BACKGROUND
leishmania are protozoan parasites that cause a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations in humans, collectively referred to as leishmaniasis, ranging from self-resolving skin lesions  to life-threatening visceral diseases   <cit> .
leishmaniasis is endemic in  <dig> countries and the world health organization has estimated that more than  <dig> million people are currently infected with leishmania and  <dig> million people are at risk of infection in tropical and subtropical regions of the world  <cit> .
leishmania parasites exist in two major developmental stages.
in the alimentary tract of the sandfly vector, the parasites grow as extracellular flagellated promastigotes that are exposed to neutral ph and fluctuating temperatures averaging 25°c.
following the sand fly bite, the infective forms  can be transferred to tissue macrophages of the mammalian host where they experience near-constant temperatures ranging from 35°c to 39°c and differentiate into aflagellated replicative amastigotes within the acidic phagolysosomal vacuoles  <cit> .
during promastigote-to-amastigote differentiation, the parasites are subjected to drastic environmental changes, including a sharp rise in temperature, a drop in extracellular ph, an increased exposure to oxygen and nitrogen-reactive species, an intense extracellular proteolytic activity, and nutritional starvation.
several of these environmental signals trigger leishmania differentiation  <cit>  by activating many regulatory mechanisms affecting gene expression that result in important morphological and biochemical changes  <cit> .
to date, several amastigote-specific  <cit>  and promastigote-specific  <cit>  genes have been identified in leishmania, however, the molecular mechanisms governing developmental gene regulation in this organism warrant additional investigations.
leishmania and the related trypanosoma species possess unusual mechanisms of gene expression.
the recent completion of the leishmania spp.
genomes indicates that protein-coding genes are organized as large polycistronic units  <cit> .
transcription has been postulated to initiate at strand switch regions on each chromosome  <cit>  in the absence of defined rna pol ii promoters and typical general transcription factors.
the maturation of individual mrnas from polycistronic pre-mrnas requires posttranscriptional control, which involves two coupled co-transcriptional rna-processing reactions.
these include trans-splicing where a capped rna of ~39-nucleotides, the spliced leader rna, is added to the 5'-terminus of all known protein-encoding rnas, and 3'-end cleavage and polyadenylation .
developmental gene regulation in leishmania is determined posttranscriptionally mainly by sequences located in the 3'-untranslated regions .
several distinct 3'utr elements have been identified among stage-specific transcripts to regulate mrna stability/degradation and mrna translation .
the recent completion of the l. major and l. infantum genomic sequences  <cit>  allowed studies of global gene expression throughout developmental life stages of these parasites.
global gene expression profiling using leishmania microarrays with genome coverage between 22% and  <dig> % highlighted that 2–9% of all genes analyzed were developmentally regulated  <cit> .
the current study extends these microarray data by providing a detailed analysis of whole-genome stage- and species-specific gene expression profiles within l. major and l. infantum using a dna oligonucleotide microarray representing the entire genomes of these two species.
none of the previous dna microarray studies has compared global gene expression profiling of promastigote  versus amastigote  forms of l. infantum, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis, the most severe form of the disease.
moreover, no studies to date have compared global changes in mrna abundance during development between leishmania species associated with different disease tropism .
the current comparative analyses revealed important differences in stage-regulated gene expression patterns between l. major and l. infantum.
these species-specific differences may partly explain the distinct clinical pathologies, despite highly conserved genomes.
RESULTS
comparison of global gene expression profiles between promastigote and amastigote developmental stages of leishmania spp
to investigate global mrna expression profiles of l. infantum and l. major promastigote and amastigote developmental life stages, we designed a high-density multispecies 70-mer oligonucleotide genome microarray representing the entire genomes of l. major and l. infantum that share over 99% of their genes and contain species-specific genes.
this allows a comparative analysis under the same conditions.
through a rigorous statistical approach, data from several independent l. infantum and l. major dna microarray experiments were compiled and compared here.
after subtracting the background, the difference of  <dig> -fold in the signal intensity between the experimental conditions used  for a given gene was chosen as the cut-off given that the p value confidence was more than 95% under those conditions.
the whole-genome expression patterns of l. infantum  and l. major  developmental stages are shown in the scatter plots of normalized data.
the scatter plots compared each gene according to the normalized log <dig> ratio of the alexa 647/alexa  <dig> signal intensities  and to the signal mean intensity of each spot.
more than 86% of the spots yielded hybridization intensities of two-fold over local background.
non-modulated genes, considered as constitutively expressed, had ratios between  <dig>  and  <dig>  .
remarkably, most leishmania spots yielded expression ratios close to  <dig> , with only a few hundred genes showing modulation of greater than  <dig> -fold between developmental stages in both species .
the vast majority of genes  in both leishmania species were not significantly modulated  throughout the two life cycle stages studied.
a all genes presented here  showed a fold increase in mrna accumulation more than  <dig>  and a p value <  <dig> .
comparison of global gene expression profiles of leishmania infantum developmental stages
to date, no studies on the global stage-specific gene expression of a visceralizing leishmania species have been reported.
we therefore undertook a microarray-based approach to determine differential gene expression patterns of the two major l. infantum life cycle stages:  non-infective replicating extracellular procyclic promastigotes, and  intracellular amastigotes isolated from thp-1-infected human monocytes in vitro following  <dig> days post-infection.
hybridizations were carried out using rna from six experimental biological replicates.
after normalization and data processing in order to assess differential gene expression, the data were first filtered by fdr-corrected p-value  and then according to the modulation of each probe .
this analysis led to  <dig> genes  showing >  <dig> -fold change in mrna abundance between the promastigote and amastigote life stages .
analysis of the stage-modulated genes according to their gene ontology  showed that they belong to several categories, including various biological processes .
two hundred and seventy four genes representing  <dig> % of the l. infantum genome were preferentially expressed in procyclic promastigotes .
fold-increase in mrna abundance was modest  for 95% of the overexpressed transcripts .
this group included the well-documented promastigote-regulated genes pfr1d and pfr2c  <cit> , several dyneins and kinesins that are important for flagellar movement, cytokinesis, and motility  <cit> , histones  <cit> , kinetoplast dna-associated proteins, the u-rich rna-binding proteins upb <dig> and ubp <dig>  <cit>  and a member of the pumilio family of translation repressors  <cit> , calpain cysteine peptidases and several proteasome subunits .
half of the promastigote-upregulated genes  encoded hypothetical proteins with no similarity to other known proteins in the databases.
three hundred and nine genes, representing  <dig> % of the total l. infantum protein-coding sequences  were found upregulated in intracellular amastigotes compared to extracellular promastigotes .
transcripts modulated specifically in amastigotes showed generally a higher accumulation than promastigote-upregulated transcripts, with 31% of the transcripts demonstrating more than 3-fold increase in expression levels  .
several well-documented gene families, including the amastins  <cit> , members of the glycosylation phosphoglycan beta  <dig>  galactosyltransferase gene family   <cit>  and sherp <dig>  a small hydrophilic protein localizing to the endoplasmic reticulum and outer mitochondrial membrane  <cit>  were upregulated in l. infantum amastigotes.
other representative examples included the myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthase, a mrna capping methyltransferase involved in cap <dig> methylation of the spliced-leader rna  <cit> , aminopeptidases and the hs1vu complex proteolytic subunit and several abc, amino acid and mitochondrial transporters .
approximately 74% of the amastigote-upregulated genes encoded hypothetical or unclassified proteins for which no putative biological function has been assigned.
