal similarly randall rickard b research young adults concluded music listening determined initial mood emotional health aim fulfilling specific emotional needs randall rickard based data research participants demonstrated generally music returned moods neutral state although sometimes music selected congruent current mood music used cope difficult situations forget problems tended associated overall negative affective states poor emotional health wellbeing critical analysis mcferran suggested use music maintain negative moods seriously distressed individuals could lead increasingly negative outcomes research developed time inconsistencies terms conceptualisation terminology emerged baltazar psychological wellbeing saarikallio become clear impact music wellbeing straightforward instance kantormartynuska suggested way individuals respond music depends interaction properties music relatively stable traits listener current emotional state current situation considerable body research focused individuals choose listen sad music huron vuoskoski tahlier et al van den tol edwards instance sachs colleagues suggest listening sad music bring positive change correcting ongoing homeostatic imbalance argue sadness evoked music pleasurable perceived non threatening aesthetically pleasing produces psychological benefits mood regulation empathic feelings caused instance recollection reflection past events garrido colleagues several studies also explored people listen sad music garrido garrido schubert garrido schubert studied participants listened self selected piece sad music found participants depression increased listening similarly garrido schubert b studying university students listened selfselected piece music youtube found listening could significantly increase depressive feelings depressive tendencies online survey participants garrido schubert showed listening sad music could adaptive maladaptive uses explained dissociation theory aesthetic enjoyment participants capacity enter states absorption able deactivate displeasure circuits hence enjoy negative emotions music garrido colleagues explored issues investigating whether listening sad music group settings provided social benefits emotionally vulnerable listeners whether exaggerated depressive tendencies six hundred ninetyseven participants aged years age recruited online depression groups mental health websites usa australia uk south america africa asia europe survey listening habits revealed participants depression likely engage group rumination process continuously thinking thoughts usually sad dark depressive tendencies power music seem struggle regulate emotional responses musical contexts mcferran group interactions focusing sad music exacerbated difficulties miranda et al rose described extensive discussion revisiting problems among friends corumination conversely sharing emotions music listening may provide individuals depressive tendencies social support thus increase sense connection others reflection opposed rumination seems useful tool processing negative emotions trapnell campbell individuals already acquired adaptive coping strategies instance seeking social supportmay use group music listening positively provide support help process negative feelings findings important use music healthcare settings wellbeing everyday life garrido one strand research explored differences individuals ways music impacts wellbeing instance leipold loepthien drawing data participants aged years old adolescents young people aged years old studied differences attentive analytical listening defined reflective complex emotional listening relationships coping stress rumination showed attentive analytical listening music showed positive relationships accommodative coping whereas emotional listening positive relationship rumination age differences found nature listening adulthood younger age group although transition adolescence adulthood important comparison adolescents young adults revealed attentive analytical listening negatively associated age approximately years old relationship became positive adolescents demonstrated age increments emotional listening similarly groarke hogan asked younger people older adults listened music younger adults emphasised affect regulation social connection whereas older adults emphasised eudaimonic wellfunctioning uses music instance transcendence personal growth saarikallio found older people aware music fitted particular psychological wellbeing moods situations women found likely use music regulate emotions moods men sloboda evidence girls likely engage music cope personal problems interpersonal conflicts whereas boys music way increasing energy levels positive moods creating impression cool behne christenson roberts larson larson et al music effective decreasing arousal due stress particularly adolescents females musicians pelletier instance lehmann reported music majors responded strongly emotionally preferred music nonmusic majors although studies reported musicrelated emotional experiences nonmusicians musicians broadly similar schubert use music regulate moods related musical preferences diversity musical preference shown related emotionality listening behne schwartz fouts preference harder forms music found positively related emotional problems including psychological turmoil behavioural problems took weiss expression anger epstein et al feelings loneliness davis kraus moodiness pessimism impulsiveness schwartz fouts ter bogt colleagues addressed potential link liking goth music depressive symptoms fouryear study yearolds showed goth music liked small minority adolescents reported increased levels depressive symptoms grew older contrast preference upbeat conventional pop music found negatively related depression rentfrow gosling scheel westefeld investigated relationship preference heavy metal music vulnerability suicide among tenth twelfthgrade highschool students participants completed questionnaire relating reasons living risk suicide musical preferences heavy metal fans less strong reasons living especially male fans thoughts suicide especially female fans listening types music positive effect mood preference heavy metal music among adolescents may indication increased suicidal vulnerability research suggested source power music problem likely lie personal familial characteristics direct effects music however group music therapy support young people risk mental health problems reduce unhealthy uses music gold et al saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 large study participants average age years old found preferred musical styles boys girls across age groups rock pop heavy metal rap boys preferred heavy metal techno music whereas girls preferred classical music pop gospel preferences classical rock jazz folk gospel music increased age preference pop music gradually decreased eclectic musical preferences related extent use music regulate moods overall saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 demonstrated personal factors linked differences adolescents use music preferring rock heavy metal music made greater use music regulate moods perhaps intensity volume roughness genres reflects intense emotional experiences characteristic adolescence contrast listening pop rap techno music tended create positive feelgood experiences many years possible use range devices listen music anywhere time sk\u00e5nland researching use mp player suggested availability could valuable supporting listeners coping crowded noisy environments promoting wellbeing mental health developments music technology meant people find expression creating playlists support maintenance mood recall memories bull hagen observing students use playlist function concluded playlists based moods feelings memories biographical relational representations helped users experience mastery playlists may also support social cohesion pleasure creating may come owning customising trading mccourt differences extent listeners aware music affects engaged listeners acutely aware music change fit moods greasley lamont squirrel listeners lamont webb better able access psychological wellbeing implement strategies regulate moods choosing music fit given situation physical psychological social needs battrawden denora describe lay therapeutic practice singing one strand research examining relationship wellbeing music focused singing reviews research participation choirs identified many benefits including physical relaxation release physical tension emotional release reduction feelings stress sense happiness positive mood joy elation feeling high sense greater personal emotional physical wellbeing increased sense arousal energy stimulation cognitive capacities attention concentration memory learning increased sense selfconfidence selfesteem sense therapeutic benefit relation longstanding psychological social problems sense exercising systems body physical exertion involved especially lungs sense disciplining skeletalmuscular system adoption good posture engaged valued meaningful worthwhile activity gives sense purpose motivation clift et al clift stacey et al group singing found reduce anxiety depression houston et al lally wise et al zanini leao well providing opportunities developing social networks singing variety positive effects mental physical health fancourt et al irons et al kreutz et al moss odonoghue power music kreutz studied psychobiological effects amateur choral singing mixed group novice experienced singers completed questionnaires psychological wellbeing gave samples saliva measuring levels salivary oxytocin cortisol dehydroepiandrosterone beginning two rehearsal sessions minutes later singing condition included warmup vocal exercises repertoire pieces control condition dyads participants talked recent positive life experiences findings showed patterns change favouring singing chatting significant interactions cortisol dehydroepiandrosterone cortisol dehydroepiandrosterone ratio overall findings suggested singing enhances individual psychological wellbeing well inducing sociobiological bonding response grape colleagues also used range physical markers explore possible beneficial effects singing wellbeing singing lesson eight amateur singers aged years old eight professional singers aged years attending singing lessons least six months participated electrocardiogram measures recorded computerised spectral analysis performed serum concentrations tnf alpha linked autoimmune systems prolactin cortisol oxytocin measured minutes lesson five visual scales sad joyful anxious calm worried elated listless energetic tense relaxedwere scored lesson alongside semistructured interview heart rate variability analyses showed significant changes time two groups power increased singing professionals whereas changes amateurs indicated ability retain heartbrain connection cardiophysiological fitness singing professional singers compared amateur singers serum concentration tnf alpha increased professionals singing lesson whereas concentration amateurs decreased serum concentrations prolactin cortisol increased lesson group men vice versa women oxytocin concentrations increased significantly groups singing lesson amateurs reported increasing joy elatedness whereas professionals however groups felt energetic relaxed interviews showed professionals clearly achievement oriented psychological wellbeing focus singing technique vocal apparatus body lesson contrast amateurs used singing lessons means self actualisation selfexpression way release emotional tensions overall singing lessons seemed promote wellbeing reduce arousal amateurs compared professional singers seemed experience reverse study young people members university choir clift hancox identified six elements associated benefits singing wellbeing relaxation enhanced breathing posture social benefits spiritual benefits emotional benefits benefits heart immune system later study clift hancox surveyed choral singers drawn choirs australia england germany participants completed questionnaire measured physical psychological social environmental wellbeing measure effects choral singing open questions provided indepth understanding high level agreement positive benefits choral singing women significantly likely endorse value wellbeing health compared men small significant relationship psychological wellbeing effects choral singing women men eightyfive participants relatively low psychological wellbeing high scores singing scale four categories significant personal health challenges disclosed members group enduring mental health problems family relationship problems physical health challenges recent bereavement accounts suggested six ways singing might impact wellbeing health positive affect focused attention deep breathing social support cognitive stimulation regular commitment study clift colleagues studied four community singing groups met weekly people mental health issues evaluation took place sixmonth period using two questionnaires twentysix participants completed baseline followup questionnaires findings showed clinical scores reduced wellbeing scores increased significantly comparison gender differences sandgren examined emotional states varied measurements pre post regular choral rehearsal participants eleven choirs women reported significantly positive emotional states men relating power music participation regular choir rehearsals although differences small men women reported similar levels negative emotions varied extent positive change choir rehearsal research focused impact participation choir specific groups people instance bailey davidson studied whether positive life transformations could occur homeless men joined choir using semistructured interviews found group singing positively influenced emotional social cognitive processes concluded active participation singing may alleviate depression increase selfesteem improve social interaction skills induce cognitive stimulation later study baily davidson explored effects group singing performance second choir formed homeless marginalised individuals little music training group singing experience middleclass singers low high levels music training choral singing experience findings showed emotional effects participation group singing similar regardless training socioeconomic status interpersonal cognitive components choral experience different meanings two groups marginalised individuals appeared embrace aspects group singing experience middleclass choir members inhibited social expectations musicianship also working distinctive group southcott nethsinghe explored understandings meanings shared musicmaking held members young hearts russian choir melbourne australia impact quality life elderly participants firstgeneration migrants spoke strongly first language russian individual semistructured interviews undertaken nine choir members focus group discussion included members interviews revealed two broad themes maintaining independence resilience learning rehearsing performing music subthemes included importance participation maintaining face overcoming illness disability becoming family singing together enhanced quality life combatted social isolation fostered resilience sense autonomy allowed participants access inner resources face life challenges considering issues relating range disabilities dingle colleagues explored personal experiences choir members psychological wellbeing percent experienced chronic mental health problems percent physical disabilities per cent intellectual disability semi structured interviews carried twentyone members choir three time points choirs inaugural year inception choir six months twelve months three themes emerged personal impact terms positive emotions emotional regulation spiritual experience selfperception finding voice social impact including connectedness within choir connection audience social functioning functional outcomes including health benefits employment capacity routine overall forming new valued group identity choir member associated emotional health benefits participants fancourt colleagues focused recently bereaved fiftyeight adults bereaved last five years received treatment kind anxiety depression last month recruited half participated choir acted non intervention control group joining choir engaged minute weekly singing social sessions weeks post intervention assessment weeks sang choir stable symptoms depression levels wellbeing well gradual improvements sense selfefficacy selfesteem contrast control group showed gradual increases depressive symptoms reductions levels wellbeing selfesteem improvement selfefficacy singing positive benefits wellbeing review perkins colleagues identified qualitative studies reporting participants subjective views participatory music engagement supported mental wellbeing thematic coding revealed four themes managing expressing emotions facilitating selfdevelopment providing respite facilitating connections outcomes choral singing also compared listening music boyd colleagues examined shortterm effects mood selfesteem novel group singing model relied power music exclusively oral methods teaching songs communityrecruited adults compared effects group listening findings showed participants positive emotions mood improved singing declined listening selfesteem increased throughout sessions regardless activity indicating importance social nature singing activities wellbeing young children much evidence relating wellbeing babies infants children set previous chapters infancy early childhood musical activity largely takes place interactions caregivers ruud suggests first musical memories often include feelings held parents songs frequently important speech bonding nakata trehub shenfield et al cirelli trehub examined relative efficacy parents speech singing familiar unfamiliar songs alleviating distress eight tenmonthold infants parent infant dyads participated three trials stillface procedure featuring twominute play phase stillface phase parents immobile unresponsive one minute infants became visibly distressed twominute reunion phase caregivers attempted reverse infant distress singing highly familiar song unfamiliar song talking expressively reunion phase talking led increased negative affect age groups contrast singing familiar unfamiliar songs increased infant attention parents decreased negative affect favourable consequences greatest familiar songs also generated increased smiling skin conductance recorded subset infants revealed arousal levels highest talking reunion lowest unfamiliar songs intermediate familiar songs arousal effects considered conjunction behavioural effects confirmed songs effective speech mitigating infant distress krueger argued birth music perceived structure offers possibility constructing regulating emotions expressing communicating shaping relationships situations childrens play symbols drawings music psychological wellbeing used thoughtfully activities mainly participatory engaged active bonsdorff karlsen kuuse early age using resources children develop sense agency selfefficacy informal learning music frequent everyday life battrawden denora creates memories patterns meanings opportunities interaction individuals social surroundings learning music used empowers individual act moods emotions wellbeing health agency denora sk\u00e5nland musicality argued intrinsic communication parents infants malloch tervarthen parents use music support activities create calm soothing environment prior sleep times addition participating childcentred musical activities lamont child parent interactions enhanced music therapy impulse control selfregulation skills pasiali social communication skills mackenzie hamlett nicholson et al walworth instance de gratzer showed tenmonth action research project group music making parents toddlers nonverbal communication parent child enhanced williams colleagues examined effectiveness shortterm group music therapy intervention parents children disabilities found significant improvements parental mental health child communication social skills parenting sensitivity parental engagement acceptance child child responsiveness parent child interest participation programme activities saw chapter moving time together promotes social bonding important social development infants promotes positive interactions caregivers young infants seem enjoy listening moving music instance cirelli trehub b studied infant began moving rhythmically music six months age across nine sessions beginning almost months age ending eight weeks later videorecorded mother presentation second excerpts two familiar two unfamiliar songs presented three tempos original tempo faster slower versions child exhibited number repeated dance movements headbobbing armpumping torso power music twists bouncing danced metallicas dead recording father played daily presence often dancing played high pulse clarity conjunction familiarity may increased propensity dance reflected lesser dancing familiar music low pulse clarity unfamiliar music high pulse clarity moved faster faster music unfamiliar music perhaps arousal drove movement familiar music movement music positively correlated smiling highlighting pleasurable nature experience rhythmic movement music may enhanced pleasure although joy listening may promoted movement formal engagement music may begin early years education certainly early years educators positive attitudes towards music value even formal qualifications music barrett et al parents grandparents former child participants early learning music programmes acknowledge programmes enhance musical knowledge skills barrett welch active group musicmaking also enhances prosocial behaviour young children instance kirschner tomasello studied fouryearolds tasks requiring identical skills musical nonmusical conditions joint musicmaking enhanced cooperation helpful behaviour music wellbeing schoolaged participants previous chapters shown active engagement music enhance intellectual functioning spatial reasoning mathematical performance phonological awareness literacy educational attainment personal social physical development extent benefits realised depends wide range factors least nature quality musical education experienced level commitment engagement child musical skills acquired greater sense purpose selfconfidence develop creech et al hallam et al way music education impact wellbeing instance lageg\u00f3mez cremadesandreu presented results collaborative action research study spanish secondary education data collected psychological wellbeing included observations interviews classroom diaries assessments questionnaires video audio recordings findings showed group improvisation influenced active student involvement wellbeing students identification music emergence group flow positive emotions including high level motivation musical experiences students roles musicians similarly informal learning small groups music classroom benefit wellbeing leading enhanced selfesteem positive relationships competence optimism hallam et al overall group musicmaking supports children improving social communication skills cooperation teamwork creech et al one strand research focused children perceived risk el sistema programme projects inspired itwhere children experience intensive prolonged engagement orchestral communityfacilitate prosocial behaviour psychological physical wellbeing students evaluations individual programmes report strengthening childrens sense individual group identity causing children take pride accomplishments enhancing determination persistence making children better able cope anger express emotions effectively children value participation social activity way enjoy music others strengthen friendships peers work teams acquire musical skills creech et al research focused children marginalised risk instance cain colleagues carried review impact participatory music programmes aimed promote positive mental physical health wellbeing outcomes young people culturally linguistically diverse communities majority music participation programmes targeted toward young people characterised risk positive outcomes including reduction anxiety depression emotional alienation truancy aggression participants showed increase attendance power music school enhanced selfesteem cultural empathy confidence personal empowerment healthier nutrition similarly brown colleagues investigated influence arts cortisol levels economically disadvantaged children three hundred ten children aged three five years old attended head start preschool randomly assigned participate different schedules arts homeroom classes different days week cortisol sampled morning baseline arts homeroom classes two different days start middle end year music dance visual arts grouped separately findings showed cortisol lower arts versus homeroom class middle end year start year similar project professional musicians worked schoolaged children ward et al showed interviews teachers musicians parents observations pupils experiencing socioeconomic deprivation enjoyed benefits fellowship groupbased music activities previously shy pupils began contribute class anxious children overcame fear performing stage teachers commented project developed pupils selfconfidence one strand research focused childrens wellbeing terms role music play improving overt behaviour instance fasano colleagues explored whether short orchestral music training could reduce impulsive behaviour one hundred thirteen italian children aged eight ten years age participated fiftyfive attended three months orchestral training included two hour lesson week school final concert children control group orchestral training children assessed relation inhibitory control hyperactivity beginning end threemonth training period children music group showed significant improvement inhibitory control control group showed increase selfreported hyperactivity suggests even intense brief period orchestral training facilitate development inhibitory control modulating levels selfreported hyperactivity largescale communitybased music programmes children exposed violence also found improve selfcontrol reduce behavioural difficulties instance alem\u00e1n colleagues assessed effects el sistema music psychological wellbeing programme childrens developmental functioning context high rates exposure violence programme emphasised social interactions group instruction performance research conducted music centres included children aged six fourteen years old half admitted programme earlier remainder data collected end programme indicated improved selfcontrol reduced behavioural problems particularly case children less educated mothers boys especially exposed violence overall programme improved selfcontrol reduced behavioural difficulties english colleagues explored viability effects sixweek digitally based music outreach programme using garageband children small rural town experiencing difficulties upperprimary lowersecondaryschool years focus groups observations daily notes showed significant positive impact teachers children involved similarly chaofern\u00e1ndez colleagues analysed benefits music therapy six students disruptive behaviours series activities designed based use music video game musichao significant improvements development self motivation selfawareness selfcontrol social skills ye colleagues undertook meta analysis including ten studies effect musicbased interventions aggressive behaviour children adolescents significant decrease aggressive behaviour significant increase selfcontrol musicbased intervention group compared control group research focused children experiencing internalised problems south korea kim investigated effects communitybased group music therapy children aged seven twelve exposed ongoing child maltreatment poverty fourteen children experienced music therapy twelve acted controls music therapy group received twelve consecutive group music therapy sessions week whereas control children opportunities teacher child reports assessed behavioural change showed children music therapy group less depressed anxious withdrawn fewer attention problems acting controls power music new zealand since earthquakes staff learners waitakiri school participated daily singing specifically promote wellbeing facilitation singing involved pressure rather democratic participatory conditions teachers avoiding judging learners progress achievement focus together fun although teachers lacked confidence leading singing focus fun learners still developed key competencies learned musical concepts rickson colleagues england chernaik reported impact wellbeing primaryschool children aged eight ten years old exposed live music provided professional classical musicians period school year project began six classroom workshops school progressed chamber orchestra workshop groups three four schools local venue culminated symphony orchestra concert questionnaires completed following concerts showed range positive emotions experienced children including excitement happiness feeling calm relaxed impressed amazed focusing exclusively extracurricular group percussion activities burnard dragovic analysed data rehearsals semistructured interviews teachers pupils reflective diary entries findings showed potential activities enhance pupil wellbeing empowering enhancing support decisionmaking croom reviewed studies engagement music within perma framework support claim music practice participation could positively contribute living flourishing life positively influencing emotions engagement relationships meaning accomplishment similarly lee colleagues identified case studies described successful music programmes schools australia content case studies aligned five categories perma wellbeing model findings showed relationship element model frequently mentioned collaboration partnership students teachers staff schools local people community including parents local entrepreneurs musicians repeatedly identified highly significant contributing factor success music programmes overall findings indicated tailored psychological wellbeing music relationshipcentred music programmes schools increased skills abilities students also improved psychosocial wellbeing community music wellbeing adolescents young people great deal research carried reference music adolescence saw earlier music plays important role teenagers lives bonnevilleroussy et al bosacki oneill greasley lamont age groups music seems important young people christenson et al christenson roberts gabrielsson lindstr\u00f6m wik roe zillmann gan musicas engaged leisure time contributes individual defines hargreaves et al hense mcferran north hargreaves seen represent personality used impression management well judge characteristics others krause hargreaves digital world achieved controlling music shared others uploaded personal collections voida et al engaging social comparisons adolescents able portray peer groups positively groups network thus able sustain positive self evaluations music facilitates process tarrant et al tarrant colleagues investigated english male adolescents aged years olds perceptions ingroup outgroup participants reported greater liking ingroup associated positively stereotyped music compared outgroup ingroup viewed fun masculine sporty less boring snobbish weird participants lower levels selfesteem showed greater differentiation groups greater derogation outgroup van zalk colleagues examined role similarity music preferences formation discontinuation friendships oneyear period questionnaire data gathered dutch sex mutual best friends almost years age findings showed consistent evidence high similarity specific music dimensions among friends beginning end year moderate similarity found overall patterning preferences power music music genres points time even controlling similarity social background specific music similarity nonmainstream music dimensions overall music similarity beginning related selecting new friend end time period however similarity music preferences related discontinuation existing friendships similarity music preferences seemed related friendship formation discontinuation music plays role developing retaining sense agency saarikallio seeking exploring sense agency music particularly relevant young people also experiencing reduction ability control actions environment due illness challenging personal situations magee et al sense agency important socialemotional health supported musical engagement saarikallio saarikallio baltazar evaluating impact short music intervention adolescents mcferran colleagues observed sense agency key participation young people reported increased awareness could utilise music reduce distress promote development similarly saarikallio colleagues collected selfreports personal music listening impact agency adolescents average age received musical training general increase agency time fluctuations determined specific contextual factors instance change environment changes moods reasons listening music elvers developed framework suggested increases feelings power control related enhanced selfesteem could induced musical experiences promoted positive affect empathy pleasure social cohesion similarly music students wellbeing found improve teachers adopt autonomysupporting strategies bonneville roussy et al emotional use music may differ according type musical activity since adolescents reasons listening playing shown quite similar one another north et al saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 study adolescents divided two age groups tolfree hallam psychological wellbeing established four main themes emerging data music relation emotions moods strongest older girls used music express anger stating provided means acceptable rebelliousness angry parents others family playing instrument used relation managing emotions indeed people age listening preferred activity regulating moods mainly music readily available modern world lincoln explored dynamic relationship young people bedroom space music using concept zoning established music used teenagers spontaneously create particular atmospheres bedrooms depended age mood time day concurrent activities occupants space instance friends siblings music blurred boundaries public private space music played high volume spilled bedroom zone rooms house music also used prequel sequel facilitating getting ready nights setting right tone atmosphere teenagers report listening music pass time alleviate boredom relieve tension distract worries music seen source support feeling troubled lonely acting mood regulator helping maintain sense belonging community schwartz fouts zillman gan music fosters ability cope challenges face including positive relationships peers papinczak et al selfhout et al ter bogt et al managing emotions mcferran saarikallio saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 developing selfdetermination laiho suggested music plays important part developments important adolescents lives laiho miranda schwartz fouts saarikallio argued music adolescents world playground kingdom express discover make choices studying young adults gupta kumar examined effects listening instrumental music day period showed music listening significantly increased resilience selfefficacy optimism meaning life psychosocial flourishing concluded power music music potential generating positive schemas could enhance wellbeing serve buffer increasing negativity modern world even quite young adolescents use music manage moods instance behne carried longitudinal study adolescents aged years old identified nine listening styles including compensating concentrated emotional distancing vegetative sentimental associative stimulative diffused ages pronounced listening style compensating demonstrating even young adolescents know use music mood regulation general different strategies coping emotions acquired age seiffgekrenke mullis chapman series studies saarikallio colleagues saarikallio saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 developed theoretical model consisting seven regulatory strategies relating music entertainment revival strong sensation diversion discharge mental work solace surveyed adolescents boys girls average age strategies used often boys girls age groups entertainment revival strong sensation overall girls used music mood regulation boys use music mood regulation increased age sexes change occurred later boys singing playing instrument hobby valuing music listening positively related using music regulate mood composing songs also led increased regulatory use music family member sang played instrument listening alone chosen half respondents age groups influencer mood ways music used regulate mood involved elements adolescents often conscious daily engagement music saarikallio saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 ongoing cognitive development increased ability abstract comprehension may help older adolescents conscious use music regulate mood saarikallio colleagues studied adolescents average age listened selfselected relaxation music minutes laboratory home provided written descriptions experience three major strategiesprocessing distraction inductionand two mechanisms musical mental psychological wellbeing identified processing supported mechanisms distraction induction supported predominantly music change negative positive mood generally realised musical distraction induction positive emotion supported strategies mechanisms later study baltazar saarikallio studied participants identified six contrasting strategic uses music cognitive work entertainment affective work distraction revival focus situation clear associations strategies mechanisms emerged laying foundations model integrated regulatory strategies mechanisms intrinsic interrelated components behaviour baltazar experimental study baltazar colleagues manipulated benefits music strategy use reducing stress overall music greater impact shortterm outcomes selfregulation comparison strategy use suggesting successful affective regulation depends adequacy chosen strategies music music key short term increasing body research indicated listening music different purposes outcomes instance mcferran colleagues reported investigation examining australian adolescents reported perceived changes mood listening selfselected music reported using music improve mood particularly initial state already positive however feeling sad stressed reported worsening mood young people distressed tended prefer listening heavy metal music report negative effects mood genre concluded interpreting findings complex overly simplistic interpretations needed avoided miranda two reviews proposed music could protective factor risk factor relation coping adolescence mcferran saarikallio explored australians aged years old beliefs held power music support challenging times asked recall times music supported times unhelpful considered young peoples beliefs positive consequences music strong even though mental health power music problems always case miranda gaudreau considered emotional reactions following listening music depending different levels emotional wellbeing also relationships social congruence music tastes friends parents emotional wellbeing three hundred sixteen adolescents mean age years old participated three profiles identified emotionally negative limited positive listeners related emotional wellbeing social congruence musical tastes friends parents also exploring differences individuals gibson colleagues divided highschool students high low loneliness groups relation romantic deprivation rated enjoyment lovelamenting lovecelebrating videos popular romantic music loneliness proved inconsequential enjoyment lovelamenting songs although highly lonely males enjoyed lovecelebrating songs markedly less less lonely males contrast highly lonely females enjoyed lovecelebrating songs less lonely females effects listening music positive adolescents may use music distraction avoid thinking problems saarikallio erkkil\u00e4 negative impact psychological adjustment hutchinson et al listening music explores negative themesfor instance distress suicide deathcan increase depressive symptoms suicidal thoughts martin et al scheel westefeld negative outcomes exacerbated interactions likeminded peers music subcultures instance stewart colleagues studied seven australian young people tendency towards depression exploring listening habits level awareness impact musiclistening mood wellbeing findings showed music positive effect mood also intensify negative moods suggested relationship intentions outcomes mediated differing levels selfawareness insight mood regulation processes occur listening music musical subcultures goth emo focused music dark