BACKGROUND
most gram-positive bacteria are known to produce a multiplicity of extracellular proteins, many of which are destined to become attached to the cell surface  <cit> .
these surface-exposed proteins serve to communicate and interact with the environment.
particularly in pathogenic streptococci, staphylococci and listeria, they are often of primary importance in bacterial adhesion, invasion and interaction with host cells  <cit> .
cell-surface proteins are also known to play an essential role in providing nutrition to the cell through binding, degradation and uptake of carbon and nitrogen substrates.
many cell-surface proteins have a multi-domain architecture, and share various structural features including secretion signal peptides, cell-anchoring domains or motifs, cell-wall spanning regions, and repeated domains of various functions.
in some cases, multiple proteins join forces to form large extracellular complexes that provide both binding and enzymatic functionalities, such as the cellulosomes of anaerobic bacteria  for degradation of and growth on cellulose, the main structural component of plant cell walls  <cit> .
even though the function of a variety of extracellular proteins of gram-positive bacteria has been characterized experimentally, recent genome sequencing efforts have led to the prediction of hundreds of encoded extracellular proteins of unknown function.
many of these appear to belong to conserved homologous families of hypothetical extracellular proteins, suggesting common functions in different bacterial species.
while it is often possible to detect known cell-anchoring domains in these proteins, such as  amino- or carboxy-terminal membrane-spanning anchors,  peptidoglycan anchors covalently bound through their lpxtg motif  <cit> ,  amino-terminal lipid-bound anchors  <cit> , and  a variety of domains binding non-covalently to peptidoglycan, teichoic acids  <cit>  or surface polysaccharides, the main function of these encoded cell-surface proteins in their interaction with the environment remains elusive.
lactobacillus plantarum is a gram-positive bacterium that is encountered in many different environmental niches, as it is associated with various plants  <cit> , it occurs in several food and feed fermentations  <cit> , and it is a natural inhabitant of the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals  <cit> .
analysis of the  <dig>  mbp genome sequence of l. plantarum wcfs <dig> revealed over  <dig> putative extracellular proteins based on the presence of an n-terminal signal peptide  <cit> .
the vast majority of these proteins contained at least one of the cell-anchoring motifs described above.
a new c-terminal domain designated wxl was found in  <dig> proteins of l. plantarum.
more recently, fifteen proteins with a wxl-like domain were identified in the genome of lactobacillus sakei  <dig> k  <cit> , and found to be encoded in gene clusters that potentially encode a multicomponent complex of unknown function on the bacterial surface.
in search of putative functions for the encoded hypothetical extracellular proteins, and their possible relation to niche adaptation, we have now discovered that  <dig> of the cell-surface proteins of l. plantarum are encoded in nine paralogous gene clusters.
four different types of novel protein families are represented in these gene clusters.
we present bioinformatics and experimental evidence that the encoded proteins are functionally coupled and possibly form a cell-surface protein complex that could play a role in sugar metabolism.
a genome-wide search revealed similar gene clusters in a specific subgroup of mainly plant-associated gram-positive bacteria, and we therefore postulate a role in degradation of  plant polysaccharides.
RESULTS
cell-surface clusters in lactobacillus plantarum wcfs1
analysis of the chromosome indicated that many of the predicted extracellular proteins are encoded in clusters of 3– <dig> genes  <cit> .
a closer inspection reveals that nine clusters encode proteins which can be divided into  <dig> different classes or families based on amino acid sequence similarity, domain and motif characteristics .
all of the  <dig> encoded csc proteins  have normal signal peptides for secretion via the sec-dependent pathway  <cit>  and processing by the signal peptidase i. most of the csc proteins and their domains are of unknown function since they do not have significant similarity to proteins of known function .
the four families can be easily distinguished based on domain composition.
the csca proteins are all predicted to contain a conserved domain of unknown function  as well as a c-terminal transmembrane anchor.
cscb and cscc proteins are characterized by a novel domain of 160– <dig> residues, which we have termed wxl since it contains two characteristic conserved sequence motifs containing the wxl signature  <cit> .
the cscb proteins are on average  <dig> amino acids in size and consist almost entirely of the wxl domain, while the cscc proteins are much larger with an average size of  <dig> amino acids and have a variable n-terminus.
since the wxl domains of the cscb and cscc proteins can be distinguished based on sequence characteristics such as the distance between the conserved wxl residues, they were considered as two different families .
finally, members of the cscd family all have a c-terminal lpxtg-type motif for sortase-mediated covalent anchoring to the peptidoglycan layer  <cit> , and are uncharacteristically small for lpxtg-anchored proteins.
figure  <dig> summarizes the characteristics of the four csc family members.
the individual families will be discussed in more detail below.