comparison of global gene expression profiles of different developmental stages within leishmania major
in order to compare mrna expression profiles between l. infantum and l. major developmental life stages, we undertook also dna microarray experiments with l. major.
in this study, we used the l. major lv <dig> mrho/su/59/p strain instead of the l. major friedlin genome strain  because in our hands l. major lv <dig> was more infectious in balb/c mice.
hybridizations were performed using rna from four experimental biological replicates.
using the same statistical analysis applied for l. infantum, we identified  <dig> differentially expressed transcripts in l. major  from which  <dig> were preferentially expressed in procyclic promastigotes  and  <dig> were differentially expressed in lesion-derived amastigotes  .
recent microarray analyses reported that  <dig> % of the l. major genes were differentially expressed in promastigotes and  <dig> % in lesion-derived amastigotes  <cit> .
the observed differences between the two studies may be attributed to the different l. major strains used or to technical issues regarding rna preparations from mice lesions and/or to differences in the oligonucleotide genome microarray design and manipulation.
the  <dig> identified differentially expressed genes were grouped according to go functional categories .
the vast majority of the transcripts enriched in l. major promastigotes  showed a modest accumulation not exceeding 3-fold.
similarly to l. infantum, several l. major amastigote-upregulated transcripts showed in average a higher differential accumulation than the promastigote-upregulated transcripts .
representative genes among those specifically upregulated in l. major promastigotes encode sugar kinases and beta-fructofuranosidases involved in carbohydrate metabolism, fatty acid elongases involved in lipid metabolism, proteins participating in nucleoside-nucleotide metabolism, amino acid, glucose and pteridine transport, electron transport, proteolysis , signaling  and a large number of microtubule-associated proteins .
this group also included several well-documented differentially expressed genes in promastigotes such as histones  <cit> , the glucose transporter gt <dig>  <cit> , the paraflagellar rod protein pfr1d and pfr2c  <cit> , the leishmanolysin gp <dig>   <cit> , and the surface antigen protein  <dig> gene family   <cit> .
more than 47% of the promastigote-upregulated transcripts encoded hypothetical proteins of unknown function .
among the l. major amastigote-upregulated genes are included several well-documented gene families such as amastins  <cit> , haspa <dig>   <cit> , scg <dig> and scg <dig> which are members of the phosphoglycan beta  <dig>  galactosyltransferase gene family  <cit> , and others such as rna-binding proteins, cathepsin l-like proteins, protein kinases, tryparedoxins, a family of novel antioxidant proteins, several amino acid and pteridine transporters and a large number  of hypothetical proteins .
comparison of global stage-regulated gene expression between l. infantum and l. major
one of the goals of this study was to compare global gene expression within the same life cycle stages of the l. major and l. infantum species, the causative agents of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, respectively.
sequence comparison between the l. major and l. infantum genomes revealed marked conservation of synteny  <cit> .
therefore, much of the species-specific adaptive strategies to different target tissues and distinct disease pathogenesis should depend on the non-syntenic part of their respective genomes and/or on highly regulated hierarchical and temporal changes in gene expression.
to monitor global gene expression of l. infantum and l. major, we used a multispecies high-density oligonucleotide microarray.
it has recently been reported that using a multispecies microarray to study related species provided superior inter-species comparison than using several single species-specific microarrays  <cit> .
our comparative microarray analyses showed that out of the  <dig> genes differentially expressed in l. infantum and l. major promastigote forms  only  <dig>  were in common between the two species.
similarly, only  <dig>  of the  <dig> amastigote-upregulated genes were common to both species.
these results are displayed in the form of venn diagrams  and the detailed list of the commonly upregulated genes between l. infantum and l. major for a given developmental life stage is provided in table  <dig>  this list included, among others, the amastigote-specific amastin surface proteins, the paraflagellar rod components upregulated in promastigotes, dyneins, members of the phosphoglycan beta  <dig>  galactosyltransferase, calpain-like cysteine peptidases, calmodulins and a large number of hypothetical proteins.
a genes differentially expressed in promastigotes.
b genes differentially expressed but not in the same life stage.
c genes differentially expressed in amastigotes.
d the majority of the phosphoglycan  <dig>  galactosyltransferase gene family members are differentially expressed in amastigotes.
these genes are listed in additional files  <dig> and  <dig>
e the majority of the amastin gene family members are differentially expressed in amastigotes.
these genes are listed in additional files  <dig> and  <dig>
one hundred and nineteen genes were differentially expressed in l. infantum but were not modulated in l. major .
more than 50% of these genes encoded hypothetical proteins.
for example, the linj29_v <dig>  gene was overexpressed 47-fold in l. infantum amastigotes but mrna expression of its l. major orthologue remained unchanged.
other examples of genes upregulated in l. infantum amastigotes but not developmentally regulated in l. major included the aminopeptidase linj33_v <dig>  and metallopeptidases linj16_v <dig>  and linj34_v <dig> , the abc transporters linj29_v <dig>  and linj11_v <dig> , the rab gtpase activator protein linj29_v <dig> , the chaperone dnaj linj21_v <dig> , the kinesin linj25_v <dig> , the mrna capping methyltransferase linj36_v <dig>  and the nuclear cap binding protein linj30_v <dig>  .
alternatively,  <dig> genes were stage-regulated in l. major but constitutively expressed in l. infantum .
most of these l. major species-regulated genes were predominantly expressed in promastigotes.
these included genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism like the three beta-fructofuranosidases in the l. major genome, 6-phospho-1-fructokinase lmjf <dig>  and hexokinase lmjf <dig> , genes participating in proteolysis such as the calpain-like cysteine peptidases lmjf <dig>  and lmjf <dig>  and carboxypeptidases lmjf <dig>  and lmjf <dig> , genes involved in electron transport such as the lactate dehydrogenase lmjf <dig> , the amino acid permease lmjf <dig>  and the transmembrane amino acid transporter lmjf <dig>  , the glucose transporters lmgt <dig> lmjf <dig> /lmjf <dig>  and the surface antigens prostaglandin f2-alpha synthase and membrane-bound acid phosphatase  <dig> .
previous studies have reported that the membrane-bound acid phosphatase  <dig> is a marker of virulence of l. donovani promastigotes  <cit>  and that in l. mexicana this gene was not required for amastigote survival  <cit> .
a only non-modulated genes are listed in this column.
b genes differentially expressed in promastigotes.
c genes differentially expressed in amastigotes.
a only non-modulated genes are listed in this column.
b genes differentially expressed in promastigotes.
c genes differentially expressed in amastigotes.
confirmation of gene expression patterns by quantitative real-time pcr
quantitative real-time pcr  was used to validate the microarray results.
changes in expression levels of  <dig> selected l. infantum and/or l. major mrnas in either promastigotes or intracellular amastigotes as determined by the microarray experiments were confirmed by qrt-pcr.
genes for qrt-pcr were randomly selected based on different criteria, which included high vs. lower levels of expression, constitutive vs. stage-regulated gene expression, different go categories or genes encoding unclassified proteins, single copy genes and genes belonging to larger gene families.
mrna expression levels determined by qrt-pcr were normalized to three l. infantum and l. major constitutively expressed mrnas .
estimated expression patterns by qrt-pcr were compared to those by dna microarrays.
results obtained by qrt-pcr were consistent with the microarray data in more than 97% of the cases .
in few cases , the difference in expression levels between the two methods  was two-fold or higher, however, both methods agreed on the differential gene expression in the same life cycle stage .
a the microarray results have all a p-value lower than  <dig> .
b the same rna preparations were used for the microarray and qrt-pcr experiments.
levels of mrna determined by qrt-pcr were normalized as described in methods.
