เชื้อชาติ

เชื้อชาติ (race) คือ ระบบการจำแนกมนุษย์เป็นประชากรหรือกลุ่มขนาดใหญ่และแตกต่างกันชัดเจน โดยลักษณะจีโนไทป์และฟีโนไทป์ที่สืบทอดได้ บรรพบุรุษทางภูมิศาสตร์ รูปลักษณ์ทางกาย ความเป็นชาติพันธุ์ (ethnicity) และสถานภาพสังคม ช่วงต้นคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 20 คำนี้มักใช้กันแพร่หลาย ในความหมายทางอนุกรมวิธาน เพื่อแสดงการแยกความแตกต่างทางพันธุกรรมของประชากรมนุษย์ที่นิยามโดยฟีโนไทป์ การบังคับใช้กฎหมายใช้ประโยชน์จากเชื้อชาติในการรวบรวมข้อมูลผู้ต้องสงสัยในบางประเทศ การใช้หมวดหมู่เชื้อชาติเหล่านี้มักถูกวิพากษ์วิจารณ์ว่า ทำให้ความเข้าใจในการแปรผันทางชีววิทยามนุษย์ที่ล้าสมัยไปแล้วยังคงอยู่ และส่งเสริมทัศนคติโดยทั่วไปของสังคม (stereotype) เพราะในหลายสังคม การจัดกลุ่มเชื้อชาติสอดคล้องอย่างใกล้ชิดกับแบบแผนของการแบ่งชั้นทางสังคม สำหรับนักสังคมศาสตร์ที่กำลังศึกษาความไม่เสมอภาคทางสังคมแล้ว เชื้อชาติสามารถเป็นตัวแปรสำคัญได้ ในฐานะตัวแปรทางสังคมวิทยา หมวดหมู่เชื้อชาติอาจสะท้อนสิ่งบ่งชี้อัตวิสัย อัตลักษณ์ตัวตน และสถาบันทางสังคมได้บางส่วน

**สรุปความทางนิติศาสตร์และนิติเวชวิทยาศาสตร์**
เชื้อชาติ คือ ระบบทางพันธุ์กรรม(DNA) หรือ ลักษณะทางกายวิภาคศาสตร์(สรีระวิทยา)ได้แก่ เล็บ,ขน,ผม,ฟัน,ผิวหนัง ซึ่งสามารถบ่งบอกถึงระบบหมู่โลหิต A,B,AB,O หรือ ระบบABO เป็นสิ่งที่มีติดตัวมาแต่กำเนิดไม่สามารถบอกเลิกระบบหมู่โลหิต หรือ ยกเลิกระบบหมู่โลหิตดังกล่าวได้ แต่สามารถโอนถ่าย และ/หรือ ถ่ายเทให้แก่กันและกันได้ด้วยหลักทางการแพทย์และพยาบาลที่ถูกต้องตามหลักมาตรฐานสากลโลก(W.H.O.) ซึ่งสามารถพิสูจน์ได้ด้วยกฏเกณฑ์ทางนิติเวชวิทยาศาสตร์.