depressing themes blame suicides laid door music young et al australia music therapy carried eight psychological wellbeing weeks compared selfdirected musiclistening group students selfreported unhealthy music use differences outcomes groups showed small improvements time although younger participants benefited therapy older participants selfdirected listening gold et al specific aspects music listening impact wellbeing smallscale study papinczak colleagues analysed transcripts focus groups participants aged years old four ways listening music linked wellbeing revealed relationshipbuilding modifying emotions modifying cognition emotional immersion followup questionnaire study young people showed musiclistening significantly related directly related wellbeing ter bogt colleagues studied whether adolescents young adults used music agent consolation dealing sorrow stress whether music lyrics experiences closeness artists fans experienced comforting overall respondents aged years old responded items assessing listening hours importance music music preferences positive negative effects elicited music internalised externalised problems consolation music slightly percent respondents reported used music source consolation particularly females higher levels anxiety depression musics consoling effects reported resulting mainly sound texture music attribution personal meaning lyrics lesser extent perceptions closeness artists listeners young people western world spend great deal time listening music less research globally miranda colleagues focusing cultural differences argued music meaningful similar different ways adolescents living diverse sociocultural contexts local global cultures mix hybridise larson et al boer colleagues boer fischer boer et al proposed two overarching dimensions music contemplative affective dimension individual dimension intrapersonal interpersonal social dimension collectivism adolescents collectivist societies used music convey cultural identity individualistic societies research six power music countries germany kenya mexico new zealand philippines turkey revealed ten functions listening music late adolescence background focused listening venting related emotions dancing related friendship family politics values cultural identity boer et al research seven countries revealed seven functions music background memories music music diversion emotional experiences music selfregulation music music reflection self social bonding boer fischer actively making music addition listening music actively making music impact wellbeing young people instance netherlands uhlig colleagues worked adolescents schools showed engaging rap singing music therapy six times week four months led enhanced psychological wellbeing self esteem emotion regulation evaluating similar rap sing music therapy adolescents uhlig colleagues showed range benefits sleep compared control group north east england mogrowilson tredinnick evaluated use visual arts music teenagers programme designed enhance social emotional skillbuilding programme successful meeting aims demonstrated art music could become powerful presence lives young people underlying complexity relationship music wellbeing leung cheung used processoriented approach establish association listening music playing musical instrument musical training adolescents wellbeing one thousand three hundred eighteen chinese adolescents years age secondary schools hong kong completed questionnaires awareness emotions emotions found mediate musical training wellbeing positive negative emotions also mediated listening music wellbeing although playing instrument associated emotional awareness positive negative emotions wellbeing findings reinforce problems making direct links music psychological wellbeing wellbeing similarly clarke basillo investigated role performing arts secondaryschool pupils demonstrated opportunities playfulness developing interpersonal relationships afforded activities predicted students wellbeing importance musical context impacting wellbeing emerged research baker colleagues studied artist led group songwriting programme young people found contextual factors helped shape songwriting environment young people felt safe fun pushed boundaries direct honest feedback high energy rituals emphasis artistic excellence anthony colleagues studying implementation music education programme young people remote aboriginal communities found informal learning frameworks incorporated musicmaking shared educators community members provided constructive ways engaging young people empowering management health wellbeing similarly research nigeria ojukwu suggested active engagement music could promote positive youth development working atrisk students van rooyen dos santos studied experiences teenagers childrens home participated choir south africa sixteen weekly choir sessions held included variety interactive vocal techniques performance marked end process songs selected teenagers performed qualitative data collected semistructured individual interviews end process findings showed participation choir offered teenagers meaningful intra interpersonal experiences intrapersonal level participants discovered musical voices increased self awareness selfesteem selfconfidence able express regulate emotions terms interpersonal experiences teenagers experienced growth relationships improved social skills greater connection broader community also working atrisk young people wilson macdonald reported ten week group music programme young scottish adults learning difficulties participants enjoyed programme participation generally maintained benefits evidenced increased social power music engagement interaction communication saw chapter young people disaffected reengaged education music also enhance wellbeing lookedafter children criminal justice system one strand research focused young people presenting issues academic work instance sharma jagdev studied adolescents low selfesteem high academic stress engaged music therapy period days reduced anxiety enhanced selfesteem similarly schiltz studied highly gifted adolescents suffering school failure engaged integrated form musical verbal psychotherapy musical improvisation storywriting production drawings music followed verbal elaboration participants showed significant increase concentration capacity imaginary symbolic elaboration pictorial literary creativity selfesteem quality coping strategies significant decrease defensive functioning embitterment resignation music therapy clearly beneficial circumstances research focused extracurricular school activities instance participating school production shown promote friendship groups support musical personal social development pitts kinnunen colleagues focused social sustainability music events adolescents lives perceptions words described live music experiences web survey adolescents aged years old demonstrated cultural content per se meaningful social networks events bonding bridging well sense community produced range benefits wellbeing similarly thematic analysis caleon including studies aimed fostering wellbeing adolescents identified musicbased activities acted catalysts relationshipbuilding means selfexpression selfregulation resource selftransformation considering heritage related music project clennon boehm examined creative activities embedded community could serve enhance cohesion wellbeing community work youth groups review zarobe bungay concluded participating arts psychological wellbeing activities could positive effect wellbeing enhancing selfconfidence selfesteem relationshipbuilding sense belonging music wellbeing adults people adulthood characterised relative stability increase independence responsibility although transitions relation choices concerning work family levinson levinson et al ageing retirement bring new challenges including acceptance decline physical psychological abilities loss loved ones attempting maintain control life sustain interest motivation atchley erikson general older people report fewer negative emotional experiences gross et al retain ability regulate emotions alongside desire derive emotional meaning lives carstensen et al relation music sloboda colleagues shown musics functions everyday lives adults related memories moods emotions similarly greasley lamont reported adults use music included stress personal choices using music emotional selfregulation reflection internal experiences memories van goethem showed emotions typically regulated music happiness calmness saarikallio undertook qualitative study participants aged years old revealed various regulatory goals strategies similar throughout adulthood also changes related age particular events retirement transition participants used music generate maintain happy moods pleasure enjoyment moods enhanced listening loud music singing along starting play instrument even dancing addition using music leisure activity used accompany kinds activities relax working day also energise prepare activity individuals actively engaged making music effects greater greasley lamont adult life many competing demands affect participation continuation power music musicmaking personal determination circumstances key understanding pitts robinson largescale study sweden bygren colleagues studied individuals aged years old percent interviewed trained nonmedical interviewers cultural activities eight confounding variablesage sex education level income longterm disease social networks smoking physical exercisewere controlled influenced survival expected direction except social networks men taking account research revealed influence mortality people rarely attended events compared attending frequently another largescale population study cuypers colleagues analysed association cultural activity perceived health anxiety depression life satisfaction based data third nordtr\u00f8ndelag health study included adult participants findings showed participation receptive creative cultural activities significantly associated good health positive satisfaction life low anxiety depression scores especially men attending receptive rather creative cultural activities similarly w\u0119ziakbia\u0142owolska bia\u0142owolski investigated causative impact attendance cultural events self reported physical health polish population four waves biennial longitudinal polish household panel study representative polish population aged used findings confirmed positive association cultural attendance selfreported health although possible establish causal link another largescale study weinberg joseph explored connection habitual music engagement subjective wellbeing data gathered part st survey australian unity wellbeing index provide insight relationship music engagement wellbeing sample participants interviewed telephone findings revealed engaging music dancing attending musical events associated higher wellbeing comparison engage music findings also emphasised importance engaging music company others regard wellbeing thus highlighting interpersonal features musicmaking psychological wellbeing uk tymoszuk colleagues explored trends participatory receptive engagement broad range arts adults percent respondents reported engagement arts activities reading listening music popular activities arts engagement grouped three distinct clusters almost percent constituted low engagers whose main source engagement occasional reading percent constituted receptive consumers read listened music frequently engaged popular receptive arts activities going cinema live music theatre exhibitions museums almost percent constituted cultural omnivores frequently engaged almost arts activities greater engagement arts associated higher levels wellbeing social connectedness lower possibility intense social loneliness although positive association greater arts engagement depression intense emotional loneliness highly engaged omnivores participation musical activities pitts found musical participation potential source confirmation confidence providing opportunities demonstrate existing skills acquire new ones music also give structure life offer opportunities perform others develop friendships engage social interaction get relief family work pressures provide spiritual fulfilment pleasure promote prosocial behaviour leading feelings belonging social adjustment trust cooperation anshel kipper odena people range different backgrounds experience benefits emotional physical wellbeing making music developing increased sense selfworth enhanced social skills wider social networks judd pooley lamont ranaweera compared happiness wellbeing adults involved knitting making music eight hundred thirtyfive amateur knitters amateur musicians completed measure happiness questions past current involvement knitters scored significantly higher happiness musicians although differences found relation subjective wellbeing older participants scored power music highly wellbeing measures effect time participating activity despite differences activities participants experienced broadly similar physical psychological social benefits australia krause colleagues administered questionnaire residents aged years old participating musical activity time importance music individuals lives positively related perceived wellbeing including competency relatedness autonomous motivation social cognitive esteem dimensions wellbeing findings particularly strong female participants overall positive associations musical activity psychosocial wellbeing saw earlier chapters positive outcomes reported music interventions adult offenders eastburn digard et al henley et al studies participants enhanced communication social skills increased confidence better able reflect situation believed could change attain goals overall wellbeing enhanced benefits participating music also stressful pitts studied membership leisuretime music groups online survey participants groups many benefits wellbeing member groups pressures groups struggled maintain survival face dwindling membership lack funding also negative impact wellbeing music career potential career instance college students amateur musicians joint swissuk study assessed relation wellbeing quality life general health philippe et al scores high general measures quality life groups environment social relationships physical health psychological health differences groups musicians emerged terms overall quality life general health well physical health dimension college music students scored lower amateur musicians although college music students scored higher amateurs social relationships music making offer healthprotective effects may case among aspiring become professional musicians similarly macritchie garrido studied professional amateur psychological wellbeing orchestral musicians using questionnaires interviews found intellectual stimulation high groups balance perceived challenge effort reward musical tasks emotional engagement increased age amateur players decreased professionals overall social engagement high players reporting feeling connected group whilst making music research considered flow experiences musical participation relationship wellbeing instance baker macdonald studied flow nonmusicmajor university students retirees sense self achievement identity satisfaction ownership creation personally meaningful songs strong experiences flow songcreation compared sporting activities dancing yoga performing music habe colleagues studied elite musicians top athletes early twenties found flow often experienced group individual performance settings life satisfaction positively related flow particularly challenge versusskill balance attendance music festivals music festivals offer unique opportunities engagement music excitement physical proximity performers social interaction attendees music contribute experience oakes paleo wijnberg pitts engagement music festival context contribute creation sense community provides opportunities engage social activities frith gibson connell also contributes development identity karlsen br\u00e4ndstr\u00f6m matheson although negative outcomes risks relating use alcohol drugs overcrowding mob behaviour public health issues earl et al pitts investigated audience experiences chamber music festival showed social musical enjoyment interacted generate commitment sense involvement event similarly burland pitts studied roles music played lives jazz audiences edinburgh power music festival analysis largescale survey indepth interviews revealed sense community atmosphere within audience members valued opportunity amongst likeminded jazz enthusiasts similarly pitts burland drew evidence nearly jazz listeners surveyed edinburgh jazz blues festival spin jazz club oxford questionnaires diaries interviews used understand experiences listening wide range audience members findings illustrated listening live jazz strongly social element whereby listeners derived pleasure attending others meeting likeminded enthusiasts audience welcomed opportunities conversation relaxation within venues helped facilitate within social context live listening audience members intense sometimes draining experience others offered source relaxation absorption opportunity focus good playing preferred repertoire overall live listening constituted individual social act varied listeners venues occasions packer ballantyne established sense connection participants separation everyday life distinguished festivals musical experiences providing sense disconnection prompted festival attendees reflect lives understanding reported benefits terms enhanced interpersonal relationships greater sense belonging valued deeper understanding self emotions enhanced selfperceptions confidence mastery purpose life greater sense agency better strategies coping stress sense making contribution hopeful benefits reflect reported engaged making music strong experiences music commonly occur live settings gabrielsson lamont experiences enhanced performers appear enjoying experience interact audience brand et al pitts burland pitts spencer radbourne et al physical proximity performers audience support brand et al quality experience influenced interactions audience members performers transform experience passive active dobson sloboda technology psychological wellbeing enabled communities fans upload set lists photos online forums also use twitter helps nonattending fans feel involved bennett music wellbeing older generation across world life expectancy increasing growing numbers older people many live alone vulnerable experiencing depression recent years increase research role music lives older generation overall music becomes important elderly gembris laukka participation wide range musical activities provides source enhanced social inclusion enjoyment personal development empowerment supporting group identity collaborative learning friendship social support sense belonging enhanced wellbeing access new social roles relationships allison coffman coffman adamek langston sixsmith gibson wood clear older people gain cognitive emotional social benefits learning play musical instrument range different learning environments drummond veblen even short periods time bugos et al musicmaking contributes psychological wellbeing alleviate loneliness offer support coping challenges ageing providing opportunities musical progression enjoyment thus adding meaning life forssen lehmberg fung saarikallio provide contentment satisfaction feelings peace reduce anxiety depression reduce decline wellbeing often experienced older generation foster positive moods emotions lally livesey et al sandgren number largescale studies examining relationship wellbeing musical activity older people instance jenkins derived data english longitudinal study ageinga largescale nationally representative survey aged contains several wellbeing measures information three types learning formal courses musicartsevening classes gymexercise classes key finding research music arts evening classes significantly associated power music positive changes wellbeing similar relationship formal courses gym exercise classes wellbeing recently also using english longitudinal study ageing fancourt steptoe analysed data adults aged tenyear period explore whether membership different kinds community groups associated wellbeing membership education arts music classes longitudinally associated lower negative affect life satisfaction slightly different positive outcomes associated membership religious groups tenday diary study people aged years old music hobby koehler neubauer showed need satisfaction positive affect higher participants reported musicmaking satisfaction basic psychological needs seemed act mediating mechanism musical activities wellbeing since considerable body research demonstrated relationship actively making music subjective wellbeing lehmberg fung adults participate active music making report provides valued worthwhile experiences older age provide structure purpose daily living enhancing motivation providing meaning life hallam et al reduce depression promote positive emotions emotional regulation provide spiritual experiences creech et al dingle et al working older generation leading musicmaking recognised older generation homogenous group even consider novice musicians bring musical activities mixture skills preferences cultural backgrounds may reduced capacity areas musical groups rich knowledge base considerable experience motivation dabback smith older people tend independent learners want control learning although extent applies musical activities varies across groups nature activities group dynamics important frequently key sustaining motivation veblen internationally music educators increasingly recognising social aspects musicmaking important older adults krause davidson needs change pedagogy based expertise training pedagogy promoting cultural connectedness sharing psychological wellbeing exploring range issues hays minichiello carried interviews older australians determine role music lives participants involved music much time instance listening music actively making music volunteering including working community radio broadcasters programmers music administration concert development teaching listening performing composing enabled expression individuality ways defining listening specific pieces music led recall events experiences life along emotions associated music provided way maintain positive selfesteem feel competent independent avoid feelings isolation loneliness distracted health problems feel uplifted physically psychologically feel rejuvenated used music accompaniment daily activities reported music helped feel competent motivated faced challenging tasks music provided support distraction reduced anxiety stress levels increased threshold pain endurance indicated music provided inner happiness contentment peace therapeutic made feel positive life well cheerful hopeful contented relaxed peaceful moved tears music listened sheer joy beauty experience music able calm excite thrill entertain ways things able became addictive way escaping reality stimulating imagination sense beauty spiritual effect associated specific religious beliefs others personal feeling one world music provided many benefits contributed wellbeing similarly participants music life project reported engaging wide range musical activities questionnaire responses revealed percent reported listening recorded music percent live music percent playing music background completing tasks percent singing home percent practising home played wide range instruments wide range musical preferences creech et al hallam et al laukka sent questionnaire random sample communityliving older power music adults aged years age sweden assess use music everyday life including frequency listening situations music encountered emotional responses music motives listening different facets psychological wellbeing also assessed findings showed listening music common leisure activity frequent source positive emotions participants reported using variety listening strategies related emotional functions including pleasure moodregulation relaxation well issues identity belonging agency although health status personality important predictors wellbeing listening strategies significantly associated psychological wellbeing one strand research considered role choral singing promoting wellbeing older people instance lamont colleagues reported case study older peoples choir fouryear period using interviews focus groups observations participatory discussion choir members highlighted individual interpersonal benefits part choir particularly emphasised importance developing social relationships within supportive community although musical achievement also central ongoing development choir five main themes emerged data personal investment reward inclusive community always evolving yet fundamentally unchanged environment desire connect leadership organisation considering reference seligmans perma framework positive psychology apparent social relationships meaning accomplishment particularly important reasons older people finding singing community choir beneficial wellbeing tasmania langston barrett explored social capital manifested community choir interviews choir members revealed choir provided shared norms values trust civic community involvement networks knowledge resources contact families friends fellowship identified key component fostering group cohesion social capital development similarly england coulton colleagues evaluated effectiveness communitygroupsinging population older people aged years old either participated singing activities three months significant differences observed relation psychological wellbeing mental health components quality life anxiety depression six months significant differences observed mental health favour groupsinging similarly fung lehmberg found positive impact quality life people retirement community sang together joining group singing activities new musical hobby later life provide mental physical stimulation positive benefits mood increased social interactions davidson colleagues developed evaluated eightweek singing programme participants aged years older little impact health wellbeing although quality programme facilitators important factor programme experienced pearce colleagues followed newlyformed singing nonsinging crafts creative writing adult education classes seven months participants rated closeness group affect given proxy measure endorphin release classes three timepoints one three seven months findings showed although singers nonsingers felt equally connected timepoint three singers experienced much faster bonding form significantly greater increase closeness timepoint one seems singing icebreaker effect promoting fast social cohesion unfamiliar individuals single case study southcott focused small choir happy wanderers formed group older people perform residents care facilities sufferers dementia participation group enhanced lives members audiences costa ockelford specifically considered impact music audiences evaluated programme regular concerts teas older people interview findings showed concerts effective evoking positive emotions including happiness relaxation inspiration awe gratitude whilst negative emotions anxiety worry lessened responses enhanced interaction performers audience high standard performance appropriate repertoire opportunity social contact interaction relieved loneliness contributed participants enjoyment series studies uk creech colleagues hallam colleagues hallam creech varvarigou power music colleagues researched relationship active musicmaking subjective wellbeing older peoples lives research comprised three uk casestudy sites offering wide variety musical activities including singing ensemble participation song composition site sample people aged total recently begun musical activities others experienced recruited complete questionnaires assessed quality life control group completed measures indepth interviews carried representative sample followed observations musical activities focus groups interviews music facilitators comparisons made older people participating wide range musical activities relation questionnaire responses psychological needs well participating musical activities third fourth age groups factors emerged analysis data purpose positive outlook life autonomy control social affirmation positive social relationships competence sense recognised accomplishment participating music activities responded positively engaged activities also deterioration responses music groups third fourth age groups might expected exception purpose life interviews revealed cognitive benefits including challenge acquisition new skills sense achievement improvements concentration memory health benefits included increased vitality improved mental health mobility feelings rejuvenation emotional benefits included protection stress depression support following bereavement sense purpose positive feelings confidence opportunities creativity considerable evidence older adults experience myriad psychosocial benefits learning play musical instrument even starting play novices receiving training relatively shortterm periods jutras roulston et al older adults frequently cite ensemble nature musical activities motivating factor continuing engagement learning play instrument roulston et al social aspects ensembles offer wellbeing benefits development new relationships psychological wellbeing decreasing isolation singing playing seem important elderly enhance emotional selfregulation emotional expression relaxation help reduce loneliness provide experiences togetherness company belonging help strengthen selfconcept selfunderstanding provide enjoyment beauty challenge meaningful content life focusing learning keyboard guitar recorder djembe drumstaught individually small groupsor creative musical activities tenweek period individuals age little prior musical experience perkins williamon concluded engaging activities offered significant wellbeing benefits particularly enhancing behaviours promoted good health interviews subgroup participants revealed engaging musical activities enhanced wellbeing subjective experiences pleasure enhanced social interactions musically nuanced engagement daytoday life fulfilment musical ambition ability make music selfsatisfaction making musical progress learning play musical instrument may also effective improving fine motor skills sensorimotor function generally declines age performance upper limbs visuomotor tasks also subject decrease tasks required musical instrument trainingemploying sensory motor multimodal brain regions shown stimulate brain plasticity see chapter altenmuller schlaug rogenmoser et al pianoplaying particular trains coupled movements across fingers individuated finger movement furuya altenmuller unclear type training useful maintenance improvement context ageing preservation domaingeneral fine motor skills may also benefit healthy older adults supporting maintenance skills required numerous daily tasks involved independent living series studies bugos colleagues bugos kochar demonstrated healthy older adults experienced significant improvements cognitive measures particularly trail making tasks digitspan tests result piano training programmes also showed intense piano training healthy communitydwelling adults aged years old enhanced musical selfefficacy although general selfefficacy cortisol levels power music bugos cooper examined effects music interventions bimanual coordination cognitive performance healthy older adults aged years old one hundred thirtyfive participants completed motor measures battery standardised cognitive measures week music training programme threehour practice requirement participants allocated either piano fine motor training percussion instruction gross motor training music listening significant enhancements bimanual synchronisation visual scanning working memory abilities fine grossmotor training groups compared listening music piano training significantly improved motor synchronisation skills compared percussion instruction musiclistening reflecting existing research bugos developed model suggesting community music programmes musical training could integrated lead successful ageing similarly seinfeld colleagues showed significant improvement cognitive measures group older adults involved piano training programmes compared leisure activities instance exercise painting thirteen participants received piano lessons undertook daily training four months compared agematched participants acted control group participated types leisure activities physical exercise computer lessons painting lessons significant improvement piano training group relation executive functions inhibitory control divided attention also trend indicating enhancement visual scanning motor ability piano lessons also decreased depression induced positive mood states improved psychological physical quality life overall playing piano learning read music useful intervention older adults promote cognitive reserve improve subjective wellbeing ongoing study james colleagues explored outcomes piano instruction musical listening awareness two sites hannover geneva retired healthy adults aged years old participants receive weekly training one hour month period outcomes assessed relate cognitive perceptual motor aptitudes well structural neuroimaging bloodsampling macritchie colleagues examined effects tenweek piano training programme healthy psychological wellbeing older adult novices cognitive motor skills comparison inactive waitinglist control group fifteen participants completed piano training led music facilitator small groups quantitative data battery cognitive motor tests collected training posttest data control group qualitative data included weekly facilitator observations participant practice diaries individual semistructured postexperiment interview findings demonstrated evidence strong positive impact training trailmaking test indicating improved visuomotor skills moderate evidence negative impact training different section trailmaking test also found suggesting benefit cognitive switching qualitative results revealed group learning environment motivated participants play musical ensembles socialise motivation optimal participants happy chosen repertoire participants reported motivated learning play familiar music facilitator observed groups formed cohesive bonds saw chapter brain plasticity possible adulthood elderly following relatively shortterm musical training herdener et al lappe et al training programmes requiring intensive multisensory cognitive motor activities instance piano lessons improve working memory perceptual motor skills delay agerelated decline speech perception parberyclark et al nonverbal memory executive processes hannapladdy mackay dementia verghese et al supporting comparisons professional amateur nonmusicians rogenmoser colleagues using brain imaging calculate brain age participant found musician positive impact brainage scores musicians general exhibited lower brainage scores nonmusicians suggesting general agedecelerating effect musicmaking brain stronger agedecelerating effect amateur musicians perhaps multisensory motor socioaffective experiences musical activity enriched lives addition activities professional musicians brain plasticity may maladaptive extensively rehearsed highly specialised repetitive sensorimotor activities stressful public performances may result less enriched environment lead negative health effects power music focus research creative activities usually song composition instance waddingtonjones colleagues analysed videorecall interviews questionnaires evaluate impact participation collaborative composition workshops subjective psychological wellbeing older adults analysis revealed dimensions perma framework subjective psychological wellbeing met older adults collaborative composition encouraged social interaction others shared interests increased positive affect enhanced selfesteem allowed older people express similarly baker ballantyne investigated whether group songwriting performing affected perceptions quality life feelings connectedness community retirees thematic analysis data transcripts focus groups written questionnaires participants students involved project indicated programme stimulated enjoyment positively affected emotions improved wellbeing participants experienced enhanced connection one another well others broader community sense accomplishment meaning engagement creating performing songs similar project professional musicians worked small group older people compose individual pieces music habron colleagues demonstrated enhanced wellbeing facilitated control musical materials opportunities creativity development identity validation life experiences social engagement participants professional musicians results emphasised importance occupation essential health wellbeing later stages life creech colleagues focused role creativity promoting wellbeing review articles concluded creativity participatory musicmaking underpinned social engagement collaboration inclusivity opportunities creative expression offered range benefits relating quality life including positive emotions engagement relationships sense meaning accomplishment innovative programme rural ontario designed address social isolation among older people matching participants trained volunteers worked together ten sessions home setting create expressive art may involved psychological wellbeing music evaluating programme using interviews macleod colleagues found enhanced wellbeing older adults volunteers particularly terms relationships personal development creating meaning impact intervention extended beyond programmes duration exclusively musical programme used similar methods dassa analysed interviewers essays documenting meetings interviewer elderly person written four years mutual musicking elicited remote memories childhood adolescence adulthood emotionally impacted parties mutual musicking revealed new unfamiliar facets participants findings suggested creating musical autobiography interview process music reminiscence strengthened older persons sense selfidentity illuminated hidden aspects also changed attitudes toward elderly also studying concept reminiscence kruse explored ways older adults reminisced music participation course lives six community musicians participated interviews worked lifereview tool two hundred twentyfive reminiscences reflected healthy ageing satisfaction including selfacceptance valuable life lessons reconciliation life events although participants troubled strained parental relationships bittersweet associations music research focused broadly musicrelated activities instance dancing focusing depression elderly rummy colleagues carried systematic review articles studies used individual therapy others combined music therapy activities singing dancing lyricwriting time spent varied two weeks six months one two sessions weekly duration minutes concluded music therapy effective reducing depression also studying impact music indirectly dance murrock graor found disadvantaged adult participants completed week dance intervention developed sense belonging group identity may maintained group involvement contributed reducing depression social isolation interest way music technology might support wellbeing older generation instance engelbrecht power music shoemark carried mixedmethod feasibility study investigating acceptability efficacy using ipads compared traditional musical instruments older adults living privately community five women aged years age recruited communitybased dayrespite centre brisbane australia participants randomly assigned either traditional musical instrument ipad group engaged five sessions activity based music therapy participants completed journal entries following session detail experiences assessed levels perceived social isolation global selfesteem intervention use ipads acceptable group learning central sessions differences mood outcomes emotional communications playing ipad resulted greater creativity freedom significant differences social isolation selfesteem groups time ipad traditional instrument interventions developed social cohesion group identity positive selfconcept overall findings showed technology acceptable potentially successful tool use music therapy older people living community creech supported findings literature review intersection music technology ageing papers screened retained ten focused using technology support musicking form listening reflecting interpreting five explored utility technology promoting singing playing instruments three focused music movement