# seven of these csc genes are found outside the gene clusters in complete genomes .
* some genes contain frame shifts, stop codons or truncations .
cell-surface clusters in other bacteria
the ncbi and ergo genome databases were searched for the presence of csc family members and csc-like gene clusters.
clusters encoding these cell-surface proteins were found in the complete genomes of lactobacillus plantarum  <cit> , lactobacillus sakei  <cit> , enterococcus faecalis , listeria innocua , listeria monocytogenes , lactococcus lactis ssp lactis , bacillus cereus zk , bacillus cereus  <dig>  and bacillus anthracis  .
the csc clusters were also found in the incomplete genomes of l. lactis ssp cremoris , lactobacillus casei , enterococcus faecium , pediococcus pentocaseus , oenococcus oeni , leuconostoc mesenteroides , and bacillus thuringiensis .
details of all csc gene clusters and encoded proteins can be found in additional files  <dig>   <dig>   <dig>  in several cases csc genes are still unidentified in incomplete genomes because the clusters are on small contigs.
each gene cluster generally has one copy each of the  <dig> new gene families csca, cscb, cscc and cscd, although some variation is observed.
a single copy of the csca is always present, while 1– <dig> different cscb genes occur in the gene clusters.
although single cscc and cscd genes are usually present, they are missing in a few clusters.
all encoded proteins have a regular signal peptide for secretion by the sec-dependent pathway.
evidence of gene clusters as functional units
there are many indications that these gene clusters are functional units, i.e.
that the genes are transcribed coordinately, and that the encoded gene products function together in a pathway or protein complex.
csc genes are nearly exclusively found in these gene clusters, with very few exceptions outside the clusters.
the clusters rarely contain other genes than the csc family members, as based on the criteria of correct gene orientation, small intergenic distance and absence of predicted termination sequences.
in all csc clusters, the genes are oriented in the same transcriptional direction and usually have intergenic regions smaller than  <dig> nucleotides, suggestive of an operon structure.
in general, the csc gene clusters are bounded by terminators on both sides .
one complete gene cluster  on the l. lactis ssp lactis il <dig> chromosome is exactly bordered by is <dig> elements, and several other clusters are flanked on one side by is elements, suggesting that some of these gene clusters have been transferred as a unit.
moreover, complete csc gene clusters are found on plasmids of l. lactis sk <dig>  <cit> , b. anthracis and b. cereus , suggesting that these genes can be transferred between strains or species via these mobile genetic elements.
comparative dna microarray-based genotyping analysis of  <dig> strains of lactobacillus plantarum revealed considerable variation in the presence/absence of different dna regions in individual strains as compared to strain wcfs <dig>  <cit> .
in general, the csc clusters of l. plantarum wcfs <dig> appear to be highly conserved in other strains.
however, the entire cluster lpl-ix  appears to be missing in  <dig> of the  <dig> strains analyzed, while the genes flanking this cluster appear to be present.
again, this suggests that the entire cluster can be excised or inserted as a functional unit.
domain and function prediction of csc proteins
csca family
the csca proteins are found to belong to the pf <dig> pfam family .
in addition to the n-terminal signal peptide, these proteins all contain a predicted c-terminal trans-membrane helix, which presumably serves to anchor them in the cell membrane .
each csc gene cluster generally encodes only a single csca protein .
the csca-family members are fairly uniform in size , and the large majority are predicted to be very basic proteins with a pi above  <dig>  .
cscb family
the cscb family members are also fairly uniformly sized , and typically have an acidic pi of 4– <dig>  these proteins are not yet described in the pfam or cog databases.
we have defined the c-terminal domain of about 160– <dig> residues as the "wxl1" domain  since it contains two highly conserved sequence motifs trp-x-leu.
preceding the first trp-x-leu motif is a highly conserved asp-x-arg-gly sequence.
most family members have a short pro-rich region between the signal peptide and the wxl1-domain.
the four exceptions are much larger proteins of l. plantarum  and e. faecalis  that have the c-terminal wxl <dig> domain in common; the larger n-terminal parts of these l. plantarum proteins are similar to each other, but have no known other domains, whereas the two e. faecalis proteins are also similar to each other and have l-domain-like repeats .
cscc family
the cscc family members are much larger than csca or cscb proteins, and more heterogeneous in size .
they are multi-domain proteins, all characterized by a c-terminal domain of about 130– <dig> residues, defined as the "wxl2" domain since it is very similar to the wxl <dig> domain but differs in overall size, in conserved residues and in the distance between the two wxl motifs .
based on these differences, the wxl <dig> and wxl <dig> domains can be distinguished as different domain variants, which is also supported by hidden markov models: cscb proteins were recognized by a hidden markov model based on the wxl <dig> domain without false positive hits in cscc proteins, and vice versa.
in addition, other domains could be identified in some cscc proteins with homology to different kinds of binding domains, albeit often with weak homology .
the clearest domain-homologue identified is an n-terminal domain of about  <dig> residues with structural similarity to concanavalin a-like lectins/glucanases.