**อ้างอิง**


**บรรณานุกรม**
 url-status=dead - access-date=18 April 2009- cite journal |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1331010408 |last=AAPA |publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |date=1996 |title=AAPA statement on biological aspects of race |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=569–70 |url=http://www.virginia.edu/woodson/courses/aas102%20%28spring%2001%29/articles/AAPA_race.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040723195029/http://www.virginia.edu/woodson/courses/aas102%20(spring%2001)/articles/AAPA_race.pdf |archive-date=2004-07-23 |url-status=dead - year=2010- cite book |last=Amundson |first=Ron |title=Quality of life and human difference: genetic testing, health care, and disability |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521832014 |pages= 101–24 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PvWVZIzoTIC&pg=PA107 |editor-first1=David T. |editor-last1=Wasserman |editor-first2=Robert Samuel |editor-last2=Wachbroit |editor-first3=Jerome Edmund |editor-last3=Bickenbach |chapter=Disability, Ideology, and Quality of Life: A Bias in Biomedical Ethics |url=https://archive.org/details/qualityoflifehum00davi/page/101 - cite journal|last1=Andreasen|first1=Robin O. |title=Race: Biological Reality or Social Construct?|journal=Philosophy of Science |volume=67 |issue=Suppl |date=2000|pages=S653–66|jstor=188702|doi=10.1086/392853 |s2cid=144176104- cite news |last=Angier |first=Natalie |title=Do Races Differ? Not Really, DNA Shows |url=https://www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/082200sci-genetics-race.html |access-date=9 August 2010 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=22 August 2000 - cite book |title=In My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/inmyfathershouse00appi |url-access=registration |last=Appiah |first=Kwame Anthony |date=1992 |isbn=9780195068528 |publisher=Oxford University Press - url-status=dead - cite journal |last1=Bamshad |first1=Michael |last2=Olson |first2=Steve E. |url=http://schools.tdsb.on.ca/rhking/departments/science/bio/evol_pop_dyn/does_race_exist.pdf |title=Does Race Exist? |journal=Scientific American |volume=289 |issue=6 |pages=78–85 |date=10 November 2003 |bibcode=2003SciAm.289f..78B |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1203-78 |pmid=14631734 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614110106/http://schools.tdsb.on.ca/rhking/departments/science/bio/evol_pop_dyn/does_race_exist.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 |url-status=dead - s2cid=12378279 - isbn=0891587195 - url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/325d51e8d3bb17afd38dfa0f902bfc03fe886986 - cite book |last=Bell |first=Mark |chapter=‘Race’, Ethnicity, and Racism in Europe |chapter-url=http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/13/9780199297849_chapter1.pdf |title=Racism and Equality in the European Union |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2009 |isbn=9780199297849 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199297849.001.0001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202235619/http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/13/9780199297849_chapter1.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=dead - cite book |last1=Black |first1=Sue |last2=Ferguson |first2=Elidh |year=2011 |title=Forensic Anthropology: 2000 to 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-439-84588-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=306ruTniZmcC&pg=PA125 - chapter=Chapter 2 - url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/1ab0f85f65ed3bbf5cdbc27a4799e94c1b4e97cd - cite journal |doi=10.1525/aa.1912.14.3.02a00080 |last1=Boas |first1=Franz| year=1912 |title=Change in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=530–62 |pmc=2986913- location=Boston - cite book |last1=Brace |first1=C. Loring |last2=Montagu |first2=Ashley |year=1965 |title=Man's evolution; an introduction to physical anthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/mansevolutionint00brac |place=New York |publisher=Macmillan- isbn=978-0-7425-0263-5- cite web |last=Brace |first=C. Loring |date=2000a |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/brace.html |title=Does Race Exist? An antagonist's perspective |work=NOVA |publisher=PBS |access-date=11 October 2010 - isbn=9780195173512- hdl-access=free - cite book|last1=Cavalli-Sforza |first1=Luigi Luca |author-link1=Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza |title=The History and Geography of Human Genes |url=https://archive.org/details/historygeography0000cava_g9l7 |last2=Menozzi |first2=Paolo |last3=Piazza |first3=Alberto |date=1994 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-08750-4 |location=Princeton  Lay summary (1 December 2013)- publisher=Worth Publishers - s2cid=10378582 - url=https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3871&context=faculty_scholarship - Cite book |last1=Currell |first1=Susan |first2=Christina |last2=Cogdell |title=Popular Eugenics: National Efficiency and American Mass Culture in The 1930s |publisher=Ohio University Press |date=2006 |location=Athens, OH |page=203 |isbn=082141691X - url=https://archive.org/details/darwinssacredcau0000desm/page/484 - isbn=9780804719940 - url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/2f6295c900dd40377e60b6ca07ed1dc155c71504 - pages=153–179 - cite book |last=Fullwiley |first=Duana |title=Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture |editor1-last=Krimsky |editor1-first=Sheldon |editor2-last=Sloan |editor2-first=Kathleen |chapter=Chapter 6: Can DNA "Witness" Race? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVg4AAAAQBAJ |access-date=31 August 2013 |date=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-52769-9 - Cite web |last=Gill |first=G. W. |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html |title=Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective |work=NOVA |publisher=PBS |date=2000a |access-date=2009-04-18 - cite journal |last=Gitschier |first=Jane |title=The Whole Side of It – An Interview with Neil Risch |date=2005 |journal=PLOS Genet |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=e14 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010014 |pmid=17411332 |pmc=1183530 - Cite book |last=Gordon |first=Milton Myron |title=Assimilation in American life: the role of race, religion, and national origins |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |date=1964 |isbn=978-0-19-500896-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/assimilationinam0000gord - cite book |last=Graves |first=Joseph L |author-link=Joseph L. Graves |title=The Emperor's New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium |url=https://archive.org/details/emperorsnewcloth00grav |url-access=registration |publisher=Rutgers University Press |date=2001 |isbn=9780813528472 - cite book |last=Graves |first=Joseph L. |title=Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture |editor1-last=Krimsky |editor1-first=Sheldon |editor2-last=Sloan |editor2-first=Kathleen |chapter=Chapter 8: Evolutionary Versus Racial Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVg4AAAAQBAJ |access-date=31 August 2013 |date=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-52769-9 - cite journal |last1=Haig |first1=S.M. |last2=Beever |first2=E.A. |last3=Chambers |first3=S.M. |last4=Draheim |first4=H.M. |display-authors=etal |title=Taxonomic considerations in listing subspecies under the U.S. Endangered Species Act |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=1584–94 |date=December 2006 |pmid=17181793 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00530.x |s2cid=9745612 |url=https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/2579/ - cite book |last=Harpending |first=Henry |title=Anthropological Genetics: Theory, Methods and Applications |editor-last=Crawford |editor-first=Michael |chapter=Chapter 16: Anthropological Genetics: Present and Future |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-54697-3- cite book |last=Harris |first=Marvin |title=Patterns of race in the Americas |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, CN |date=1980 |isbn=0-313-22359-9 - url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml - cite book |last=Kahn |first=Jonathan |title=Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture |editor-last1=Krimsky |editor-first1=Sheldon |editor-last2=Sloan |editor-first2=Kathleen |chapter=Chapter 7: Bidil and Racialized Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVg4AAAAQBAJ |access-date=31 August 2013 |date=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-52769-9 |page=132 - cite journal |last1=Kaplan |first1=J.M. |last2=Winther |first2=R.G. |title=Prisoners of Abstraction? The Theory and Measure of Genetic Variation, and the Very Concept of 'Race' |journal=Biological Theory |date=2013 |volume=7 |pages=401–412 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0005857 |url=http://philpapers.org/archive/KAPPOA.14.pdf - cite journal |last1=Keita |first1=S. O. Y. |last2=Kittles |first2=R. A. |last3=Royal |first3=C. D. M. |last4=Bonney |first4=G. M. |last5=Furbert-Harris |first5=P. |last6=Dunston |first6=G. M. |last7=Rotimi |first7=C. M. |date=2004 |title=Conceptualizing human variation |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=36 |issue=11s |pages=S17–520 |pmid=15507998 |doi=10.1038/ng1455 |doi-access=free - cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=Kenneth A. R. |title=But Professor, Why Teach Race Identification if Races Don't Exist? |date=1995 |journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=15386J |doi=10.1520/jfs15386j- isbn=978-0-87154-588-6 - pages=393–426 - doi=10.1186/gb-2008-9-7-404 - cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=B |date=1990 |title=Race and slavery in the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0195062833 - cite book |last=Lie |first=John |title=Modern Peoplehood |url=https://archive.org/details/modernpeoplehood0000liej |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2004 |isbn=0674013271 - cite journal |doi=10.1086/318434 |last1=Lieberman |first1=L. |date=February 2001 |title=How "Caucasoids" got such big crania and why they shrank: from Morton to Rushton |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=42 |issue=1| pages=69–95 |pmid=14992214 |s2cid=224794908 - chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/teachingofanthro0000unse/page/381 - cite journal |last1=Lieberman |first1=L. |last2=Kirk |first2=R.C. |last3=Corcoran |first3=M. |title=The decline of race in American physical anthropology |journal=Anthropological Review |date=2003 |volume=66 |pages=3–21 |url=http://www.anthro.amu.edu.pl/pdf/paar/vol066/01lieb.pdf |issn=0033-2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813005756/http://www.anthro.amu.edu.pl/pdf/paar/vol066/01lieb.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2012 |url-status=dead - cite journal |doi=10.1525/aa.1995.97.2.02a00030 |last1=Lieberman |first1=Leonard |last2=Jackson |first2=Fatimah Linda C. |year=1995 |title=Race and Three Models of Human Origins |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=231–42 |s2cid=53473388 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/9a1c92bb14267115d2f2c18f139e0a51ac63f7e9 - bibcode=1992JRScT..29..301L - url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cdaa23d2afdaa77fdbb74f71c87fd85e76d71165 - cite journal |doi=10.1086/200290 |last1=Livingstone |first1=Frank B. |last2=Dobzhansky |year=1962 |first2=Theodosius |title=On the Non-Existence of Human Races |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_1962-06_3_3/page/n64 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=279–81 |jstor=2739576 |s2cid=144257594 - s2cid=26108602 - s2cid=4385409 - isbn=0-585-39559-4 - isbn=0805837574 - cite book |last=Marks |first=Jonathan |date=2008 |chapter=Race: Past, present and future. Chapter 1 |title=Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age |editor-first1=Barbara |editor-last1=Koenig |editor-first2=Sandra |editor-last2=Soo-Jin Lee |editor-first3=Sarah S.|editor-last3=Richardson |publisher=Rutgers University Press - pages=154–166 - isbn=0306805367 - cite journal|doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.238 |title=Race, racism, and academic complicity |date=2007 |last1=Mevorach |first1=Katya Gibel |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=34 |pages=238–241 |issue=2- pages=125–143 - isbn=0-13-446162-2 - doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a105051 - type=paperback - archive-date=2011-06-03  Originally appeared in cite journal |title=The Concept of Race |journal=American Anthropologist |date=October 1962 |series=New Series |volume=64 |issue=5:1 |pages=919–928 |doi=10.1525/aa.1962.64.5.02a00020 |last1=Montagu |first1=Ashley |ref=none- cite book |last=Morgan |first=Edmund S. |date=1975 |title=American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia |url=https://archive.org/details/americanslaverya00morg |url-access=registration |publisher=W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. - cite journal |last1=Mountain |first1=Joanna L. |last2=Risch |first2=Neil |title=Assessing genetic contributions to phenotypic differences among 'racial' and 'ethnic' groups |date=2004 |doi=10.1038/ng1456 |url=http://rds.epi-ucsf.org/ticr/syllabus/courses/14/2006/02/28/Lecture/readings/mountain%20and%20risch.pdf |pmid=15508003 |volume=36 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=S48–53 |journal=Nature Genetics |s2cid=8136003 |doi-access=free |access-date=2022-11-26 |archive-date=2015-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814223328/http://rds.epi-ucsf.org/ticr/syllabus/courses/14/2006/02/28/Lecture/readings/mountain%20and%20risch.pdf |url-status=dead - s2cid=144150827 - cite book |last=Nobles |first=Melissa |title=Shades of citizenship: race and the census in modern politics |url=https://archive.org/details/shadesofcitizens0000nobl_x6z7 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |date=2000 |isbn=0-8047-4059-3 - pmid=15641926 - cite journal |last1=Ousley |first1=Stephen |last2=Jantz |first2=Richard |last3=Freid |first3=Donna |title=Understanding race and human variation: Why forensic anthropologists are good at identifying race |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=18 February 2009 |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=68–76 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.21006 |pmid=19226647 |s2cid=24410231 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c8f231a7b32b7fefe7362598b4962a5743446afc - cite journal |last1=Owens |first1=K. |last2=King |date=1999 |first2=M.C.