the values reported here are the average of two biological replicates and three technical replicates.
the set of primers for qrt-pcr amplification are presented in additional file  <dig>
c linj34_v <dig>  encodes an amastin homologue that shares homology to other members of the amastin gene family.
for the microarray experiment, the 70-mer probe used recognizes more than one amastin members whereas the set of primers used for qrt-pcr was specific to the linj34_v <dig>  gene only.
d linj14_v <dig>  is a member of the glycosylation phosphoglycan beta  <dig>  galactosyltransferase gene family.
for the microarray experiment the 70-mer probe used recognizes more than one gene family members whereas the set of primers used for qrt-pcr was specific to the linj14_v <dig>  gene only, whose expression was not modulated.
in this study, l. infantum amastigotes were isolated from thp1-infected macrophages and l. major amastigotes from mouse lesions.
our attempts to isolate sufficient amastigote rna material from the spleen/liver of infected hamsters were unsuccessful due to low infection rates obtained with the l. infantum strain we used in this study.
to investigate whether gene expression levels could be different in lesion- vs. thp1-derived amastigotes, we first evaluated by qrt-pcr analysis the expression patterns of a selected number of transcripts between l. major amastigotes isolated from mouse lesions or thp <dig> infected cells in vitro.
the majority of the genes tested  were modulated in a similar fashion in thp1-derived or lesion-derived l. major amastigotes .
even when l. major or l. infantum amastigotes were grown within thp1-infected cells, different expression patterns were obtained for the majority  of the transcripts analyzed by qrt-pcr .
these results further support our microarray data demonstrating substantial differences in amastigote-regulated gene expression between l. major and l. infantum .
stage-regulated transcripts are distributed throughout the leishmania spp.
chromosomes
as mentioned in the introduction, up to several hundred leishmania genes are co-transcribed into polycistronic rnas, and individual mature mrnas are resolved by trans-splicing and polyadenylation  <cit> .
to determine genome distribution and chromosomal organization of the differentially expressed genes in both leishmania species, global rna expression profiles for both developmental stages of l. major and l. infantum were generated for each of the  <dig> chromosomes .
as representative examples, only chromosomes  <dig>   <dig>   <dig> and  <dig> are shown here .
this global genome analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes in either life stage are randomly distributed throughout leishmania chromosomes and that there is apparently no clustering of these genes within specific genomic loci .
these observations are consistent with published work to date and further support the concept that stage-regulated gene expression in leishmania involves mostly post-transcriptional mechanisms.
sider retroposons and their distribution in the 3'utr of leishmania differentially expressed transcripts
we recently identified two large classes of distinct short interspersed degenerate retroposons, named sider <dig>  and sider <dig>  that are mainly located in the 3'utr of leishmania mrnas  <cit> .
members of the sider <dig> subfamily correspond to the previously identified ~ <dig> nt 3'utr element conserved in several developmentally regulated mrnas, including the amastin mrnas  <cit> .
sider <dig> was shown to regulate amastin mrna translation in a stage-specific manner  <cit>  whereas sider <dig> plays a rather global role in mrna degradation  <cit> .
since siders and especially sider <dig> are involved in the regulation of mrna stability, we investigated whether these widespread retroposons were associated more frequently with differentially expressed mrnas.
therefore, we screened all differentially expressed transcripts as determined by microarray experiments in both leishmania species for the presence of sider <dig> or sider <dig> homologous sequences in their potential 3'utr .
on average, 21% of the promastigote-upregulated transcripts and 26–42% of the amastigote-upregulated transcripts in either species contained either sider <dig> or sider <dig> in their 3'utr .
the higher percentage of sider <dig> in amastigotes can be partly explained by the presence of this subclass of retroposons in amastin mrnas that are part of a large gene family ).
interestingly, l. major amastigote-upregulated transcripts contained generally a higher percentage of sider1/ <dig> retroposons and especially sider <dig> compared to l. infantum .
considering that ~25% of the l. major or l. infantum transcripts bear either sider <dig> or sider <dig> in their 3'utr  ), our data indicate that siders, at least in l. infantum, are not preferentially associated with differentially upregulated transcripts, which suggests that additional regulatory elements may also contribute to the stage-specific accumulation of leishmania mrnas.
a as determined by the dna microarray experiments .
b refined species-specific hidden markov model profiles were used to determine the genomic distribution of two sider families in l. infantum and l. major ).
values represent the proportion of annotated coding sequences that potentially harbor at least one sider element in their 3'utr.
the percentage of siders in differentially expressed transcripts is compared with the genomic distribution of siders.
discussion
this study provides an extensive analysis of genome-wide expression profiling of the main developmental life stages  of l. infantum along with a comparative analysis of gene expression profiles between l. infantum and l. major, two species causing distinct pathologies in humans, using a multispecies leishmania dna microarray.
the comparative analysis between l. major and l. infantum transcriptomes is the first to date and may lead to a better understanding of how differential gene expression among species with high similarity in genome sequences may be involved in the development of different disease phenotypes.
expression patterns, stage-regulated genes and pathways identified
genes whose expression was upregulated in either promastigote or amastigote life stages of l. major and l. infantum, as determined by dna microarrays, belong to various biological processes.
approximately 25% of the differentially expressed genes between both life stages in both species are involved in metabolism .
promastigotes and amastigotes reside in different environments and it is therefore expected that their metabolic needs will differ.
promastigotes in the sand fly use glycolysis and mitochondrial metabolism as their main energy sources .
amastigotes contain glycosomes, although considerably fewer than promastigotes  <cit> .
l. mexicana amastigotes isolated from mouse lesions have a reduced need for proline and glucose consumption and increased beta-oxidation of fatty acids compared to promastigotes, which could be used as energy source  <cit> .
our study revealed indeed that genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism as well as several glucose transporters were overexpressed in promastigotes compared to amastigotes .
interestingly, recent proteomic studies using axenic l. donovani promastigote and amastigote cultures indicated that the differentiating parasite shifts from glucose to fatty acids and amino acids as its main energy source  <cit> .
enzymes required for the de novo synthesis of inositol and mannose are important for amastigote growth  <cit> .
in agreement with this, the myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthetase gene encoding a key enzyme in the first step of inositol synthesis was found upregulated in both l. major and l. infantum amastigotes .
the absence of the glyoxylate pathway in leishmania, which is required for the conversion of acetyl-coa into sugars, indicates that amastigotes may be unable to utilize fatty acids as their major carbon source  <cit> .
amino acids are the second carbon source for leishmania promastigotes but are also important in the amastigote stage  <cit> .
the phagolysosomes of macrophages contain high levels of amino acids generated by proteolytic digestion of host phagosomal proteins and from exogenous proteins delivered into the phagolysosome via endocytosis  <cit> .
consistently, several lysosomal aminopeptidases and cathepsin-l like cysteine proteinases were upregulated in amastigotes .
also, several amino acid transporters and permeases important for the transport of amino acids from the phagosome into amastigotes were found upregulated in amastigotes .
leishmania amastigotes can scavenge all their purine requirements, cations, vitamins, carbon sources and several essential amino acids from the macrophage phagolysosome via plasma membrane transporters  <cit> .
consistent with this, intracellular amastigotes of both l. major and l. infantum overexpress a relatively larger number of membrane transporters than promastigotes .
important differences were observed in the expression of genes involved in cellular organization, biogenesis and cell motility between promastigote and amastigote stages of both leishmania species.
