幽靈圖

佐脇嵩之所作《幽靈》(1737)
幽靈圖（rm=Yūrei zu）是由鬼魂、惡魔和其他鬼神為題材的日本繪畫流派。而幽靈圖也被認為是日本的風俗畫，於19世紀末的幕末時期最為盛行。

**幽靈的定義**
幽靈可包括お化け、妖怪、死霊（亡靈（亡霊）等。信仰超自然生物是日本的一項悠久傳統。幽靈的來源包括佛教，道教和中國民間傳說。最顯著的影響，是日本神道的泛靈論，它指出我們的物質世界是由800萬無所不在的鬼神所組成。
日本的鬼魂基本上是從地府中為了完成一個優秀的使命而“請假”外出。而日本的靈魂（霊魂）則是那些枉死、死無葬身之地、或死後有著強烈的怨念、以及無主孤魂。而他們的“靈魂”實現了願望後，則可以轉世。根據糅合佛教及民間信仰的思想，從現世（この世）到靈界（あの世）需要七七四十九天，而在中陰身，他們可以在這段期間解決現世未解決的問題。而個人一生的痛苦程度與他們在前世的惡行嚴重程度有密切的關係。雖然幽靈們的意圖並不總是邪惡的，但他們的行動的結果卻幾乎總是對人類有害。而有信仰認為，鬼魂只能通過一名在世的人的祈禱來得到釋放，他的靈魂才能被允許進入冥界。

**歷史背景**
月岡芳年的作品《和漢百物語》中《下部筆助》描述下部筆助在瀑布遇到烈女初花的幽靈（c. 1865）
存在於日本畫卷的幽靈形象，以及血腥和怪誕的場景軸可以追溯到平安時代，而這個傳統一直持續到近幾個世紀以來， 例如“幽靈畫”在19世紀後期達到流行巔峰狀態，與幽靈相關的“歌舞伎”以及與幽靈相關的怪談。學術機構“persistent popularity”認為這種神秘物是在“不穩定的社會條件”的江戶後期盛行，其中包括普遍存在壓迫的德川幕府政權、西方的入侵以及一些自然災害。

**幽靈圖及戲劇**
圓山應舉所創作幽靈(1882)
日本的鬼故事有著悠久的民俗傳統，在江戶時代初開始便成為戲劇題材。至於歌舞伎在18世紀後開始流行，也創作出了很多以幽靈為題材的戲劇。

**審查**
德川政權試圖恢復其封建農業基礎，於1842年開始進行天保改革（天保の改革），改革涉及到日常生活的許多方面。除了經濟、軍事、農業、宗教外，還包括藝術。改革的目的是從根本上穩定物價和令人民忠於政權，而在藝術領域的改革使得如藝妓、花魁等妓女和歌舞伎題材作品被禁止。1842年老中水野忠邦下令禁買賣歌舞伎伶人、遊女和藝妓等被認為是有傷風化版畫。促使了浮世繪轉向非現實題材發展。

**參見**
 覺- 日本妖怪列表

**腳註**

**參考資料**
 Addis, Stephen. “Conclusion: The Supernatural in Japanese Art.” In Japanese Ghosts and Demons: Art of the Supernatural, edited by Stephen Addis, 177-179. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1985.- Art History Reference. "Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795)." Accessed September 14, 2013. http://arthistoryreference.com/a1/54567.htm date=20140907170925 - Bell, David. Ukiyo-e Explained. Kent, UK: Global Oriental, 2004.- Chiappa, J. Noel and Levine, Jason M. "Yoshitoshi's 'One Hundred Ghost Stories of China and Japan(1865)." Yoshitoshi.net. 2009. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.yoshitoshi.net/series/100ghosts.html date=20140601220612 - Chin Music Press. "The Ghost of Oyuki." Accessed September 13, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131008080519/http://store.chinmusicpress.com/product/the-ghost-of-oyuki-chapbook- Davisson, Zack. "What is the White Kimono Japanese Ghosts Wear?"  April 2012. Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai. Accessed September 2013. http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/04/04/what-is-the-white-kimono-japanese-ghosts-wear/ date=20150306222746 - Dolan, Ronald E. and Worden, Robert L., editors. Japan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1994. Accessed September 16, 2013. http://countrystudies.us/japan/21.htm date=20160304073934 - Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Maruyama Ōkyo." Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2013. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/367211/Maruyama-Okyo date=20140907171428 - Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Tempō Reforms." Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2013. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586929/Tempo-reforms date=20141108050331 - Fensom, Sarah E. “Lucid Dreams & Nightmares.” Art & Antiques Worldwide Media, LLC. October 2012. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.artandantiquesmag.com/2012/10/japanese-woodblock-prints/ date=20140907174051 - Harris, Frederick. Ukiyo-e: The Art of the Japanese Print. Tokyo: Tuttle, 2010.- Iwasaki, Michiko and Barre Toelken. Ghosts and the Japanese Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 1994.- Japan Echo. "Beauty and the Ghosts: Young Painter Takes Japan's Art World by Storm." June 22, 2006. Web Japan. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://web-japan.org/trends/arts/art060622.html date=20141108175325 - Jesse, Bernd. "The Golden Age of the Utagawa School: Utagawa Kunisada and Utagawa Kuniyoshi." In Samurai Stars of the Stage and Beautiful Women: Kunisada and Kuniyoshi Masters of the Color Woodblock Print, edited by Stiftung Museum Kunstpalat, Gunda Luyken and Beat Wismer, 93-101. Düsseldorf: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2012.- Jordan, Brenda. “Yūrei: Tales of Female Ghosts.” In Japanese Ghosts and Demons: Art of the Supernatural, edited by Stephen Addis, 25-33. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1985.- Liddell, C.B. “Nihonga to Nihonga: Young, Fresh and Traditional Artists.” Japan Times. March 9, 2006. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2006/03/09/culture/young-fresh-and-traditional-japanese-artists/#.UjUVUNJJ6s0 date=20140907170534 - Meyer, Matthew. "Artwork: Japanese Yokai." Matthew Meyer. 2012. Accessed September 16, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20140903055358/http://matthewmeyer.net/artwork/japanese-mythology/- Monstrous.com. "Japanese Ghosts." 2011. Accessed September 17, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131110081630/http://ghosts.monstrous.com/japanese_ghosts/all_pages.htm
- Richie, Donald. “The Japanese Ghost.” In Yoshitoshi’s Thirty-six Ghosts, edited by John Stevenson, 6-9. New York: Blue Tiger, 1983.- Rubin, Norman A. "Ghosts, Demons and Spirits in Japanese Lore." Asianart.com. Accessed Sept. 9, 2013. http://www.asianart.com/articles/rubin/ date=20140820193509 - Stevenson, John. Yoshitoshi’s Thirty-six  Ghosts. New York: Blue Tiger, 1983.- Schaap, Robert. Heroes and Ghosts: Japanese Prints by Kuniyoshi 1797-1861. Leiden: Hotei Publishing, 1998.- Tenmyouya, Hisashi. "天明屋 尚 Tenmyouya Hisashi." Accessed September 15, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130531054002/http://www3.ocn.ne.jp/~tenmyoya/biography/biography.html- The Fitzwilliam Museum. "Luxury and Censorship." Fitzwilliam Museum Kunisada and Kabuki Web Site. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/gallery/japan/gallery/info%20kun.htm date=20150924013927 

**外部鏈接**
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnveMIhKnSA date=20140831091539  -  link to YouTube video of interview with Mizuki Shigeru on Japan's ghosts