| title=Genomic Views of Human History |journal=Science |pmid=10521333 |volume=286 |issue=5439| pages=451–453 |doi=10.1126/science.286.5439.451 - cite journal|doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.205 |title=Genomics, divination, 'racecraft' |date=May 2007 |last1=Palmié |first1=Stephan |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=34 |pages=205–22 |issue=2- pmid=23688802- cite book |last=Reardon |first=Jenny |title=Race to the finish: identity and governance in an age of genomics |date=2005 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691118574 |pages=17ff |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMHiuOJIQcYC&pg=PA17 |chapter=Post World-War II Expert Discourses on Race - doi=10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007- cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=N.A. |last2=Mahajan |first2=S. |last3=Ramachandran |first3=S. |last4=Zhao |first4=C. |last5=Pritchard |first5=J.K. |author5-link=Jonathan K. Pritchard |last6=Feldman |first6=M.W. |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070 |title=Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=1 |issue=6 |page=e70 |date=2005 |pmid=16355252 |pmc=1310579 - cite journal |doi=10.1016/0277-9536(92)90086-6 |last1=Sauer |first1=Norman J. |date=January 1992 |title=Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-science-medicine_1992-01_34_2/page/107 |journal=Social Science and Medicine |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=107–111 |pmid=1738862 |issn=0277-9536 - s2cid=3013094 - cite journal |doi=10.2307/3032780 |pages=7–9 |last=Segal |first=Daniel A. |title='The European': Allegories of Racial Purity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_anthropology-today_1991-10_7_5/page/7 |journal=Anthropology Today |volume=7 |issue=5 |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1991 |jstor=3032780 - cite journal |last1=Serre |first1=D. |last2=Pääbo |first2=S. |title=Evidence for gradients of human genetic diversity within and among continents |journal=Genome Res. |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1679–85 |date=September 2004 |pmid=15342553 |pmc=515312 |doi=10.1101/gr.2529604 - isbn=9781412926942 - cite book |last=Slotkin |first=J.S. |date=1965 |title=Readings in early Anthropology |publisher=Methuen Publishing |chapter=The Eighteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wIkOAAAAQAAJ |pages=175–243 - cite journal |last1=Smaje |first1=Chris |date=1997 |title=Not just a social construct: Theorising race and ethnicity |journal=Sociology |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=307–27 |doi=10.1177/0038038597031002007 |s2cid=145703746 - url=https://archive.org/details/raceinnorthameri00smed - isbn=0805837574 - cite conference |last=Smedley |first=Audrey |title=The History of the Idea of Race... and Why It Matters |conference=Race, Human Variation and Disease: Consensus and Frontiers, March 14–17, 2007 in Warrenton, Virginia |publisher=American Anthropological Association |date=2007 |url=http://www.understandingrace.org/resources/pdf/disease/smedley.pdf |access-date=2022-11-26 |archive-date=2019-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113030614/http://www.understandingrace.org/resources/pdf/disease/smedley.pdf |url-status=dead - isbn=978-0813391267 - cite book |last=Stocking |first=George W. |title=Race, Culture and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology |date=1968 |page=380 |isbn=9780226774947 |publisher=University of Chicago Press - url=https://archive.org/details/differentmirrorh00taka_0 - issue=2 - Cite journal |doi=10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.632 |last=Templeton |first=Alan R. |date=1998 |title=Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1998-09_100_3/page/632 |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=632–650 |issn=0002-7294 |jstor=682042 - publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates- pmc=3737365 - cite book| last1=Thompson |first1=William |last2=Hickey |first2=Joseph |date=2005 |title=Society in Focus |publisher=Pearson |location=Boston |isbn=0-205-41365-X - cite book |last1=Todorov |first1=T |date=1993 |title=On human diversity |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0674634381 |url=https://archive.org/details/onhumandiversity00todo - cite news |date=16 December 2005 |first1=Rick |last1=Weiss |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728.html |title=Scientists Find a DNA Change That Accounts for Light Skin |newspaper=The Washington Post - cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-08-16-dna_x.htm |title=DNA tests offer clues to suspect's race |first1=Richard |last1=Willing |work=USA Today |date=16 August 2005 - url=https://zenodo.org/record/25320 - publisher=Peter Lang Publishing, Inc -  pmc=1893020 - cite journal |last1=Witzig |first1=R. |title=The medicalization of race: scientific legitimization of a flawed social construct. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1996-10-15_125_8/page/675 |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |date=15 October 1996 |volume=125 |issue=8 |pages=675–679 |pmid=8849153 |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-125-8-199610150-00008 |s2cid=41786914 - page=438 

**แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น**
หมวดหมู่:ความเป็นญาติและการสืบเชื้อสาย
หมวดหมู่:ความเหลื่อมล้ำทางสังคม