BACKGROUND
the genus bifidobacterium represents one of the most important bacterial group in human and animal feces  <cit> .
this organism has stringent nutrient requirements and grows poorly outside of the animal gut, making this bacterial group a potentially useful indicator of fecal pollution as previously described  <cit> .
in addition, an advantage in using bifidobacteria instead of other fecal contamination indicators is the host specificity, human or animal, of some groups of bifidobacterium species  <cit>  contrary to coliforms, which are ubiquitous  <cit> .
for example, sorbitol-fermenting bifidobacteria are associated with human fecal pollution, while b. pseudolongum is predominant in several animal hosts and does not have been isolated from humans  <cit> .
b. pseudolongum has been isolated in more than 80% of all bifidobacteria positive fecal samples from different animals   <cit> .
less than 5% of these samples were positive for bifidobacteria of human origin.
this suggests that this species could be an interesting candidate for detection of animal fecal contamination.
several studies used bifidobacteria to track fecal contamination in surface water  <cit> .
beerens and coll  <cit>  proposed to use bifidobacteria as fecal indicators in raw milk and raw milk cheese processes and molecular method versus culture-based method have been compared for detection of bifidobacteria in raw milk  <cit> .
a pcr method based on the hsp <dig> gene, already sequenced in most bifidobacterium species  <cit>  was developed for a rapid detection of bifidobacteria in a raw milk cheese process.
a higher level of bifidobacteria was detected comparing to the level of e. coli suggesting that bifidobacteria could be a more convenient indicator.
however, this method did not allow the identification of the bifidobacteria species.
identification of bifidobacterium species in highly contaminated animal feces and meat samples was studied by gavini and coll.
<cit> .
the use of bifidobacteria as indicator of fecal contamination along a sheep meat production chain was described by delcenserie and coll.
<cit> .
in that study, total bifidobacteria had been shown to be more efficient indicators than e. coli in carcasses samples.
several molecular methods have been developed to detect one or several bifidobacteria species  <cit> .
the purpose of most of them, however, was to detect bifidobacteria species from human origin rather than from animal origin.
in the present study, two different molecular methods were used to detect total bifidobacteria and b. pseudolongum present in two different french raw milk cheeses, st-marcellin  and brie .
the results were evaluated for the potential use of bifidobacteria as indicators of fecal contamination.
RESULTS
validation of the pcr methods on pure strains
the b. pseudolongum  probe based on hsp <dig> gene was validated on  <dig> pure bifidobacterium strains belonging to  <dig> different species .
the results observed with the b. pseudolongum probe showed a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 93%.
only one b. pseudolongum strain  gave a negative result.
*: received from b. biavati, instituto di microbiologia agaria e tecnica, università degli studi di bologna, bologna, italy
atcc : american type culture collection, rockville, maryland, usa ; ccug : culture collection, university of göteborg, göteborg, sweden; dsmz : deutsche sammlung von mikroorganismen und zellkulturen gmbh, göttingen, germany ; nctc : national collection of type cultures, central public health laboratory, london; england); ncfb : national collection of food bacteria, shinfield, reading, berks, england
the pcr rflp patterns based on 16s rdna were validated in a previous study  <cit> .
the rflp patterns observed  with alui were named ii  and v ,  with taqi were viii , ix  and x .
the ii-viii pattern was attributed to b. pseudolongum and the ii-ix pattern to bifidobacteria from human origin.
detection of total bifidobacteria
- st-marcellin process
out of the  <dig> analyzed samples,  <dig>  were positive with pcr based on 16s rdna and  <dig>  were positive with pcr on the hsp <dig> gene .
percentages of positive samples were very similar using one or the other method and at each studied step, from 80%  to 95%, in raw milk samples.