the motile flagellated promastigotes as opposed to the aflagellated amastigotes overexpress dyneins corresponding to large minus-end-directed microtubule motors providing the force for flagellar movement  <cit> , microtubules and a variety of microtubule-associated proteins  <cit> , kinesins and the trypanosomatid-specific pfr genes .
the genes coding for microtubule-associated proteins were found upregulated in l. major but surprisingly not in l. infantum promastigotes .
the genes coding for calpains, calcium-dependent cysteine proteinases participating in a variety of cellular processes, including cytoskeletal/membrane attachments and signal transduction pathways  <cit> , were upregulated in l. major and l. infantum promastigotes .
in contrast, intracellular amastigotes upregulated the expression of the lysosomal cathepsin-l like cysteine proteinases or aminopeptidases .
species-specific differential gene expression
comparative analyses of the complete genomes of l. major, l. infantum and l. braziliensis causing distinct human diseases revealed marked sequence conservation and synteny   <cit> .
despite the 20– <dig> million years of divergence within the leishmania genus and the broad difference in disease pathologies, only  <dig> genes were found to be species-specific;  <dig> l. major-specific,  <dig> l. infantum-specific and  <dig> l. braziliensis-specific  <cit> .
remarkably, our studies revealed that some of these unique species-specific genes, all encoding hypothetical proteins, were also developmentally regulated.
for example, linj22_v <dig>  only present in l. infantum, or linj34_v <dig> , linj15_v <dig> , linj16_v <dig> , and linj31_v <dig>  present in l. infantum but pseudogenes in l. major  <cit>  were expressed preferentially in the amastigote stage .
the l. major unique genes lmjf <dig>  and lmjf <dig>  were differentially expressed in promastigotes and amastigotes, respectively.
the l. major promastigote-regulated genes lmjf <dig>  and lmjf <dig>  are pseudogenes in l. infantum .
few of these genes are also present in l. braziliensis although their developmental regulation, if any, is not known.
interestingly, the l. donovani a <dig> genes , the only genes implicated so far in disease tropism  <cit> , are specifically expressed in amastigotes  <cit> .
these data suggest that both parasite genome differences and differential expression of species-specific genes may contribute to species-specific tropism.
the comparative transcriptomic analyses between l. major and l. infantum showed that only 10–12% of the differentially expressed genes in either life stage were common to both species.
commonly upregulated genes may fulfill essential features of the parasite such as metabolism, motility, infectivity and interaction with the host.
consistently, several metabolic genes, the amastigote-specific amastin surface proteins, which may act as receptors or transporters/channels  <cit>  and the promastigote-upregulated dyneins, paraflagellar rod components and calpain-like cysteine peptidases were differentially upregulated in both species.
the family of receptor adenylase cyclases  that play a role in signal transduction was differentially upregulated both in l. major and l. infantum promastigotes .
this is consistent with the report that rac-a and rac-b genes were expressed preferentially in the insect stage of l. donovani  <cit> .
however, the majority of the differentially expressed genes in either life stage were specific to each leishmania species.
species-specific differential gene expression may be attributed to a dynamic mode of regulation, which is suitable to species-specific adaptations to different insect vectors and life-cycle features, different target tissues, and distinct disease pathogenesis.
important differences in the stage-regulated gene expression of rna-binding proteins, amino acid transporters, proteolytic enzymes, and protein kinases were observed between l. major and l. infantum.
for example, l. major amastigotes upregulate the expression of important virulence genes encoding the lysosomal cathepsin-l like cysteine proteinases of the papain superfamily  <cit>  whereas l. infantum amastigotes overexpress genes encoding aminopeptidases, which catalyze the removal of n-terminal amino acid residues from peptides and proteins, as well as the subtilisin-like serine peptidase and the hslvu complex proteolytic subunit .
members of the surface antigen proteins  <dig>  are upregulated in l. major promastigotes but not in l. infantum promastigotes .
it is likely that lesion-derived amastigotes and amastigotes isolated from in vitro-infected macrophages display some differences in the expression of genes, especially those that can be modulated by the immune status of the host and/or gene products that contribute together with host factors to the establishment of the disease.
however, the majority of modulated genes whose functions are important or essential for the parasite's differentiation into its amastigote form and for the survival of amastigotes within the phagolysosome of macrophages should in principle be modulated similarly in lesion-derived or in vitro-infected macrophages given that amastigotes isolated from thp <dig> at 4– <dig> days following infection are fully differentiated and divide within the phagolysosome.
the substantial differences that we observed in stage-regulated gene expression not only for amastigotes but also for promastigotes, which were cultured under the same conditions, between l. infantum and l. major may be attributed for the most part to species-specific factors.
in line with this possibility are recent observations from our laboratory indicating that gene orthologues between l. major and l. infantum can be regulated in a different manner implying either distinct 3'utr elements or possibly regulatory factors that are only expressed in one of the species .
in further agreement with our findings, is a recent interspecies microarray analysis comparing lesion-derived amastigotes of l. major and l. mexicana, two species causing cutaneous leishmaniasis, which demonstrated substantial differences in rna expression profiles.
indeed, only 15% of the differentially expressed genes in promastigotes were in common between l. major and l. mexicana and there were no amastigote-upregulated genes shared by the two species  <cit> .
we showed here, and others have reported previously  <cit> , that a small percentage of genes  are regulated at the rna level throughout the life cycle stages of leishmania.
this percentage of modulated genes is not negligible if one considers that regulation of gene expression in leishmania occurs at different levels.
several proteomics studies reported a higher amount of genes  being regulated in a stage-specific manner at the translational and posttranslational levels  <cit> .
it has also been reported that a modest correlation exists between mrna and protein levels  <cit> .
this modest correlation could be partly explained by the presence of multiple elements within the 3'utr of leishmania transcripts, which often have distinct functions on either mrna stability or translation  <cit> .
do stage-regulated transcripts share common regulatory motifs in their 3'utr?
it is now well established that stage-specific regulation of gene expression in leishmania is predominantly mediated by elements in the 3'utr of mrnas .
in few cases, specific regions within 3'utrs have been delineated as cis-elements but their mechanism of action remains for the most part unknown.
we recently reported the presence of two classes of distinct short interspersed degenerate retroposons, sider <dig> and sider <dig> that are widely distributed in the 3'utr of a large number of leishmania mrnas   <cit> .
we showed that sider <dig> and sider <dig> have distinct regulatory functions involving either mrna translational control or rna degradation, respectively  <cit> .
siders were the first conserved regulatory elements found in numerous leishmania transcripts.
however, the distribution of siders among differentially expressed transcripts was not significantly higher from their global distribution among leishmania transcripts    <cit>  .
sider1-mediated regulation occurs at the level of translation and does not necessarily affect mrna abundance  <cit> .
in the few cases studied, sider <dig> seems to be involved in the degradation of generally short-lived mrnas.
rapid mrna turnover may permit the parasite to adapt to the continuously changing physiological needs within its invertebrate and mammalian host, and these temporal changes may not be detectable under our experimental conditions.
hence, siders might participate in more dynamic regulatory processes throughout the leishmania life cycle in response to specific environmental stimuli, yet to be analyzed.
it is likely that additional 3'utr elements should regulate stability of the differentially expressed transcripts in leishmania.
for example, we have recently identified a u-rich element in the amastin 3'utr that contributes to the amastin mrna degradation specifically in promastigotes  <cit> .