overall literature suggested older people even complex needs capable interested using music technologies access create personally meaningful music similarly poscia colleagues reviewed effectiveness existing interventions alleviating loneliness social isolation among older people findings quantitative five qualitative studies suggested new technologies communityengaged arts might able tackle social isolation loneliness among older individuals wellbeing older people important also important consider wellbeing caring considering role carers patients ascenso colleagues studied participants series community drumming programmes psychological wellbeing outcomes assessed semistructured interviews focus groups end programme emotional psychological social dimensions wellbeing emerged patients carers music wellbeing covid pandemic number research projects considered role music offering support people covid pandemic one strand research explored use music families lockdowns instance usa cho ilari studied parents young children used recorded music everyday lives pandemic nineteen mothers children aged months five years strategically managed sonic home environment period one week based resources provided researchers response childrens mood state total episodes collected childrens engagement recorded music findings showed mothers utilised music fulfil various emotional needs tended use maintain reinforce childs positive mood rather improve negative mood mothers reported various ways young children engaged music stated strategic approaches using recorded music seemed help children feel less distressed happy thus reducing stresses parenting similarly usa canada steinberg colleagues utilised online questionnaire assess use music homes young children parents relationship parents attachment child musical activity high parents children parents reported using music emotional regulation socially connect children extent parentchild musical engagement associated attachment overall music may effective tool building maintaining parentchild relationships period uncertainty change brazil ribeiro colleagues explored social distancing covid pandemic altered families musicrelated behaviours children aged three six years old well caregivers levels wellbeing stress one hundred eightyeight caregivers participated online survey showed significant changes families dynamics parents power music especially mothers spent time childcare substantial decrease caregivers wellbeing changes caregivers childrens musical activities home social distancing including increase childonly shared caregiverchild musical activities sociodemographic factors childs disability status significantly influenced musical engagement transhistorical comparison musical activities milanese outbreak plague musical activities observed covid lockdowns including balcony singing playlistmaking chiu discussed music fulfils functions mood regulation social cohesion times pandemic social isolation much evidence internet news outlets important role music communicated social media played supporting people covid pandemic number research projects also undertaken typically use online questionnaires instance granot colleagues administered online questionnaire countries argentina brazil china colombia italy mexico netherlands norway spain uk usa received responses participants rated relevance wellbeing goals pandemic effectiveness different activities obtaining goals enjoyment venting negative emotions selfconnection diversion music effective entertainment second best creating sense togetherness socialisation evident across different countries genders minor effects age specific goals clear effect importance music peoples lives cultural effects generally small occurred mainly use music obtain sense togetherness culture moderated use negativelyvalenced nostalgic music higher levels distress carlson colleagues also used online survey likert scale freetext responses establish participants engaging music first wave pandemic findings showed extent musiclistening behaviours either unaffected increased especially true listening selfselected music watching livestreamed concerts relationship participants use music mood regulation psychological wellbeing musical engagement levels anxiety worry small number participants described negative emotional responses music majority also reported severe levels anxiety spain also using online survey disseminated general population groups musicians martinezcastilla colleagues analysed impact personal contextual factors perceived efficacy musical behaviours fulfilling wellbeingrelated goals lockdown responses received people personal factors impact musics efficacy contextual variables related covid youngest respondents musical training reported highest efficacy music enhancing wellbeing overall musics importance main predictor perceived efficacy people emotionally vulnerable lockdown due either strong impact daily lives lower resilience perceived greater benefits engagement music brazil also using online questionnaire ribeiro colleagues explored music used lockdowns whether helped individuals especially severe depression nearly people aged responded four types musiclistening functions identified negative mood management cognitive functioning positive mood management physical involvement severe depression likely use music functionsin particular manage negative moods respondents used musiclistening cope regulate moods using online questionnaire gibbs egermann explored nature musicinduced nostalgia five hundred seventy participants listened selfselected piece music designed induce nostalgia listened three months prior lockdown reported emotions memories induced significant differences affective narrative content nostalgic musiclistening relation emotional regulation strategy used employing nostalgic music listening form approaching difficult emotions shown positive impact wellbeing italy corvo de caro studied spontaneous singing covid pandemic overall italians spent great deal time lockdown mental wellbeing point view power music difficult adapt internment movement controls lack freedom opportunities meet friends relatives serious impact wellbeing almost immediately first lockdown began silence italian cities broken singing carried various ways places quite recent songs strong emotional impact sung others old songs strongly connected italian culture national anthem chosen balconies windows streets cities animated people ages enjoying moments social cohesion emotional exchange videos made instinctively shared social media individuals showing moments strong union sense loneliness extent forgotten singing networks completely spontaneous showed singing used coping strategy improve sense cohesion songs chosen reflected individuals identities helped avoid feelings loneliness enhance mood two three weeks number people singing reduced revived later music clearly provided means demonstrating social solidarity helped communities time crisis similarly calvo bejarano reported music spain crisis first weekend confinement growing number individuals started play music collective applause express gratitude towards health workers doctors involved professional musicians also many amateurs performances posted social media singalongs balcony balcony classical music duos serenading traditional instruments expressed social message transcended quality music performed set database individuals played sung balconies least twice identified performers places strong regional identities galicia basque country also strong traditions band music valencia also undertook telephone interviews asked confinement people played selection repertoire neighbours reacted many cases performers reacted informal formal petitions sing play close relatives nextdoor neighbours even brass bands orchestras professional association music teachers set online challenge invited music teachers simultaneously play different score day music teachers spoke challenges psychological wellbeing persuasive reason keep playing perhaps fear breaking relationships trust respect peers profession despite differences professional background respondents quoted personal reasons playing balconies talked need provide break tedious life confinement musicking provided children activities gave students reason continue practising local media reported music teacher organised balconytobalcony study sessions txistua traditional instrument popular basque country resembles flutewith students happened live nearby dominant theme emerging data need create bonds neighbours also help others professional musicians saw duty artists cases performers simply wanted something people theme presentation music stress reliever way cope anxiety loneliness pain associated able meet loved ones many musicians started playing march th fathers day spain way express love affection musicking helped celebration birthdays interesting process private rituals became vehicle connect neighbours helping others common expression performers wanted cheer people hospitalised nearby mental health centres remind senior neighbours someone cheer children realisation music potential good transformed meant oneoff act daily routine also spain cabedomas colleagues carried survey use music pandemic total spanish citizens responded findings indicated lockdown respondents perceived increase time devoted musical activities listening singing dancing playing instrument also reported using music cope lockdown finding helped relax escape raise mood keep company findings suggested improvement perception value music personal social wellbeing lockdown although significant differences use perceptions music according respondents personal situations age feelings vulnerability may led conservative uses musical practice moderate perceptions positive values music power music cabedomas colleagues also pointed importance playlists isolation social functions countries entered lockdown spotify reported march th increase collaborative playlistmaking allowed people connect shared music virtual jam sessions together media release spotify also noted users sharing content social networks usual friends followers would know one group songs saw spikes streaming figures used balcony performances recordings circulated widely social media according march th report spotify streams two songs sung italian flash mobs abbracciame azzurro increased percent spain streams song resistir\u00e9 increased percent abbracciame embrace andrea sannino first released since earned gold certification federazione industria musicale italiana copies sold time received million views youtube seven million streams spotify undoubtedly balconysinging immense impact musical culture lockdowns remain many one musical practices indelibly associated period lockdowns participants musical activities flash mobs online ensembles well spectators frequently reported alleviation stress feeling connectedness result musical engagement erica marino participant one earliest balcony flash mobs benevento video went viral early march cozzolino asked messages flooding italy video music making widely shared social media marino reported viewers expressed gratitude perceived message hope positivity viewing social networks contained devastating news balconysinging deep roots italy milanese plague grew deadly public processions came end borromeo relocated ritual inside private homes decreeing church bells across city rung seven times day bell rung litanies supplications sung recited direction bishop performed way one group sang windows doors homes psychological wellbeing another group sang responded turn covid seems revived tradition mak colleagues collected data participants participating uk covid social study university college london investigate engaged arts home lockdown engagement differed patterns arts engagement prior covid whether home based arts engagement related peoples ability cope emotions lockdown demographic factors socioeconomic status psychosocial wellbeing health conditions adverse events worries coping styles considered four types homebased arts engagement identified digital arts writing musical activities crafts reading pleasure strongest predictors engagement age educational attainment social support emotionfocused supportive coping styles younger adults aged nonkey workers people greater social support people lost work worried catching virus emotionfocused problemfocused supportive coping style likely increased arts engagement lockdown arts activities used approach avoidance strategies help cope emotions well help improve selfdevelopment overall findings suggested people engaged arts pandemic typically engaged normal circumstances pandemic created new incentives opportunities others engage virtually research also highlighted value arts coping tools stressful situations research explored online musicmaking developed result lack opportunities live musicmaking pandemic instance macdonald colleagues studied glasgow improvisers orchestras virtual synchronous improvisation sessions interviews participants sessions included international genderbalanced crossgenerational group musicians living conditions social distancing sessions recorded using zoom findings showed sessions provided opportunities artistic development enhanced mood reduced feelings isolation sustained developed community improvisation facilitated interaction also allowed technological affordances software hardware become part power music artistic collaboration domestic environment merged technology create authors described theatre home similarly daffern colleagues studied virtual choirs uk online survey choir members facilitators findings showed three virtual choir models employed multitrack whereby individuals recorded solo mixed choral soundtrack livestreamed individuals took part sessions streamed live social media live teleconferencing spoken interaction singing using teleconferencing software responses open questions revealed several issues including practicalities participation continuation choir responsibility maintaining choir choir contributed sense wellbeing social aspects reflecting sense community social identity musical elements also reported particularly value musical experience changed virtual models possibility cocreation singing also sense loss singing together real time sacred harp singers world gather weekly sing collection shapenote songs first published sacred harp morganellis tradition highly ritualised plays important role lives participants lockdowns implemented groups sacred harp singers independently devised variety means could sing together online using zoom zinging jamulus jamzinging facebook live stringing developments undertaken rapidly creatively indicating importance participants attached singing twentytwo interviews conducted participants revealed online singing practices reshaped sacred harp community many singers previously opportunity participate others lost access geographical barriers disintegrated singing organisers find ways maintain local identity online community singers digital realm stable identical community predated pandemic online singing meaningful participants provided continuity personal communal practice allowed participants access celebrate collective memories sacred harp community carry significant rituals continue grow singers single modality replicated complete sacred psychological wellbeing harp singing experience allowed individual participants access many aspects meaningful also focusing communal singing dowson colleagues studied impact pandemic existing dementia singing groups choirs examples online musical activities identified sessions adapted limitations technology rather technological difficulties overcome accessibility digital safety wellbeing participants important considerations overall pandemic prompted innovative approaches delivering activities interventions people dementia carers adapted rapidly changes online music met clear need social connection cognitive stimulation also offered advantages remain even covid restrictions relaxed crosssectional survey adults participated instrumental singing dance groups draper dingle explored impact facetoface versus virtual musicmaking pandemic participants rated extent group identification extent psychological need satisfaction met retrospectively music group facetoface mode adapted online mode along mental health findings showed instrumental groups less commonly adapted virtual mode singing dance groups group identification average psychological need satisfaction scores significantly lower groups virtual mode facetoface mode however group identification psychological need satisfaction remained high suggests virtual music groups may beneficial facetoface musicmaking possible concerts recorded rather live pandemic belfi colleagues investigated differences aesthetic judgments live opposed recorded concerts whether responses varied based congruence musical artist piece thirtytwo individuals made continuous ratings pleasure experienced live concert viewing audiovisual recorded version concert given university band united states army band band played two pieces united states patriotic composition non patriotic one findings showed average participants reported pleasure power music listening pieces congruent band playing patriotic army band non patriotic university band findings change whether performance live recorded seems virtual concerts reasonable way elicit pleasure audiences live performances possible focusing use collaborative playlists pandemic harris cross developed experimental procedure study whether perceived presence partner playlistmaking could elicit observable correlates social processing preliminary findings suggested younger individuals social processes involved joint musicmaking elicited even assumption virtual copresence one strand research focused way undergraduates used music pandemic hurwitz krumhansi discussed concept listeningniche referrals contexts people listen music including music listening media investigated undergraduate students musiclistening niches initial covid lockdown period four weeks immediately campus shut returning hybrid semester participants provided list frequently listened songs identified one seemed associated time period relevant three clusters themes emerged data emotional responses memory associations discovery new music overall pandemic led frequent listening general spotify differences lockdown new normal listening companions shifted family members significant others finally friends roommates overall implementation strategies manage covid increased listening changed context vidas colleagues surveyed firstyear australian university students domestic international examine effectiveness musiclistening covid songs participants asked nominate helping cope pandemic stress tended negative mood listening music among effective coping strategies effective exercise sleep changing location effectiveness related enhanced wellbeing psychological wellbeing specifically level stress caused pandemic international students experienced higher pandemic stress levels similar levels wellbeing domestic students overall listening music remained effective strategy maintaining wellbeing also australia krause colleagues assessed students media use throughout early stages covid pandemic determined whether media use related changes life satisfaction one hundred twentyseven participants asked complete online questionnaires capturing pre duringpandemic experiences findings indicated media use varied substantially throughout study period withinperson level life satisfaction positively associated listening music negatively watching tv videos movies findings highlighted potential benefits listening music periods social isolation impact pandemic music professionals strand research focused ways musicians coped pandemic instance onderdijk colleagues collected responses musicians belgium netherlands findings showed decrease percent live musicmaking social settings lockdown increase percent online joint musicmaking respondents depending musicmaking main source income explored online methods significantly relying income sources respondents largely even completely unaccustomed using specialised platforms online joint musicmaking mainly used video conferencing platforms zoom skype playing together virtually often employed synchronised playing generally reported unable deal latency issues increase percent use alternative remote joint musicmaking methodsfor instance recording parts separately subsequently circulating digital recordings uk spiro colleagues collected data performingarts professionals pandemic led substantial reduction work income leading percent report financial hardship eightyfive percent reported increased anxiety percent power music lonelier crisis percent sought financial support percent asked support health wellbeing perceived financial hardship associated lower wellbeing higher depression loneliness scores positive associations selfrated health wellbeing lower depression scores responses open questions identified several overarching themes characterising effects lockdown loss work income financial concerns uncertainties future constraints lockdown working including challenges working home struggles online work skill maintenance caring responsibilities loss vulnerability including reduced social connections lack support feelings loss grief concern others detrimental effects health wellbeing including anxiety low unstable mood poorer physical health lack motivation professional personal opportunities including coping well living healthily time less pressure new possibilities activities enhanced social connections new skills overall lockdown profound negative effects performingarts professionals also presented opportunities also uk cohen ginsborg studied impact covid professional freelance musicians comparing middle performing careers aged older players aged semistructured interviews carried zoom freelance selfemployed orchestral musicians thematic analysis identified common issues loss muchloved performing career missing musicmaking colleagues anxiety future music profession although differences relation identity musician extent anxiety finance extent emotional distress attitudes toward practising engaging collaborative musicmaking confusion future career psychological wellbeing plans music students seemed less affected pandemic professional musicians showed significant differences satisfaction life studying impact pandemic compared students studying sports habe colleagues focusing music teachers australia de bruin studied covid impacted way taught engaged interacted students across online platforms findings interviews showed adopted teaching approaches fostered connection empathy relationshipbuilding guiding students slower deeper learnercentred approaches using pedagogical practices reinforced promoted interpersonal connectedness musical experience discovery covid pandemic impacted way music therapists across world undertaken work particularly relation use technology agres et al cole colleagues investigated transition neurological music therapy services inperson telehealth online survey distributed neurological music therapy affiliates worldwide sixtynine therapists fully participated survey findings showed change overall number clinical hours retained telehealth association frequent telehealth usage perceived likelihood using telehealth future types therapy transferred telehealth although specific implementation changes overall therapists spent fewer hours working telehealth compared inperson therapy regardless employment setting technological challenges drawbacks major benefits included ability continue providing therapy inperson sessions possible increased accessibility remote clients positive outcomes relating increased caregiver involvement overview evidence set previous chapters shows clearly music benefit hedonic feeling good eudaimonic functioning well components wellbeing throughout lifespan although particular impact adolescence older age overall power music many possible benefits wellbeing physical health engaging music either listening actively making music benefits occur impact music arousal levels moods emotions social aspects group musicmaking role personal development cases directly music therapy benefits listening realised listener needs like music music imposed others individuals taste create tension distress prone depression engaging deeply music sad focuses negative life experiences particularly shared others negative effects social personal benefits making music realised quality interpersonal interactions participants facilitating musical activities crucial quality teaching extent individuals successful whether overall positive experience contribute whether positive outcomes musical experience negative respect possible positive effects marginal nonexistent way music used covid pandemic illustrates clearly important peoples lives extent support wellbeing myriad ways stressful situations ongoing technological advances continue make listening making music accessible greater number people providing opportunities promoting wellbeing music physical mental health increasing evidence suggesting mindbody interactions play important role good physical health psychological factors play causal role onset course speed recovery many illnesses nonmedical interventions sometimes effective medical ones pelletier emotions impact health play role clinical outcomes yael et al may also indirectly influence healthrelated behaviours diefenbach et al trudelfitzgerald colleagues suggest psychological wellbeing associated lower disease mortality risk dir\u017eyt\u0117 perminas studied healthy unhealthy lithuanian adults showed physically healthy significantly higher scores measures wellbeing unequivocally demonstrate causality although overall strong evidence positive emotions associated better health health behaviours role stress ill health increasingly acknowledged evolutionary perspective capacity respond environmental threats important survival mammals responses threats include changes delivery oxygen glucose heart large skeletal muscles providing physiological support fight flight carries risk injury subsequent infection immune system responses may also included adaptive responses help prevent infections taking hold threats rare modern world human physiological system continues respond way threats require physical action instance work pressures still physical consequences including changes immune system segerstrom miller himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music reviewed hundreds studies demonstrated psychological challenges could modify immune responses found acute stressors lasting minutes associated changes immunity brief naturalistic stressors instance taking examination tended suppress cellular immunity preserving humoral immunity chronic stressors associated suppression cellular humoral immunity picard mcewen proposed chronic psychological stress induces metabolic neuroendocrine mediators cause structural functional changes mitochondria leading mitochondrial allostatic load turn affects brain endocrine immune systems play role psychosomatic processes suggesting shared underlying mechanisms many health problems occur result longterm stress including depression cancer anger cardiovascular disease davidson et al steptoe et al mroczek colleagues diary study men aged years old showed decrease positive emotions response daily stressors increased risk mortality role music psychological physical health many years research focused trying understand extent music impact physical health macdonald et al saw chapter impact music psychological wellbeing subsequently good health largely although exclusively emotions evokes juslin sloboda music stimulates cortical subcortical neural networks brain associated activity autonomic nervous system panksepp bernatzky responses related emotion include changes dopamine serotonin cortisol endorphin oxytocin levels van eck et al affect physical health evidence observational experimental animal studies supports kubzansky physiological effects music include changes heart rate respiration blood pressure skin conductivity skin temperature muscle tension various biochemical responses kreutz lotze finn fancourt review found listening music mainly displayed effects stress responses irrespective musical genre selfselection music duration music physical mental health listening also review chanda levitin showed music improved health wellbeing engagement neurochemical systems reward motivation pleasure stress arousal immunity social affiliation neuroscientific clinical studies music recent past substantially increased understanding music supports therapy music able influence complex neurobiological processes brain play important role therapy lin et al altenm\u00fcller schlaug argue power music support mental physical health lies potential support facilitate neurorehabilitation point music provides emotional sensorimotor cognitive experiences involving listening watching feeling moving coordinating remembering expecting musical elements frequently accompanied strong emotions lead physical reactions instance tears eyes shivers spine large number cortical subcortical regions brain involved musical activities altenm\u00fcller mcpherson tramo primary secondary regions cerebral cortex involved sensory perception including music music also impacts multisensory motor integration frontal parietal temporo occipital brain regions frontal lobe involved controlling attention planning motor preparation integrating auditory motor information imitation empathy multisensory integration regions parietal lobe temporo occipital areas integrate sensory inputs auditory visual somatosensory systems combined sensory impression multisensory brain activation different systems typical engage music listening actively making cerebellum important motor coordination tasks require timing activated processing rhythm keeping time rhythmicallyfor instance tapping time external stimulus addition emotional network brain includes cingulate gyrus older parts brain amygdala hippocampus midbrain crucial way music perceived emotionally subsequently leading motivation engage music seen earlier chapters engaging musical activities changes brain power music contributed demonstrating extent neural plasticity bangert altenmuller hyde et al wan schlaug result plasticity music assist restoring damaged sensorimotor brain networks impact neurohormonal status cognitive emotional processes overall wide range sensorimotor coordination emotional problems improved therapy includes music overall music many functions roles psychological physical applications participating making music help overcome issues relating lung function language mobility fine motor coordination music help decrease anxiety enhance immune system alleviate depression sch\u00e4fer colleagues offer support range clinical problems alzheimers disease autism spectrum yap colleagues review studies impact drumming percussion music promoting personal interpersonal wellbeing found benefits physical psychological social health perceived health benefits identified singing choirs include stress reduction therapeutic benefit relation long standing psychological social problems exercising body physical exertion involved especially lungs disciplining skeletalmuscular system adoption good posture clift although healing powers music acknowledged centuries nd world war american services recognised power music capable helping physical psychological injuries represented major shift relationship music medicine led development modern music therapy rorke since music therapists worked wide range people across lifespan developed many different strategies support health wellbeing seen listening making music engages multisensory motor networks brain inducing change fostering links functions alongside ability music tap human emotion reward systems used facilitate enhance therapeutic approaches support rehabilitation restoration neurological functions neurological disorders altenm\u00fcller schlaug music therapy contributes music physical mental health treatment range longterm psychiatric conditions including anxiety schizophrenia sleep disorders depression dementia boss et al wang agius kamioka colleagues summarised evidence studies including focused mental behavioural disorders diseases nervous respiratory endocrine nutritional metabolic circulatory systems well pregnancy childbirth puerperium stige colleagues focused music helped struggling illness disability social cultural disadvantage injustice clinical studies shown music therapy used treat depression autism schizophrenia dementia well problems agitation anxiety sleeplessness substance misuse also delay age related decline speech perception parberyclark et al non verbal memory executive processes hannapladdy mackay detailed examples music therapy research presented later chapter recently developments become known music medicine music used promote good health support patients particularly reducing anxiety pain performing arts medicine similar focus musicians going hospitals entertain engage patients ages musicmaking promote recovery psychological wellbeing following treatment saw chapter considerable interest way music promote wellbeing everyday life listening actively making music boundaries different areas work become blurred continue change time instance work alzheimer sufferers care homes initiated music therapists effectiveness demonstrated practice spread tended delivered community musicians differ way apply music therapy perhaps including musical composition discussion song lyrics participation joint singing musical games consensus specific approaches effective listening one constant among applications suggests music therapeutic music used range medical contexts le roux et al spintge listening music reduce amount sedative drugs required hospital conrad et al support power music recovery surgery particular reducing need pain medication nelson et al vollert et al cases percent spintge spintge droh particularly case patients select music mitchell mcdonald b music support improvement speech impairment following strokes kaser et al support rehabilitation motor movements range conditions improve quality range speed movement benefits stroke patients s\u00e4rk\u00e4m\u00f6 et al neurodegenerative disorders parkinsons disease dementia spaulding et al verghese et al detailed examples research medical contexts presented later chapter music stress immune system stress major worldwide health issue leading exhaustion burnout anxiety weak immune system possibly organ damage creative arts interventions including based musical activities suggested ways prevent stress improve management review studies creativearts interventions martin colleagues concluded relatively effective reducing stress kreutz colleagues developed psychoneuroendocrine approach explore musical activity related psychological physical health using cortisol levels psychophysiological measure stress listening particular types music shown lead significant reductions cortisol including classical choral kreutz et al meditative m\u00f6ckel folk music fukui yamashita however music effect significant increases cortisol noted listeners exposed technomusic along increased heart rate systolic blood pressure emotional state gerra et al increases cortisol also found listening upbeat pop rock music brownley et al singing participatory musical activities bring positive changes cortisol levels beck colleagues observed decreases cortisol percent average members professional choir rehearsal although percent increase performance experimental study bittman music physical mental health colleagues exposed participants onehour stressinduced protocol followed novel recreational musicmaking programme successfully modulated stress music also effect cortisol levels context tango dancing murcia colleagues observed presence music dance led decreases cortisol levels although impact presence absence dance partner keeler explored neurochemistry social flow group singing four participants vocal jazz ensemble sang together two separate performances one pre composed improvised group singing reduced stress arousal induced social flow conditions research focused impact music immune system making listening music positive impact immune system chida et al wilkinson marmot assess immunity samples secretory immunoglobulin saliva measured used indicator local immune system upper respiratory tract first line defence bacterial viral infections reported increases secretory immunoglobulin suggesting enhanced immune system activity singing beck et al kuhn kreutz et al increases found listening choral music kuhn study exploring active drumming singing compared watching live performance also found pronounced effect immune system actively participating making music contrast mccraty colleagues found listening relaxing music created positive emotional state led increases secretory immunoglobulin concentrations rock newage music effect similarly hirokawa ohira examined impact listening less relaxing music immune functions neuroendocrine responses emotional state eighteen japanese college students carried stressful task findings inconclusive relation impact immune system review studies effects music neurotransmitters hormones cytokines lymphocytes vital signs immunoglobulins well psychological assessments fancourt colleagues indicated pivotal role stress pathways linking music immune responses although range methodological difficulties existing research power music active musicmaking promotion general good health relatively little research focusing general physical health benefits participation musical activities early reviews research adult singers concluded could health wellbeing benefits participating choir clift et al stacey et al although subsequent reviews cautious clift perceived benefits include physical relaxation release physical tension emotional release reduction feelings stress sense happiness positive mood joy elation feeling high sense greater personal emotional physical wellbeing increased sense arousal energy stimulation cognitive capacities attention concentration memory learning increased sense selfconfidence selfesteem sense therapeutic benefit relation longstanding psychological social problems sense exercising systems body physical exertion involved especially lungs sense disciplining skeletomuscular system adoption good posture engaged valued meaningful worthwhile activity gives sense purpose motivation uk hillman surveyed participants participated community singing project since reaching statutory retirement age longterm benefit attributed participation music lack deterioration physical health reagon colleagues reviewed papers studying effect group singing health related quality life patients included suffering chronic respiratory disease neurological conditions mental illhealth findings showed evidence improved quality life music physical mental health participants reported directly enhanced confidence mood levels social support also focusing choral singing wi\u0119ch colleagues assessed nutritional status quality life healthy adults aged years old involved singing significantly lower body weight body mass index comparison control group also significantly lower basal metabolic rate metabolic age reported greater life quality drumming focus research instance smith colleagues examined impact djembe drumming comparison middleaged experienced drummers younger novice group participated minute sessions preceded followed measurements blood pressure blood lactate stress anxiety ongoing measures heart rate drumming decreased stress anxiety age groups blood pressure older participants assessment lactate heart rate suggested drumming considered low moderateintensity exercise one strand research investigated impact creative song writing instance baker macdonald studied students retirees engaged songwriting activities participant created song parody original lyrics original song describing positive negative neutral experience positive outcomes included listening personal creations exploring self relationship therapist way fully immersed altered perception time experience balancing ability effort younger participants likely continue use songs therapeutic benefit role attendance cultural events health wellbeing studied instance poland w\u0119ziakbia\u0142owolska bia\u0142owolski used data biennial longitudinal polish household study represented polish population age found positive association cultural attendance selfreported health although causal link established norway cuypers colleagues examined association cultural activity perceived health anxiety depression satisfaction life