.
st-marcellin/production steps: a, raw milk; b, after addition of rennet; c, after removal from the mold; d, ripening
brie/production steps: a', raw milk; b', after second maturation; c', after removal from the mold; d', ripening
nt, not done
a significant decrease of bifidobacteria positive samples  was observed between step a  and step c  and a slight but not significant decrease between steps a and b and between steps b and c with both pcr on 16s rdna gene and pcr on hsp <dig> gene methods.
the lowest mean counts of bifidobacteria ,  <dig>  and  <dig>  log cfu g- <dig> respectively with both methods, were found at step c .
next, surprisingly, a significant increase of these counts was observed during ripening  to reach means as high as  <dig>  and  <dig>  log cfu g- <dig> at step d with the two respective pcr methods.
st-marcellin/production steps: a, raw milk; b, after addition of rennet; c, after removal from the mold; d, ripening
brie/production steps: a', raw milk; b', after second maturation; c', after removal from the mold; d', ripening
nd, not done
- brie process
out of the  <dig> analyzed samples,  <dig> were positive  with pcr based on 16s rdna gene and  <dig>  with pcr on hsp <dig> gene for total bifidobacteria .
these percentages were very close to those found along the st-marcellin process.
the lowest mean counts of bifidobacteria  were found at step b' ,  <dig>  and  <dig>  log cfu g- <dig> respectively with pcr based on 16s rdna gene and pcr on hsp <dig> gene.
the highest mean counts were found at step c' ,  <dig>  and  <dig>  log cfu g- <dig> for pcr on 16s rdna gene and pcr on hsp <dig> gene.
no differences were observed in total bifidobacteria level along the production chain, from  <dig>  log cfu ml- <dig> at step a' to  <dig>  log cfu g- <dig> at step c' and  <dig>  log cfu g- <dig> at step d' excepted for a marked decrease observed at step b', after the second maturation .
at the step b', the temperature had been increased from 10-12°c  to 34°c-36°c .
before the molding step , the bifidobacteria level increased again .
the decrease of bifidobacteria cannot be explained by the temperature or ph , because these parameters did not change at these steps.
a more probable explanation could be the addition of starters, leading to competition between microbial species.
detection of b. peudolongum and e. coli
- st-marcellin process
out of the  <dig> samples analyzed by pcr-rflp,  <dig>  were ii-viii type positive , b. pseudolongum was found in at least 66% of  to 93% of  samples .
using real-time pcr , out of the  <dig> analyzed samples,  <dig> samples  were positive with the b. pseudolongum probe, a little bit less than the number found using pcr-rflp .
no significant difference was observed between the b. pseudolongum counts at the different steps.
in addition, three more combined patterns were observed along the cheese process: ii-ix  were v-x type positive and  <dig>  were v-ix type positive.
only  <dig> samples  were ii-ix type positive.
it was not possible to attribute the profile combinations v-x and v-ix to a known species of bifidobacteria from our pure strains collection .
these two populations were further investigated and the preliminary results indicate that they belong respectively to the recently described species b. crudilactis and b. mongoliense .
a high number of e. coli negative samples  were observed: 48% of them were b. pseudolongum positive.
the highest percentage of negative samples  was found at step d, during ripening.
mean counts of e. coli  were very low at steps c and d  because of the high numbers of negative samples observed at these steps.
for statistical calculations, values of  <dig> log below the detection limit were attributed to negative e. coli samples.
for example, values of  <dig> cfu g- <dig> were attributed to negative samples from step a' and b',  <dig> cfu g- <dig> to negative samples from step d' and  <dig> cfu g- <dig> to negative samples from step c'.
indeed, samples from step a' and b'  were analyzed from pure dilution, while samples from step c'  and d'  were respectively analyzed from 10- <dig> and 10- <dig> dilutions.
bp : b. pseudolongum ; e : e. coli
st-marcellin/production steps: a, raw milk; b, after addition of rennet; c, after removal from the mold; d, ripening
brie/production steps: a', raw milk; b', after second maturation; c', after removal from the mold; d', ripening
- brie process
out of the  <dig> samples analyzed by pcr-rflp,  <dig>  were ii-viii type positive , corresponding to the percentage of samples containing total bifidobacteria .