this superfamily includes a diverse range of carbohydrate-binding domains and glycosyl hydrolase enzymes that share a common structural fold   <cit> .
lectins and glucanases exhibit the common property of reversibly binding to specific  carbohydrates.
this cona-like domain was found in ten cscc proteins from six different species, and is characterized by several conserved aromatic residues, most of which are tryptophans .
aromatic residues of starch-binding domains have been shown to be involved in the binding of saccharide rings by stacking with indole and phenyl rings  <cit> .
various -conserved asp and glu residues are potential metal ion ligands, including an exd motif, as also found in glycosyl hydrolases of this superfamily .
the cona-like domains of cscc proteins show distinct sequence similarity to each other, but much less to other families of the large concanavalin a-like lectin/glucanase superfamily, suggesting that they may represent a new subfamily.
the best sequence similarity is with leguminous plant lectins, including the known metal ion binding residues .
cscd family
the cscd family is not characterized by sequence similarity, but rather by the presence of both a signal peptide for secretion, and by an lpxtg-type motif for covalent anchoring to the peptidoglycan matrix.
cscd proteins form a very unusual group among the lpxtg-proteins  <cit> ,  <cit> , since they are extremely short  and have only 40– <dig> residues between the signal peptide  and the lpxtg-anchoring motif .
this implies that only a short peptide of that length would become attached to the peptidoglycan.
these peptides have very low sequence homology to each other, and multiple sequence alignment is not informative.
we propose that they play a role in anchoring the other csc proteins to the cell surface through as yet unknown interactions.
cluster evolution
family tree analysis of the csca, cscb and cscc proteins  suggests first that the clusters have evolved as units without shuffling, as the three trees are basically the same.
secondly, some cluster duplications are of early origin as they precede several speciation events.
other cluster duplications are of more recent origin, as cluster members from the same species are grouped in the same branch, as can be clearly seen in species with many clusters, i.e.
l. plantarum, l. sakei, e. faecalis and l. lactis.
also, the gene order in clusters of these more recent duplications has changed little, compared to older duplications .
finally, multiple copies of cscb genes in clusters appear to be the most recent duplications, as they are most similar to members within the same cluster .
co-expression and regulation of cluster genes
several previous transcriptome investigations aimed at elucidation of l. plantarum response under various stress conditions have indicated that the transcription of specific csc genes is regulated in response to bile, salt and lactate stress  <cit> .
in several cases, the expression of entire csc gene clusters was observed to change significantly.
in the present study, seven of the nine csc gene clusters of l. plantarum appeared to be significantly up-regulated as a consequence of a replacement mutation in the ccpa gene  when grown on glucose as the main energy and carbon source .
these data strongly suggest that these gene clusters are part of the catabolite control regulon that is controlled by the central regulator ccpa.
to further substantiate this, a mast-motif search was performed to identify putative cre sites, for binding of ccpa  <cit> , within the csc gene clusters and their upstream regions.
putative cre sites could be identified for six out of the seven up-regulated csc clusters, generally upstream of the first gene of the cluster and in three clusters also inside csc genes .
in contrast, no significant cre-like sites could be identified within or upstream of the residual csc gene clusters, supporting a functional role of the identified cre-site candidate sequences in regulation of these clusters.
a m = 2log of the expression ratio's, calculated as the average expression level observed in the ccpa mutant divided by the average expression ratio observed in the wild-type.
n.a.
= clear palindromes which are possible cre sites, but score is lowered due to insertion of  <dig> extra nucleotide
taken together these data strongly support the consistent coordinated expression of the l. plantarum csc clusters, while a putative role for specific subsets of these clusters in stress survival/adaptation or in carbon source acquisition can be anticipated.
discussion
conserved gene clusters encoding extracellular proteins belonging to four distinct new families have been found in several gram-positive bacteria.
based on the experimental evidence and predictions provided above that the csca, cscpb, cscc and cscd proteins are functionally coupled, we propose that they form a cell-surface protein complex.
two components are presumably bound to cell-wall components, i.e.
the csca is membrane-anchored and cscd is bound to peptidoglycan.
the cscb and cscc proteins have novel wxl domains which could function in binding to csca/cscd proteins, or to other components of the cell-surface .
the occurrence of these csc clusters in a limited number of gram-positive bacteria suggests a niche adaptation.
all of the species in table  <dig> are free-living bacteria found in the environment.
several of these bacteria are known to be associated with plants and plant fermentations, and many are used for making a variety of fermented products such as sauerkraut, sourdough, olives, silage, soy milk, wine and cheese, or can be found as contaminants of these products.
l. sakei is more often associated to meat products  <cit> .
it is noteworthy that these gene clusters are neither present in the many sequenced genomes of  streptococci, staphylococci, and clostridia, nor in the lactobacillus acidophilus subgroup of the lactobacilli, which are typical gut bacteria.
