BACKGROUND
the tousled gene of arabidopsis thaliana encodes a protein kinase which, when mutated, results in abnormal flower development characterized by a stochastic loss of floral meristem and organs  <cit> .
two mammalian tousled-like kinases  were cloned by sillje et al.,  <dig>  <cit>  during a pcr-based search for human kinases, who also reported that the activity of these kinases is maximal in s phase, and more recently, these kinases were reported to be targets of checkpoint kinases, atm and chk <dig>  <cit> .
specifically, it was reported that tlk <dig> is inhibited by chk <dig> by direct phosphorylation at s <dig>  these findings identify a functional cooperation between atm and chk <dig> in propagation of a checkpoint response to dna damage and suggest that through transient inhibition of tlk <dig> the atm-chk1-tlk pathway may regulate processes involved in chromatin assembly  <cit> .
indeed, in at cells  tlk <dig> was not inhibited after genotoxic stress  <cit> .
since atm and chk <dig> are involved in the dna damage checkpoint upon radiation, this suggests that tlks may be involved in some aspect of genome surveillance, particularly chromatin remodeling concurrent with dna repair .
the function of tlk <dig> is not well known, although knockout of the gene in drosophila or expression of a dominant negative mutant in mouse cells causes loss of nuclear divisions and missegregation of chromosomes  <cit>  likely through changes in chromatin remodeling capacity.
the importance of tlk <dig> in chromosome segregation was recently confirmed in c. elegans embryos  <cit> .
we recently cloned a cdna encoding a mammalian tousled-like kinase  through a very different scheme than the one used by sillje et al.
<cit> , based upon polysomal redistribution of weakly translated transcripts that become preferentially recruited upon overexpression of eif4e  <cit> .
indeed, the human tlk1b mrna  contains a 5'utr 1088-nt-long with two upstream aug codons, which was found to be very inhibitory for translation  <cit> .
the inhibition of translation could be relieved by either overexpressing eif4e, or by deleting a large section of the 5'utr  <cit> .
we subsequently discovered that tlk1b overexpression protects the cells from the genotoxic effects of ionizing radiation  or the radiomimetic drug, doxorubicin.
tlk1b probably exerts these effects by phosphorylating histone h <dig>  <cit>  and the histone h <dig> chaperone asf <dig>  <cit> , and thereby promoting chromatin remodeling concurrent with repair of dna damage.
interestingly, synthesis of tlk1b is induced at the translation level by the presence of double strand breaks .
the discovery that tlk1b is a kinase that phosphorylates histone h <dig> came first in a series of experiments aimed at identifying the potential substrates of tlk1b.
we carried out kinase assays with recombinant gst-tlk1b and various typical substrates, only a few of which were phosphorylated efficiently.
however, we found that tlk1b phosphorylated very well histone h <dig> at s <dig> but not the other core histones or h <dig>  <cit> .
we subsequently confirmed that the mm3mg cells overexpressing tlk1b had a higher constitutive level of h <dig> phosphorylation in asynchronous cells  <cit> .
we could also show genetically that tlk1b is a histone h <dig> kinase.
we showed that inducible expression of tlk1b in a yeast strain carrying a temperature-sensitive allele of the major h <dig> kinase  could rescue growth at the non-permissive temperature  <cit> .
in addition, it restored normal levels of histone h <dig> phosphorylation  <cit> .
significantly, expression of tlk1b in yeast increased radioresistance, indicating a conservation of function and substrates.
interestingly, we also found that ir results in a loss of h <dig> phosphorylation, but the significance of this result was unclear.
the dephosphorylation of h <dig> after ir was reported also by another group  <cit> .
recently, a possible explanation for this effect was described  <cit> .
these authors showed that tlk <dig>  is inhibited by γ-radiation.
the inhibition is presumably mediated by atm and chk <dig> by direct phosphorylation at s <dig>  <cit> .
it seemed possible that physiologically the increased tlk1b synthesis following ir can help offset the loss of tlk <dig> activity resulting from ir and restore appropriate levels of histone h <dig> phosphorylation.
in this paper we present evidence that overexpression of tlk1b protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs, and that the steady state phosphorylation of h <dig> and h2ax is restored to pre-ir much more rapidly in tlk1b overexpressing cells.
