語調

語調（intonation），又稱語氣、口氣、音高，是指說話者交談發聲的音調，即說話者依據個人心情（態度、個性），讓聲調的高低輕重音調，再附加上發聲的高低輕重音調；前者是文法上的音調、後者是心情上的音調。

**示例**
例如在漢語中，接到對方的電話，然後回應：「喂，你是誰？」，這樣一句話，套上不同的語調，則會給人有不同的感受；說話者的語氣平緩，表示心情較為平和或較為剋制；說話者的語氣高降調、重音明顯，表示心情不好或性格較為急躁。 

**參考文獻**
Bolinger, D. (1951) ‘Intonation – levels versus configurations’, Word 7, 199–200
*Brazil (1975) Discourse Intonation, University of Birmingham: English Language Research
*Brazil, Coultheart and Johns (1980) Discourse Intonation and Language Teaching, Longman
*Celce-Murcia, M., D. Brinton and J. Goodwin (1996) Teaching Pronunciation, Cambridge University Press
*Cooper-Kuhlen, Elizabeth, Introduction to English Prosody, 1986, Edward Arnold
*Cruttenden, A. (1997) Intonation (Second Edition), Cambridge University Press
*Crystal, D. (1969) Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English, Cambridge University Press
*Crystal, D. (1975) 'Prosodic features and linguistic theory', in The English Tone of Voice, Edward Arnold
*Crystal, D. and R. Quirk (1964) Systems of Prosodic and Paralinguistic Features in English, Mouton
*Gussenhoven, C. (2004). The Phonology of Tone and Intonation, Cambridge University Press.
*Halliday, M.A.K. (1967) Intonation and Grammar in British English, Mouton
*Halliday, M.A.K., and Greaves, W.S., Intonation in the Grammar of English, London, Equinox, 2008.
*Hirst, D.J. & Di Cristo, A. (eds) 1998. Intonation Systems. A survey of Twenty Languages. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press). 0521395135 (Hardback); 0-521-39550-X (Paperback).
*Jones, Daniel (1964) An Outline of English Phonetics, Heffer.
*Ladd, D. Robert. (2009). Intonational Phonology, 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press.
*Lee, W.R. (1958) English Intonation: A New Approach, North-Holland
*Lian, A-P. Intonation Patterns of French, River Seine Publications, Melbourne, 1980. http://www.andrewlian.com/andrewlian/prowww/ipf_teacher/ipf_teacher.pdf date=20201013085944 
*Liu F, Patel AD, Fourcin A, Stewart L. (2010). Intonation processing in congenital amusia: discrimination, identification and imitation. Brain. 133(Pt 6):1682–93. doi:10.1093/brain/awq089 20418275
*Michaud, A. and J. Vaissière (2015). Tone and intonation: introductory notes and practical recommendations. KALIPHO - Kieler Arbeiten zur Linguistik und Phonetik 3. 43–80. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01091477v3/document date=20201109070902 
*O'Connor, J.D. and G.F. Arnold (1961, 1973) The Intonation of Colloquial English, Longman
*Palmer, H.E. (1922) English Intonation with Systematic Exercises, Heffer.
*Pierrehumbert, Janet B. (1980)  "The Phonology and Phonetics of English Intonation" Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published by Indiana Linguistics Club 1987.
*Pike, K.L. (1945) The Intonation of American English, University of Michigan Press.
*Roach, Peter (2009) English Phonetics and Phonology, (Fourth Edition), Cambridge University Press.
*Schack, Katrina. "Comparison of intonation patterns in Mandarin and English for a particular speaker", University of Rochester Working Papers in the Language Sciences, Spring 2000, no. 1: p. 29. https://web.archive.org/web/20080821131034/http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/cls/s2000n1/schack.pdf
*Shen, Xiao-nan Susan. The Prosody of Mandarin Chinese. Vol. 118 of University of California Publications in Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. p. 95.
*Trager, G. and H.Smith (1951) An Outline of English Structure, American Council of Learned Societies.
*Trager, G. (1964) 'The intonation system of American English', in Abercrombie D. et al. In Honour of Daniel Jones, Longman
*Wells, J.C. (2006) English Intonation: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press.

**外部連接**
  ToBI – Ohio State University, Department of Linguistics