adult participants data cultural activities receptive creative perceived health anxiety depression satisfaction life collected findings showed participation receptive creative cultural activities significantly power music associated good health life satisfaction low anxiety depression men attending receptive rather creative cultural activities strongly associated healthrelated outcomes similarly uk fancourt steptoe compared data adults aged years olddrawn english longitudinal study aging modelling change tenyear periodin relation membership different community groups controlling potential confounding variables membership two types community groups associated enhanced wellbeing attending education arts music classes church religious group membership music health older generation general health benefits participating making music older people including lower mortality rates johansson et al musicmaking contributes perceived good health quality life mental wellbeing coffman adamek kahn wise et al playing piano exercises heart much brisk walk parr although studies impact lung function mixed outcomes clift usa cohen colleagues carried studies participants average age participated singing workshops ten performances oneyear period choir group reported higher overall rating physical health fewer visits doctor less medication use fewer falls fewer health problems comparison control group carried usual activities participate choir evidence higher morale reduction loneliness increased activity comparison group experienced significant decline activities cohen colleagues argued sense control well social engagement likely mechanisms responsible positive outcomes coulton colleagues studied value community singing mentalhealthrelated quality life older people participants five centres uk group singing compared usual activities aged years significant differences observed mentalhealthrelated quality life anxiety depression favour group singing similarly music physical mental health zanini leao studied therapeutic choir elderly found singing provided means selfexpression fulfilment instilled selfconfidence participants expectations future depression older adults increased recently continue rise number proportion older adults population rises worldwide dunphy colleagues carried review art dance movement drama music could help alleviate depression elderly established common mechanisms change included physical changes muscle strength neurochemical effects endorphin release intrapersonal change enhanced selfconcept sense agency mastery improved processing communication emotions provision opportunities creative expression aesthetic pleasure cognitive stimulation including memory social benefits increased social skills connection considered contribute reduction depression alzheimers patients benefit engagement music encourages reminiscence improves moods behaviour although longterm impact underlying cognitive deterioration creech et al despite activities preserved relatively resistant decline one activity engagement music sacks baird thompson point musical skills preserved people alzheimers dementia including memory familiar music ability produce music singing playing instrument studied yearold woman severe alzheimers disease husbands use music care behaviour verbal communication observed read newspaper article familiar song lyrics sang familiar song lyrics listened original version familiar song time gradual power music deterioration expressive language abilities whereas musical skills comparatively preserved residents care homes care homes support people range difficulties cannot live independently increase older population many care homes cater need support may need additional care following stroke serious illness many residents homes dementia group symptoms typically includes problems memory thinking problemsolving language perception dementia number different causes including alzheimers disease vascular dementia dementia lewy body anyone dementia whatever underpinnings benefit engaging music encourages reminiscence improve moods behaviour much research impact music relation dementia occurred residential care nursing homes elliott gardner active participation making music found broadly positive effects instance biasutti mangiacotti compared outcomes older people mild moderate cognitive impairment either assigned group receiving cognitive music training twiceweekly minute music sessions acted control group attended similar number gymnastic sessions neuropsychological test battery administered beginning end treatment showed significant improvement music group relation general mental state verbal fluency clockdrawing test control group showed significant improvements later study biasutti mangiacotti studied effectiveness musical improvisation depressed mood general cognitive function elderly care residents findings revealed significant improvement cognition reduction depression cognition music group control group showed change relation depression deterioration cognition also focusing depression werner colleagues examined effect interactive group music therapy opposed recreational group singing symptoms elderly nursinghome residents total participants two german nursing music physical mental health homes allocated interactive group music therapy sessions minutes twice week recreational group singing ten occasions minutes weekly levels depressive symptoms assessed baseline followup sixth twelfth weeks level depressive symptoms improved significantly assigned music therapy recreational singing australia brancatisano colleagues reported outcomes music mind movement programme people eighties mild moderate dementia programme involved seven minute weekly group sessions individual minute booster sessions assessments global cognition mood identity fine motor skills conducted start programme immediately following intervention one month close majority participants programme showed improvement overall cognition attention verbal fluency majority control group showed decline h\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen colleagues focused impact yoik traditional vocal music indigenous sami people fennoscandia elderly dementia residents care home indepth interviews close relatives participants healthcare professionals revealed observed positive effects yoik introduced even persons unfamiliar genre improvements memory orientation depression anxiety mild moderate cases alzheimers disease hallucinations agitation irritability language disorders moderate alzheimers disease found patients six weeks music therapy effect cognitive aspects notable four music therapy sessions gallego garc\u00eda focusing agitation anxiety older people dementia cooke colleagues investigated impact participation minute group musicmaking programme involving facilitated engagement singing songs listening three times week eight weeks fortyseven participants mild moderate dementia two care facilities australia participated subanalysis participants attended less half music sessions found significant increase frequency verbal aggression time participation music programme significantly reduce agitation anxiety although music reading group activities gave power music participants voice increased level verbalisation also focusing agitation anxiety sung colleagues set group music intervention using percussion instruments familiar music reduce anxiety agitation institutionalised older adults dementia experimental group received minute music intervention using percussion instruments familiar music group setting twice weekly six weeks comparison normalcare control group music group significantly lower levels anxiety following intervention although difference groups reduction agitation aiming reduce agitation vink colleagues undertook study residents dementia allocated either music therapy recreational activities twice weekly four months data residents showed decrease agitated behaviours one hour four hours session decrease greater music therapy group disappeared completely adjustment general level deterioration reported benefits castillejos godoyizquierdo explored outcomes music intervention integrated therapeutic activities institutionalised elderly people fifty residents care home studied baseline postintervention two weeks music intervention positive impact physical health cognitive functioning emotional wellbeing pain happiness compared stability controls although benefits decreased progressively discontinuation music programme similarly paolantonio colleagues examined effects group musicmaking health wellbeing nursinghome residents aged years age switzerland professional student musicians delivered ten weekly music sessions four nursing homes focusing singing rhythmbased activities percussion instruments listening short live performances involved musical activities offered engagement novelty providing learning opportunities facilitating interpersonal relationships residents particularly appreciated opportunity listen live performances mcdermott colleagues undertook qualitative study explore carehome residents dementia families day hospital clients dementia carehome staff music therapists music physical mental health perceived role music therapy music viewed accessible people stages dementia perceived close links music personal identity life events music seen useful building relationships effects music viewed going beyond reduction behavioural psychological symptoms part individual preferences music preserved spite dementia helped others value dementia sufferer person support maintain quality life case study giovagnoli colleagues described effects active music therapy cognition behaviour one individual chronic vascular encephalopathy suffered memory attention verbal fluency deficits fourmonth programme sessions implemented based creative interactive music making addition pharmacological therapy baseline patient reported tendency feel tense nervous angry difficulties memory visuospatial performance frequently accompanied loss attention following music therapy improvements attention visuomotor coordination verbal spatial memory increase interpersonal interactions reduction anxiety acute hospital setting cheong et al evaluated impact creative music therapy programme mood engagement older patients delirium dementia twentyfive patients approximately years age observed music therapy included improvisation playing songs patients choice significant positive change patients relation constructive passive engagement pleasure general alertness also focusing hospital stays people dementia daykin colleagues examined effects ten weeks music sessions patients wellbeing environment acute elderly care service uk hospital observational data semistructured interviews focus groups patients visitors musicians staff showed patients generally enjoyed activity reduction prescription antipsychotic drugs enhanced patient staff experiences improvement care feeding difficulties problem dementia progresses resulting malnutrition turn compromise physical cognitive functioning fifteen power music participants care facility malnourished start participated music sessions lasting minutes lunch songs likely known residents unfortunately many confounding variables conclusions drawn mchugh et al research attempted identify effective type music instance lem studied levels engagement music people dementia participated weekly music therapy sessions found engagement increased midway programme intuitive approach adopted challenging musical experiences less structure evaluation intervention based group singing activitiesdeveloped alzheimers society people dementia carersshowed social inclusiveness improvements relationships memory mood particularly important participants enjoyed sessions found helped accepting coping dementia osman colleagues pavlicevic colleagues explored music therapists strategies creating musical communities dementia care settings six experienced music therapists identified ripple effect music persontoperson musicmaking continued beyond session time within care home beyond ongoing qualitative research skinner colleagues examining potential dance improve social inclusion people living dementia care facilities programmes focused training carehome staff deliver music sessions instance tapson colleagues evaluated intervention comprising session interactive weekly music programme five care homes uk included training staff programme focused singing use voice led pairs trained professional musicians minutes week programme provided positive social experiences creative engagement fun sense achievement enhanced working living environment carehome residents staff playing crucial role developing sense identity empowerment residents facilitated musicians care teams working together role delivering programmes cannot overestimated tuckett colleagues evaluating effectiveness music physical mental health group music therapy intervention concluded impact mediated older persons dementia state psychosomatic effect participants nature session therapy evoked memories facilitated reminiscence acted diversion independent effects music therapist could determined research focused active engagement making music concentrated impact listening music instance costa colleagues assessed effect listening preferred music pain depression anxiety older carehome residents one hundred thirteen participants either continued usual routine listened daily minute programme preferred music threeweek period levels pain depression anxiety assessed showed decreases although less pain regarded music important listened whose preferences accommodated benefited similar study costa colleagues b studied effects listening preferred music participants nine care homes addition usual routine participant listened daily minute programme preferred music three weeks findings showed listening preferred music resulted relaxation positive reminiscence reduced depression boredom range physical reactions including chills tears emotional arousal reactions foottapping beneficial disabled participants use preferred favourite music principal factor interventions effectiveness interventions combined active musicmaking listening activities instance s\u00e4rk\u00e4m\u00f6 colleagues determined efficacy novel music intervention based coaching caregivers patients dementia use either singing music listening regularly part everyday care eightynine patient caregiver dyads randomised tenweek singing coaching group tenweek musiclistening coaching group usualcare control group coaching sessions consisted mainly singing listening familiar songs vocal exercises rhythmic movements singing group reminiscence discussions music listening group intervention also included regular musical exercises power music home findings showed compared usual care singing music listening improved mood orientation remote episodic memory lesser extent attention executive function general cognition singing also enhanced shortterm working memory caregiver wellbeing whereas musiclistening positive effect quality life s\u00e4rk\u00e4m\u00f6 colleagues concluded regular musical leisure activities could longterm cognitive emotional social benefits mild moderate dementia although music considered leisure activity enjoyed sake evidence highlights benefits prescribed therapy personalised meet needs skill level individual genoe dupuis menne colleagues also point designing interventions people dementia important ensure enjoy activities live music performances shown positive effect human contact care relationships positive emotions negative emotions people dementia nursing homes van der vleuten et al shibazaki marshall explored effects live music concerts dementia sufferers families nursing staff caregivers interviews researcher attendance concerts care facilities showed concerts beneficial patients staff even attend concerts mild mid stage dementia showed increased levels cooperation interaction conversation advanced forms exhibited decreased levels agitation antisocial behaviour staff members reported increased cooperation opportunities assessment family members noted increase levels wellbeing concerts revealed knowledge music rules well musical preferences remained cognitive skills abilities disappeared de wit also explored impact live musicmaking hospital nurses nursinghome caregivers working vulnerable elderly patients healthcare professionals collaborated musicians connect residents taking time become engaged musical situations enabled new understandings develop supporting delivery personcentred care music physical mental health music dementia care home research relating music dementia undertaken residential nursing hospital settings despite estimates uk two thirds living dementia continue live homes wittenberg et al practice known ageing place wiles et al alzheimers related dementias live home unique advantages terms familiar place people close carers cared risk depression isolation decreased contact peers networks normally help maintain social intellectual physical sensory spiritual needs memory declines person dementia loses life skills sense self caregiver increasingly burdened physically emotionally services developing support ageing place dawson et al instance budi orchestra created musicbased initiative people dementia family carers living community initiative comprised ten weekly sessions facilitated professional musicians supported university students end programme participants showcased achievements public performance range positive outcomes including enjoyment participants sense social inclusion musicians participants alike dementia sufferers increased engagement sense achievement confidence enhanced mood carers reported improved mood feelings relaxation improvements relationships caredfor musicians preconceptions musical learning challenged learnt facilitating sessions addition performance positively impacted audience members perceptions dementia findings challenged assumptions capacity people dementia learn new skills play instruments highlighted power performance challenge negative perceptions dementia budi orchestra similarly lee colleagues explored communitybased group singing intervention impacted wellbeing people early stage dementia family carers participants engaged six week group singing intervention facilitated music therapist community arts centre semistructured interviews revealed enhanced power music social connection happiness rejuvenation reconnection self support relationship carer caredfor overall communitybased music therapy effective supporting carers care rio prattini examined musics effects levels agitation people alzheimers disease dementias research focused living home cared informal caregiver participants either participated active musicmaking listened music active participation impact agitation smith colleagues arranged ten musicmaking sessions communitydwelling people living dementia care partners month period seven months eighteen participants consented take part including seven people living dementia five care partners six former care partners baseline semistructured interviews explored lived experience music expectations upcoming musicmaking caf\u00e9s self report questionnaires captured experiences musicmaking caf\u00e9 followup semistructured interviews explored impact musicmaking participants selfreported wellbeing findings demonstrated participating musicmaking cafe benefited wellbeing participants providing sense camaraderie facilitated connections others creating opportunities level playing field drawing persons strengths abilities providing meaningful musical experiences participating music making promoted wellbeing communitydwelling people living dementia care partners offering opportunities peer support reduction feelings isolation shared love music well providing meaningful musical experiences supportive enabling environment homebased programme participants major minor depressive disorder learned use music reduce stress either received weekly home visit music therapist participated selfadministered programme applied techniques moderate therapist intervention received weekly telephone call part waitlist control group participants music conditions performed significantly better controls standardised tests depression distress selfesteem mood music physical mental health improvements maintained nine months end project hanser thompson communitybased arts programme canada moody phinney found participating older adults experienced enhanced capacity connect community stronger sense community collaboration group worked together project towards final demonstration larger community reviews relationship music therapy dementia little agreement reviews literature pertaining role music therapy older generation effectiveness reviews drawn relatively positive conclusions although sometimes caveats instance abraha colleagues provided overview non pharmacological interventions behavioural psychological symptoms dementia including music therapy concluded overall music therapy behavioural management techniques effective reducing behavioural psychological symptoms dementia zeilig colleagues also reviewed range interventions reported music could generate feelings peace patients dementia range arts projects identified promoting social engagement difficult establish effects related role arts specifically could attained form social engagement although emphasis arts creation play may supported patients dementia may emphasis arts emotion istvandity reviewed intervention studies utilised music reminiscence activities elderly adult populations found positive effects four five studies zhao colleagues metaanalysis articles suggested music therapy plus standard treatment reduced depressive symptoms extent dowlen colleagues review studies identified benefits terms taking part connected affirming identity immersion moment zhang colleagues review studies participantsshowed disease subtype intervention method nature control comparison power music group participant location trial design trial period outcome measure instruments made little difference outcomes overall positive evidence support use music therapy treat disruptive behaviour anxiety positive trends supporting use music therapy treatment cognitive function depression quality life raglio colleagues reviewing clinically controlled trials focusing use music music therapy context dementia found limitations findings consistent showing efficacy music therapy impacting positively behavioural psychological symptoms dementia however ability music therapist directly interact participants appeared crucial success difference found cognitive function dementia sufferers receiving interactive receptive music therapy usual care one review trials involving participants aged years old receiving receptive therapy showed significant decrease agitation behavioural problems although significant difference engaged interactive music therapy usual care relation behavioural psychiatric problems tsoi et al mcdermott colleagues found consistent improvement behavioural disturbance short term review studies adopting diverse range active musicmaking activities singing often used medium change however review find highquality longitudinal studies demonstrated longterm benefits focusing impact music therapy anxiety review studies severity dementia varied mild severe ingrandolph colleagues found variation nature interventions group sizes findings seemed promising small number studies variability methods made impossible draw firm conclusions also taking account variations quality research reported van der steen colleagues reviewed studies dementia patients nursing homes hospitals concluded people dementia institutional care participating least five sessions musicbased therapeutic intervention probably experienced reduced depression anxiety improved overall behaviour possible enhanced emotional wellbeing quality life although impact agitation music physical mental health aggression cognition effect social behaviour long term impact interventions unclear scoping review elliott gardner summarised known role impact music lives communitydwelling older adults dementia reported music could reduce agitation improve cognition enhance social wellbeing bamford bowell also concluded music could promote range benefits people dementia used appropriately meaningful way contrast vink colleagues reviewed ten music therapy interventions designed treat behavioural social cognitive emotional problems older people dementia criticised methodological quality research reported possible draw firm conclusions later review vink hanser reported descriptions music therapy interventions lacked sufficient detail enable researchers compare replicate studies clinicians apply techniques definitions music therapy musicbased interventions inconsistent practitioners varied extent professional training preparation implementing music based clinical strategies fusarpoli colleagues carried metaanalysis six studies including participants age range years old found significant effects music therapy outcomes similarly huichi colleagues conducted review music therapy interventions older people nursing homes hospitals communities indicated shortterm music therapy improve cognitive function older people considering role arts relation dementia broadly schneider colleagues included relevant studies concluded insufficient evidence demonstrating causality draw firm conclusions music public health music prescription music used communicate public health messages instance cournoyer lemaire report quebec government promoted adherence covid measures use music taking advantage capacity reach large population capture power music populations attention quickly regardless age language cultural barriers effectively communicate messages thus change behaviour clift camic provided evidence base supporting role creative arts public health bringing together contributions practitioners researchers provide comprehensive account field approaches successfully led improvements showed several countries moved towards offering range arts interventions prescription similarly jensen colleagues reviewed current practice relating arts culture prescription sweden norway denmark uk considering evidence supporting social prescription potential barriers implementation later article jensen bonde illustrated variety multitude studies showing participation arts activities could beneficial mental physical health problems demonstrating possible impact reducing physical symptoms improving mental health research focused showing arts prescription effective instance battrawden tellnes explored role significance making music lives men women longterm illnesses different life phases facing different challenges longitudinal study included eight interviews participants aged found music could promote movement release anger aggression transcend pain personal listening preferences important crone colleagues presented findings longitudinal followup study artsonreferral programme uk general practice sevenyear period including patients referred eight ten week intervention referrals half completed course prescribed art attended percent observed engaged intervention significant increase wellbeing observed pre postintervention engaged completed programme multiple health issues main group completed programme rated engaged showed significant increase wellbeing poulos colleagues targeted communitydwelling older people wide range health wellness needs referred programme healthcare practitioner courses led professional artists music physical mental health range artistic activities included dance singing music classes held weekly eight ten weeks six eight participants group culminating showing work performance data participants aged years old showed arts prescription positive impact wellbeing selfreported creativity frequency undertaking creative activities activities offer challenging created sense purpose direction enabled personal growth achievement empowered participants environment fostered development meaningful relationships others similarly murabayashi colleagues studied frail elderly individuals aged years age divided two groups music therapy group participated group sessions minutes conducted music therapist weeks control group waited weeks participation cognitive physical psychophysical functions assessed improvements observed physical function depressive mood quality life overall evidence art interventions effective promotion wellbeing whether individuals choose participate referred social prescribing bungay clift jones et al engaging arts reduce loneliness social isolation poscia et al particularly living rural disadvantaged areas macleod et al murrock graor pearce lillyman role community music creative workshops developed countries high levels mental physical illness associated longterm health conditions unhealthy lifestyles ageing population community music activities address issues jones et al increasing numbers mental health organisations developing musicmaking interventions patients demonstrate whether programmes could effective fancourt colleagues studied tenweek group drumming programme found significant decreases depression increases social resilience anxiety wellbeing changes maintained three power music months later participants also provided saliva samples test immune responses showed underlying biological effects supporting programmes potential enhancing mental health similarly ascenso colleagues studied participants engaged community drumming programme range benefits patients carers including enhanced emotions initiative sense control accomplishment redefinition self social wellbeing perkins colleagues researched group djembe drumming found drumming important form nonverbal communication providing connection life rhythm generating liberating energy group setting facilitated feelings acceptance safety care enabled new social interactions inclusivity musical freedom acceptance making mistakes supported music facilitator important learning solli colleagues review explored service users experiences music therapy development recoveryoriented provision key factors good time together exploring feelings selfconcept music therapy supported development strengths resources contributed growth positive identity hope stickley colleagues established range arts activities could support recovery enhancing connectedness improving hope van lith colleagues review concluded arts could play substantial role mental health recovery stevens colleagues reported significant increases self reported mental wellbeing social inclusion ongoing use skills learned participants depending incourse experience artistic growth communitybased creative workshops supported experiencing severe persistent mental illness workshops typically aim build skills capacities participants providing alternative ways communicate identity recovery stories visual arts writing dance music facilitated practising artists participants typically enjoy workshops involved creative activities others improves confidence understanding illness stewart et al slatterly et al bolger investigated process collaboration music therapist community participants three music projects music physical mental health australia projects undertaken three separate communities supported groups marginalised young people findings provided understanding conditions required optimise potential positive growth collaborators participatory music projects macglone colleagues investigated community music intervention population varied disabilitiesphysical learning bothwho took part weekly music workshops although findings showed improvements individuals selfexpression confidence mood social skills differences outcomes different centres participants one centre improved musical skills another participated enthusiasm others chose art activities music another lasting positive impact despite groups showed improvement communication interaction others joint attention music brain plasticity movement motor skills tend deteriorate age activities support lifelong neuroplasticity making music counteract processes allow reacquisition motor cognitive skills elderly following braintissue damage instance stroke playing keyboard improve fine motor functions neurophysiological changes audiomotor networks rhythmic cueing positive effect gait disorders improving stride length speed overall mobility melodic intonation therapy improve recovery nonfluent aphasia activation right hemisphere networks importantly rewarding effects musicmaking listening provoke neurochemical effects combination musicinduced brain plasticity facilitate neurorehabilitation altenm\u00fcller james much research mobility focused rhythm clinical evidence shown use external rhythmic auditory cueing aid rehabilitation motor movements gait patients parkinsons disease traumatic brain injury spinal cord injury huntingtons disease thaut et al neurological music therapy techniques promote sensorimotor rehabilitation mainka et al music support improvement movement range conditions improving individuals quality power music range speed movement acute medical settings neurological rehabilitation music facilitate target specific therapeutic goals making music beneficial partial paralysis following stroke lagasse thaut motivational aspects music may account gains made evidence increased activation motor cortex improved cortical connectivity altenmuller et al s\u00e4rk\u00e4m\u00f6 colleagues carried voxelbased morphometry analysis acute sixmonth post stroke patients structural magnetic resonance imaging data patients listened either favourite music verbal material listening material sixmonth recovery period showed listening music enhanced behavioural recovery also induced finegrained neuroanatomical changes recovering brain also working stroke patients schneider colleagues evaluated musicsupported training programme designed induce auditory sensorimotor corepresentation movements patients without previous musical experience participated intensive stepbystep training first paretic extremity followed training extremities training given times three weeks addition conventional treatment fine well gross motor skills addressed using either midi piano electronic drum pads pre posttreatment motor functions monitored using computerised movement analysis system established motor tests patients showed significant improvement treatment respect speed precision smoothness movement motor control everyday activities similarly villeneuve colleagues engaged stroke patients three weeks piano training comprising nine minute supervised sessions home practice fine gross manual dexterity movement coordination functional use upper extremity assessed pre postintervention threeweek followup significant improvements observed outcomes particularly higher initial level motor recovery beginning intervention also working stroke patients s\u00e4rk\u00e4m\u00f6 colleagues studied patients acute recovery phase either assigned music language control group following two months music language groups listened daily selfselected music audiobooks respectively control group received listening material patients music physical mental health received standard medical care rehabilitation findings showed recovery domains verbal memory focused attention improved significantly music group groups music group also experienced less depressed confused mood working patients parkinsons disease pantelyat colleagues assessed feasibility effects twiceweekly group west african drumcircle classes six weeks compared controls drumming group showed significantly improved walking performance quality life studying patients cerebral palsy ghai colleagues reviewed records effects rhythmic auditory cueing spatiotemporal kinematic parameters gait people cerebral palsy concluded converging evidence towards application rhythmic auditory cueing enhance gait performance stability alves pinto colleagues also reviewed evidence supporting use musicalinstrumentplaying rehabilitation cerebral palsy proposed active musicalinstrumentplaying could efficient way triggering neuroplastic processes necessary development sensorimotor skills patients early brain damage later study alvespinto colleagues studied adolescents adult patients cerebral palsy well group typically developing children learned play piano four consecutive weeks completing total eight hours training ten participants learning supported special technical system aimed helping people sensorimotor deficits better discriminate fingers orient along piano keyboard potential effects piano training assessed tests fingertapping piano perception vibratory stimulation fingers well neuronal correlates motor learning absence piano training although findings highly variable significant effects training ability perceive localisation vibrations fingers effect training performance simple fingertapping sequences piano motorassociated brain responses work focused children instance marradescaballero colleagues studied children years age severe bilateral cerebral palsy received music therapy power music weeks significant improvements observed overall specific arm hand position well activities standard locomotor stages improvements persisted fourmonth followup also working children peng colleagues explored effects patterned sensory enhancement music muscle power movement control children spastic diplegia loaded sitto stands twentythree children spastic diplegia aged five twelve years old participated individual patterned sensoryenhanced music composed music therapist based participants sitto stand movement percent one repetition maximum load participant performed sittostands continuously eight repetitions randomly assigned music music conditions kinematic kinetic data measured simultaneously music condition music played first five repetitions following three repetitions referred continuation condition compared control condition greater peak knee extensor power greater total extensor power better centre mass smoothness less movement time found music condition significant effects music also found continuation condition auditory stimulation shown improve upperextremity skills benpazi colleagues studied nine matched pairs children aged years old children listened auditory stimulation embedded music music alone least ten minutes four times week four weeks children auditory stimulation achieved goals children listened music alone parents reported improved care comfort children intervention group compared slight deterioration control group bringas colleagues tested effectiveness music therapy intervention children severe neurological disorders control group received standard neurorestoration programme experimental group received additional music therapy auditory attention plus communication protocol immediately usual occupational speech therapy overall findings showed improved attention communication well changes brain plasticity children severe neurological impairments experienced adjunct music therapy music physical mental health another strand research focused individuals huntingdons disease neurodegenerative condition leads progressive loss motor cognitive functions metzlerbaddley colleagues devised intervention involving drumming rhythm exercises target early executive problems difficulties sequence reversal learning response speed timing dual tasking five people completed twomonth music intervention effects rhythm exercises executive function basal ganglia volume whitematter microstructure anterior corpus callosum anterior thalamic radiation corticospinal tract assessed two months training improvements executive function whitematter microstructure notably genus corpus callosum connects prefrontal cortices hemispheres changes basal ganglia volume research focused whether music therapy support suffering multiple sclerosis aldridge colleagues aimed see components multiple sclerosis would respond music therapy twenty adult multiple sclerosis patients participated half receiving music therapy course one year measurements taken therapy began subsequently every three months sixmonth followup without music therapy tests included indicators clinical depression anxiety selfacceptance scale lifequality assessment data also collected cognitive functional measures significant improvements found therapy group time relation selfesteem depression anxiety worsened therapy stopped breathing several studies investigated whether singing beneficial effect aspects breathing overall findings mixed clift instance schorrlesnick colleagues compared singers instrumentalists reported difference participants aged choir string percussion wind ensembles pulmonary function studies patients chronic pulmonary disease also mixed results research singing showing improvements compared controls bonilha