experimental characterization of a csc family protein has demonstrated its cell-surface location  <cit> .
a cscb gene product called cpf  of lactobacillus coryniformis dsm20001t, a species commonly found in agricultural habitats and food products, was purified and found to mediate coaggregation with and aggregation of other bacterial species.
cpf could be removed from the surface of lactobacillus cells by treatment with high salt , and could subsequently be reattached by removal of salt resulting in restoration of the co/aggregation property.
this indicates that cscb proteins are non-covalently bound to the bacterial cell surface, supporting our hypothesis.
transcriptomics experiments show that at least six of the csc gene clusters of l. plantarum are under catabolite repression, as they are up-regulated in a ccpa-knockout strain grown on glucose, and they contain cre elements for binding of the global regulator ccpa.
this regulatory clue suggests a functional link of the csc proteins with sugar metabolism.
furthermore, some cscc proteins contain concanavalina-like lectin/glucanase domains.
cona-like domains are often found in proteins involved in cell recognition and adhesion, and lectins and glucanases are known to reversibly bind to specific complex carbohydrates.
bacterial and fungal glucanases and xylanases with cona-like domains can degrade complex polysaccharides like beta-glucans, kappa-carrageenans, xylans and cellulose  <cit> .
hence, the presence of cona-like domains in cscc proteins would support a role of the proposed csc cell-surface protein complex in binding and/or degradation of complex  oligo- or poly-saccharides.
plant cell-wall polysaccharides are an abundant source of carbon and energy for many free-living micro-organisms, which exploit such polysaccharides from decaying plant material, i.e.
in compost, soil, and sewage.
it is striking that the genome of lactobacillus plantarum has the most csc gene clusters.
l. plantarum is frequently found on plants  <cit>  and fermented plant material  <cit> , and it is used in plant fermentations  <cit>  and silage  <cit> .
on plant surfaces, l. plantarum should be in close association with other bacteria  which are capable of plant polysaccharide degradation and l. plantarum could make use of the liberated oligosaccharide units.
in addition, or alternatively, l. plantarum could have its own extracellular enzyme systems for breakdown of complex polysaccharides, and we hypothesize that the newly described csc system could be one of such systems.
extracellular protein complexes for degradation of complex polysaccharides are already known in other groups of bacteria, but they are completely different in protein composition from the putative csc protein complexes.
some anaerobic bacteria such as clostridium and ruminococcus have an elaborate system called the cellulosome, a large extracellular enzyme complex, to break down plant cell walls.
in clostridia, the components of cellulosomes are encoded in large gene clusters  <cit> , which are coordinately expressed and regulated by catabolite repression  <cit> .
bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, found in the distal intestine  of the gi-tract, has an outer-membrane-associated multi-protein complex called the starch-utilization system , consisting of different starch-binding proteins and sugar degradation enzymes encoded in gene clusters  <cit> .
hence, it is not unlikely that during evolution different extracellular protein complexes have arisen in subgroups of bacteria, each specific for a particular environmental niche with its characteristic carbohydrate sources.
CONCLUSIONS
we have presented bioinformatics and experimental evidence that the extracellular csca, cscb, cscc and cscd proteins are functionally coupled and possibly form a cell-surface protein complex that could play a role in sugar acquisition.
based on the occurrence of these gene clusters in many environmental gram-positive bacteria, we postulate a role in degradation and utilization of  plant polysaccharides, and possibly other food polysaccharides.
our hypotheses provide a guide for experimental work in any of these bacteria to investigate the location and composition of these protein complexes, their polysaccharide specificity and degradation properties, or the effect of knock-out mutants on the survival of the strain grown on different substrates.