CONCLUSIONS
in conclusion, whole-genome analyses of inter-stage and inter-species rna expression profiles between l. major and l. infantum promastigote and amastigote developmental forms highlighted that only a small percentage of leishmania transcripts are modulated during development and most importantly that leishmania species causing distinct pathologies express a diverse set of differentially expressed transcripts.
these important differences in stage-regulated gene expression between species may be necessary to allow species-specific adaptations to different insect vectors and life-cycle features and could contribute to disease tropism.
it is possible that in order to diversify and/or to enlarge their expression profile patterns in response to continuously changing environments throughout development, leishmania species have adopted a dynamic, multilayered and complex mode of regulating gene expression.
the results presented in this study favor this possibility.

 leishmania are protozoan parasites that cause a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations in humans, collectively referred to as leishmaniasis, ranging from self-resolving skin lesions to life-threatening visceral diseases. leishmaniasis is endemic in countries and the world health organization has estimated that more than million people are currently infected with leishmania and million people are at risk of infection in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. leishmania parasites exist in two major developmental stages. in the alimentary tract of the sandfly vector, the parasites grow as extracellular flagellated promastigotes that are exposed to neutral ph and fluctuating temperatures averaging 25°c. following the sand fly bite, the infective forms can be transferred to tissue macrophages of the mammalian host where they experience near-constant temperatures ranging from 35°c to 39°c and differentiate into aflagellated replicative amastigotes within the acidic phagolysosomal vacuoles. during promastigote-to-amastigote differentiation, the parasites are subjected to drastic environmental changes, including a sharp rise in temperature, a drop in extracellular ph, an increased exposure to oxygen and nitrogen-reactive species, an intense extracellular proteolytic activity, and nutritional starvation. several of these environmental signals trigger leishmania differentiation by activating many regulatory mechanisms affecting gene expression that result in important morphological and biochemical changes. to date, several amastigote-specific and promastigote-specific genes have been identified in leishmania, however, the molecular mechanisms governing developmental gene regulation in this organism warrant additional investigations. leishmania and the related trypanosoma species possess unusual mechanisms of gene expression. the recent completion of the leishmania spp. genomes indicates that protein-coding genes are organized as large polycistronic units. transcription has been postulated to initiate at strand switch regions on each chromosome in the absence of defined rna pol ii promoters and typical general transcription factors. the maturation of individual mrnas from polycistronic pre-mrnas requires posttranscriptional control, which involves two coupled co-transcriptional rna-processing reactions. these include trans-splicing where a capped rna of ~39-nucleotides, the spliced leader rna, is added to the 5'-terminus of all known protein-encoding rnas, and 3'-end cleavage and polyadenylation. developmental gene regulation in leishmania is determined posttranscriptionally mainly by sequences located in the 3'-untranslated regions. several distinct 3'utr elements have been identified among stage-specific transcripts to regulate mrna stability/degradation and mrna translation. the recent completion of the l. major and l. infantum genomic sequences allowed studies of global gene expression throughout developmental life stages of these parasites. global gene expression profiling using leishmania microarrays with genome coverage between 22% and % highlighted that 2–9% of all genes analyzed were developmentally regulated. the current study extends these microarray data by providing a detailed analysis of whole-genome stage- and species-specific gene expression profiles within l. major and l. infantum using a dna oligonucleotide microarray representing the entire genomes of these two species. none of the previous dna microarray studies has compared global gene expression profiling of promastigote versus amastigote forms of l. infantum, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis, the most severe form of the disease. moreover, no studies to date have compared global changes in mrna abundance during development between leishmania species associated with different disease tropism. the current comparative analyses revealed important differences in stage-regulated gene expression patterns between l. major and l. infantum. these species-specific differences may partly explain the distinct clinical pathologies, despite highly conserved genomes.  comparison of global gene expression profiles between promastigote and amastigote developmental stages of leishmania spp to investigate global mrna expression profiles of l. infantum and l. major promastigote and amastigote developmental life stages, we designed a high-density multispecies 70-mer oligonucleotide genome microarray representing the entire genomes of l. major and l. infantum that share over 99% of their genes and contain species-specific genes. this allows a comparative analysis under the same conditions. through a rigorous statistical approach, data from several independent l. infantum and l. major dna microarray experiments were compiled and compared here. after subtracting the background, the difference of -fold in the signal intensity between the experimental conditions used for a given gene was chosen as the cut-off given that the p value confidence was more than 95% under those conditions. the whole-genome expression patterns of l. infantum and l. major developmental stages are shown in the scatter plots of normalized data. the scatter plots compared each gene according to the normalized log ratio of the alexa 647/alexa signal intensities and to the signal mean intensity of each spot. more than 86% of the spots yielded hybridization intensities of two-fold over local background. non-modulated genes, considered as constitutively expressed, had ratios between and. remarkably, most leishmania spots yielded expression ratios close to, with only a few hundred genes showing modulation of greater than -fold between developmental stages in both species. the vast majority of genes in both leishmania species were not significantly modulated throughout the two life cycle stages studied. a all genes presented here showed a fold increase in mrna accumulation more than and a p value <. comparison of global gene expression profiles of leishmania infantum developmental stages to date, no studies on the global stage-specific gene expression of a visceralizing leishmania species have been reported. we therefore undertook a microarray-based approach to determine differential gene expression patterns of the two major l. infantum life cycle stages: non-infective replicating extracellular procyclic promastigotes, and intracellular amastigotes isolated from thp-1-infected human monocytes in vitro following days post-infection. hybridizations were carried out using rna from six experimental biological replicates. after normalization and data processing in order to assess differential gene expression, the data were first filtered by fdr-corrected p-value and then according to the modulation of each probe. this analysis led to genes showing > -fold change in mrna abundance between the promastigote and amastigote life stages. analysis of the stage-modulated genes according to their gene ontology showed that they belong to several categories, including various biological processes. two hundred and seventy four genes representing % of the l. infantum genome were preferentially expressed in procyclic promastigotes. fold-increase in mrna abundance was modest for 95% of the overexpressed transcripts. this group included the well-documented promastigote-regulated genes pfr1d and pfr2c, several dyneins and kinesins that are important for flagellar movement, cytokinesis, and motility, histones, kinetoplast dna-associated proteins, the u-rich rna-binding proteins upb and ubp and a member of the pumilio family of translation repressors, calpain cysteine peptidases and several proteasome subunits. half of the promastigote-upregulated genes encoded hypothetical proteins with no similarity to other known proteins in the databases. three hundred and nine genes, representing % of the total l. infantum protein-coding sequences were found upregulated in intracellular amastigotes compared to extracellular promastigotes. transcripts modulated specifically in amastigotes showed generally a higher accumulation than promastigote-upregulated transcripts, with 31% of the transcripts demonstrating more than 3-fold increase in expression levels. several well-documented gene families, including the amastins, members of the glycosylation phosphoglycan beta galactosyltransferase gene family and sherp a small hydrophilic protein localizing to the endoplasmic reticulum and outer mitochondrial membrane were upregulated in l. infantum amastigotes. other representative examples included the myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthase, a mrna capping methyltransferase involved in cap methylation of the spliced-leader rna, aminopeptidases and the hs1vu complex proteolytic subunit and several abc, amino acid and mitochondrial transporters. approximately 74% of the amastigote-upregulated genes encoded hypothetical or unclassified proteins for which no putative biological function has been assigned. comparison of global gene expression profiles of different developmental stages within