et al power music shown limited impact lord et al despite participating singing activities frequently report singing exercised body systems physical exertion involved especially lungs clift et al stacey et al skingley colleagues established views participants chronic obstructive pulmonary disease took part tenmonth singing better breathing programme findings showed participants learned breath control relaxation exercises breathing using singing means deflect attention away breathing problems programme led increased activity levels seen fun provided friendship increased motivation participate activities offered support highlight week majority participants reported improvements respiratory symptoms mental social wellbeing speech impairment music play therapeutic role supporting improvement speech impairments rhythmic cueing used reduce speech rate increase speech intelligibility patients severe dysarthria problems muscles support speech due traumatic brain injury instance result stroke pilon et al similar results found increasing intelligibility speech patients parkinsons disease thaut et al hays minichiello found music provided means communication spouses friends others languagebased communication restricted due parkinsons disease dementia illnesses affecting verbal communication matthews compared two groups people parkinsons disease participated voice choral singing music appreciation activity groups attended week nine weeks significant improvement choir voice volume quality maximum sustained phonation time functional symptom severity end intervention significant group differences observed average maximum voice volume voice quality glottal function attendance groups percent suggesting groups found nature format activities enjoyable worthwhile quinn colleagues music physical mental health worked postverbal people strokes learning difficulties acquired brain injury dementia autism findings showed postverbal people could use music communicate demonstrate capacities working used music foster sense inclusion belonging surgical removal larynx ie voice box profound psychosocial impact often leading depression social isolation laryngectomy breathing voicing articulation tongue movement important restoring communication require exercises challenging motivationally moors colleagues explored use basic beatboxing techniques create wide variety fun interactive exercises maximised use structures important alaryngeal phonation maintain motivation instructional online video created support patients working support speech therapists patients approach engaging useful informative motivating odonoghue colleagues studied whether music therapyincluding songwriting improvisation singingcould help adolescents stuttered findings revealed participants experiences living stuttering importance music everyday lives music could help music hospital settings music hospitalised babies infants children babies born premature underweight benefit stimulation music neonatal intensive care units music enhance heart rate respiration oxygen saturation mean arterial pressure sucking feeding ability behavioural state also linked overall reductions length stay intensive care caine cassidy standley keith et al standley music significantly reduce frequency duration episodes inconsolable crying keith et al loewy longer term benefits reducing reactions fear anger months lejeune et al research found reductions number negative critical events filippa et al regulation power music salivary cortisol levels shenfield et al metaanalysis studies involving infants parents bieleninik colleagues found significant large effects indicating positive effects music therapy infant respiratory rate maternal anxiety insufficient evidence confirm refute effects walworth examined effect music therapy premature fullterm infants developmental responses responsiveness parents sixtyfive parent infant dyads either attended music groups control group infants participating musical activities parents demonstrated significantly social toyplay control group music therapy hospitalised infants shown positive effects infants capacity selfregulate engage social interaction adults compared controls malloch et al music effective promoting wellbeing young patients enhancing relaxation providing distraction helping cope hospital experiences cases musicmaking reduce remove need sedation listening music increase oxygenation levels blood longterm paediatric patients positive psychological impact chronically ill longhi pickett patients react better music therapy therapies hendon bohon longhi pickett longhi et al perhaps frequently perceived fun ocallaghan et al music used paediatric settings enhance wellbeing young patients klassen et al preti preti mcferran help children young people relax daveson longhi pickett malone used distraction caprilli et al hendon bohon help children young people talk hospital experiences develop coping strategies brodsky froehlich robb familiar music reduce anxiety associated hospital environment preti welch reduce childrens stress painful procedures caprilli et al klassen et al nguyen et al vohra nilsson whiteheadpleaux et al cases musicmaking reduce remove need sedation deloach walworth recent review research participants aged years old johnson colleagues showed consistent significant evidence music could reduce anxiety medical procedures although findings relating pain music physical mental health vital signs mixed several studies highlighted importance patient preference selecting music achieved easily use headphones group musicmaking also benefit teenagers hospital bittman et al burns et al nicholson et al nguyen colleagues studied whether music interventions could influence pain anxiety children undergoing lumbar punctures forty children aged seven twelve years age leukaemia participated half experiencing music intervention half acting controls measures taken procedure findings showed lower anxiety pain scores heart respiratory rate music group procedure similarly giordano colleagues found music therapy reduced preoperative anxiety children affected leukaemia undergoing invasive diagnostic procedures barrera colleagues studied impact music therapy paediatric haematology oncology patients data children parents showed significant improvement childrens emotions wellbeing parents perceived improved play performance preschoolers adolescents schoolaged children review music therapy studies participants facchini ruini noted significant reduction psychological distress increase wellbeing eight articles evaluated effects pain biological parameters findings inconclusive patients undergoing haematopoietic stem cell transplants risk developing post traumatic stress disorder ptsd may explain extent music therapy research area instance uggla colleagues examined effect expressive receptive music therapy delivered twice weekly patients age undergoing haematopoietic stem cell transplants music therapy significantly reduced evening heart rate compared controls indicating reduced stress although significant differences saturation blood pressure groups later study uggla et al patients aged years age studied received music therapy twice week four six weeks hospitalisation experiencing music therapy higher estimated physical function time discharge improved quality life power music study uggla colleagues explored six families experiences music therapy found became significant helpful experience important element coping managing treatment uggla bond studied patients aged two months years old receiving haematopoietic stem cell transplantation participated expressive receptive music therapy sessions took place childs hospital room child invited play different musical instruments sing listen music music therapist parents siblings could also participate increasing physical functioning reported children discharge overall increased quality life six month followup suggested music therapy intervention effective similarly robb colleagues examined efficacy therapeutic music video intervention adolescents young adults acute phase haematopoietic stem cell transplant participants allocated video intervention audiobook group six sessions threeweek period intervention music video group reported significantly better social integration family environment haase colleagues also reported adolescents young adults experiences therapeutic music video intervention hospitalisation haematopoietic stem cell transplants fourteen participants interviewed revealed video provided opportunity reflection selfexpression meaningmaking helped tell story overcome negative aspects cancer supported participants overcoming distress challenges providing opportunities reflect meaningful connect others explore identify personal strengths research focused effect listening music recovery period following range surgery preethy gurunathan studied effects vital signs behaviour children showed listening music demonstrated positive behaviour significantly lower pulse rate diastolic systolic blood pressure significantly higher oxygen saturation focusing burn injuries eid colleagues evaluated effect physical therapy rehabilitation programme combined music therapy children lower limb burns compared controls groups music physical mental health improved music therapy group showed greater improvement terms pain range motion gait parameters benefits music therapy families children hospital preti mcferran parents value able participate musical activities child music open communication family members lindenfelser et al addition supporting children stressful procedures parents indirectly supported music creating relaxed environment preti welch music also contribute overall hospital environment modulating patient staff mood rossetti music therapy cancer increasing number music interventions focused supporting cancer instance boldt assessed effects music therapy bonemarrow transplant patients needed exercise prevent muscle atrophy although difficult due treatment effects longterm findings indicated music effective increasing participants selfreported relaxation comfort endurance increased cooperative behaviour participation levels robb colleagues examined impact music therapy anxiety depression following bonemarrow transplants three patients experienced music therapy one hour week six weeks three analysis content patientgenerated songs revealed hope positive coping control appreciation findings provided insight individualised experience patient coping strategies focusing chinese female patients breast cancer zhou colleagues examined effects music therapy progressive muscle relaxation depression anxiety length hospital stay following radical mastectomy group patients either received music therapy muscle relaxation training acted controls received nursing care minute intervention implemented twice day within hours surgery participating showed significant improvement depression anxiety spent less time hospital single session patientpreferred live music shown power music significantly positive impact pain following surgery patients postsurgical oncology ward merry silverman fancourt colleagues carried multicentre study assess impact singing mood stress immune response three groups affected cancer carers bereaved carers patients participants sang regularly five choirs across south wales singing mood stress assessed saliva samples taken test cortisol beta endorphin oxytocin cytokines participants associated singing reductions negative affect increases positive affect alongside significant increases cytokines singing associated reductions cortisol beta endorphin oxytocin levels overall improved mood modulated elements immune system k\u00f6hler colleagues synthesised evidence effectiveness music therapy different oncological treatment phases adult cancer patients narrative synthesis included studies showed overall music therapy positive effects broad range outcomes techniques effects varying different phases curative treatment results promising regard anxiety depression pain medication intake palliative settings improvements regard quality life spiritual wellbeing pain stress reported twentyone studies included metaanalysis showed small significant effects music therapy psychological wellbeing physical symptom distress quality life contrast daykin colleagues drew attention challenges complexity using music cancer patients wide variation responses suggested identity creativity key understanding impact music interventions music surgery music used range ways support people surgery exposure music shown reduce cortisol levels medical treatment le roux et al instance preoperative settings hospitals patients often experiencing pain anxiety distress even aggressive non compliance metaanalytic analyses demonstrated music music physical mental health help reduce anxiety spintge conrad colleagues played critically ill patients slow movements mozarts piano sonatas found use music significantly reduced amount sedative drugs needed achieve degree sedation comparable controls received standard treatment music group plasma concentrations growth hormone increased whereas concentrations interleukin component immune system adrenaline decreased significantly lower levels blood pressure heart rate also indicated reductions stress overall calming music activated neurohumoral pathways associated psychophysiological sedation sweden nilsson found patients undergone heart surgery allocated following day minutes uninterrupted bed rest music followed minutes bed restor alternatively minutes uninterrupted bed rest showed difference cortisol levels initial minutes minutes music presented music pillow connected mp player difference heart rate respiratory rate mean arterial pressure arterial oxygen tension saturation pain anxiety levels music pain considerable interest use music reduce pain stress anxiety exacerbate experience pain music therapy musical stimulation reduce perception pain postsurgical patients alone part pain management programme music chosen patient usually effective music chosen others patients also need able control volume music played long bernatzky et al hole colleagues review reinforced findings showing music effective reducing pain anxiety even patients general anaesthetic pothoulaki colleagues investigated effects preferredmusiclistening anxiety pain perception patients undergoing haemodialysis sixty people diagnosed endstage renal failure undergoing haemodialysis treatment participated anxiety pain measured pre postintervention control group scored significantly power music higher state anxiety experimental group experienced significantly higher pain intensity study pain induced experimentally basi\u0144ski colleagues showed average pain ratings significantly lower music played increasingly music selected arousing complex focusing pain stress management everyday life linnemann colleagues studied women fibromyalgia syndrome condition characterised chronic pain participants rated pain intensity perceived control pain perceived stress level music listening behaviour five times day consecutive days assessment participants provided saliva sample analysis cortisol alpha amylase biomarkers stress response systems findings showed musiclistening increased perceived control pain listening music combination guided imagery also found lead significant reductions \u03b2endorphin body uses numb dull pain mckinney et al although musiclistening guided imagery alone effect vollert colleagues used relaxing music coronary patients rehabilitation found significant decreases \u03b2endorphin physical exercise suggesting music compensated need natural pain relief addition systolic blood pressure anxiety worry reduced decreases found patients performed exercises without music gerra colleagues extended observations showing listening upbeat techno music led increases \u03b2 endorphins demonstrating upbeat music led different outcomes research focused pain reduction terms active engagement music instance irons colleagues carried systematic review studies impact group singing pain psychological physical social benefits interventions reduced pain intensity overall music seem able contribute management pain gradually recognised processes involved fully understood treatment techniques refined meet patients needs effectively mainka et al music physical mental health music palliative care coelho colleagues carried scoping review examine map non pharmacological interventions implemented provide comfort palliative care home care hospices palliative care units eighteen studies included covering ten non pharmacological interventions implemented one fourteen sessions lasted five sixty minutes common music massage therapy characteristics differed significantly across within interventions mostly implemented palliative care units hospices patients cancer diagnosis use music therapy multidisciplinary endoflife care dates back music therapy one frequently used complementary therapies palliative care usa schmid colleagues provided overview users providers perspectives showed music therapy viewed positively similarly nyashanu colleagues undertook scoping review explore efficacy music interventions palliative care music therapy supported management pain anxiety depression promoted relaxation happiness hope enhanced spirituality quality life leow colleagues also reviewed terminally ill patients experiences using music therapy hospital inpatient hospice nursing home homes concluded music therapy could promote social interaction communication family friends patients healthcare workers provide support patients holistic needs mcconnell porter review articles music therapy palliative care found music therapeutic effect physical psychological emotional spiritual suffering palliativecare patients group music therapy might effective way support staff caring palliativecare patients music mental health stress anxiety depression current levels psychosocial distress society significant evidenced number prescribed antidepressants working days lost result stress anxiety growing body power music evidence active involvement creative activities promotes wellbeing quality life health adults mental illness activities singing choir creating art expressive writing group drumming reduce mental distress depression anxiety simultaneously enhancing individual social wellbeing uk currently number projects offer creativearts activities prescription experiencing mental health issues social isolation projects adopt different approaches take place community facilitated professional artists referral process bungay clift engaging music promote relaxation reduce stress using representative sample swedish population juslin colleagues found percent reported listened music least every day one reasons helped relax juslin et al using music reported beneficial easily available time place could tailored personal taste linnemann colleagues assessed whether presence others listening enhanced musics stressreducing effect participants responded questions stress presence others musiclistening five times day minutes waking hours seven consecutive days also collected saliva sample data collection enable biological assessment stress music greatest impact stress reduction listening took place others deliberately listened relaxation later study linnemann colleagues studied participants aged eight years old answered questions musiclistening stress six times day week using electronic diary device reported time duration listening selfreports musiclistening associated lower reported stress levels corroborated objective data participants listen minutes stress reduced experimental study jiang colleagues examined effects sedative stimulative music music preference stress reduction following induced stress one hundred fortyfour female musiceducation students performed stressful mental arithmetic test assigned listen preferred nonpreferred sedative music physical mental health stimulative music sedative music lowered tension anxiety difference preferred nonpreferred music gold colleagues researched effectiveness three months biweekly individual resourceoriented music therapy adults nonorganic mental disorders norway austria australia findings showed music therapy effective addition usual care motivated engage therapies reviews relating music stress broadly positive outcomes instance panteleeva colleagues conducted metaanalysis trials effects music anxiety showed overall decrease selfreported anxiety music also impact blood pressure cortisol level heart rate de witte colleagues review trials participants showed music interventions positive effect stress reduction larger effects heart rate compared blood pressure hormone levels also metaanalysis pelletier reviewed articles used music decrease arousal due stress music alone musicassisted relaxation techniques significantly decreased arousal extent reduction mediated age type stress relaxation technique adopted musical preference previous musical experience type intervention leckey reviewing studies suggested creative activities could healing protective effect mental wellbeing promoting relaxation providing means self expression reducing blood pressure boosting immune system reducing stress overall however evidence weak williams colleagues systematically reviewed articles participants findings seven longitudinal studies showed people mental health conditions participated choral singing mental health wellbeing significantly improved moderate large effect sizes qualitative studies showed group singing provided enjoyment enhanced emotional states developed sense belonging enhanced selfconfidence modern world depression common leading loss social function reduced quality life increased mortality music interventions used alternative therapy antidepressant drugs leubner hinterberger reviewed power music studies participants distinguishing passive listening music active singing playing improvising instruments almost studies significant reduction depression levels time response musical activities particularly elderly group settings slightly better outcomes individual sessions improvements participants confidence self esteem motivation metaanalysis aalbers colleagues found music therapy addition usual treatment reduced depressive symptoms anxiety helped improve functioning including maintaining employment activities relationships concluded music therapy likely effective people decreasing symptoms depression anxiety helping function everyday life although reluctant draw firm conclusions small number studies lack detailed descriptions nature interventions fancourt colleagues studied reaction proinflammatory cytokines music interventions decrease individuals depression recover impact group drumming broad array inflammatory measures assessed sixweek intervention thirtyone participants mild moderate depression completed psychological scales related depression anxiety wellbeing social resilience social inclusion participation drumming sessions lasted minutes period six weeks groups playing together sessions consisted call andresponse exercises learning drumming patterns built larger pieces significant improvements found depression wellbeing social resilience stress tiredness levels decreased beginning end session happiness relaxation energy levels increased impact blood pressure decrease heart rate overall drumming positive impact mental physical health postnatal depression reduced mothers sing babies daily basis listen music fancourt perkins comparison mother infant interactions singing associated greater increases emotional closeness positive emotions decreases psychological biological markers anxiety fancourt perkins music therapy also used support grieving smeijsters van den hurk described single case music physical mental health study treatment woman experiencing grief death husband described able express part personality suppressing since childhood playing piano vocalising improvisational music therapy people depression likely engage group rumination related music amplify negative emotions garrido et al although sakka juslin comparison everyday use music mood regulation depressed non depressed individuals aged years agefound differences depressed non depressed participants mental health care children adolescents young people children young people experience mental illness music sometimes act support mcferran colleagues studied whether involvement brief musicbased intervention engaged young people appropriate decreased distress increased understanding ways use music positively findings showed least measurable decreases distress related participation music sessions similarly arts engagement including music therapy dance reduce internalising symptoms anxiety depression children adolescents geipel et al henderson studied hospitalised young people diagnosed adjustment reactions adolescence either received onehour sessions music therapy acted controls music sessions involved discussion emotions music expression identification body language story composition recorded music drawing music participants showed greater emotional awareness felt greater sense inclusion hong kong kwok examined effectiveness intervention integrating positive psychology elements music therapy increasing sense hope emotional competence happiness decreasing anxiety students grades eight nine suffering anxiety improvement changes hope acting significant mediator relationship intervention decrease anxiety increase subjective happiness power music northern ireland porter colleagues examined efficacy active music therapy children aged eight sixteen years oldwho social emotional behavioural developmental difficultiesand parents either participated usual care additional sessions music therapy delivered weekly music group showed improvements communication social skills social functioning selfesteem depression family functioning austria greboszharing thunhohenstein assessed potential neuroendocrine immune psychological efficacy group singing group musiclistening children adolescents mental disorders seventeen patients aged department child adolescent psychiatry participated singing musiclistening programme five daily minute sessions one week saliva samples taken assess cortisol mood also measured music activities singing led significantly higher reduction cortisol musiclistening listening led significantly higher positive change feelings calmness wellbeing group music therapy also positively affected mood states adolescents aged inpatients psychiatric hospital shuman et al individual music therapy also found slightly improve quality life children psychopathology outpatient department although impact symptoms depended severity comorbid medical conditions gold et al b promoting positive identities social participation shown help recovery mental illness range studies hense mcferran interventions used music medium dance instance jeong colleagues assessed psychological health changes neurohormones adolescents mild depression weeks dance movement therapy forty middleschool seniors participated randomly assigned dance movement group acted controls following treatment reduction psychological distress plasma serotonin concentration increased dopamine concentration decreased seems dance movement therapy stabilise sympathetic nervous system similarly gandhi colleagues studying institutionalised adolescents depression either engage therapeutic listening programme music physical mental health traditional music therapy minutes day two days week eight weeks participants dance group perform minutes day three days week six weeks music found help alleviate depression university students instance wu studied effect hours music therapy anxiety depression selfesteem taiwanese undergraduates positive outcomes relation anxiety immediately following music therapy twomonth followup effects depression less positive although music therapy lead enhanced confidence ability relax decreased negative emotions also studying university students thomson colleagues explored use music regulate moods associated depression anxiety stress one hundred forty six university students aged years age completed online questionnaire addressing levels psychopathology music related mood regulation behaviours personal musicrelated information overall musicrelated mood regulation predicted levels psychopathology high use music venting negative emotions predicted high levels depression anxiety stress diversion distraction worries stress predicted high levels anxiety stress music entertainment maintaining enhancing happy mood predicted low levels depression individuals using music regulate mood may maladaptive although may young people experiencing psychopathology likely use music help reduce symptoms indeed miranda colleagues suggested musiclistening might influence internalising psychopathology role emotion regulation coping insomnia losing sleep widespread problem serious physical economic consequences musics impact physical psychological emotional states may explain helped people sleeping disorders music improve sleep quality sleep efficiency timeto sleep onset greater effectiveness range interventions including acupuncture medication trahan power music colleagues investigated music sleep aid amongst general public using online survey assessed musicality sleep habits music helped sleep responses percent respondents stated used music help sleep fourteen musical genres different artists reported used sleep aids stress age music use significant predictors sleep quality younger people higher musical engagement significantly likely use music aid sleep respondents reported music helped sleep unique sleepinducing properties role part normal sleep routine way blocked internal external stimuli would otherwise disrupt sleep jespersen vuust studied use relaxing music bedtime traumatised refugees experiencing difficulties sleeping intervention group heard relaxing music played night music player nested pillow significant improvement sleep quality wellbeing changes trauma symptoms later study jespersen colleagues studied people insomnia either listened music given audiobooks listen severity insomnia decreased participants perceived improvement sleep quality life changes objective measures sleep reviews role music supporting sleep broadly positive results feng colleagues reviewed studies involving patients interventions interventions statistically effective usual care patients ranked listening music best method overall sleep quality terms sleep onset latency musicassociated relaxation listening music significant advantages listening music music exercise also tended improve sleep efficiency wang colleagues reviewed ten studies involving participants showed sleep quality improved significantly music cumulative effect chronic sleep disorders jespersen colleagues reviewed six publications involving participants across variety settings including participants home sleep laboratory inpatient rehabilitation facility sample sizes varied participants aged years age trials used music others music relaxation music included music physical mental health eastern chinese classical music new age electric popular oldies jazz music played minutes day three days sleep quality improved musiclistening almost studies similarly de niet colleagues conducted meta analysis data adults including older people evaluate efficacy musicassisted relaxation improve sleep quality music moderate effect ongoing research lund colleagues trialling music might help people depression suffer insomnia asking listen music minimum minutes bedtime four weeks music trauma abuse music therapists around world work wide range settings traumatised abused pavlicevic ansdell music shown costeffective powerful supporting sustainable community development mental physical health peace initiatives hesser heinemann help reduce symptoms improve general functioning among exposed trauma mcferran et al acting adjunct conventional therapy promoting emotional regulation increased pleasure anxiety reduction particularly helpful individuals struggle stigma associated asking professional help landisshack et al cognitive behavioural therapy limited success rhythm may particularly important supporting recovery research neurobiology shown rhythmic music specific impact brain therapy models using rhythm used since centres young people risk refugee trauma centres forensic psychiatric wards prisons child adult mental health services benefits include increased levels social integration improvements affect mood stabilisation reductions anxiety depression increases selfesteem faulkner posttraumatic stress disorder post traumatic stress disorder caused wide range incidents common following engagement severe combatrelated power music emotional trauma symptoms include distressing memory intrusions avoidance emotional disturbance hyperarousal lead significantly reduced quality life recent years increasing demand music therapy services within military treatment facilities partly due increased research output also increased prevalence injuriesincluding traumatic brain injury post traumatic stress disorderfor interdisciplinary patient centred care required complexity traumatic brain injury post traumatic stress context military service presents particular challenges music therapists try develop effective interventions bronson et al pezzin colleagues examined feasibility potential effectiveness active musicinstruction intervention improving psychological health social functioning among veterans suffering moderate severe post traumatic stress disorder sixtyeight veterans self providerreferred programme participants aged years old mainly male african american black almost third employment almost half retired due disability research assessed symptomatology depression perceptions cognitive failure social functioning isolation healthrelated quality life participation led significant reduction post traumatic stress symptoms depression trend towards improvement assessed areas carr colleagues assessed whether group music therapy effect post traumatic stress disorder symptoms depression patients already participated cognitive behavioural therapy participants received ten weeks group music therapy following significant reduction severity symptoms reduction depression participants reported group music therapy helpful vaudreuil colleagues used public performance support social transformation reintegration us military service members two case studies service members received music therapy part treatment post traumatic stress disorder brain injury psychological health concerns presented participants wrote learned refined songs number sessions created songs perform audiences interviews showed evidence beneficial psychological effects procedure similarly bensimon colleagues music physical mental health studied six soldiers diagnosed suffering combat terrorrelated post traumatic stress disorder participated series minute weekly sessions music therapy sessions filmed indepth interviews undertaken participants analysis musical verbal content revealed importance group engagement issues related trauma non trauma matters decreasing reflection traumatic emotions increasing expressions non traumatic feelings single case study yearold army veteran wellman pinkerton described tenweek music therapy intervention enhanced motivation decreased stress anxiety depression led reported feelings wholeness medication reduced led increased reengagement previously enjoyed activities enhanced quality life following four years medical disability significant social phobias use music therapeutic purposes also occur informal ways instance one us soldier rapped experiences iraq cope aftermath deployment uganda one young man constantly played stringed instrument traumatised talk role resistance army commander bergh sloboda military sexual trauma issue returning veterans story beck studied five veteran women participated ten music imagery sessions postsession focus group course three months participants reported using music imagery manage reduce symptoms civilians also experience post traumatic stress subject combat events following israel gaza conflict bensimon colleagues examined emotional effects listening happy sad national songs young older adults relationship exposure missile attacks post traumatic stress symptoms negative emotions young adults low post traumatic stress symptoms sad national songs related higher negative emotions whereas older adults higher post traumatic stress disorder symptoms exhibited higher negative emotions response sad national songs power music music asylum seekers refugees survivors music therapists become increasingly interested role music relation war peace refugees trauma akombo edwards hunt kennedy lopez ng following attack usa september many continue traumatised war acts terrorism violence worldwide music therapists sought respond actively events resulting trauma reaching trauma survivors refugees move involuntarily country residence often witnessed disasters wars deaths immediate family members prior leaving traumatic situations provoke strong reactions emotions often exacerbated challenging refugeeprocessing systemfor instance detention waiting refugee campswhich make migration resettlement processes refugees asylumseekers much challenging migrants psychological effects trauma experienced refugees tend longlasting multicultural arts programmes allow sensitivity different identities heritage experience important healing promoting wellbeing gopalkrishnan refugee camps arts support preservation religious identity celebration festivals events help alleviate psychosocial distress trauma reduce stigmatisation among children experienced trauma including sexual abuse terrorism war domestic violence promising findings value arts supporting grief depression post traumatic stress disorder well supporting communication experiences andemicael clini colleagues assessed impact arts interventions forcibly displaced people identified several key issues concerning perceived benefits programmes findings showed participants reported impact creative activities relation skills social engagement personal emotions artistic cultural activities impacted positively helping participants find voice creating support networks providing opportunities learn practical skills useful gaining employment review lenette sunderland music physical mental health mapped potential participatory music practices support health wellbeing asylumseekers refugees three contexts conflict settings refugee camps resettlement settings review highlighted different roles music could peoples lives moved away home countries towards resettlement overall found growing body research music wellbeing asylumseekers provided strong foundation investment music key positive social cultural determinant health group people music reduce symptoms post traumatic stress disorder reducing anxiety depressive symptoms increasing pleasure helping emotional regulation supporting building communities support networks thus enhancing resilience reducing stigma improving general functioning sutton demonstrated community arts projects sri lanka following civil war tsunami arts help people regain control lives huss et al beck colleagues researched impact guided imagery music alongside standard medication adult refugees completed onehour individual sessions pre postmeasures post traumatic stress symptoms sleep quality wellbeing social function demonstrated significant positive changes large effect sizes evaluation single sessions showed participants found therapy acceptable helpful participants used music listening selfcare homes sessions responded positively intervention overall australia lenette colleagues studied music facilitators regularly attended immigration transit accommodation facility share music singing activities detained asylumseekers ameliorate significant mental emotional distress resulting indefinite detention drawing facilitators monthly written observations number key themes emerged linked music singing health wellbeing detained asylumseekers overall clear potential participatory musicmaking counter impact traumatic experiences detention asylumseekers health wellbeing similarly hesser heinemann provided examples music projects supported social inclusion refugees others experienced severe trauma rwandan genocide power music killed million people led enormous distress survived ardenne kiyendeye used focusgroup interviews survivors participated music programme found music changed past given safe place present fellowship prayer provided personal resources face future research looking lasting impact trauma example holocaust survivors years found higher levels resilience among engaged arts course lives relative suggesting value arts immediate aftermath trauma decades follow diamond shrira also evidence