the number of e. coli negative samples was also very high ; among them, 89% were b. pseudolongum positive/e.
coli negative.
in addition, an increase of e. coli counts was observed during stages c' and d'  with values of respectively  <dig>  and  <dig>  log cfu g- <dig>
discussion
use of b. pseudolongum as a fecal indicator rather than total bifidobacteria
bifidobacteria contaminated 88% of the studied samples in both cheese processes.
it was not surprising to detect b. pseudolongum in 68% of the samples from vercors's plant and in 87% of the samples from loiret's plant.
indeed, this species was also the most frequently isolated species in raw milk samples on farms  <cit> , which were contaminated by cow dung.
b. pseudolongum was present in 97% of cow dung samples  <cit>  and was also the most frequent species in other animal feces on the farm  <cit> .
in one of the plants , the mean counts of bifidobacteria  were higher than those of b. pseudolongum  at step d, during ripening.
this suggests that other bifidobacteria species than b. pseudolongum are present in these samples as suspected by the presence of other pcr rflp patterns than the one of b. pseudolongum.
their origin is unknown.
these bacteria need to be further studied.
therefore b. pseudolongum is a better candidate as fecal indicator than total bifidobacteria.
it is present along the two processes and remains significantly stable.
in addition, its animal origin gives origin of the contamination.
no significant difference was observed between b. pseudolongum semi-quantitative counts with pcr-rflp or real-time pcr at each step of production.
the pcr-rflp method was slightly more sensitive with 77% of positive sample against 68% for real-time pcr.
this difference is explained by false negative observed with real-time pcr at lower dilutions.
those false negative can be due to pcr inhibition.
the development of an internal control for the real-time pcr as the one developed for the pcr-rflp could help to control this phenomenon in the future.
both methods can be applied in routine analysis.
however, real-time pcr is faster and less labor consuming than pcr-rflp.
this method seems to be the method of choice in this kind of application.
use of b. pseudolongum as fecal indicator rather than e. coli
the high percentage of b. pseudolongum positive - e. coli negative samples  supports the proposition to use b. pseudolongum as indicator of fecal contamination rather than e. coli in raw milk cheese samples.
forty-eight percent and 70% respectively of st-marcellin and brie samples were b. pseudolongum positive and e. coli negative while only 10% and 3% were b. pseudolongum negative and e. coli positive.
e. coli was absent in numerous samples during ripening in st-marcellin process or at maturation step in brie process.
the comparison between mean counts of e. coli and b. pseudolongum showed that b. pseudolongum counts were always higher than those of e. coli in the two plants .
these differences were highly significant at steps a, c and d  in the st-marcellin's process, at steps a', b' and d'  in brie's process.
in addition, e. coli counts were not stable during both processes with either an increase  or a decrease .
reduction and even disappearance of e. coli during ripening in st-marcellin's process or during maturation step in brie's process could be due to low ph and to inhibition by competitive flora as it was shown by caridi and coll.
<cit> .
these observations confirmed the fact that e. coli is not a suitable fecal indicator for both of these processes.
in both processes, absence of e. coli did not mean absence of fecal contamination, whereas presence of b. pseudolongum pointed out a very large fecal contamination from animal origin.
up to our knowledge and till now, the species b. pseudolongum, from animal origin, is not used as a probiotic in human food.
however, it is important to point out that those results shown in relation to raw milk cheese must not be generalized for other milk products such as fermented milk containing probiotics.
in those products, the presence of specific strains of bifidobacteria is a desired quality criterion.