leishmania major in order to compare mrna expression profiles between l. infantum and l. major developmental life stages, we undertook also dna microarray experiments with l. major. in this study, we used the l. major lv mrho/su/59/p strain instead of the l. major friedlin genome strain because in our hands l. major lv was more infectious in balb/c mice. hybridizations were performed using rna from four experimental biological replicates. using the same statistical analysis applied for l. infantum, we identified differentially expressed transcripts in l. major from which were preferentially expressed in procyclic promastigotes and were differentially expressed in lesion-derived amastigotes. recent microarray analyses reported that % of the l. major genes were differentially expressed in promastigotes and % in lesion-derived amastigotes. the observed differences between the two studies may be attributed to the different l. major strains used or to technical issues regarding rna preparations from mice lesions and/or to differences in the oligonucleotide genome microarray design and manipulation. the identified differentially expressed genes were grouped according to go functional categories. the vast majority of the transcripts enriched in l. major promastigotes showed a modest accumulation not exceeding 3-fold. similarly to l. infantum, several l. major amastigote-upregulated transcripts showed in average a higher differential accumulation than the promastigote-upregulated transcripts. representative genes among those specifically upregulated in l. major promastigotes encode sugar kinases and beta-fructofuranosidases involved in carbohydrate metabolism, fatty acid elongases involved in lipid metabolism, proteins participating in nucleoside-nucleotide metabolism, amino acid, glucose and pteridine transport, electron transport, proteolysis, signaling and a large number of microtubule-associated proteins. this group also included several well-documented differentially expressed genes in promastigotes such as histones, the glucose transporter gt, the paraflagellar rod protein pfr1d and pfr2c, the leishmanolysin gp, and the surface antigen protein gene family. more than 47% of the promastigote-upregulated transcripts encoded hypothetical proteins of unknown function. among the l. major amastigote-upregulated genes are included several well-documented gene families such as amastins, haspa, scg and scg which are members of the phosphoglycan beta galactosyltransferase gene family, and others such as rna-binding proteins, cathepsin l-like proteins, protein kinases, tryparedoxins, a family of novel antioxidant proteins, several amino acid and pteridine transporters and a large number of hypothetical proteins. comparison of global stage-regulated gene expression between l. infantum and l. major one of the goals of this study was to compare global gene expression within the same life cycle stages of the l. major and l. infantum species, the causative agents of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, respectively. sequence comparison between the l. major and l. infantum genomes revealed marked conservation of synteny. therefore, much of the species-specific adaptive strategies to different target tissues and distinct disease pathogenesis should depend on the non-syntenic part of their respective genomes and/or on highly regulated hierarchical and temporal changes in gene expression. to monitor global gene expression of l. infantum and l. major, we used a multispecies high-density oligonucleotide microarray. it has recently been reported that using a multispecies microarray to study related species provided superior inter-species comparison than using several single species-specific microarrays. our comparative microarray analyses showed that out of the genes differentially expressed in l. infantum and l. major promastigote forms only were in common between the two species. similarly, only of the amastigote-upregulated genes were common to both species. these results are displayed in the form of venn diagrams and the detailed list of the commonly upregulated genes between l. infantum and l. major for a given developmental life stage is provided in table this list included, among others, the amastigote-specific amastin surface proteins, the paraflagellar rod components upregulated in promastigotes, dyneins, members of the phosphoglycan beta galactosyltransferase, calpain-like cysteine peptidases, calmodulins and a large number of hypothetical proteins. a genes differentially expressed in promastigotes. b genes differentially expressed but not in the same life stage. c genes differentially expressed in amastigotes. d the majority of the phosphoglycan galactosyltransferase gene family members are differentially expressed in amastigotes. these genes are listed in additional files and e the majority of the amastin gene family members are differentially expressed in amastigotes. these genes are listed in additional files and one hundred and nineteen genes were differentially expressed in l. infantum but were not modulated in l. major. more than 50% of these genes encoded hypothetical proteins. for example, the linj29_v gene was overexpressed 47-fold in l. infantum amastigotes but mrna expression of its l. major orthologue remained unchanged. other examples of genes upregulated in l. infantum amastigotes but not developmentally regulated in l. major included the aminopeptidase linj33_v and metallopeptidases linj16_v and linj34_v, the abc transporters linj29_v and linj11_v, the rab gtpase activator protein linj29_v, the chaperone dnaj linj21_v, the kinesin linj25_v, the mrna capping methyltransferase linj36_v and the nuclear cap binding protein linj30_v. alternatively, genes were stage-regulated in l. major but constitutively expressed in l. infantum. most of these l. major species-regulated genes were predominantly expressed in promastigotes. these included genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism like the three beta-fructofuranosidases in the l. major genome, 6-phospho-1-fructokinase lmjf and hexokinase lmjf, genes participating in proteolysis such as the calpain-like cysteine peptidases lmjf and lmjf and carboxypeptidases lmjf and lmjf, genes involved in electron transport such as the lactate dehydrogenase lmjf, the amino acid permease lmjf and the transmembrane amino acid transporter lmjf, the glucose transporters lmgt lmjf /lmjf and the surface antigens prostaglandin f2-alpha synthase and membrane-bound acid phosphatase. previous studies have reported that the membrane-bound acid phosphatase is a marker of virulence of l. donovani promastigotes and that in l. mexicana this gene was not required for amastigote survival. a only non-modulated genes are listed in this column. b genes differentially expressed in promastigotes. c genes differentially expressed in amastigotes. a only non-modulated genes are listed in this column. b genes differentially expressed in promastigotes. c genes differentially expressed in amastigotes. confirmation of gene expression patterns by quantitative real-time pcr quantitative real-time pcr was used to validate the microarray results. changes in expression levels of selected l. infantum and/or l. major mrnas in either promastigotes or intracellular amastigotes as determined by the microarray experiments were confirmed by qrt-pcr. genes for qrt-pcr were randomly selected based on different criteria, which included high vs. lower levels of expression, constitutive vs. stage-regulated gene expression, different go categories or genes encoding unclassified proteins, single copy genes and genes belonging to larger gene families. mrna expression levels determined by qrt-pcr were normalized to three l. infantum and l. major constitutively expressed mrnas. estimated expression patterns by qrt-pcr were compared to those by dna microarrays. results obtained by qrt-pcr were consistent with the microarray data in more than 97% of the cases. in few cases, the difference in expression levels between the two methods was two-fold or higher, however, both methods agreed on the differential gene expression in the same life cycle stage. a the microarray results have all a p-value lower than. b the same rna preparations were used for the microarray and qrt-pcr experiments. levels of mrna determined by qrt-pcr were normalized as described in methods. the values reported here are the average of two biological replicates and three technical replicates. the set of primers for qrt-pcr amplification are presented in additional file c linj34_v encodes an amastin homologue that shares homology to other members of the amastin gene family. for the microarray experiment, the 70-mer probe used recognizes more than one amastin members whereas the set of primers used for qrt-pcr was specific to the linj34_v gene only. d linj14_v is a member of the glycosylation phosphoglycan beta galactosyltransferase gene family. for the microarray experiment the 70-mer probe used recognizes more than one gene family members whereas the set of primers used for qrt-pcr was specific to the linj14_v gene only, whose expression was not modulated. in this study, l. infantum amastigotes were isolated from thp1-infected macrophages and l. major amastigotes from mouse lesions. our attempts to isolate sufficient amastigote rna material from the spleen/liver of infected hamsters were unsuccessful due to low infection rates obtained with the l. infantum strain we used in this study. to investigate whether gene expression levels could be different in lesion- vs. thp1-derived amastigotes, we first evaluated by qrt-pcr analysis the expression patterns of a selected number of transcripts between l. major amastigotes isolated from mouse lesions or thp infected cells in vitro. the majority of the genes tested were modulated in a similar fashion in thp1-derived or lesion-derived l. major amastigotes. even when l. major or l. infantum amastigotes were grown within thp1-infected cells, different expression patterns