music support victims torture alanne studied three traumatised men central africa south asia middle east lived asylumseekers refugees finland received weekly bimonthly music therapy sessions one two years part rehabilitation using projective listening guided imagery free association within psychoanalytic frame reference analysis data sessions revealed music therapy approaches effective promoting verbalisation well regulation expression emotions participants responded positively demonstrated improvement although varying degrees satisfaction therapy increased consciousness patients regarding traumatic experiences perceived supporting calm relaxation findings suggested music psychotherapy methods may effective treating patients survivors torture related traumatic experiences music support healing children traumatised war forced fight serve spies soldier wives camp followers refugees using cultural music creative compositions help young people overcome fears challenges promote healing development selfesteem trust identity osborne provided examples way music neuroscience provide means evaluating success music therapy traumatised children post conflict societies including north uganda palestine south thailand felsenstein studied impact shortterm music therapy intervention three groups preschool children aftermath forced evacuation music physical mental health homes unilateral israeli disengagement gaza strip post trauma treatment evacuees findings suggested music could build post trauma resilience reduce vulnerability preschoolers traumatic events although community family could also strengthen way individual children coped several authors documented benefits creative musical activity children experienced war bergmann heidenrich osborne sutton means developing selfesteem trust identity social cohesion range countries including bosniaherzegovina georgia sierra leone rwanda palestine projects enabled reflection expression feelings programmes supporting refugees displaced young people sierra leone ghana slovenia included dance programmes supported development communication empowered young people gave sense belonging relief supported identity development harris jones et al lederach lederach pesek zharinovasanderson reported work traumatised refugees berlin centre treatment torture victims music therapy context helped young people use cultural music adjust new culture performance opportunities allowed audience members see beyond traumatised refugees real people sierra leone gonsalves worked traumatised young girls forced fight serve spies soldier wives camp followers song girls communicated emotional material needs histories fears current difficulties creative musical interaction supported increased understanding reengagement connections others promoted healing thus empowering participants post conflict kosovo gerber colleagues evaluated work charity aimed promote culture peace unity well development recovery children groups nonparticipating students compared new programme participants participating twelve months graduated programme overall children participated programme least one year fewer emotional cognitive problems recently power music enrolled children ireland kenny examined musical lives children asylumseekers living state system communal housing waited refugee applications processed data collected six participatory music workshops video observations reflective log focusgroup interviews eleven children aged seven twelve years old six different nationalities participated findings revealed importance relevance contexts musicmaking temporary accommodation settings well broader national international contexts children living asylumseeking systems review school communitybased interventions approximately refugee asylumseeking children carried highincome countries refugee camps focus verbal processing past experiences range creative arts activities suggested interventions delivered within school setting could successful helping children overcome difficulties associated forced migration feelings powerlessness humiliation anger reduced social inclusion mental health social acceptance belonging enhanced tyrer fazel music victims abuse child sexual exploitation major international problem victims need rehabilitated reintegrated society supported creative arts schrader wendland described music therapists working phnom penh cambodiain centre provided care young girls rescued sexual violence commercial sexual exploitationtrained staff centre teaching play instruments participate ensembles lead large group music activities could support girls rogers highlighted number factors appear common sexually abused individuals including participants manipulation music therapy symbolic use instruments preoccupation mess containers use boundaries power secrets material case studies illuminated points usa five million crimes involving violence partners annually victims experience lifetime increased risk music physical mental health depression anxiety addiction suicide attempts post traumatic stress disorder additionally womens experience abuse risk factor incarceration palidofsky stolbach describe therapeutic benefits incarcerated adolescent girls working collaboratively theatre professionals create develop perform musicals based traumatic experiences similarly neupane taylor described gendersensitive music intervention able facilitate healing recovery incarcerated abused women also working victims abuse slotoroff developed technique inpatient shortterm psychiatric setting using improvisational drumming cognitive behavioural methods address issues power middleaged woman elevenyearold boy participated increased sense power selfcontrol leading long term positive behavioural cognitive emotional changes flores colleagues used african drumming enhance emotional social wellbeing children residential care exposed form neglect abuse displayed high levels anger anxiety depression disruptive behaviour participants attended weekly sessions african djembe drumming period four months intervention appear significantly impact participants longterm selfconcept levels depression anger disruptive behaviour anxiety increased despite findings interviews observations suggested workshops enhance childrens emotional social functioning terms selfesteem selfconfidence prosocial behaviour enjoyment concentration manifestation musical capacity even though transfer childrens everyday functioning may severity socioemotional difficulties well limitations intervention hannigan mcbride investigated therapists perspectives value using drumming along percussion instruments therapeutic tools family violence treatment groups overall drumming perceived useful fostering group cohesion cooperation helping clients passive communication style become involved groupwork facilitating emotional expression offering participants way experience active relaxation engagement group process power music another approach supporting trauma victims songwriting instance fairchild mcferran studied children aged eight fourteen years old experienced homelessness family violence participants collaborated writing song music meant throughout process song writing children described music provided escape happening lives offered hope better future similarly clendenonwallen studied adolescents sexually abused participated music group activities included song rapwriting rhythmplaying improvisation lyric analysis creative movement adolescents also designed record album covers musicbased activities increased participants sense selfworth selfconfidence music ease anxiety also useful process socialisation verbalisation served starting point discussing personal matters group improvisation also enhanced group cohesion cooperation christenbury combined songwriting art promote healing child traumatised child controlled process therapist composed songs response childs drawings related emotions child chose important healing increased selfesteem provided healthy emotional outlet also using songwriting along improvisational instrument playing lyric analysis musical games participants asked encode decode various emotions graham determined effects music emotional expressivity children adolescents experienced abuse neglect participants removed homes placed group foster homes findings showed increase emotional expressivity degree appropriateness emotions expressed participants rudstam colleagues employed group music imagery ten women exposed physical psychological sexual abuseoften history childhood abuse neglect suffering post traumatic stress disorder participants completed treatment indicated helpful showed decrease post traumatic stress dissociative symptoms alongside increase quality life changes maintained programme ended adopting different approach strehlow music physical mental health focused use analytical music therapy treat sexually abused children showing eightyearold rebellious girl suppressed feelings sexually abused mothers partner responded positively similarly sutton de backer drew case material work young boy adult attending psychiatric outpatient department show form musical listening thinking could help understand issues faced traumatised fairchild highlighted creative resources children experiencing homelessness family violence bring research well range resources draw upon face adversity research challenged view children risk explored resources helped well fairchild colleagues used songwriting interviews collaborate children focusing music meant music offered escape outside world provided hope future would better children described range support friends family sport pets writing journal creativity wanted feel safe cared protect others exhibited considerable selfdetermination collaborative article written one yearold revealed believed learning play drums music therapy changed life music therapy used support parenting instance day colleagues reported reflections five women experienced childhood abuse participated group parenting programme incorporated songwriting three years completion programme participants reflected positively process creating songs reported continued engage song creations parents experienced childhood trauma often experience challenges parenting adolescent trigger memories abuse intensify conflict resulting negative relationship cycles colegrove colleagues devised dyadic music therapy parents adolescents increased responsive parentadolescent interactions parental emotion coaching reducing conflict adolescent mental health difficulties power music children exposed ongoing maltreatment poverty frequently experience behaviour problems south korea kim used music therapy weeks four children reduction externalising internalising behavioural problems overall although considerable individual variation later study kim showed although children music therapy group less depressed anxious withdrawn less attention problems children standardcare waiting groups many confounding factors el sistema programme largescale communitybased music programme includes children exposed violence showed research conducted music centres children aged six fourteen years old participating children improved selfcontrol reduced behavioural difficulties alem\u00e1n et al severe mental illhealth following sections provide examples way music used support recovery severe mental illhealth providing supplementary support traditional pharmacological psychological approaches patients psychosis music therapy musiclistening reported improve symptoms general psychopathology psychoticism aggressiveness interpersonal hostility paranoid ideation phobic anxiety somatisation anxiety depression well catatonic symptoms lack participation cooperation relaxation interaction psychosocial functioning silverman however research confirmed findings attard larkin interesting line enquiry focused use music individually tailored match patients brain rhythms instance m\u00fcller colleagues examined whether longterm exposure psychiatric patients music individually adapted brain rhythm disorders associated psychoticism could act ameliorate symptoms total patients various psychiatric diagnoses randomised listen cds either containing music adapted brain rhythm anomalies associated psychoticism measured specific spectral analysis standard classical music participants instructed music physical mental health listen cds months psychiatric symptoms assessed start intervention four eight eighteen months patients experimental group showed significantly decreased symptoms compared control patients psychoticism paranoia anxiety phobic anxiety somatisation changes may resulted modulation neurochemical interactions improved brain function enhanced neuroplasticity feng colleagues explored whether music therapy could improve brain function patients major depressive disorder using near infrared spectroscopy fifteen mild moderate major depressive disorder patients compared healthy controls treated continuous music therapy ten days verbal fluency task performance participants yielded significantly higher scores music therapy near infrared spectroscopy data showed increases channels significant groups major depressive disorder group showed significant activation dorsolateral prefrontal cortex orbitofrontal cortex ventromedial prefrontal cortex music therapy suggesting music therapy effective one strand research considered impact music acute mental health instance silverman explored effects different levels structure within educational music therapy interventions knowledge illness management recovery affect adult acutecare mental health inpatients one hundred fifteen participants randomly assigned either high lowstructured educational music therapy waitinglist control significant differences relation knowledge illness management recovery highstructure condition groups overall highly structured music therapy seemed best efficiently effectively imparting knowledge concerning illness management recovery acute mental health settings stefani biasutti studied impact group music therapy alongside drug care comparison drug care alone addition nonexpressive group activities treatment psychiatric outpatients twentyseven patients diagnoses schizophrenia schizoaffective disorders bipolar affective disorder depressive episode specific personality disorders allocated receive group music therapy standard care weekly sessions two hours power music standard care participating group music therapy demonstrated improvement neuroleptic drug dosage although antidepressant drug usage increased groups difference significant control group benzodiazepines mood stabilisers showed significant change either group overall group music therapy combined standard drug care effective controlling neuroleptic drug dosage adult psychiatric outpatients grocke colleagues studied individuals severe mental illness experienced weekly group music therapy including singing familiar songs composing original songs professional studio focus group interviews lyric analyses along quantitative data collected weeks music therapy improved quality life selfesteem participants participating greater number sessions experiencing greatest benefits focusing singing williams colleagues reviewed articles including participants efficacy group singing mental health intervention individuals living mental health condition community setting findings showed people mental health conditions participated choir mental health wellbeing significantly improved moderate large effect sizes group singing provided enjoyment improved emotional states developed sense belonging enhanced self confidence working young people youth mental health service australia hense mcferran showed promoting young peoples musical identities could facilitate recovery mental illness reviews evidence effectiveness music therapy psychopathology across range different age groups mixed findings silverman carried metaanalysis including studies showed music could effectively suppress combat psychotic symptoms differences live recorded music structured music therapy passive listening preferred versus therapistselected music however classical music less effective popular music gold colleagues reviewed overall efficacy music therapy children adolescents psychopathology examined size effect music therapy influenced nature pathology music physical mental health clients age music therapy approach adopted way outcomes assessed studies included total participants music therapy medium large positive effect clinically relevant outcomes effects tended greater behavioural developmental disorders emotional disorders social skills selfconcept particularly eclectic psychodynamic humanistic approaches rather behavioural models adopted later review focusing adults gold colleagues found music therapy supplementing standard care strong significant effect global state general negative symptoms depression anxiety general functioning small effect sizes achieved three ten sessions sessions needed achieve large effects overall findings suggested music therapy effective treatment could help people psychotic non psychotic severe mental disorders improve functioning review studies focusing acute psychiatric disorders carr colleagues found drawing firm conclusions limited methodological shortcomings small sample sizes studies significant positive effects used active structured musical participation delivered four sessions clearly defined effective model emerged greater frequency therapy actively structured musicmaking verbal discussion consistency contact clear boundaries emphasis building therapeutic relationship building patient resources seemed particular importance yinger gooding summarised research music therapy children adolescents including disorders usually diagnosed childhood instance substance abuse mood anxiety difficulties eating disorders outlined range music therapy techniques strengths weaknesses research considered music might support electroconvulsive therapy graff colleagues examined patients preferences music prior treatment enjoyed listening music speakers headphones although percent preferred music gleadhill ferris developed framework evaluating impact music therapy people dissociative identity disorder debilitating disorder acquired due severe ongoing neglect abuse characterised presence two identities frequently power music control individuals behaviour framework suggested symptom relief destigmatisation increased selfesteem prevention future abuse important outcomes eating disorders role music ameliorating eating disorders examined number studies reviews free structured improvisation songwriting listening pre composed music used help sufferers address specific aspects eating disorder including able recognise tolerate feelings connect others make links thoughts feelings body music support development sense self facilitate understanding symbolic functions illness robarts sloboda explored process music therapy treatment people suffering anorexia nervosa individual cases illustrated ways music therapy support individual addressing frequently deeply rooted problems instance issues identity negative selfimage distorted body image autonomy control avoiding facing difficult emotions difficulty relationships relationship listening music cathartic purposes emotional eating van den tol colleagues argued enjoyment food music share similar neural activations brain used regulate feelings investigated associations emotional eating disordered mood musicrelated mood regulation found associations depression anxiety stress musiclistening releasing anger sadness emotional eating positively associated musiclistening strategiesincluding entertainment diversion mental workwere associated people low levels disordered mood high levels disordered mood associated high levels emotional eating music listening strategies suggests musiclistening strategies might able used healthier alternatives emotional eating retrospective analysis songs written adolescents anorexia nervosa mcferran colleagues revealed identity common theme mealtime anxious time people anorexia music physical mental health music therapy used successfully significantly reduce postmealrelated anxiety bibb et al addiction chronic drug abuse leads dopaminedeficient state mesolimbic system causing dysphoria abstinence leading craving subsequently return drug use functional imaging studies shown listening personally pleasing music activates mesolimbic reward system fashion similar drug abuse activation could therefore ameliorate dysphoria craving hypodopaminergic state mathis han found listening personally pleasing moving music could reduce craving abstinent alcoholics twelve participants alcoholuse disorder residential substance rehabilitation unit reported level craving listening either participantselected song white noise music intervention significant advantage reducing craving compared noise studies addiction reported music therapy improve perceived control thus reducing cravings silverman researched effect music therapy readiness change craving patients detoxification unit one hundred fortyone participants allocated rockumentary music therapy intervention verbal therapy recreational music therapy condition significant differences groups readiness change contemplation action participants music conditions higher scores verbal therapy condition also tended lower mean craving scores perceived intervention helpful enjoyable group musicmaking activities choirs enhance social connections provide positive diversion people overcoming addiction instance liebowitz colleagues investigated participation musicbased performance instruction programme influenced sense engagement experienced participants residential setting atrisk veterans participants opportunities connect others shared interests connections forged residents extended beyond relationships established choir increased recognition associated performances choir provided diversion concerns power music may served means facilitating adjustment change measured speed reviews impact music therapy relation addiction report lack consistency research outcomes hohmann et al mays et al scoping review articles impact music lives young adult drug users found valued music meeting emotional psychological social needs particularly homeless however research included review limited considering harmful consequences music rather considering potential benefits lemaire et al obsessivecompulsive disorder social anxiety disorder music play role ameliorating symptoms obsessive compulsive disorder alongside pharmacotherapy cognitive behavioural therapy iraq abdulah colleagues evaluated impact passive musiclistening adjunct therapy patients aged years old experimental group received seven minute relaxing music tracks listen daily addition regular pharmacological treatment threemonth period controls received regular treatment findings showed improvement severity behaviours experimental group similarly shiranibidabadi mehryar randomly assigned patients obsessivecompulsive disorder standard treatment pharmacotherapy cognitive behaviour therapy addition sessions individual music therapy standard treatment one month music therapy resulted greater decrease checking slowness washing responsibility overall music therapy adjunct standard care effective reducing obsessions well comorbid anxiety depressive symptoms listening music found reduce time spent dwelling threats people experiencing social anxiety disorder lazarov colleagues examined efficacy gazecontingent music reward therapy social anxiety disorder designed reduce extent dwelling threats forty patients randomly assigned eight sessions either gazecontingent music reward therapy designed divert patients gaze toward neutral stimuli rather threat stimuli music physical mental health control condition music therapy yielded greater reductions symptoms control condition effects maintained intervention also revealed reduced time spent dwelling threats socially threatening faces used training suggesting outcomes transferred situations schizophrenia music therapy reduce symptoms mild schizophrenia including hostility hallucinations suspiciousness emotional withdrawal poor rapport difficulty abstract thinking compared controls schizophrenia receiving adjunct music therapy shown improvement regardless duration frequency number therapy sessions tseng et al review studies total participants undertaken sessions geretsegger colleagues showed medium term positive effects adjunct music therapy range negative symptoms social functioning quality life although effects inconsistent across studies depended number sessions quality therapy working hospital emergency psychiatric ward patients psychosis volpe colleagues found structured music therapy led decrease anxiety depression affective symptoms liao colleagues explored factors important effectiveness group singing social robots interacted individuals schizophrenia nine participants aged years old participated four group singing therapy sessions provided social robot occupational therapist group cohesiveness universality altruism important factors related efficacy programme similarly odellmiller considered music therapists could use music created patients better understand emotions interacted others power music music therapy autistic spectrum disorder severe learning difficulties music therapists worked children autistic spectrum disorder many years typically means improve verbal nonverbal communication music particularly effective supporting development communication kind language ockelford using functional magnetic resonance imaging sharda colleagues showed autistic spectrum disorder alternate mechanisms speech music processing established song could overcome structural deficit speech later study sharda colleagues evaluated neurobehavioural outcomes eight twelveweek music intervention autistic children aged six twelve years old song rhythm improvisation improved communication resting state brain functional connectivity auditory subcortical regions auditory frontomotor regions although connectivity lower auditory visual regions areas known overconnected autistic spectrum disorder children autistic spectrum disorder excel creative activities particularly music superior memory pitch timbre highlevel capacity processing melodic rhythmic complexity janzen thaut survey adults autistic spectrum disorder studied special interests intensity motivation interests impact quality life approximately two thirds sample reported special interest including computers music nature gardening engaged one interests associated enhanced wellbeing including social contact leisure however high intensity engagement special interests negatively related wellbeing grove et al even autistic spectrum without special musical skills benefit music therapy means enhancing social interaction sensory perception language eye contact lagasse musically enriched interactions reduce anxiety aggressive behaviour improve listening attention span social interaction campbell auditory motor rhythmic training improve language acquisition processing well music physical mental health speech control janzen thaut however interventions successful longterm outcomes instance dvir colleagues videoed synchrony body rhythms fourtosixyear old children autistic spectrum disorder music therapists week period higher levels synchrony found repetitive rhythmicity occurred twice times per second used longterm impact although individuals autistic spectrum disorder commonly deficits processing complex emotional cues ability identify emotional content music generally preserved sweden theorell colleagues established playing musical instrument particularly ensemble associated higher emotional competence support review conducted molnarszakacs heaton pointed many individuals autistic spectrum disorder showed early preference music able understand simple complex musical emotions childhood adulthood despite difficulties experienced communication understanding emotions within social domain one study even suggested antenatal music training maternal talk could reduce risk children developing autisticlike behaviours china study parents kindergarten children completed questionnaires revealed antenatal music training maternal talk foetus associated reduction autisticlike behaviours ruan et al parent child integrated music activities support relationships children autistic spectrum disorder parents caregivers lense et al musicbased parent coaching hernandez ruiz musical activities include children autistic spectrum disorder reduce victimised neurotypical peers cook et al research considered music might help children learning difficulties broadly instance mendelson colleagues studied classroombased music intervention improving communication skills children autistic spectrum disorder intellectual disabilities four elementary school special education classrooms findings showed minute weekly music therapy sessions promoted improvements verbal responsiveness working young adults severe learning power music difficulties pavlicevic colleagues found longterm musicmaking provided ongoing opportunities gaining confidence enhancing selfesteem feelings shared acceptance success case study individual profound learning difficulties mcferran shoemark found success therapy lay combination attentive responsive creative behaviour time music therapist listening taking responsibility structure activities young person spontaneously initiating activitieswithboth participants building relationship time biological markers stress also shown reduction following music therapy individuals intellectual disabilities autistic spectrum disorder poqu\u00e9russe et al community music activities also benefit mild profound learning difficulties increasing selfconfidence enabling wider recognition musicality wilson macdonald reviews impact music individuals autistic spectrum disorder generally shown positive outcomes including improved nonverbal verbal communication motor development coordination body awareness sensory perception social emotional reciprocity wide range social skills geretsegger et al janzen thaut shi et al srinivasan bhat vaiouli andreou addition impact functions de vries colleagues showed music reduced anxiety improved cognitive skills attention task enhanced body awareness selfcare skills expression recognition understanding processing emotions ragone colleagues focusing use technology children autistic spectrum disorder showed relationship soundbased activities improvement motor social skills reviews point limitations research particularly terms small sample sizes variation kinds therapy outcome measures still acknowledging benefits contrast simpson keen gave limited support use songwriting improvisational therapy facilitate social communicative behavioural skills young children autism spectrum disorder music successful increasing exercise intensity important reducing risk obesity sleep disorders music physical mental health stereotypical behaviours common children autism spectrum disorder although effects mediated extent exercise structured nature music characteristics child woodman et al research focused nature effective music teaching children range learning difficulties autism gerrity colleagues showed use repetition giving students choice allowing longer response time important teaching strategies children found important clear directions expectations behaviour plan fostering positive atmosphere free distractions thompson colleagues gathered perspectives autistic individuals aged years old inform design musicmaking workshops using online survey structured interviews showed participants expected welcoming atmosphere acceptance diversity overview psychological wellbeing physical health closely linked former enhance recovery illness limit occurrence stress anxiety contribute ill health music enhance wellbeing equally contribute negatively psychological health depressing aggressive music listened constantly particularly presence others musicmaking ensembles activates many regions brain enhancing connections listening musicwhich constitutes aspect making music impacts brain regions associated arousal emotions reward pleasure rhythmic aspects music impact movement whether music slow fast quiet loud affects arousal mood emotion musical preferences major influence whether music therapy effective different ways music influence mental physical health positively negatively addition direct effects music therapy interventions typically involve interactions people therapist participants social interactions involved musicmaking listening others important impact music mental physical health less positive therapist facilitator approaches adopt power music also important mediators possible research untangle differential impact music social interactions others may accompany overall predicting outcome musical intervention mental physical health complex interaction factors complexity also account different research outcomes himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp music inclusion social cohesion music wide range functions set detail chapter one important functions role actively making music encouraging social bonding function argued evolutionary basis huron harvey suggests music musicrelated behaviours along language speech important early evolution helping promote emotional synergy social bonding foster grouplevel cooperation coordination savage colleagues argue evolution musicality involved gene cultural coevolution protomusical behaviours began cultural inventions effects biological evolution impact social bonding repetition synchronisation combination harmony rhythm pitch provided social rewards linking brain networks physiological systems behaviours cross argues music may particularly suited supporting social bonding generally free risk meaning interpreted different ways allowing humans interact share experiences even though participating individual may different perspectives goals relationships music promote survival way synchronises moods many individuals collectively take action protect defend attack dowling harwood moving together rhythmically seems reinforce process hove risen kogan trainor support role music social bonding fact music occurs every human culture subculture unless deliberately suppressed universal human behaviour record merker et al mehr colleagues support evolutionary role power music music relation coalitional interactions also emphasise importance infant care humans species face considerable challenges compared primates maintain social bonds groups much larger primates music might provide way achieving freeman rhythmic activities induced drum beats music lead altered states consciousness mutual trust among members societies engendered proposition supported empirical research instance weinstein colleagues recruited individuals community choir met small groups people large groups people feelings inclusion connectivity positive affect increased minute singing rehearsal small choir greater increases reported large choir suggesting singing together fosters social closenesseven large group contexts individuals known similarly pearce colleagues followed newlyformed singing nonsinging adult education classes period seven months participants rated closeness group classes three timepoints one three seven months singers nonsingers felt equally connected seven months much faster bonding occurred singing group one month singing may evolved specifically bond together large human groups relative strangers quickly willingness coordinate others supported way music generates positive emotions group musicmaking involves strong element sociability finnegan links music social bonding cross hagen bryant emotion juslin sloboda may explain group musicmaking enhances wellbeing sloboda suggests musicmaking rewarding part generates social bonding cultural coherence role range ceremonies supports roederer social networks developed musicmaking support group identity collective thinking collaborative learning friendship social support sense belonging synchronisation catharsis collective expression experience emotion brown faulkner davidson coffman creech et al lehmberg fung music inclusion social cohesion recent example arditi suggests musicians popular bands perceive performance identity linked identity band group greater solidarity likely remain together music support formation maintenance group identity promote cooperative behaviour conversely create potential hostility towards outgroups children young people group musicmaking offers opportunity engage wide cultural experiences explore new ideas places perspectives support social cohesion israel benefits participants also increases involvement parents carers attendance cultural events exposure culture generally creech et al biological underpinnings social bonding primates involve endorphins endogenous opioid system released synchronised exertion tarr et al associated several human behaviours including laughing synchronised sports well singing dancing passively listening music also engages endogenous opioid system identifying self part group combined activity endogenous opioid system may important way music promotes social bonding endorphins released synchronised movements also effect social bonding social behaviours oxytocin levels weinstein et al kreutz studying psychobiological effects amateur choral singing comparison dyads chatting showed patterns change favouring singing chatting suggesting singing enhanced individual psychological wellbeing well inducing sociobiological response similarly grape colleagues observed significant increases oxytocinwhich plays fundamental role social behavioursin professional amateur singers singing lesson participating musical groups requires attention paid actions intentions group members physical emotional states addition able communicate emotions respond others cross et al group musicmaking promotes activity neural networks connect areas brain associated social cognition music production sanger et al key development empathy musical participation power music enhance empathy children rabinowitch et al may also increase emotional sensitivity resnicow et al young people music preferences indicate similar different values similarity contributing social attraction explaining musical bonding occur range different cultures boer et al human interactions sometimes require behaviour coordinated keller et al synchrony promotes positive social behaviour instance infants bounced synchrony experimenter subsequently likely help experimenter dropped objects needed complete task bounced synchrony trainor cirelli pleasure performing temporal synchrony others may also wide ranging consequences wellbeing overall functioning mcneill instance hove risen showed degree synchrony tapping tasks predicted subsequent affiliation ratings one frequently cited benefits group musicmaking impact prosocial behaviour young children shown enhanced cooperation helpful behaviour musical opposed nonmusical conditions kirschner tomasello el sistema programme projects inspired facilitate prosocial behaviour creech et al intensive ensemble activities seen providing opportunities nurturing positive citizenship including respect equality sharing cohesion teamwork enhancement listening skills important element promoting understanding cooperation majno research usa shown involvement group music activities high school helps individuals learn support maintain commitment bond together achieve group goals sward band participation positive benefits maturing relationships teamwork cooperation sense belonging companionship social development brown adolescence young adulthood musiclistening families peer groups contributes family peer cohesion applies across range cultures including kenya philippines new zealand germany boer abubakar large study people uk van de vyver abrams found greater engagement arts including musical activities predicted greater prosociality volunteering charitable giving music inclusion social cohesion joint musicmaking provides opportunities developing skills relating citizenship encourage tolerance development social ethics increase acceptance children intellectual impairments humpal jellison et al enhance concern wider community issues miksza wiltermutt heath showed students usa scored higher coordination exercise publicgood game singing along song played headphones compared singing forced asynchronous singing musicmaking also used teach leadership skills children primary secondary schools hallam learn communicate verbally musically children music conflict greater illustration power music role conflict situations relationship music conflict complex music always used promote peace used bythose desire create maintain conflict bergh sloboda review literature outlined ways music support