CONCLUSIONS
feces from animal origin appears to be the most probable external source of contamination by b. pseudolongum of the raw milk used along the two raw milk cheese processes under study.
this species contaminates all steps of the processes.
b. pseudolongum is the most frequent species in animal feces  <cit> .
then it could be chosen as an efficient indicator of fecal contamination as it remained stable along the processes with semi-quantitative mean counts equal or close to  <dig> cfu ml- <dig> or g- <dig>  presence of an increase of total bifidobacteria during ripening in marcellin's process does not allow using total bifidobacteria as fecal indicator.
in addition, the reason for that increase is not known yet.
eventually, another reason to use b. pseudolongum as indicator is the high number of e. coli negative samples.
this confirms interest in using this species rather than e. coli.
results were very similar with both pcr-rflp and real-time pcr in the st-marcellin process.
both methods can be applied in routine analysis.
however, pcr-rflp is less practicable and less fast than real-time pcr.
real-time pcr seems to be the method of choice in this kind of application where rapidity and easiness are important.
further improvements such as addition of an internal control to detect pcr inhibition needs to be done.
it could then lead to the successful use of bifidobacteria as fecal indicators by detecting and quantifying b. pseudolongum at different steps and at the end of raw milk cheese production chains.
b. pseudolongum detection or quantification could also be used for raw milk quality assessment in the plant.
other fecal bacteria such as enterococci could have been considered as well as authenticity markers as they are predominant in raw milk.
however, enterococci can survive to pasteurization and thermization processes  <cit> .
this disqualifies them as "raw milk" authenticity markers.
in addition, another advantage of b. pseudolongum is to be of strict fecal animal origin and unable to multiply during the manufacturing process, contrarily to other fecal bacteria potentially present in raw milk.
the increase in total bifidobacteria counts during ripening in the st-marcellin process was partially explained by the presence of b. crudilactis strains, a recently described species  <cit> .
future work is currently done to study the interactions of strains belonging to this species and to a newly described one, b. mongoliense  <cit> , in the raw milk cheese production chains.

 the genus bifidobacterium represents one of the most important bacterial group in human and animal feces. this organism has stringent nutrient requirements and grows poorly outside of the animal gut, making this bacterial group a potentially useful indicator of fecal pollution as previously described. in addition, an advantage in using bifidobacteria instead of other fecal contamination indicators is the host specificity, human or animal, of some groups of bifidobacterium species contrary to coliforms, which are ubiquitous. for example, sorbitol-fermenting bifidobacteria are associated with human fecal pollution, while b. pseudolongum is predominant in several animal hosts and does not have been isolated from humans. b. pseudolongum has been isolated in more than 80% of all bifidobacteria positive fecal samples from different animals. less than 5% of these samples were positive for bifidobacteria of human origin. this suggests that this species could be an interesting candidate for detection of animal fecal contamination. several studies used bifidobacteria to track fecal contamination in surface water. beerens and coll proposed to use bifidobacteria as fecal indicators in raw milk and raw milk cheese processes and molecular method versus culture-based method have been compared for detection of bifidobacteria in raw milk. a pcr method based on the hsp gene, already sequenced in most bifidobacterium species was developed for a rapid detection of bifidobacteria in a raw milk cheese process. a higher level of bifidobacteria was detected comparing to the level of e. coli suggesting that bifidobacteria could be a more convenient indicator. however, this method did not allow the identification of the bifidobacteria species. identification of bifidobacterium species in highly contaminated animal feces and meat samples was studied by gavini and coll.. the use of bifidobacteria as indicator of fecal contamination along a sheep meat production chain was described by delcenserie and coll.. in that study, total bifidobacteria had been shown to be more efficient indicators than e. coli in carcasses samples. several molecular methods have been developed to detect one or several bifidobacteria species. the purpose of most of them, however, was to detect bifidobacteria species from human origin rather than from animal origin. in the present study, two different molecular methods were used to detect total bifidobacteria and b. pseudolongum present in two different french raw milk cheeses, st-marcellin and brie. the results were evaluated for the potential use of bifidobacteria as indicators of fecal contamination.  