 most gram-positive bacteria are known to produce a multiplicity of extracellular proteins, many of which are destined to become attached to the cell surface. these surface-exposed proteins serve to communicate and interact with the environment. particularly in pathogenic streptococci, staphylococci and listeria, they are often of primary importance in bacterial adhesion, invasion and interaction with host cells. cell-surface proteins are also known to play an essential role in providing nutrition to the cell through binding, degradation and uptake of carbon and nitrogen substrates. many cell-surface proteins have a multi-domain architecture, and share various structural features including secretion signal peptides, cell-anchoring domains or motifs, cell-wall spanning regions, and repeated domains of various functions. in some cases, multiple proteins join forces to form large extracellular complexes that provide both binding and enzymatic functionalities, such as the cellulosomes of anaerobic bacteria for degradation of and growth on cellulose, the main structural component of plant cell walls. even though the function of a variety of extracellular proteins of gram-positive bacteria has been characterized experimentally, recent genome sequencing efforts have led to the prediction of hundreds of encoded extracellular proteins of unknown function. many of these appear to belong to conserved homologous families of hypothetical extracellular proteins, suggesting common functions in different bacterial species. while it is often possible to detect known cell-anchoring domains in these proteins, such as amino- or carboxy-terminal membrane-spanning anchors, peptidoglycan anchors covalently bound through their lpxtg motif, amino-terminal lipid-bound anchors, and a variety of domains binding non-covalently to peptidoglycan, teichoic acids or surface polysaccharides, the main function of these encoded cell-surface proteins in their interaction with the environment remains elusive. lactobacillus plantarum is a gram-positive bacterium that is encountered in many different environmental niches, as it is associated with various plants, it occurs in several food and feed fermentations, and it is a natural inhabitant of the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. analysis of the mbp genome sequence of l. plantarum wcfs revealed over putative extracellular proteins based on the presence of an n-terminal signal peptide. the vast majority of these proteins contained at least one of the cell-anchoring motifs described above. a new c-terminal domain designated wxl was found in proteins of l. plantarum. more recently, fifteen proteins with a wxl-like domain were identified in the genome of lactobacillus sakei k, and found to be encoded in gene clusters that potentially encode a multicomponent complex of unknown function on the bacterial surface. in search of putative functions for the encoded hypothetical extracellular proteins, and their possible relation to niche adaptation, we have now discovered that of the cell-surface proteins of l. plantarum are encoded in nine paralogous gene clusters. four different types of novel protein families are represented in these gene clusters. we present bioinformatics and experimental evidence that the encoded proteins are functionally coupled and possibly form a cell-surface protein complex that could play a role in sugar metabolism. a genome-wide search revealed similar gene clusters in a specific subgroup of mainly plant-associated gram-positive bacteria, and we therefore postulate a role in degradation of plant polysaccharides.  cell-surface clusters in lactobacillus plantarum wcfs1 analysis of the chromosome indicated that many of the predicted extracellular proteins are encoded in clusters of 3– genes. a closer inspection reveals that nine clusters encode proteins which can be divided into different classes or families based on amino acid sequence similarity, domain and motif characteristics. all of the encoded csc proteins have normal signal peptides for secretion via the sec-dependent pathway and processing by the signal peptidase i. most of the csc proteins and their domains are of unknown function since they do not have significant similarity to proteins of known function. the four families can be easily distinguished based on domain composition. the csca proteins are all predicted to contain a conserved domain of unknown function as well as a c-terminal transmembrane anchor. cscb and cscc proteins are characterized by a novel domain of 160– residues, which we have termed wxl since it contains two characteristic conserved sequence motifs containing the wxl signature. the cscb proteins are on average amino acids in size and consist almost entirely of the wxl domain, while the cscc proteins are much larger with an average size of amino acids and have a variable n-terminus. since the wxl domains of the cscb and cscc proteins can be distinguished based on sequence characteristics such as the distance between the conserved wxl residues, they were considered as two different families. finally, members of the cscd family all have a c-terminal lpxtg-type motif for sortase-mediated covalent anchoring to the peptidoglycan layer, and are uncharacteristically small for lpxtg-anchored proteins. figure summarizes the characteristics of the four csc family members. the individual families will be discussed in more detail below. # seven of these csc genes are found outside the gene clusters in complete genomes. * some genes contain frame shifts, stop codons or truncations. cell-surface clusters in other bacteria the ncbi and ergo genome databases were searched for the presence of csc family members and csc-like gene clusters. clusters encoding these cell-surface proteins were found in the complete genomes of lactobacillus plantarum, lactobacillus sakei, enterococcus faecalis, listeria innocua, listeria monocytogenes, lactococcus lactis ssp lactis, bacillus cereus zk, bacillus cereus and bacillus anthracis. the csc clusters were also found in the incomplete genomes of l. lactis ssp cremoris, lactobacillus casei, enterococcus faecium, pediococcus pentocaseus, oenococcus oeni, leuconostoc mesenteroides, and bacillus thuringiensis. details of all csc gene clusters and encoded proteins can be found in additional files in several cases csc genes are still unidentified in incomplete genomes because the clusters are on small contigs. each gene cluster generally has one copy each of the new gene families csca, cscb, cscc and cscd, although some variation is observed. a single copy of the csca is always present, while 1– different cscb genes occur in the gene clusters. although single cscc and cscd genes are usually present, they are missing in a few clusters. all encoded proteins have a regular signal peptide for secretion by the sec-dependent pathway. evidence of gene clusters as functional units there are many indications that these gene clusters are functional units, i.e. that the genes are transcribed coordinately, and that the encoded gene products