were obtained for the majority of the transcripts analyzed by qrt-pcr. these results further support our microarray data demonstrating substantial differences in amastigote-regulated gene expression between l. major and l. infantum. stage-regulated transcripts are distributed throughout the leishmania spp. chromosomes as mentioned in the introduction, up to several hundred leishmania genes are co-transcribed into polycistronic rnas, and individual mature mrnas are resolved by trans-splicing and polyadenylation. to determine genome distribution and chromosomal organization of the differentially expressed genes in both leishmania species, global rna expression profiles for both developmental stages of l. major and l. infantum were generated for each of the chromosomes. as representative examples, only chromosomes and are shown here. this global genome analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes in either life stage are randomly distributed throughout leishmania chromosomes and that there is apparently no clustering of these genes within specific genomic loci. these observations are consistent with published work to date and further support the concept that stage-regulated gene expression in leishmania involves mostly post-transcriptional mechanisms. sider retroposons and their distribution in the 3'utr of leishmania differentially expressed transcripts we recently identified two large classes of distinct short interspersed degenerate retroposons, named sider and sider that are mainly located in the 3'utr of leishmania mrnas. members of the sider subfamily correspond to the previously identified ~ nt 3'utr element conserved in several developmentally regulated mrnas, including the amastin mrnas. sider was shown to regulate amastin mrna translation in a stage-specific manner whereas sider plays a rather global role in mrna degradation. since siders and especially sider are involved in the regulation of mrna stability, we investigated whether these widespread retroposons were associated more frequently with differentially expressed mrnas. therefore, we screened all differentially expressed transcripts as determined by microarray experiments in both leishmania species for the presence of sider or sider homologous sequences in their potential 3'utr. on average, 21% of the promastigote-upregulated transcripts and 26–42% of the amastigote-upregulated transcripts in either species contained either sider or sider in their 3'utr. the higher percentage of sider in amastigotes can be partly explained by the presence of this subclass of retroposons in amastin mrnas that are part of a large gene family ). interestingly, l. major amastigote-upregulated transcripts contained generally a higher percentage of sider1/ retroposons and especially sider compared to l. infantum. considering that ~25% of the l. major or l. infantum transcripts bear either sider or sider in their 3'utr ), our data indicate that siders, at least in l. infantum, are not preferentially associated with differentially upregulated transcripts, which suggests that additional regulatory elements may also contribute to the stage-specific accumulation of leishmania mrnas. a as determined by the dna microarray experiments. b refined species-specific hidden markov model profiles were used to determine the genomic distribution of two sider families in l. infantum and l. major ). values represent the proportion of annotated coding sequences that potentially harbor at least one sider element in their 3'utr. the percentage of siders in differentially expressed transcripts is compared with the genomic distribution of siders. discussion this study provides an extensive analysis of genome-wide expression profiling of the main developmental life stages of l. infantum along with a comparative analysis of gene expression profiles between l. infantum and l. major, two species causing distinct pathologies in humans, using a multispecies leishmania dna microarray. the comparative analysis between l. major and l. infantum transcriptomes is the first to date and may lead to a better understanding of how differential gene expression among species with high similarity in genome sequences may be involved in the development of different disease phenotypes. expression patterns, stage-regulated genes and pathways identified genes whose expression was upregulated in either promastigote or amastigote life stages of l. major and l. infantum, as determined by dna microarrays, belong to various biological processes. approximately 25% of the differentially expressed genes between both life stages in both species are involved in metabolism. promastigotes and amastigotes reside in different environments and it is therefore expected that their metabolic needs will differ. promastigotes in the sand fly use glycolysis and mitochondrial metabolism as their main energy sources. amastigotes contain glycosomes, although considerably fewer than promastigotes. l. mexicana amastigotes isolated from mouse lesions have a reduced need for proline and glucose consumption and increased beta-oxidation of fatty acids compared to promastigotes, which could be used as energy source. our study revealed indeed that genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism as well as several glucose transporters were overexpressed in promastigotes compared to amastigotes. interestingly, recent proteomic studies using axenic l. donovani promastigote and amastigote cultures indicated that the differentiating parasite shifts from glucose to fatty acids and amino acids as its main energy source. enzymes required for the de novo synthesis of inositol and mannose are important for amastigote growth. in agreement with this, the myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthetase gene encoding a key enzyme in the first step of inositol synthesis was found upregulated in both l. major and l. infantum amastigotes. the absence of the glyoxylate pathway in leishmania, which is required for the conversion of acetyl-coa into sugars, indicates that amastigotes may be unable to utilize fatty acids as their major carbon source. amino acids are the second carbon source for leishmania promastigotes but are also important in the amastigote stage. the phagolysosomes of macrophages contain high levels of amino acids generated by proteolytic digestion of host phagosomal proteins and from exogenous proteins delivered into the phagolysosome via endocytosis. consistently, several lysosomal aminopeptidases and cathepsin-l like cysteine proteinases were upregulated in amastigotes. also, several amino acid transporters and permeases important for the transport of amino acids from the phagosome into amastigotes were found upregulated in amastigotes. leishmania amastigotes can scavenge all their purine requirements, cations, vitamins, carbon sources and several essential amino acids from the macrophage phagolysosome via plasma membrane transporters. consistent with this, intracellular amastigotes of both l. major and l. infantum overexpress a relatively larger number of membrane transporters than promastigotes. important differences were observed in the expression of genes involved in cellular organization, biogenesis and cell motility between promastigote and amastigote stages of both leishmania species. the motile flagellated promastigotes as opposed to the aflagellated amastigotes overexpress dyneins corresponding to large minus-end-directed microtubule motors providing the force for flagellar movement, microtubules and a variety of microtubule-associated proteins, kinesins and the trypanosomatid-specific pfr genes. the genes coding for microtubule-associated proteins were found upregulated in l. major but surprisingly not in l. infantum promastigotes. the genes coding for calpains, calcium-dependent cysteine proteinases participating in a variety of cellular processes, including cytoskeletal/membrane attachments and signal transduction pathways, were upregulated in l. major and l. infantum promastigotes. in contrast, intracellular amastigotes upregulated the expression of the lysosomal cathepsin-l like cysteine proteinases or aminopeptidases. species-specific differential gene expression comparative analyses of the complete genomes of l. major, l. infantum and l. braziliensis causing distinct human diseases revealed marked sequence conservation and synteny. despite the 20– million years of divergence within the leishmania genus and the broad difference in disease pathologies, only genes were found to be species-specific; l. major-specific, l. infantum-specific and l. braziliensis-specific. remarkably, our studies revealed that some of these unique species-specific genes, all encoding hypothetical proteins, were also developmentally regulated. for example, linj22_v only present in l. infantum, or linj34_v, linj15_v, linj16_v, and linj31_v present in l. infantum but pseudogenes in l. major were expressed preferentially in the amastigote stage. the l. major unique genes lmjf and lmjf were differentially expressed in promastigotes and amastigotes, respectively. the l. major promastigote-regulated genes lmjf and lmjf are pseudogenes in l. infantum. few of these genes are also present in l. braziliensis although their developmental regulation, if any, is not known. interestingly, the l. donovani a genes, the only genes implicated so far in disease tropism, are specifically expressed in amastigotes. these data suggest that both parasite genome differences and differential expression of species-specific genes may contribute to species-specific tropism. the comparative transcriptomic analyses between l. major and l. infantum showed that only 10–12% of the differentially expressed genes in either life stage were common to both species. commonly upregulated genes may fulfill essential features of the parasite such as metabolism, motility, infectivity and interaction with the host. consistently, several metabolic genes, the amastigote-specific amastin surface proteins, which may act as receptors or