validation of the pcr methods on pure strains the b. pseudolongum probe based on hsp gene was validated on pure bifidobacterium strains belonging to different species. the results observed with the b. pseudolongum probe showed a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 93%. only one b. pseudolongum strain gave a negative result. *: received from b. biavati, instituto di microbiologia agaria e tecnica, università degli studi di bologna, bologna, italy atcc: american type culture collection, rockville, maryland, usa; ccug: culture collection, university of göteborg, göteborg, sweden; dsmz: deutsche sammlung von mikroorganismen und zellkulturen gmbh, göttingen, germany; nctc: national collection of type cultures, central public health laboratory, london; england); ncfb: national collection of food bacteria, shinfield, reading, berks, england the pcr rflp patterns based on 16s rdna were validated in a previous study. the rflp patterns observed with alui were named ii and v, with taqi were viii, ix and x. the ii-viii pattern was attributed to b. pseudolongum and the ii-ix pattern to bifidobacteria from human origin. detection of total bifidobacteria - st-marcellin process out of the analyzed samples, were positive with pcr based on 16s rdna and were positive with pcr on the hsp gene. percentages of positive samples were very similar using one or the other method and at each studied step, from 80% to 95%, in raw milk samples.. st-marcellin/production steps: a, raw milk; b, after addition of rennet; c, after removal from the mold; d, ripening brie/production steps: a', raw milk; b', after second maturation; c', after removal from the mold; d', ripening nt, not done a significant decrease of bifidobacteria positive samples was observed between step a and step c and a slight but not significant decrease between steps a and b and between steps b and c with both pcr on 16s rdna gene and pcr on hsp gene methods. the lowest mean counts of bifidobacteria, and log cfu g- respectively with both methods, were found at step c. next, surprisingly, a significant increase of these counts was observed during ripening to reach means as high as and log cfu g- at step d with the two respective pcr methods. st-marcellin/production steps: a, raw milk; b, after addition of rennet; c, after removal from the mold; d, ripening brie/production steps: a', raw milk; b', after second maturation; c', after removal from the mold; d', ripening nd, not done - brie process out of the analyzed samples, were positive with pcr based on 16s rdna gene and with pcr on hsp gene for total bifidobacteria. these percentages were very close to those found along the st-marcellin process. the lowest mean counts of bifidobacteria were found at step b', and log cfu g- respectively with pcr based on 16s rdna gene and pcr on hsp gene. the highest mean counts were found at step c', and log cfu g- for pcr on 16s rdna gene and pcr on hsp gene. no differences were observed in total bifidobacteria level along the production chain, from log cfu ml- at step a' to log cfu g- at step c' and log cfu g- at step d' excepted for a marked decrease observed at step b', after the second maturation. at the step b', the temperature had been increased from 10-12°c to 34°c-36°c. before the molding step, the bifidobacteria level increased again. the decrease of bifidobacteria cannot be explained by the temperature or ph, because these parameters did not change at these steps. a more probable explanation could be the addition of starters, leading to competition between microbial species. detection of b. peudolongum and e. coli - st-marcellin process out of the samples analyzed by pcr-rflp, were ii-viii type positive, b. pseudolongum was found in at least 66% of to 93% of samples. using real-time pcr, out of the analyzed samples, samples were positive with the b. pseudolongum probe, a little bit less than the number found using pcr-rflp. no significant difference was observed between the b. pseudolongum counts at the different steps. in addition, three more combined patterns were observed along the cheese process: ii-ix were v-x type positive and were v-ix type positive. only samples were ii-ix type positive. it was not possible to attribute the profile combinations v-x and v-ix to a known species of bifidobacteria from our pure strains collection. these two populations were further investigated and the preliminary results indicate that they belong respectively to the recently described species b. crudilactis and b. mongoliense. a high number of e. coli negative samples were observed: 48% of them were b. pseudolongum positive. the highest percentage of negative samples was found at step d, during ripening. mean counts of e. coli were very low at steps c and d because of the high numbers of negative samples observed at these steps. for statistical calculations, values of