function together in a pathway or protein complex. csc genes are nearly exclusively found in these gene clusters, with very few exceptions outside the clusters. the clusters rarely contain other genes than the csc family members, as based on the criteria of correct gene orientation, small intergenic distance and absence of predicted termination sequences. in all csc clusters, the genes are oriented in the same transcriptional direction and usually have intergenic regions smaller than nucleotides, suggestive of an operon structure. in general, the csc gene clusters are bounded by terminators on both sides. one complete gene cluster on the l. lactis ssp lactis il chromosome is exactly bordered by is elements, and several other clusters are flanked on one side by is elements, suggesting that some of these gene clusters have been transferred as a unit. moreover, complete csc gene clusters are found on plasmids of l. lactis sk, b. anthracis and b. cereus, suggesting that these genes can be transferred between strains or species via these mobile genetic elements. comparative dna microarray-based genotyping analysis of strains of lactobacillus plantarum revealed considerable variation in the presence/absence of different dna regions in individual strains as compared to strain wcfs. in general, the csc clusters of l. plantarum wcfs appear to be highly conserved in other strains. however, the entire cluster lpl-ix appears to be missing in of the strains analyzed, while the genes flanking this cluster appear to be present. again, this suggests that the entire cluster can be excised or inserted as a functional unit. domain and function prediction of csc proteins csca family the csca proteins are found to belong to the pf pfam family. in addition to the n-terminal signal peptide, these proteins all contain a predicted c-terminal trans-membrane helix, which presumably serves to anchor them in the cell membrane. each csc gene cluster generally encodes only a single csca protein. the csca-family members are fairly uniform in size, and the large majority are predicted to be very basic proteins with a pi above. cscb family the cscb family members are also fairly uniformly sized, and typically have an acidic pi of 4– these proteins are not yet described in the pfam or cog databases. we have defined the c-terminal domain of about 160– residues as the "wxl1" domain since it contains two highly conserved sequence motifs trp-x-leu. preceding the first trp-x-leu motif is a highly conserved asp-x-arg-gly sequence. most family members have a short pro-rich region between the signal peptide and the wxl1-domain. the four exceptions are much larger proteins of l. plantarum and e. faecalis that have the c-terminal wxl domain in common; the larger n-terminal parts of these l. plantarum proteins are similar to each other, but have no known other domains, whereas the two e. faecalis proteins are also similar to each other and have l-domain-like repeats. cscc family the cscc family members are much larger than csca or cscb proteins, and more heterogeneous in size. they are multi-domain proteins, all characterized by a c-terminal domain of about 130– residues, defined as the "wxl2" domain since it is very similar to the wxl domain but differs in overall size, in conserved residues and in the distance between the two wxl motifs. based on these differences, the wxl and wxl domains can be distinguished as different domain variants, which is also supported by hidden markov models: cscb proteins were recognized by a hidden markov model based on the wxl domain without false positive hits in cscc proteins, and vice versa. in addition, other domains could be identified in some cscc proteins with homology to different kinds of binding domains, albeit often with weak homology. the clearest domain-homologue identified is an n-terminal domain of about residues with structural similarity to concanavalin a-like lectins/glucanases. this superfamily includes a diverse range of carbohydrate-binding domains and glycosyl hydrolase enzymes that share a common structural fold. lectins and glucanases exhibit the common property of reversibly binding to specific carbohydrates. this cona-like domain was found in ten cscc proteins from six different species, and is characterized by several conserved aromatic residues, most of which are tryptophans. aromatic residues of starch-binding domains have been shown to be involved in the binding of saccharide rings by stacking with indole and phenyl rings. various -conserved asp and glu residues are potential metal ion ligands, including an exd motif, as also found in glycosyl hydrolases of this superfamily. the cona-like domains of cscc proteins show distinct sequence similarity to each other, but much less to other families of the large concanavalin a-like lectin/glucanase superfamily, suggesting that they may represent a new subfamily. the best sequence similarity is with leguminous plant lectins, including the known metal ion binding residues. cscd family the cscd family is not characterized by sequence similarity, but rather by the presence of both a signal peptide for secretion, and by an lpxtg-type motif for covalent anchoring to the peptidoglycan matrix. cscd proteins form a very unusual group among the lpxtg-proteins,, since they are extremely short and have only 40– residues between the signal peptide and the lpxtg-anchoring motif. this implies that only a short peptide of that length would become attached to the peptidoglycan. these peptides have very low sequence homology to each other, and multiple sequence alignment is not informative. we propose that they play a role in anchoring the other csc proteins to the cell surface through as yet unknown interactions. cluster evolution family tree analysis of the csca, cscb and cscc proteins suggests first that the clusters have evolved as units without shuffling, as the three trees are basically the same. secondly, some cluster duplications are of early origin as they precede several speciation events. other cluster duplications are of more recent origin, as cluster members from the same species are grouped in the same branch, as can be clearly seen in species with many clusters, i.e. l. plantarum, l. sakei, e. faecalis and l. lactis. also, the gene order in clusters of these more recent duplications has changed little, compared to older duplications. finally, multiple copies of cscb genes in clusters appear to be the most recent duplications, as they are most similar to members within the same cluster. co-expression and regulation of cluster genes several previous transcriptome investigations aimed at elucidation of l. plantarum response under various stress conditions have indicated that the transcription of specific csc genes is regulated in response to bile, salt and lactate stress. in several cases, the expression of entire csc gene clusters was observed to change significantly. in the present study, seven of the nine csc gene clusters of l. plantarum appeared to be significantly up-regulated as a consequence of a