conflict give examples music used support preparations war instance nazi germany music used accompany large rallies purpose developing sense cohesion reinert croatia music used develop nationalist feelings start war pettan serbians used folk music bolster concept serbian uniqueness hudson bohlman similarly albanians used music videos attempt create national identity preparation war sugarman centuries music used support militia face battle drums offering rhythm support marching together drums bugles bagpipes used bolster courage mcneill recently iraq american soldiers played loud aggressive music engaging dangerous activities gittoes countries music used promote revolution songs used calls action instance congregational music represents solidarity sense collective identity civil rights movement ward boulanger martel drawing data relating production music fuerzas power music armadas revolucionarias de colombia argued cultural production employed bolster rebelgroup legitimacy internally justifying existing hierarchical relationships leaders fighters externally identifying rebel group legitimate alternative existing establishment rightful representative people typically conflict situations music employed multiple purposes instance nd world war ghettos concentration camps music played complex role daily life used help alleviate distress among incarcerated gilbert time intimidate demonstrate power pettan moreno reviewed meaning sometimes therapeutic role music victims perpetrators holocaust demonstrating importance music times stress music used humiliation torment musical censorship applied music used deception distraction masking prisoner orchestras demonstrate musically induced humane feelings separated sentiment nostalgia coexisting alongside denial indifference way others suffering recently loud noise music used means torture challenge beliefs cloonan johnson torment humiliate prisoners war cusick bayoumi reported detainees subjected music high volume designed destroy minds guant\u00e1namo bay eminem britney spears limp bizkit rage machine metallica bruce springsteen played excessive volume long periods time detainees indicated music used weapon designed deprive sleep cause overstimulation psychologically intolerable contrast promoting conflict causing distress music used many years attempts resolve conflict support peace instance buwaya kalingga people established peace pacts consolidated feasts use specific songs prudente bergh sloboda review point since early increasing use music arts reduce conflict balkans israel palestine music arts frequently used mediation efforts sudan music used meeting place different music inclusion social cohesion ethnic groups displaced result year civil war bergh initiatives included recording joint israelipalestinian cds music therapy children ng brassband performances children different ethnic groups veledar bornstein researched artistic religious contributions peace building indonesia music poetry used attempt resolve conflict cyprus ungerleider elsewhere epskamp bang review literature investigated artistic engagement could facilitate transformative learning development skills capacities constructive engagement conflict fostering new perspectives ultimately cooperative relationships zelizer working bosnia herzegovina focused process artistic interventions suggesting conflict could resolved expanding identity participants beyond current group identities also focusing process weaver argued reconciliation parties conflict viewed creative process zelizer suggested changing emotions rational thought necessary achieve reconciliation civil war much research conflict reduction criticised outcomes based perceptions organising programmes musicians delivering rather participants cohen may distorted reported effectiveness programmes instance fock found teachers danish multicultural music project cautious reporting change pupils responses given questionnaires returned organisers cohen suggested effective projects connect conflict resolution interventions take greater account context lederach also considered artists could contribute peace building review also using empirical data collected conflict transformation projects sudan norwaybergh bergh bergh bergh sloboda concluded interventions ineffective long term relate participants daily lives seems effective make sustainable changes programmes need take place many years multicultural projects music cultures power music shared emphasise differences groups rather similarities exacerbate issues programme intended address imbalance power organisers delivering programme participants also problem establishing efficacy zelizer haskell suggests issues power control need taken account interventions weaker parties may agree avoid future negative consequences academic research area criticised sometimes great emphasis theory rather practice robertson despite difficulties continue discussions music might help supporting resolution conflict lopez urbain considered chapter increasing interest music therapists developing interventions support traumatised conflict edwards ng research focused relationship social cohesion patriotism hamzah colleagues studied impact music malaysia became independent national anthem patriotic songs mobilised state foster sense national cohesion collective identity songs popular accepted malaysian citizens diverse backgrounds part national identity supported repetition national radio television social media platforms group discussions conducted revealed patriotic songs rather commercial popular songs popular wide reaching appeal across different professions ethnicities religions geographic locations patriotic music provided means social cohesion personal intimate affective associations songs solicited individual citizens johan drawing cases intercultural intimacy found production performance studio recordings malaysian artists groupsrevealed malaysian popular music specifically stage maturing nationhood provided important means intercultural cohesion among citizens range ethnicities religions social classes offered intimate creative expression facilitated process everyday social cohesion way music used promote conflict also used increase prejudice instance corte edwards music inclusion social cohesion researched use punk music white power activists end racist rock music movement known white power music emerged great britain connected political parties extreme right throughout expanded significantly multimilliondollar international enterprise promoting white power musicians performing wide range musical genres music particular role recruiting new adherents especially young people authors concluded white power music continued play significant role mobilisation racist political social movements drawing new recruits cultivating racist collective identity generating substantial sums money finance range racist endeavours contrast roberts provided examples punk involvement leftwing social movements including rock racism movement uk peace movement us punk ethic independent media construction centre punk movement made possible punks make connections various social movements addition altering dynamics social movements eyerman drawing research civil rights movement united states memory slavery formation africanamerican identity place whitepower music contemporary neofascist movements outlined music act political mediator research focused specifically using music reduce prejudice instance northern ireland odena studied perceptions practitioners engaged musical activities cross community settings working protestant catholic groups interview data showed crosscommunity music education projects effective means addressing prejudice amongst young people specific contexts setting put limits could achieved similarly folk songs used israel bring palestinian jewish children families together cross community school visits lichman lichman sullivan songs promoting social inclusion reduce prejudice discrimination aggression groups promote cultural understanding instance greitemeyer schwab series experiments showed participants listened songs prointegration relative neutral lyrics expressed less prejudice less aggressive power music helpful towards outgroup member effects unaffected liking song mood arousal properties songs employed suggesting prointegration content lyrics achieved effects clarke colleagues reported outcome empirical study demonstrating passive listening music unfamiliar culture could significantly change cultural attitudes listeners high levels empathy research areas relating way music bring change shown sustainable change tends occur participation active involves participants regular use musical skills period months opposed days spychiger et al harland et al music refugees many years australia one multicultural countries world although globalisation increased number people arriving countries vastly different backgrounds experiences ideologies values belief systems gifford colleagues carried longitudinal study explore experiences newly arrived young people refugee backgrounds first year school focused developing english language skills exception instances teasing bullying experience positive transition mainstream school felt inadequate english language skills engage fully educational requirements felt less supported teachers academic work declined feelings belonging safety significant increase experiences discrimination complete secondary education instead seeking technical training employment many part intact family family instability feature lives family support weakening time may valued wider ethnic community experienced discrimination violence ethnicity religion colour despite often traumatic lives prior arrival exhibited considerable personal strengths nevertheless faced many challenges coupled burdens shouldered families impact ability reach full potential early years settlement australia perhaps large number music inclusion social cohesion immigrants considerable research australia possible impact music supporting integration young children playground games provide mechanism included school environment retaining connections home cultures marsh dieckmann marsh explored music participation specifically participation musical play could contribute wellbeing newlyarrived refugee migrant children providing new musical social beginnings specific reference made children iraq south sudan sierra leone australia punjabi children uk newly arrived central south american immigrants usa school catering newlyarrived immigrants music used support acculturation integration marsh b young people aged years old participated musical activities designed provide opportunities cultural maintenance crosscultural transmission verbal nonverbal communication view developing interpersonal connections social cohesion empowerment varied learning teaching performance opportunities participation performance major school concert important achieving aims key outcomes students included feelings belonging school community wider australian community well global music community reached various technological media marsh b marsh focused collaborative music dance activities sierra leone youth group attending intensive english language centre newly arrived students marginalised young people music dance activities conceived within socially framework provided opportunities participatory parity cultural justice social inclusion within communities home host cultures also australia crawford reported findings case study investigated impact music education students school victoria music education used vehicle engage young people refugee background findings indicated classroom music fostered socially inclusive practices resulted positive transcultural learning space supported young refugees fostering sense wellbeing belonging enhanced engagement learning benefits always power music clearly distinguished general experience school students identify elements musiclearning teaching linked outcomes multiple case study three schools victoria crawford explored perceptions experiences practices teachers directly indirectly involved music education schools high percentage young people refugee background intercultural competence socially inclusive behaviours seamlessly embedded music learning activities offer studentcentred active practical experiential authentic also australia lenette colleagues studied group music facilitators regularly attended immigration transit accommodation facility share music singing activities detained asylum seekers monthly written observations facilitators analysed revealed links music singing health wellbeing detained asylumseekers related humanisation community resilience agency sunderland colleagues reported outcomes exploratory narrative study impact participatory musicmaking social determinants health wellbeing refugees brisbane mapped reported outcomes five refugee asylumseeker members participatory brisbane based music initiative scattered people three key aspects critical wellbeing cultural expression musicmaking consolidation personal social identity cain colleagues using qualitative methods explored participatory music making within immigrant communities could influence wellbeing three broadly defined cultural groups living region participated people baltic origin latin american caribbean backgrounds newly arrived immigrants refugees individual interviews analysed showed musical involvement affected mental social emotional wellbeing focusing staff refugee asylum seeker music programme sunderland colleagues showed shared common concern promoting social justice using music participation creation dissemination research australia concerned experiences migrant musicians mani investigated multiple often marginalised ways knowing educating performing music inclusion social cohesion migrant musicians south east queensland wide range activities undertook new homes built capacity also added culturally derived value lives lives encountered three key features central lives livelihoods connectedness selfidentity wellbeing magowan considered complex emotional dynamics emerged music facilitators music producers asylum seekers variously navigated experiences dislocation replacement recounting painful journeys immersed singers music producers reciprocal recognition reimagining events empathic process empowering asylumseekers aboriginal australians songs australia considerable body research undertaken norway four percent norwegian population refugee background region refugees children six fifteen years age statistics norway norwegian concert agency initiated threeyear programme introducing multicultural musicteaching norwegian primary schools eighteen schools around capital took part research project determine effects immigrant musicians introducing music countries origin fourth grade children positive results emerged particularly regard reduced harassment ethnic tension multicultural music regularly school concert agenda total concerts presented quarter total norwegian school population skyllstad skyllstad initiated threeyear research project aimed understanding cultural traditions immigrant communities oslo preventing discriminatory attitudes project also aimed releasing promoting artistic talents resources immigrant communities cooperation leading artists countries origin fields music dance participating schools benefited programme improved interethnic relationships reduction incidents harassment enhanced selfimage immigrant children easily accepted intercultural initiatives followed multicultural music centre founded arranged yearly world music festival similar projects establishedfor power music instance einarsen fock generally less positive outcomes reported skyllstad bergh followed performances traditional folk classical music musicians home countries immigrant groups years later found although participants recalled programme enjoyed time little impact daily lives relationships groups see connections musical performances musicians populations countries contrast enge stige explored music therapy public primary school rural area western norway focused refugee childrens social wellbeing emphasis peer community children offered music therapy faced various challenges including living difficult home situations struggling academically socially music therapy participatory exploratory character successfully nurtured childrens capacity regulate emotions engage social participation studying refugee camp greece people iraq syria living year millar warwick aimed improve understanding relationship music wellbeing young refugees aged data collected fiveweek period observation individual music lessons group music workshops involving three twelve participants semistructured interviews findings showed actively making music could impact positively young peoples wellbeing enabling development emotional expression improved social relations selfknowledge positive selfidentification sense agency london clini colleagues undertook collaborative study using focus groups indepth semistructured interviews asylumseekers refugees showed participants articulated impact creative activities around three main themes skills social engagement personal emotions activities helped participants find voice create support networks learn practical skills useful labour market wales vougioukalou colleagues using observations interviews explored effect participating weekly structured musical activities improvisation well public performances music inclusion social cohesion observed improvisation encouraged individual unscripted performances instilled confidence solo performance gave individuals experienced displacement marginalisation chance lead safe performative space gave participants chance follow accompany compositions instrumentally vocally drawing cultural traditions thus creating innovative crosscultural pieces provided participants audience members unique irreplicable experience triggered imaginations prompting questions discussion participants findings suggest combination structured improvisational musical activity help foster sense wellbeing social inclusion change power dynamics create opportunities crosscultural dialogue create community people different locations situations welsh choral tradition arts local community provided receptive environment diverse group performers connecting wider local community arts scene led individual collective wider societal benefits usa muriithi using interviews observations performances explored lived experience six refugee musicians involved music prior entering usa traumatic experiences resulted fleeing homes seek refuge elsewhere resettled united states continued suffer experience loss need adapt change struggle trauma negative emotions music method healing trauma facilitating integration supported healing enabling forget problems communicate message hope integrate thus reducing isolation loneliness review henderson colleagues identified possible positive health wellbeing outcomes participatory music activities culturally linguistically diverse people could described vulnerable risk particular migrant populations concluded insufficient evidence existing research draw clear conclusions similarly lennette sunderland mapped potential participatory music practices support health wellbeing outcomes asylumseekers refugees conflict settings refugee camps resettlement contexts findings highlighted different roles music peoples lives moved towards power music resettlement music might support health wellbeing population social inclusion several approaches defining social inclusion overarching approach considers terms interaction psychological sociological factors including motivation loneliness selfefficacy anxiety selfesteem selfregulation identity development feelings contentment belonging social relationships networks group coherence dynamics marginalisation integration interaction social sharing enabling social relations baumeister et al considered earlier chapters music play role enhancing social inclusion many everyday situations rather limited relating largescale conflict musicmaking used support children young people risk poverty prejudice disaffection involvement judicial system instance ho colleagues reported positive changes wellbeing mental health following drumming intervention lowincome children barrett bond found music inclusion social cohesion participation music programme enhanced musical academic social competence confidence connection character caring students four socioeconomically disadvantaged school settings similarly fanian colleagues evaluated creative arts workshop t\u0142\u012fch \u01eb youth circumpolar arctic subarctic regions enabled young people perceived risk explore critical community issues find solutions together using arts observations focus groups questionnaires reflective practice adopted participating young people reported gaining confidence new skills artistic personal many found workshops engaging enjoyable culturally relevant expressed interest continuing involvement arts spreading messages art young people others communities however shortterm nature programmes makes drawing conclusions efficacy difficult instance millar colleagues reported project involving sessions participatory musicmaking hardtoreach young people aged aimed engage terms music resonated lived experience need stability required longterm engagement uk positive benefits selfefficacy selfesteem found lookedafter children dillon criminal justice system daykin et al programmes juvenile offenders successfully addressed complex mental health symptoms behavioural regulation difficulties increased academic performance family functioning bittman et al rapppaglicci et al coutinho colleagues b two reviews showed possible benefits range music interventions adult offenders norway waakter colleagues researched impact music young people experienced serious multiple life stresses cain colleagues carried review explore whether participatory music activities could promote positive outcomes young people culturally linguistically diverse communities characterised risk reported range positive wellbeing health outcomes addition enhanced cultural empathy delgado argued performing arts implemented effectively attract young people schools outofschool settings power music referred third area school family latter nonstigmatising communitybased venues supplement enhance formal education providing counternarrative young people enable resist labels placed serving vehicle reactivity selfexpression performing arts support creative expression transformative individuals communities group musicmaking offers opportunity engage wider cultural experiences explore new ideas places perspectives supports social cohesion broadening experiences israel benefits extend beyond participants include families whole communities creech et al research undertaken context school music education early research switzerland showed increasing amount class music within curriculum detrimental effect language reading skills despite reduction time lessons spychiger et al zulauf led increased social cohesion within class greater selfreliance better social adjustment positive attitudes effects particularly marked lowability disaffected pupils spychiger et al finland eerola eerola studied children participated extended music education classes age nine four hours week compared minutes remaining children end programme children receiving additional classes reported positive classroom climate satisfaction school life however attending additional classes selected strong musical skills may influenced outcomes although factors may important including shared musical interests positive feedback public performance intense emotional experiences feelings affiliation prosocial effects joint musical activities national study children uk sing relatively musically skilled likely report socially included welch et al later analysis welch et al matched data participants following three years sing project suggested engagement musical activities impacted sense self sense music inclusion social cohesion social integration irrespective age sex ethnicity similarly rinta colleagues explored connections childrens musical backgrounds feelings social inclusion data gathered eight elevenyearold children uk finland findings showed children played musical instrument sang family friends regularly felt socially included spain almau found extracurricular musical activities contributed towards increased school attendance social inclusion roma children also spain musicalizatech project promoted musical creativity secondary highschool students showed clear impact participants relation development social emotional skills problemsolving teamwork development technological skills creative processes cuadrado et al contrast usa gerrard found interviews students band leaders teachers parents administrators middleschool band programme latinx students meet needs uncomfortable band model wanted creative work music familiar music teachers face range challenges related social inclusion decide whether part role address issues instance evron working art educator israel considered whether teachers arts ignore violent experiences students relate curriculum address problems simply expect creative activities enable students express fears life experiences avoiding political issues issue whether teachers arts respond challenges reengaging disaffected young people inclusive teaching practices go beyond way burnard review karlsen westerlund argued musical education immigrant students could seen healthy test educational context terms democracy enacted bates considered issues relating social class school music concluded need provide free equitable music education students understand respect cultural backgrounds also recognise social forces perpetuate poverty several authors commented lack equity opportunities different groups power music england griffiths found female black minority ethnic students well represented elite music education poorly represented professional repertoire percent performed pieces white composers percent men treacy found challenges female musician teachers encountered pursuit careers nepal addressed shared visions music education usa palmer considered music educators could address issues discrimination appeared beyond control also usa baird interviewed nine teachers investigate engaged preschool elementaryaged children singing talking social justice issues barriers perceived practice schools society parents educators songmakers could bring changes would improve ability children sing social justice american schools wider society relatively recent past arts general used attempt address social inequality uneven distribution wealth resources inequity unfair differences society environment wealthy poor countries around world parkinson et al instance ireland study deprived area cork explored impact wide music education project feelings social inclusion exhibited local residents findings indicated music could used tool tackle social exclusion educational disadvantage minguella buchanan tasmania langston barrett examined social capital community choir using survey field notes semistructured interviews many social capital indicators evident choir shared norms values trust civic community involvement networks knowledge resources contact families friends fellowship identified key component fostering group cohesion development social capital laing mair studied role music festivals helping build strong cohesive communities found organisation festivals might contribute social inclusion providing opportunities local participation learning new skills access education social justice although organisers tended direct social inclusion efforts towards attendees rather reaching local residents limiting impact local community social inclusion generally music inclusion social cohesion overview evidence relating role music social cohesion demonstrates clearly power music successfully used promote prejudice enhance national identities political purposes used bolster morale engaged warfare humiliate terrorise opponents attempts use music positively promote social cohesion already previously engaged conflict limited success cases highlighted differences groups exacerbating problems active music making may offer support breaking barriers different ethnic religious groups effectiveness given situation depends depth strength existing prejudices current political climate seen chapters music therapy offer support traumatised conflict enhance selfbeliefs members marginalised groups engaged music education faced challenges deciding whether overtly address issues relating prejudice classes consistently adopt inclusive teaching strategies narrowly focus teaching musical issues music everyday life development electronic media latter part th century revolutionised access use music everyday lives western world music pervades every aspect lives clarke et al music played supermarkets shopping precincts restaurants places worship schools radio television medium recordings music plays important role theatre tv films video advertising music available wide variety formats radio recordings smartphones computers stream music demand new technologies changed way people able interact music nill geipel making music easily accessible time wide variety contexts heye lamont juslin et al individuals able control listen music led complex patterns everyday music usage storage leading highly personalised categorisation music greasley lamont users adopt different ways managing playlists fuse new ways collecting music practices predigital collecting hagen digital music facilitated greater interactivity user device music kibby moved collecting music tangible experience ephemeral one mccourt reflection extent people engage music size music industry uk usa amongst top generators income prior developments music accessible people made attended religious social events alongside increased availability music listening also greater opportunities actively making music many people ages learn play instruments sing participate musical groups although degree himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music participation extent depends financial resources abrsm music leisure listening music top leisure activity many people rentfrow gosling engaging leisure activities long history going back least fourth century bce aristotle referred constituting important element life citizens athens including experience melody drama poetry dance perceived important supporting happiness hallam et al recently stebbins distinguished casual leisurewhich mainly includes enjoyable social interactions selfgratification behavioursand serious leisure requires significant effort participating serious leisure fall three groups amateurs hobbyists volunteers amateurs share similar expectations professionals rely general public appreciate support activities hobbyists dedicated lesser extent activities frequently undertaken alone volunteers provide help formally informally dabblers dilettantes participate specific leisure activity brief period time limited extent amateur musicians engage musical activities personal amusement serious leisure activity many activities engage indistinguishable undertaken professional musicians music constitutes key part identity invest much time energy start active engagement music motivations may vary dabblers dilettantes great commitment spend little time practising limits musical development benefits may derive others may totally committed aspire amateur professional status hobbyists stebbins enthusiasts keown tend focus listening large music collections highquality equipment invest considerable time learning adding collections regular attenders concerts festivals tend higher levels musical experience rate music important lives less committed listeners dabblers dilettantes recreationists enjoy music major focus lives although important music everyday life relatively little research attention given understanding behaviours music enthusiasts soundrecording collectors keown mainly men may actively participate collecting soundrecording albums fulfil multiple motivational desires including love music obsessivecompulsive behaviour accumulation completism selectivity discrimination self education scholarship shuker lacher mizerski describe behaviour terms affective responses experiential responses ability swept music need reexperience music influential factors include perceived knowledge illusion knowing objective knowledge knowing based datasupported information opinion leadership allowing individuals opinions influence purchasing behaviours enduring involvement relating product support selfimage better predictors motivation purchase particular recordings demographic variables age social class marital status flynn et al although recordcollecting general identified male characteristic straw technological developments led distinctions terms technology users technology consumers different downloading profiles occasional downloaders online listeners explorer pioneers curious duplicators molteni ordanini related concept enthusiasts fandom conceptualised psychological symptom presumed social dysfunction jenson although also logical consumer strategy focusing pleasure identity development association identifiable capital stevens fandom also related seeking interpersonal relationships music fans duffett whatever musical activity level commitment time spent engaging music impacts benefits derived dedicated fan requires sufficient finance attend concerts pay recordings really dedicated travel distant performances higher incomes required bennett et al power music listening music listening music key leisure activity many people rentfrow gosling easy availability music nowadays means people able interact music time variety contexts listening motivated desire aesthetic experience regulation moods emotions groake hogan promote wellbeing longterm illness batt rawden et al help accessing new ways krueger considered depth chapter music frequently used regulatory strategy maintaining changing moods silk thayer et al one common reasons listening music people generally use music enhance positive emotions used explore negative themes instance distress suicide death subsequently increase depressive symptoms suicidal thoughts scheel westefeld negative outcomes exacerbated interactions like minded others music also negative impact individuals exposed music dislike contexts control unable remove situation cause extreme distress variation extent listeners aware impact music moods typically older people women aware amongst young people girls likely use music cope personal problems kind lay therapeutic practice battrawden denora boys tend use increase energy promote image north et al wells hakanen open intellectually engaged individuals higher levels intelligence tend use music rational cognitive way neurotic introverted nonconscientious individuals likely use music emotional regulation extroverts tend adopt emotional approach listening use background activities chamorropremuzic furnham chamorropremuzic et al use music regulate moods may related musical preferences instance eclectic preferences shown correlate emotionality listening behne wells hakanen flexibility using music music everyday life moodrelated needs schwartz fouts arnett discusses individuals set selecting using music serve needs wants purposes many years controversy extent engaging depictions violence range mediaor listening music violent lyricsimpacts behaviour violent media exposure risk factor aggression short longterm harmful effects including increases aggressive thoughts behaviour desensitisation violence decrease prosocial behaviour empathy however accumulation risk factors relative lack protective factors leads violence rather one single factor anderson et al bender et al browne hamiltongiachritsis case music relationships certain types music instance hard rock heavy metal hip hop rap punk alcohol substance abuse violent behaviour delinquency lozon bensimon experimental study shown misogynous aggressive song lyrics played male females respond negatively opposite sex recall negative attributes neutral lyrics played fischer greitmeyer teenage sexual attitudes norms desires intentions impacted kind music prefer listen agboquaye sexual violent slang expressions nigerian hip hop reflected nigerian highereducation students linguistic expressions sexuality violence onanuga onanuga appreciation rhythmic flow melodic structure particular artists genres revulsion misogynistic sexist messages lead internal conflict young women zichermann overall lyrics music may risk factor violent misogynistic behaviour factors determine whether translates actual behaviour although clear influence language attitudes subtle effect may impact behaviour everyday life attending live musical events attendance live music event indicates greater level commitment music listening recorded music typically motivated power music hearing particular artist style music learning new music personal social reasons example going friends part community pitts burland strong experiences music commonly occur live settings tend enhanced performers interact audience appear enjoying experience transforms experience passive active music festivals offer unique opportunities intense musical experiences physical proximity performers social interactions music making contribution festival context provide sense community help support development identity although risks associated alcohol drug abuse negative behaviours sense separation everyday life distinguishes festivals musical experiences leading participants reflect lives clubbing also creates distinctive musical environment mobile phones play important role managing experience helping develop clubbing friendships supporting friendly vibe club culture bull actively making music many people ages learn play instruments sing participate musical groups past although extent types opportunity vary participation frequently depends financial resources abrsm cultures musicmaking central activity mekranoti indians primarily huntergatherers living amazon rainforest brazil spend two hours day making music women sing two hours morning evening men sing early day frequently half hour sunset historically activity related need vigilance case attack nowadays continues probably intrinsically rewarding werner western cultures musicmaking play central role everyday life people listening music common way engaging music reasons adults participation music grouped three broad categories musicmaking musical act deepening musical knowledge understanding social act developing sense belonging making friends likeminded people music everyday life personal reasons skill development selfesteem satisfaction kokotsaki hallam musicmaking generally pleasurable relaxing provides opportunities selfexpression opportunity demonstrate musical skills give structure life offer opportunities develop friendships get relief family work pressures provide spiritual fulfilment member musical group also lead feelings belonging trust cooperation adult participation musicmaking frequently extension engagement active musicmaking childhood home school pattern engagement generally changes course life diminishing middle years increasing retirement lifechanging events sometimes provide impetus reengagement socioeconomic status bennett colleagues examined relationships class gender ethnicity range activities including music film television literary arts consumption also considered organisation sporting culinary practices selfmaintenance found social class powerful indicator nature cultural consumption factors age gender important primary distinction high popular legitimate ordinary cultural forms rather participation nonparticipation although subtle differences related class instance distinction jazz dixieland jazz radio three classic fm north hargreaves b c examination relationships musical preferences factors relating lifestyles different social groups found numerous associations showing fans high lowart musical styles demonstrated preference high lowart media instance reading tv radio leisure activities relation interpersonal relationships living arrangements moral political beliefs criminal behaviour tended association commonly accepted liberal conservative divide musical preferences social class aspects lifestyle instance travel personal finances education employment health drinking power music smoking indicated liking highart music indicative uppermiddle upper classes whereas liking lowart music indicative lifestyle lowermiddle lower classes audience agency studied impact socioeconomic status geographical location engagement cultural activities identified