transporters/channels and the promastigote-upregulated dyneins, paraflagellar rod components and calpain-like cysteine peptidases were differentially upregulated in both species. the family of receptor adenylase cyclases that play a role in signal transduction was differentially upregulated both in l. major and l. infantum promastigotes. this is consistent with the report that rac-a and rac-b genes were expressed preferentially in the insect stage of l. donovani. however, the majority of the differentially expressed genes in either life stage were specific to each leishmania species. species-specific differential gene expression may be attributed to a dynamic mode of regulation, which is suitable to species-specific adaptations to different insect vectors and life-cycle features, different target tissues, and distinct disease pathogenesis. important differences in the stage-regulated gene expression of rna-binding proteins, amino acid transporters, proteolytic enzymes, and protein kinases were observed between l. major and l. infantum. for example, l. major amastigotes upregulate the expression of important virulence genes encoding the lysosomal cathepsin-l like cysteine proteinases of the papain superfamily whereas l. infantum amastigotes overexpress genes encoding aminopeptidases, which catalyze the removal of n-terminal amino acid residues from peptides and proteins, as well as the subtilisin-like serine peptidase and the hslvu complex proteolytic subunit. members of the surface antigen proteins are upregulated in l. major promastigotes but not in l. infantum promastigotes. it is likely that lesion-derived amastigotes and amastigotes isolated from in vitro-infected macrophages display some differences in the expression of genes, especially those that can be modulated by the immune status of the host and/or gene products that contribute together with host factors to the establishment of the disease. however, the majority of modulated genes whose functions are important or essential for the parasite's differentiation into its amastigote form and for the survival of amastigotes within the phagolysosome of macrophages should in principle be modulated similarly in lesion-derived or in vitro-infected macrophages given that amastigotes isolated from thp at 4– days following infection are fully differentiated and divide within the phagolysosome. the substantial differences that we observed in stage-regulated gene expression not only for amastigotes but also for promastigotes, which were cultured under the same conditions, between l. infantum and l. major may be attributed for the most part to species-specific factors. in line with this possibility are recent observations from our laboratory indicating that gene orthologues between l. major and l. infantum can be regulated in a different manner implying either distinct 3'utr elements or possibly regulatory factors that are only expressed in one of the species. in further agreement with our findings, is a recent interspecies microarray analysis comparing lesion-derived amastigotes of l. major and l. mexicana, two species causing cutaneous leishmaniasis, which demonstrated substantial differences in rna expression profiles. indeed, only 15% of the differentially expressed genes in promastigotes were in common between l. major and l. mexicana and there were no amastigote-upregulated genes shared by the two species. we showed here, and others have reported previously, that a small percentage of genes are regulated at the rna level throughout the life cycle stages of leishmania. this percentage of modulated genes is not negligible if one considers that regulation of gene expression in leishmania occurs at different levels. several proteomics studies reported a higher amount of genes being regulated in a stage-specific manner at the translational and posttranslational levels. it has also been reported that a modest correlation exists between mrna and protein levels. this modest correlation could be partly explained by the presence of multiple elements within the 3'utr of leishmania transcripts, which often have distinct functions on either mrna stability or translation. do stage-regulated transcripts share common regulatory motifs in their 3'utr? it is now well established that stage-specific regulation of gene expression in leishmania is predominantly mediated by elements in the 3'utr of mrnas. in few cases, specific regions within 3'utrs have been delineated as cis-elements but their mechanism of action remains for the most part unknown. we recently reported the presence of two classes of distinct short interspersed degenerate retroposons, sider and sider that are widely distributed in the 3'utr of a large number of leishmania mrnas. we showed that sider and sider have distinct regulatory functions involving either mrna translational control or rna degradation, respectively. siders were the first conserved regulatory elements found in numerous leishmania transcripts. however, the distribution of siders among differentially expressed transcripts was not significantly higher from their global distribution among leishmania transcripts. sider1-mediated regulation occurs at the level of translation and does not necessarily affect mrna abundance. in the few cases studied, sider seems to be involved in the degradation of generally short-lived mrnas. rapid mrna turnover may permit the parasite to adapt to the continuously changing physiological needs within its invertebrate and mammalian host, and these temporal changes may not be detectable under our experimental conditions. hence, siders might participate in more dynamic regulatory processes throughout the leishmania life cycle in response to specific environmental stimuli, yet to be analyzed. it is likely that additional 3'utr elements should regulate stability of the differentially expressed transcripts in leishmania. for example, we have recently identified a u-rich element in the amastin 3'utr that contributes to the amastin mrna degradation specifically in promastigotes.  in conclusion, whole-genome analyses of inter-stage and inter-species rna expression profiles between l. major and l. infantum promastigote and amastigote developmental forms highlighted that only a small percentage of leishmania transcripts are modulated during development and most importantly that leishmania species causing distinct pathologies express a diverse set of differentially expressed transcripts. these important differences in stage-regulated gene expression between species may be necessary to allow species-specific adaptations to different insect vectors and life-cycle features and could contribute to disease tropism. it is possible that in order to diversify and/or to enlarge their expression profile patterns in response to continuously changing environments throughout development, leishmania species have adopted a dynamic, multilayered and complex mode of regulating gene expression. the results presented in this study favor this possibility. 
leishmania parasites cause a diverse spectrum of diseases in humans ranging from spontaneously healing skin lesions to life-threatening visceral diseases. we used a multispecies dna oligonucleotide microarray to compare whole-genome expression patterns of promastigote and amastigote developmental stages between l. major and l. infantum. seven per cent of the total l. infantum genome and % of the l. major genome were differentially expressed at the rna level throughout development. remarkably, this comparative global interspecies analysis demonstrated that only 10–12% of the differentially expressed genes were common to l. major and l. infantum. this study highlighted substantial differences in gene expression patterns between l. major and l. infantum. these important species-specific differences in stage-regulated gene expression may contribute to the disease tropism that distinguishes l. major from l. infantum. the high conservation in gene content and genome organization between leishmania major and leishmania infantum contrasts their distinct pathophysiologies, suggesting that highly regulated hierarchical and temporal changes in gene expression may be involved. the main variations were found in genes involved in metabolism, cellular organization and biogenesis, transport and genes encoding unknown function. differentially expressed genes are randomly distributed across chromosomes further supporting a posttranscriptional control, which is likely to involve a variety of 3'utr elements.
 leishmania parasites cause a diverse spectrum of diseases in humans ranging from spontaneously healing skin lesions to life-threatening visceral diseases. the high conservation in gene content and genome organization between leishmania major and leishmania infantum contrasts their distinct pathophysiologies, suggesting that highly regulated hierarchical and temporal changes in gene expression may be involved.  we used a multispecies dna oligonucleotide microarray to compare whole-genome expression patterns of promastigote and amastigote developmental stages between l. major and l. infantum. seven per cent of the total l. infantum genome and % of the l. major genome were differentially expressed at the rna level throughout development. the main variations were found in genes involved in metabolism, cellular organization and biogenesis, transport and genes encoding unknown function. remarkably, this comparative global interspecies analysis demonstrated that only 10–12% of the differentially expressed genes were common to l. major and l. infantum. differentially expressed genes are randomly distributed across chromosomes further supporting a posttranscriptional control, which is likely to involve a variety of 3'utr elements.  this study highlighted substantial differences in gene expression patterns between l. major and l. infantum. these important species-specific differences in stage-regulated gene expression may contribute to the disease tropism that distinguishes l. major from l. infantum. 