replacement mutation in the ccpa gene when grown on glucose as the main energy and carbon source. these data strongly suggest that these gene clusters are part of the catabolite control regulon that is controlled by the central regulator ccpa. to further substantiate this, a mast-motif search was performed to identify putative cre sites, for binding of ccpa, within the csc gene clusters and their upstream regions. putative cre sites could be identified for six out of the seven up-regulated csc clusters, generally upstream of the first gene of the cluster and in three clusters also inside csc genes. in contrast, no significant cre-like sites could be identified within or upstream of the residual csc gene clusters, supporting a functional role of the identified cre-site candidate sequences in regulation of these clusters. a m = 2log of the expression ratio's, calculated as the average expression level observed in the ccpa mutant divided by the average expression ratio observed in the wild-type. n.a. = clear palindromes which are possible cre sites, but score is lowered due to insertion of extra nucleotide taken together these data strongly support the consistent coordinated expression of the l. plantarum csc clusters, while a putative role for specific subsets of these clusters in stress survival/adaptation or in carbon source acquisition can be anticipated. discussion conserved gene clusters encoding extracellular proteins belonging to four distinct new families have been found in several gram-positive bacteria. based on the experimental evidence and predictions provided above that the csca, cscpb, cscc and cscd proteins are functionally coupled, we propose that they form a cell-surface protein complex. two components are presumably bound to cell-wall components, i.e. the csca is membrane-anchored and cscd is bound to peptidoglycan. the cscb and cscc proteins have novel wxl domains which could function in binding to csca/cscd proteins, or to other components of the cell-surface. the occurrence of these csc clusters in a limited number of gram-positive bacteria suggests a niche adaptation. all of the species in table are free-living bacteria found in the environment. several of these bacteria are known to be associated with plants and plant fermentations, and many are used for making a variety of fermented products such as sauerkraut, sourdough, olives, silage, soy milk, wine and cheese, or can be found as contaminants of these products. l. sakei is more often associated to meat products. it is noteworthy that these gene clusters are neither present in the many sequenced genomes of streptococci, staphylococci, and clostridia, nor in the lactobacillus acidophilus subgroup of the lactobacilli, which are typical gut bacteria. experimental characterization of a csc family protein has demonstrated its cell-surface location. a cscb gene product called cpf of lactobacillus coryniformis dsm20001t, a species commonly found in agricultural habitats and food products, was purified and found to mediate coaggregation with and aggregation of other bacterial species. cpf could be removed from the surface of lactobacillus cells by treatment with high salt, and could subsequently be reattached by removal of salt resulting in restoration of the co/aggregation property. this indicates that cscb proteins are non-covalently bound to the bacterial cell surface, supporting our hypothesis. transcriptomics experiments show that at least six of the csc gene clusters of l. plantarum are under catabolite repression, as they are up-regulated in a ccpa-knockout strain grown on glucose, and they contain cre elements for binding of the global regulator ccpa. this regulatory clue suggests a functional link of the csc proteins with sugar metabolism. furthermore, some cscc proteins contain concanavalina-like lectin/glucanase domains. cona-like domains are often found in proteins involved in cell recognition and adhesion, and lectins and glucanases are known to reversibly bind to specific complex carbohydrates. bacterial and fungal glucanases and xylanases with cona-like domains can degrade complex polysaccharides like beta-glucans, kappa-carrageenans, xylans and cellulose. hence, the presence of cona-like domains in cscc proteins would support a role of the proposed csc cell-surface protein complex in binding and/or degradation of complex oligo- or poly-saccharides. plant cell-wall polysaccharides are an abundant source of carbon and energy for many free-living micro-organisms, which exploit such polysaccharides from decaying plant material, i.e. in compost, soil, and sewage. it is striking that the genome of lactobacillus plantarum has the most csc gene clusters. l. plantarum is frequently found on plants and fermented plant material, and it is used in plant fermentations and silage. on plant surfaces, l. plantarum should be in close association with other bacteria which are capable of plant polysaccharide degradation and l. plantarum could make use of the liberated oligosaccharide units. in addition, or alternatively, l. plantarum could have its own extracellular enzyme systems for breakdown of complex polysaccharides, and we hypothesize that the newly described csc system could be one of such systems. extracellular protein complexes for degradation of complex polysaccharides are already known in other groups of bacteria, but they are completely different in protein composition from the putative csc protein complexes. some anaerobic bacteria such as clostridium and ruminococcus have an elaborate system called the cellulosome, a large extracellular enzyme complex, to break down plant cell walls. in clostridia, the components of cellulosomes are encoded in large gene clusters, which are coordinately expressed and regulated by catabolite repression. bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, found in the distal intestine of the gi-tract, has an outer-membrane-associated multi-protein complex called the starch-utilization system, consisting of different starch-binding proteins and sugar degradation enzymes encoded in gene clusters. hence, it is not unlikely that during evolution different extracellular protein complexes have arisen in subgroups of bacteria, each specific for a particular environmental niche with its characteristic carbohydrate sources.  we have presented bioinformatics and experimental evidence that the extracellular csca, cscb, cscc and cscd proteins are functionally coupled and possibly form a cell-surface protein complex that could play a role in sugar acquisition. based on the occurrence of these gene clusters in many environmental gram-positive bacteria, we postulate a role in degradation and utilization of plant polysaccharides, and possibly other food polysaccharides. our hypotheses provide a guide for experimental work in any of these bacteria to investigate the location and composition of these protein complexes, their polysaccharide specificity and degradation properties, or the effect of knock-out mutants on the survival of the strain grown on different substrates. 