ten distinct groups based cultural values metroculturalsprosperous liberal urbanites interested wide cultural spectrum commuterland culture buffsaffluent professional consumers culture experience seekershighly active diverse social ambitious engaging arts regular basis dormitory dependablesfrom suburban small towns interest heritage activities mainstream arts trips treats enjoy mainstream arts popular culture influenced children family friends home heritagefrom rural areas small towns engaging daytime activities historic events streetmodest habits means occasional engagement popular arts entertainment museums facebook familiesyounger suburban semi urban enjoy live music eating popular entertainment pantomime kaleidoscope creativitymix backgrounds ages occasional visitors participants particularly community based events festivals heydaysolder often limited mobility engage arts cultural events categorisations highlight issues people face accessing live music related finance geographical location music everyday life music arts music plays major role film media without drama would much less interesting instance shower scene psycho disturbing without music much terrifying music contributes enjoyment films tv programmes many ways film music designed influence emotions subconsciously action ambiguous music provide clues going information music help define characters sometimes character given theme frequently effective dialogue providing information audience instance indicating time action taking place indicate urgency building tension something frightening going happen increasing volume creates impression fastmoving sequences music give certain passages continuity divide film segments music accompanies actions mood event better remembered music deepens emotional experience messages culturally specific instance music indicates bravery one culture might indicate evil another cohen listening support everyday activities people rarely listen music specific activity usually accompanies activities although time induce feelings alert positive focused particularly music selfselected sloboda et al although everyday life much musiclistening takes place alongside activities mean listened full attention lamont et al people listen music travelling carrying boring tasks instance housework routine intellectual tasks engaged physical activity music distract energise facilitate moving time enhance meaning greatest impact behaviour selected particular purpose lamont et al common use music travelling helps individual isolate travellers pass time make preparation whatever activity engaged arrival destination bull lamont et al power music music driving effects music driving vary depending type music context characteristics driver survey british drivers revealed approximately two thirds listened recorded music music radio driving reasons listening included relaxation concentration music seen less distracting conversation associations possession motor insurance noclaims bonus preference silence although genre music affected driving performance driver age may mediating factor older drivers listened classical music may less likely involved road accident simply safer drivers lower levels sensationseeking risk taking drink driving youngest age group house dance music associated higher incidence accidents may associated times groups friends travelling together driving night introducing potential distractions challenges instance poor visibility driver drowsiness distractions passengers influence drugs alcohol dibben williamson however possible different genres may affect driving safety musical characteristics dance house music tend characterised fast tempo high volume complex rhythmic patterns layered textures highly arousing increase alertness alternatively divert attention away driving brodsky recarte nunes may also result greater aggression wheel wiesenthal et al using driving simulator catalina colleagues investigated extent listening music could affect young drivers emotions driving performance found driving music increased tendency increase speed level particularly happy music playing relaxing music music reduced probability speeding also using simulated driving navarro colleagues manipulated musical background using preferred researcherselected music played different tempi listening music influenced drivers performance tempo arousing music improved drivers responsiveness changes speed vehicle following cancelled music everyday life reduction intervehicle safety margin also simulating driving arafat colleagues investigated effects natural sounds classical music hard rock driving performance driving efficient natural sounds inaccurate hard rock participants perceptions impact music driving reflected findings studying young adults broader travelling context heye lamont showed listeners consciously chose music depending current goals may linked destination listeners created auditory bubble enhanced awareness surroundings although partly permeable denora also suggested personal listening created environment asylum provided space explore inner reality time removed connection human beings music work accompany mental activity music always played major part work activities continues used coordinate movement alleviate boredom develop team spirit speed pace work nowadays singing accompany work uncommon developed world office environment listen recorded music report improved mood providing able select music tasks routine solitary music improve concentration focus relieve boredom reduce stress block unwanted noise lamont et al increasing access music contributed changes listening music offices employees listen music personal listening devices survey musiclistening office settings uk found employees listened music third working week listened wide variety styles artists music helped engage escape work often used seal office environment managed listening disturb colleagues appear unprofessional front clients haake companies come recognise music support job performance foster ethical conduct meyer generally cognitive work enhanced playing calming relaxing music although task boring stimulating music power music may required maintain concentration however tasks involving rote memorisation tend disrupted music although act mnemonic support memory factual information hallam macdonald hallam rogers saw chapter schoolchildren students frequently play music completing academic work driving effect music depends range factors interact together including complexity task nature music children behavioural difficulties may particular difficulties concentration helped calming music playing background hallam macdonald music exercise regular physical activity benefits physical mental health music common accompaniment exercise whether gym outside park streets music played exercise shown optimise arousal facilitate taskrelevant imagery improve performance simple motoric tasks repetitive endurance activities preferred motivational stimulative music reduces levels perceived exertion improves energy efficiency leads increased work output highintensity exercise carefully selected music promote ergogenic psychological benefits although appear help reducing perceptions exertion beyond anaerobic threshold medium tempo music enhance positive feelings highintensity exercise recovery periods medium fast music increase zoning enjoyment remembered pleasure karageorghis et al high humidity high temperature conditions time exhaustion music playing longer perceived exhaustion lower nikol et al music effective accompanies selfpaced exercise selected motivational karageorghis priest schneider colleagues also showed adequate choice music exercise enhanced performance output mood potteiger colleagues found different types music acted distractors exercise associated lower ratings perceived exertion differences musical preferences exercising influenced music everyday life age working gyms older people prefer quieter slower less stimulative motivational music priest et al review terry colleagues concluded music associated significant beneficial effects affect physical performance perceived exertion oxygen consumption heart rate effects moderated context exercise opposed sport tempo music music commerce consumption recorded music played extensively workplaces shops airports restaurants hotels commercial industrial uses music constitute major industries general rule people tend avoid music like attracted places find music appealing led various authorities use music persuade people consider undesirable relocate specific public places typically opera classical music used purpose police also used music try reduce aggressive behaviour groups people drinking heavily playing childrens songs calming pleasant music everyday life music used manipulate purchased advertising create appropriate ambience retail settings music achieves capacity change arousal emotions way associated particular events items one strand research focused role music store ambience instance ishar colleagues studied consumer purchasing behaviour selfservice convenience stores sri lanka found music one several factors influenced purchasing along scent light singh colleagues found appropriate background music helped retailers create desirable store atmosphere contributed image store allied consumer preferences playing right kind music direct impact consumer behaviour within store farias et al preferred music played customers stay longer comfortable relaxed likely purchase background music fast loud causing discomfort less time spent shopping appropriate level arousal induced music increases pleasure power music positively influences satisfaction shopping experience moran et al music also affect perceptions atmosphere banks bars north et al speed people shop positively related tempo volume background music milliman found slow music led supermarket customers shopping slowly spending money perhaps took time browse available products smith curnow found customers spent less time store loud music playing although difference amount money spent type music influence bought one study stereotypical french german music played store influenced whether french german wine purchased although customers unaware influence music north et al similarly soundtrack depicting natureinfluenced perceptions country origin orange juice cost whether oranges genetically modified beliefs health benefits drinking north et al lacher mizerski examined purchasing new rock music found sensorial emotional imaginal analytical responses music direct effects responses turn influenced purchase intention strongest indicator purchase intention need reexperience music covid pandemic led major increase online purchasing within context hwang colleagues found interactive opposed static background music enhanced experiential value ecommerce consumers music used entice people retail establishments north hargreaves demonstrated setting advice stall caf\u00e9 university campus offered leaflets advice students range issues pop music played three levels complexity moderately complex music positively influenced approach towards stall although actually visiting preferred music better attracting students stall music although disliked music acted deterrent different kinds music impact perceptions ambience also affect amount money spent instance north hargreaves played pop classical easy listening music everyday life music caf\u00e9 four days customers rated ambience caf\u00e9 also indicated much prepared spend typical items instance slice pizza canned drink popular music playing caf\u00e9 seen lively youthful classical music led perceptions upmarket sophisticated stereotypical piped music led perceptions downmarket customers prepared pay money kind music playing contrast silence classical music led customers prepared pay areni kim played classical pop music wine cellar found although two different types music lead customers buying wine classical music led customers buying expensive wine suggested classical music primed customers feel affluent act accordingly restaurant setting north colleagues also found customers spent money classical music played opposed pop music positive effects classical music spending particularly marked nonessential items starter coffee afterwards sounds made consuming food affect perceived instance potato crisps perceived tasting fresher sound biting louder zampini spence discontinuous uneven sounds influence perceptions crispy vickers wasserman music influence perceptions flavour music selected reflect descriptors often used describe wine instance heavy subtle refined zingy refreshing mellow soft influenced perceived taste wine direction emotions symbolised music north research focused impact music speed consumption food drink instance milliman studied restaurant customers found slow music led customers eating slowly completing meal hour average compared three quarters hour fast music played caf\u00e9 setting roballey colleagues found fast music led customers eating bites per minute slow music playing spending may also affected slow music leading greater spending drinks milliman student cafe power music diners asked say much liked music north hargreaves b data showing moderately complex music popular also clear music disliked noticeable became music plays key role advertising persuade customers buy particular products music needs appropriate customers need understand advertising message also able relate emotional elements music successful advertisements provide information emotional power attitudes potential customers changed music conforms conception nature product instance exciting classical music might used advertise expensive sports car food adverts tend accompanied cheerful songs may include product name lyrics north colleagues prepared radio adverts five brands online bank people carrier bathroom cleaner chocolate bar high sugar drink addition voiceover music played fit characteristics brand recall product higher adverts featured music fitted advertised product music wellmatched product better remembered audio branding form jingles signature tunes support memory brand overall music effective helping enhance appeal products promote memory \u00e7upi morma deaville et al north et al rathee pallavi economics music music makes major contribution economies locally nationally internationally including recordings radio livemusic venues production distribution applications including ringtones computer games films childrens toys background business environments employment musicians music economy spread across categories economic activity construction manufacturing wholesaling retailing consumer services public sector musicians work employees selfemployment largest groups music dance education broadcasting software computer services beyers et al uk music music everyday life introduction streaming services presented particular challenges industry molteni ordanini musicians music industries generally concentrated relatively small number large regional centres least case usa ukflorida et al although music festivals kinds major impact local economies even entrance events free considerable benefits local economy generally bracalente et al tohmo usa music industry recently accounted billion music market research uk accounted billion employed almost people accounted billion exports billion music tourism uk music music nonhuman species music impact animals plants music part enriched environment shown positive impact many nonhuman species including domestic animals reared farms captivity zoos wildlife parks aim playing music generally enhance wellbeing although research exploring benefits cognition instance music shown positive effect rats mazelearning capacity rauscher reported rats exposed mozarts sonata k completed maze faster fewer errors minimalist music white noise silence background suggesting repeated exposure complex music improved spatial temporal reasoning similarly tonon amaral colleagues assessed effect classical heavy metal music short longterm memory rats exposed music eight hours day days exposure rats familiarised two objects memory tested ninety minutes days rats exposed either type music performed better controls regard shortterm memory although impact longterm memory suggesting temporary effect within agricultural context one strand research focused impact playing music cows milked instance north mackenzie found dairy cows power music increased milk production three quarters litre day listening slow rather fast music nineweek period exposure pleasant auditory environment alleviated stress encouraged relaxation resulted greater milk yields similarly mallick colleagues studied amount milk produced aged crossbred cows following instrumental music playing background milking milk production increased particularly evening may stressful time cows prior exposure music also agricultural context jiafang colleagues found repeated sound stimulation mozart mechanical noise natural sound background affected behaviour physiology immunity hybrid piglets exposed six hours sound stimulation per day short term music reduced stress responses long term enhanced immune responses noise increased aggressive behaviour reduced immunity music also benefit domestic animals particularly dogs cats hospitalised receiving veterinary care rescue centre wells colleagues explored influence five types auditory stimulationhuman conversation classical heavy metal pop musicon behaviour dogs living rescue shelter dogs exposed type auditory stimulation four hours one day conditions classical music led time spent resting heavy metal encouraged barking stimuli effects review mcdonald zaki showed classical music could influence behaviour physiological measures associated canine stress responses heart rate variability level vocalisation time spent resting animal hospital settings boone quelch showed harp therapy decreased restless behaviour anxiety respiration rate hospitalised dogs postsurgical care research focusing domestic cats hampton colleagues found music reduced stress veterinary context effective music designed specifically cats classical music relation music plants retallack claimed plants exposed soothing music showed better growth healthier without music ramekar gurjar showed vedic chanting positive effect plant growth leaf size music everyday life internodes parts plant carrying water hormones food nodes chowdhury gupta studied effects different types sound health growth marigolds using light indian meditative music well noise also monitored germination chickpea exposed light indian music music promoted growth development plants including germination whereas noise hindered focusing role sound germination okra zucchini seeds creath schwartz used musical sound pink noise healing energy musical sound highly significant effect number seeds germinated compared untreated control effect independent temperature seed type position room specific petri dish person scoring overview music plays major role everyday life major leisure activity also supports undertaking many everyday tasks including travelling exercise intellectual work people listen music pleasure also manipulate consolidate moods cases negative effects individual differences extent people aware effects music fewer people actively engaged making music attending live events perhaps lack opportunity financial constraints types music listened musical activities engaged depend broadly economic factors age individual dispositions music plays crucial role arts commerce purchasing advertising also makes major contribution local national economies benefits music also seen nonhuman species including growth productivity animals agricultural sector growth germination process plantsreflections exploration evidence power music perhaps surprising aspect exploration evidence relating power music fact much research related wide range methods adopted study impact many different musical activities people need scientific evidence demonstrate power music recognise power everyday activities use manage moods emotions although may consciously aware extent powerfor instance influencing buy consumption food drink way used advertising drama films certainly engaged commerce aware musics impact use manipulate behaviour hold political power deliberately used music generate prejudice violence approved application torture extreme recognised power music controlling banning possible benefits listening making music health wellbeing broadly recognised although often conjunction conventional treatments even conditions particularly helpful reducing stress anxiety pain way directly affects opioid systems brain however individual level think power music terms benefits health wellbeing individuals may reinforce existing negative emotions exacerbating mental ill health reflection lack power quite reverse demonstrates powerful negative effects himonides cc byncnd httpsdoiorg obp power music assessing impact actively making music music therapy challenging effects music cannot easily disentangled social elements necessarily mean music make contribution clearly many cases may exceptions instance individuals like particular musical genres specific musical activities relationships facilitating musical activities play key role bringing change quality facilitation cases relationships quality musical experience may important actual musical activities making creating music others social event social nature important factor success failure impact activity selfefficacy selfesteem overall selfbeliefs depends feedback others musical activity leads feedback given may always positive feedback negative likely negative effects lead individual looking rewarding ways spend time major controversies relation research lessened escalated time concern impact music various aspects cognition particularly children young people also older age evidence neuroscience clearly shown learning play musical instrument leads changes brain extent changes transfer activities hotly debated although evidence impact range aural skills strong might expected activities require high levels aural perception analysis sound skills turn important development language evidence transfer skillsfor instance spatiotemporal reasoning executive functioning literacy mathematics intelligence aspects memory academic attainmentis mixed possible causes outlined argued gold standard research requires random allocation participants intervention control groups latter alternative activity rather activity paradigm gained credibility routine use medical research however medical research typically take account individual differences involve human interaction level likely affect outcomes case reflections exploration evidence power music research involving musical activity outcomes listening music depend many individual differences including personality gender musical preferences musical experience also vary depending whether listening undertaken alone others considering actively making music possible confounding factors even greater research evidence might stronger control groups participate alternative activities reason activities equally successful bringing positive change fact sport visual art instance may generate positive change undermine possible impact music types musical engagement may advantages interventions complex demands make participating individuals aurally emotionally intellectually physically socially evidence stands moment clear musical activities might beneficial promoting particular outcome currently much evidence mixed extent explicable terms different musical activities studied research methods used research wider benefits music high priority research funders may many years possible provide clear guidance musical interventions might lead particular outcomes qualities delivery interventions key successbibliography aalbers fusarpoli l freeman r e spreen ket j c vink c maratos crawford chen xj gold c music therapy 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zuijen van sussman e winkler n\u00e4\u00e4t\u00e4nen r tervaniemi auditory organization sound sequences temporal numerical regularitya mismatch negativity study comparing musicians nonmusicians cognitive brain research httpsdoi orgjcogbrainres zuk j benjamin c kenyon gaab n behavioral neural correlates executive functioning musicians nonmusicians plos one e httpsdoiorgjournalpone bibliography zuk j gaab n evaluating predisposition training shaping musicians brain need developmental perspective annals new york academy sciences httpsdoiorg nyas zuk j ozernovpalchik kim h lakshminarayanan k gabrieli j e tallal p gaab n enhanced syllable discrimination thresholds musicians plos one e httpsdoiorgjournal pone zulauf three year experiment extended music teaching switzerland different effects observed group french speaking pupils bulletin council research music education zyga russ w meeker h kirk j preliminary investigation schoolbased musical theater intervention program children intellectual disabilities journal intellectual disabilities httpsdoiorg \u00e7up\u0131 b mor\u0131na influential poser importance music advertising marketing journal life economics index \u03b2endorphin abrsm abuse accommodation accompaniment accuracy acoustic activation active acute adaptive addiction adhd adolescence see adolescent adolescent see adolescence adrenocorticotropic hormone adulthood advantage aesthetic affective affirmation africa africanamerican afterschool agedecelerating ageing agematched agency organisation agerelated aggression aggressive agitation agreeableness agricultural aims alcohol alcoholics alertness alexithymia toronto alexithymia scale altruism alzheimers disease alzheimers disease amateur power music america amplitude amusement amusia congenital amygdala analogue scale anatomical anger anorexia antenatal anterior anthem antidepressant anxiety aphasia appreciation aptitude architecture arithmetic army see military arterial articulation articulatory articulatory suppression artist artistic artsbased asia assessment assignment associative asylumseeker asymmetry leftward athlete athletic atmosphere atonal atrisk attention attentional abilities attentional processes attentional system attentional control impairment attentive analytical listening attitudes cultural discriminatory towards learning towards music towards offending towards prisoners towards self towards sex towards elderly audiation audiobook audiovisual audition index auditorymotor aural australia austria authentic cadence autism spectrum disorder autobiographical memory automation instruction processes skills autonomic nervous system autonomy axial diffusivity babies basal ganglia basal metabolic rate baseline basque country beatmaking behavioural modelling behavioural problems bereavement betaendorphin bias big five personality test bilateral bilingualism bimanual coordination movements patterns synchronisation training biological birth blending blood flow blood oxygenation blood pressure blues bonding boredom bottomup processes boundaries boy brain damage music brain injury brainstem bravery brazil breathing british columbia bullying cadence calmness canada cancer cantonese cardiovascular career plans power music caregiver care home carer see caregiver caribbean catharsis cats causality cds cell nerve cell transplant transplants cell transplants cellular immunity censorship cerebellum cerebral activation areas cortex functions hemispheres palsy processing ceremonies change readiness chanting chess chicago chills phenomenon china choir chord chronic illness chronic sleep disorder chronic stressors cingulate circuitry citizenship civil war clapping classical classroombased training close relatives closure cluster analysis cluster randomised controlled trial coaching coarse temporal scales cochlea cochlear implant cognitive control cognitive impairment cognitively unimpaired cognitive maturation cognitive processing coherence collaboration college attainment college students coloured blocks index columbia comfort communication music communicative gestures communitybased comorbidity comparative study composers composite composition comprehensive neuropsychological battery computer music computerised concertos concerts conductor conflict conflictmonitoring abilities conformity social norms confounding factors confusion connectedness connectivity conscientiousness consciousness consonance consonantbased word discrimination contour contralateral cooperation music coordinated movement coping music corpus callosum correctional institution correlation cortical thickness maturation cortices corticospinal cortisol courage circle courage covariate covid cows creative behaviour creative thinking creativity crime power music music crosscommunity crosscultural crossdomain crosssectional crosssectional survey cultural capital cultural omnivores culture adjustment music music interpretation musicmaking awareness music crosscommunication music music culturefree intelligence test cytokines dancing deactivation deafness decisionmaking decoding dehydroepiandrosterone dementia see also alzheimers disease see alzheimers disease depression detention centre determination developmental difficulties disabilities delays developmental functioning music developmental responses music deviant stimuli dexterity differential diffusivity digitspan task disabilities disadvantage disaffection disorder behavioural brain eating gait language mood neurodegenerative neurological obsessivecompulsive psychiatric rhythm schizophrenia sleep social anxiety disruptive behaviour index dissociation dissonance distractibility distraction distress divergent thinking diversion diversity doctoral theses dogs domaingeneral domainspecific dopamine dorsal dorsolateral dorsomedial drama drawing driving drug dosage drugs drumming dysphoria economically disadvantaged educated mothers elderly electroencephalography electrophysiological elementary students elite el sistema emission tomography emotional listening emotional selfregulation emotional stability empathy empirical study empowerment endocrine endogenous opioid system endorphin england enjoyment ensemble power music entertainment entrainment envelope tracking episodic memory ethnicity eudaimonic europe eventrelated potential evolution exhaustion exoffenders expert expressivity exprisoners see exoffenders extensor extensor muscles extroverts familiarity fasciculus fear feelings belonging female see also girlsfestival fibromyalgia syndrome financial hardship see also economically disadvantaged finger flexor flash mobs fmri foetus folk folk fiddlers food fraction computation france frank sinatra freedom freelance friendship frontal frontocentral frontoparietal frustration gamelan gammaband activity gangs gender gene generalisability genetic genre index germany germination gifted girls glasgow glenn miller glucose gospel government greece grey matter grief growth hormone gyrus haematopoietic haemodynamic haiti hallucinations happiness harmonic harmony healing healthcare professionals hearing noise spatial hearing music hearing speech heart rate heavy metal hedonic hemisphere heritability heritage highfunctioning high risk high school hip hop hippocampus hobby hobbyists holistic holocaust homelessness hong kong hormonal hormones hospices hospital hostility human capital humoral immunity hyperactivity hyperconnectivity identification emotion language unit logo music self identity power music illness imagery music imagination imaging imitation immersion immigrant immigration immunity immunoglobulin immunty improvisation incarceration inclusion india infant see babies infantdirected informal musical activities infrared spectroscopy infrequent deviant stimuli harmony inhibitory control insomnia institutionalised instrumentalists intensive care intensive training intercultural interference interpersonal intelligence interval intonation therapy intrapersonal intelligence introverts ipad iran iraq ireland israel italy jamaica jamming joy judgement kalamazoo kids kinaesthetic kindergarten kinematic kinetic korea index language impairment latency lateralisation latetrained leadership learning climate leukaemia life satisfaction limbic linguistically diverse liverpool lobe localisation lockdown locomotor loneliness longitudinal study los angeles loudness love lowarousal music lowfrequency oscillations lowincome see also economically disadvantaged lullabies lungs lyrical lyricwriting magnetic resonance magnetoencephalography mainstream education maladaptive malaysia male manipulative dexterity manual dexterity marginalised mastery maternal maturation mean arterial pressure meaning medication medicine mekranoti indians melodic melodies memories working memory memorisation memory impairment memory performance men power music mental health mental rotation mentor mesolimbic metaanalytic analyses metabolic metabolism metacognition metal music methylphenidate mexico midbrain middleaged middleclass middle school milanese military military service mirror neurons misogynism mobility modern language association modulation monolingual morale morphometry mortality motherese mothers motivation motoric mozart effect mozart w mp player multicultural multimodal multiple sclerosis muscles musicality musicianship myelination national anthem see anthem nazi germany negativity brain activity feeling negligible neighbourhood neocortical neonatal nerve impulses nervous system neurocognitive neurodegenerative neuroimaging investigations neuroleptic drug neurological neurological impairment neuron neuroplasticity index neuropsychological neurorehabilitation neuroscience neuroticism neurotransmitter new zealand nigeria noise noisy nonhuman species nonmedical interventions nonmusicians nontrained northern ireland norway norwegian nostalgia novice numerical magnitude representations nursery nurture occipital oculomotor offender offending ohio ohio proficiency test openness opera optimism opus project orbitofrontal orchestra oscillation outofkey outoftune overarousal overstimulation oxygenation oxygen saturation oxytocin paediatric palliative parahippocampal parent parietal parkinsons disease participatory patriotism patterning patternmatching peace pedagogy peer pressure power music percussion perfectionism performance performer perseverance persistence personal development personality pharmacological pharmacotherapy philippines phobic phonation phoneme phonemic awareness phonetic phonetic contrasts physical development physiological pitch pitch impairment planum temporale plasma plasticity playlist playschool pleasure poetry poland police pop posterior posttraumatic stress disorder poverty preattentive precentral gyrus predictive predictive coding predictor predisposition preference pregnancy prejudice prelinguistic preliteracy premotor prepotent preschool pride priming prison prisoners index problemsolving procrastination proficiency prolactin proneness prosocial prosodic prosody protective factorseffects protein proximity pseudowords psychiatric psychiatry psychodynamic psychometric psychopathology psychophysical psychophysiological psychosis psychosocial psychosomatic psychotherapy psychoticism pulmonary punk pupil referral units putamen qualitative quality life quantitative race racism randomised controlled trial rap rapport rats receptive activities refugee regression analysis rehabilitation rehearsal reintegration relationshipbuilding relaxation relaxing relief religion reminiscence reoffend repetition reproduction music residential home see care home power music resilience resonance respect respiration respiratory responsiveness retention retirement retrospective rett syndrome rewarding rewards rhyme rhythm cueing impairment prosodic cues rhythmic prosodic cues rituals rock romantic music rostral rules saccadic sadness saliva salvation army san diego scanning school readiness secretory sedation segmentation segregation selfacceptance selfactualisation selfaffirmation selfawareness selfbelief selfcare selfconcept selfconfidence selfcontrol selfdescription selfdevelopment selfdirected selfdiscipline selfdisclosure selfefficacy index selfesteem selfestimated selfevaluation selfexpression selfidentity selfimage selfknowledge selfmonitoring selfpaced selfperception selfrated selfregulation selfreliance selfreport selfsatisfaction selfselect selfsystem selftaught selfunderstanding semantic sensationseeking sensitisation sensor sensorimotor sensory sequencing serotonin setshifting sex sexism sexuality sexually abused sierra leone sightreading sing sleep smoking sociability social capital social climate socialisation social isolation social media socioeconomic status socioemotional sociomoral reflection software soldier solidarity solitude somatisation somatosensory sonata songwriting power music soothing sound discrimination soundtrack south africa south america spain spatiotemporal special educational needs spectroscopy speech deficits speech impairment spinal cord spiritual fulfilment spirituality spontaneous sri lanka stem cell stereotype stigma stimulation story development stress striatum stroke stroop test stutter subcortical consonant discrimination subculture substance abuse suicidal suicide superior longitudinal fasciculus surgery survivor suzuki method sweden switzerland syllable symbol sympathetic nervous system synapse synchronisation synchrony systematic systematic review systolic blood pressure taiwan taskswitching tasmania taste teamwork tears technology teenager tempi tempo temporooccipital index tension terrorism therapeutic therapist thrash metal threats timbre timing tiredness togetherness tolerance tomography tonality tone tone deaf topdown processes torment torture tower hanoi test transcranial magnetic stimulation transferable transformation transformative transplant trauma trust twins unconscious awareness undergraduate unhealthy united states see america untrained urban valence variability variables variation vascular ventral striatum verbalisation veterans victim vigilance violations violence virtual visual analogue scale visual impairment visual memory behaviour visuomotor vital signs vivaldi vocally expressed emotion voice power music volume volunteer vowel voxel voxelbased morphometry vulnerability weapon music wechsler adult intelligence scale wellbeing western whitematter microstructure williams syndrome willingness womb women word discrimination working memory behaviour workshop world war worry youth team alessandra tosi managing editor book rosalyn sword melissa purkiss performed copyediting proofreading rosalyn indexed volume anna gatti designed cover cover produced indesign using fontin font luca baffa typeset book indesign produced paperback hardback editions text font tex gyre pagella heading font californian fb luca produced epub azw pdf html xml editions conversion performed open source software pandoc httpspandocorg created john macfarlane tools freely available github page httpsgithubcom openbookpublishers book need end share books including one read free access online students researchers members public cant afford printed edition access ideas title accessed online hundreds readers month across globe share link someone know one book additional content available httpsdoiorg obp donate open book publishers awardwinning scholarled notforprofit press making knowledge freely available one book time dont charge authors publish us instead work supported library members donations people believe research shouldnt locked behind paywalls join freeing knowledge supporting us httpswww openbookpublisherscomsection like open book publishers follow openbookpublish read open book publishers may also interested philosophy cover songs pd magnus httpsdoiorgobp classical music contemporary perspectives challenges michael beckerman paul boghossian eds httpsdoiorgobp rethinking social action music search coexistence citizenship medell\u00edns music schools geoffrey baker httpsdoiorgobp obpthe power musicsusan hallam evangelos himonidesthe power music building earlier work power music research synthesis impact acti vely making music intellectual social personal development children young people volume susan hallam evangelos himonides important new resource \ufb01 eld music educa prac ce psychology well signposted text helpful subheadings power music gathers synthesises research neuroscience psychology educa develop understanding e\ufb00 ects listening ac vely making music printed digital edi ons together supplementary digital material also found h pwww openbookpublisherscom cover image tabitha lincoln rights reserved cover design anna gatti susan hallam evangelos himonidesan exploration evidencehallam himonides power music exploration evidenceebook ebook oa edi ons also available open access"
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