log below the detection limit were attributed to negative e. coli samples. for example, values of cfu g- were attributed to negative samples from step a' and b', cfu g- to negative samples from step d' and cfu g- to negative samples from step c'. indeed, samples from step a' and b' were analyzed from pure dilution, while samples from step c' and d' were respectively analyzed from 10- and 10- dilutions. bp: b. pseudolongum; e: e. coli st-marcellin/production steps: a, raw milk; b, after addition of rennet; c, after removal from the mold; d, ripening brie/production steps: a', raw milk; b', after second maturation; c', after removal from the mold; d', ripening - brie process out of the samples analyzed by pcr-rflp, were ii-viii type positive, corresponding to the percentage of samples containing total bifidobacteria. the number of e. coli negative samples was also very high; among them, 89% were b. pseudolongum positive/e. coli negative. in addition, an increase of e. coli counts was observed during stages c' and d' with values of respectively and log cfu g- discussion use of b. pseudolongum as a fecal indicator rather than total bifidobacteria bifidobacteria contaminated 88% of the studied samples in both cheese processes. it was not surprising to detect b. pseudolongum in 68% of the samples from vercors's plant and in 87% of the samples from loiret's plant. indeed, this species was also the most frequently isolated species in raw milk samples on farms, which were contaminated by cow dung. b. pseudolongum was present in 97% of cow dung samples and was also the most frequent species in other animal feces on the farm. in one of the plants, the mean counts of bifidobacteria were higher than those of b. pseudolongum at step d, during ripening. this suggests that other bifidobacteria species than b. pseudolongum are present in these samples as suspected by the presence of other pcr rflp patterns than the one of b. pseudolongum. their origin is unknown. these bacteria need to be further studied. therefore b. pseudolongum is a better candidate as fecal indicator than total bifidobacteria. it is present along the two processes and remains significantly stable. in addition, its animal origin gives origin of the contamination. no significant difference was observed between b. pseudolongum semi-quantitative counts with pcr-rflp or real-time pcr at each step of production. the pcr-rflp method was slightly more sensitive with 77% of positive sample against 68% for real-time pcr. this difference is explained by false negative observed with real-time pcr at lower dilutions. those false negative can be due to pcr inhibition. the development of an internal control for the real-time pcr as the one developed for the pcr-rflp could help to control this phenomenon in the future. both methods can be applied in routine analysis. however, real-time pcr is faster and less labor consuming than pcr-rflp. this method seems to be the method of choice in this kind of application. use of b. pseudolongum as fecal indicator rather than e. coli the high percentage of b. pseudolongum positive - e. coli negative samples supports the proposition to use b. pseudolongum as indicator of fecal contamination rather than e. coli in raw milk cheese samples. forty-eight percent and 70% respectively of st-marcellin and brie samples were b. pseudolongum positive and e. coli negative while only 10% and 3% were b. pseudolongum negative and e. coli positive. e. coli was absent in numerous samples during ripening in st-marcellin process or at maturation step in brie process. the comparison between mean counts of e. coli and b. pseudolongum showed that b. pseudolongum counts were always higher than those of e. coli in the two plants. these differences were highly significant at steps a, c and d in the st-marcellin's process, at steps a', b' and d' in brie's process. in addition, e. coli counts were not stable during both processes with either an increase or a decrease. reduction and even disappearance of e. coli during ripening in st-marcellin's process or during maturation step in brie's process could be due to low ph and to inhibition by competitive flora as it was shown by caridi and coll.. these observations confirmed the fact that e. coli is not a suitable fecal indicator for both of these processes. in both processes, absence of e. coli did not mean absence of fecal contamination, whereas presence of b. pseudolongum pointed out a very large fecal contamination from animal origin. up to our knowledge and till now, the species b. pseudolongum, from animal origin, is not used as a probiotic in human food. however, it is important to point out that those results shown in relation to raw milk cheese must not be generalized for other milk products such as fermented milk containing probiotics. in those products, the presence of specific strains of bifidobacteria is a desired quality criterion.  