from the rapidly increasing number of available genome sequences it has become apparent that many cell-surface proteins are conserved, and frequently encoded in gene clusters or operons, suggesting common functions, and interactions of multiple components. many gene clusters are significantly up-regulated in a glucose-grown, ccpa-mutant derivative of l. plantarum, suggesting catabolite control. this is supported by the presence of predicted cre-sites upstream or inside the up-regulated csca-d gene clusters. all encoded proteins have a signal peptide for secretion by the sec-dependent pathway, while some have cell-surface anchors, novel wxl domains, and putative domains for sugar binding and degradation. we propose that the csca, cscb, cscc and cscd proteins form cell-surface protein complexes and play a role in carbon source acquisition. transcriptome analysis in l. plantarum shows that the csca-d genes are co-expressed, supporting their operon organization. clusters encoding these cell-surface proteins were found only in complete genomes of lactobacillus plantarum, lactobacillus sakei, enterococcus faecalis, listeria innocua, listeria monocytogenes, lactococcus lactis ssp lactis and bacillus cereus and in incomplete genomes of l. lactis ssp cremoris, lactobacillus casei, enterococcus faecium, pediococcus pentosaceus, lactobacillius brevis, oenococcus oeni, leuconostoc mesenteroides, and bacillus thuringiensis. primary occurrence in plant-associated gram-positive bacteria suggests a possible role in degradation and utilization of plant oligo- or poly-saccharides. a novel gene cluster encoding exclusively cell-surface proteins was identified, which is conserved in a subgroup of gram-positive bacteria. each gene cluster generally has one copy of four new gene families called csca, cscb, cscc and cscd. genomes of gram-positive bacteria encode many putative cell-surface proteins, of which the majority has no known function.
 genomes of gram-positive bacteria encode many putative cell-surface proteins, of which the majority has no known function. from the rapidly increasing number of available genome sequences it has become apparent that many cell-surface proteins are conserved, and frequently encoded in gene clusters or operons, suggesting common functions, and interactions of multiple components.  a novel gene cluster encoding exclusively cell-surface proteins was identified, which is conserved in a subgroup of gram-positive bacteria. each gene cluster generally has one copy of four new gene families called csca, cscb, cscc and cscd. clusters encoding these cell-surface proteins were found only in complete genomes of lactobacillus plantarum, lactobacillus sakei, enterococcus faecalis, listeria innocua, listeria monocytogenes, lactococcus lactis ssp lactis and bacillus cereus and in incomplete genomes of l. lactis ssp cremoris, lactobacillus casei, enterococcus faecium, pediococcus pentosaceus, lactobacillius brevis, oenococcus oeni, leuconostoc mesenteroides, and bacillus thuringiensis. these genes are neither present in the genomes of streptococci, staphylococci and clostridia, nor in the lactobacillus acidophilus group, suggesting a niche-specific distribution, possibly relating to association with plants. all encoded proteins have a signal peptide for secretion by the sec-dependent pathway, while some have cell-surface anchors, novel wxl domains, and putative domains for sugar binding and degradation. transcriptome analysis in l. plantarum shows that the csca-d genes are co-expressed, supporting their operon organization. many gene clusters are significantly up-regulated in a glucose-grown, ccpa-mutant derivative of l. plantarum, suggesting catabolite control. this is supported by the presence of predicted cre-sites upstream or inside the up-regulated csca-d gene clusters.  we propose that the csca, cscb, cscc and cscd proteins form cell-surface protein complexes and play a role in carbon source acquisition. primary occurrence in plant-associated gram-positive bacteria suggests a possible role in degradation and utilization of plant oligo- or poly-saccharides. 