feces from animal origin appears to be the most probable external source of contamination by b. pseudolongum of the raw milk used along the two raw milk cheese processes under study. this species contaminates all steps of the processes. b. pseudolongum is the most frequent species in animal feces. then it could be chosen as an efficient indicator of fecal contamination as it remained stable along the processes with semi-quantitative mean counts equal or close to cfu ml- or g- presence of an increase of total bifidobacteria during ripening in marcellin's process does not allow using total bifidobacteria as fecal indicator. in addition, the reason for that increase is not known yet. eventually, another reason to use b. pseudolongum as indicator is the high number of e. coli negative samples. this confirms interest in using this species rather than e. coli. results were very similar with both pcr-rflp and real-time pcr in the st-marcellin process. both methods can be applied in routine analysis. however, pcr-rflp is less practicable and less fast than real-time pcr. real-time pcr seems to be the method of choice in this kind of application where rapidity and easiness are important. further improvements such as addition of an internal control to detect pcr inhibition needs to be done. it could then lead to the successful use of bifidobacteria as fecal indicators by detecting and quantifying b. pseudolongum at different steps and at the end of raw milk cheese production chains. b. pseudolongum detection or quantification could also be used for raw milk quality assessment in the plant. other fecal bacteria such as enterococci could have been considered as well as authenticity markers as they are predominant in raw milk. however, enterococci can survive to pasteurization and thermization processes. this disqualifies them as "raw milk" authenticity markers. in addition, another advantage of b. pseudolongum is to be of strict fecal animal origin and unable to multiply during the manufacturing process, contrarily to other fecal bacteria potentially present in raw milk. the increase in total bifidobacteria counts during ripening in the st-marcellin process was partially explained by the presence of b. crudilactis strains, a recently described species. future work is currently done to study the interactions of strains belonging to this species and to a newly described one, b. mongoliense, in the raw milk cheese production chains. 
the presence of b. pseudolongum along the processes defined a contamination from animal origin since this species is predominant in cow dung and has never been isolated in human feces. the contamination of raw milk cheeses from two plants in france was studied at several steps of production using bifidobacteria as indicators of fecal contamination. b. pseudolongum should be used as fecal indicator rather than e. coli to assess the quality of raw milk and raw milk cheeses. the increase of total bifidobacteria during ripening in marcellin's process does not allow their use as fecal indicator. b. pseudolongum was more sensitive as an indicator than e. coli along the two different cheese processes. bifidobacterium semi-quantitative counts were compared using pcr-rflp and real-time pcr. b. pseudolongum were detected in 77% and 68% of st-marcellin samples and in 87% of brie cheeses samples. mean counts of b. pseudolongum remained stable along both processes. forty-eight percents and 70% of the samples were b. pseudolongum positive/e. coli negative while only 10% and 3% were b. pseudolongum negative/e. the presence of these populations explains the increase in total bifidobacteria observed during ripening.
 the contamination of raw milk cheeses from two plants in france was studied at several steps of production using bifidobacteria as indicators of fecal contamination.  bifidobacterium semi-quantitative counts were compared using pcr-rflp and real-time pcr. b. pseudolongum were detected in 77% and 68% of st-marcellin samples and in 87% of brie cheeses samples. mean counts of b. pseudolongum remained stable along both processes. two other populations of bifidobacteria were detected during the ripening stage of st-marcellin, respectively in 61% and 18% of the samples. the presence of these populations explains the increase in total bifidobacteria observed during ripening. further characterization of these populations is currently under process. forty-eight percents and 70% of the samples were b. pseudolongum positive/e. coli negative while only 10% and 3% were b. pseudolongum negative/e. coli positive.  the increase of total bifidobacteria during ripening in marcellin's process does not allow their use as fecal indicator. the presence of b. pseudolongum along the processes defined a contamination from animal origin since this species is predominant in cow dung and has never been isolated in human feces. b. pseudolongum was more sensitive as an indicator than e. coli along the two different cheese processes. b. pseudolongum should be used as fecal indicator rather than e. coli to assess the quality of raw milk and raw milk cheeses. 