RESULTS
tlk1b protects cells from ir
we previously published initial evidence that tlk1b protects a normal mammary cell line  from ir  <cit> .
this result is now reproduced in fig.
<dig> in a more complete assay with serially diluted cells plated for clonogenic assays.
we show that 90% of untransfected mm3mg were killed at  <dig> gray , in contrast to only 55% of those transfected with tlk1b .
at  <dig> gy, very few mm3mg cells survived, in contrast to 4% of cells expressing tlk1b .
this confirmed that overexpression of tlk1b significantly increased their radioresistance.
inverse phosphorylation of h2ax and h <dig> after ir
we previously reported that tlk1b phosphorylates very well histone h <dig> at s <dig> but not the other core histones or h <dig>  <cit> .
interestingly, we also found that ir results in a loss of h <dig> phosphorylation, but the significance of this result was unclear.
if tlk <dig> is the major kinase involved in a "chromosomal response" to dna damage, then inhibition of tlk <dig> or tlk1b activity by ir through atm is expected to result in a loss of phosphorylation of histone h <dig>  to probe for the significance of the h <dig> dephosphorylation, we carried out a time course of recovery from ir and monitored the phosphorylation of h2ax and h <dig> in the mm3mg cells that overexpress tlk1b.
radiation-induced damage has been shown to result in rapid phosphorylation of histone h2ax at dsb sites  <cit> , while brca <dig>  a protein that localizes to dsbs, was found to accumulate to sites of condensed chromatin colocalized with phosphorylated h <dig>  <cit> .
as seen in fig.
<dig>  phosphorylation of h2ax is, as expected, very rapid after ir in both control and tlk1b cells.
in the control, phosphorylation of h2ax remains elevated for at least  <dig> hr and slightly reduced after  <dig> hr of recovery.
further, phosphorylation of h <dig> drops drastically after ir and only recovers after  <dig> hr in the control.
in tlk1b cells, basal phosphorylation of h <dig> is elevated at t =  <dig>  as previously reported  <cit>  and then decreases after ir .
however, between  <dig> hr and  <dig> hr, the phosphorylation of h <dig> recovers completely.
at the same time, phosphorylation of h2ax drops precipitously.
this suggests that repair of dna is much more rapid in tlk1b cells, if the phosphorylation state of histones h <dig> and h2ax and presumed remodeling of chromatin can be taken as an indicator of dsb repair.
blocking atm activity with wortmannin prevents the loss of h <dig> phosphorylation after ir
if tlk <dig> and tlk1b are kinases that are largely responsible for the phosphorylation of h <dig> in unstressed conditions , and if activation of atm following ir is responsible for inhibiting tlk1/b , then inhibition of atm with wortmannin should prevent in large part the dephosphorylation of h <dig> following ir.
fig.
<dig> shows that this is indeed the case, since cells pretreated with wortmannin and subjected to ir showed only a very modest decrease in h <dig> phosphorylation throughout the time course of ir and recovery.
contrary to the expectation, phosphorylation of h2ax was not inhibited by wortmannin in either control or cells overexpressing tlk1b.
this was somewhat surprising since atm is believed to directly phosphorylate this histone after ir  <cit> .
however, very recently, it was demonstrated that atr, which requires much higher concentrations of wortmannin for inhibition , also phosphorylates h2ax after radiation, although with somewhat delayed kinetics  <cit> .
episomal vectors as reporters for dsbs
to overexpress tlk1b, we used an episomal vector called bk-shuttle  <cit> .
an important advantage is that these plasmids can be easily rescued from mammalian cells by the hirt's supernatant protocol  <cit> .
most stable cell lines carrying these vectors typically have hundreds of copies of the episomes, which have the typical structure of mini-chromosomes and thus behave like genomic dna  <cit> .
we previously showed that the extraction of episomes is a very simple and efficient protocol that yields very consistent amounts of plasmids that are linear with respect to cell numbers  <cit>
in fig.
<dig>  we show an example of how these episomes can be used to study protection from ir-mediated dsbs.
we have found that ir causes significant damage to the episomes, as shown by a large proportion of linearized molecules due to dsbs.
plasmids isolated from untreated cells migrate as a predominant supercoiled fast-migrating form and a relaxed circular form.
plasmids isolated from irradiated cells show a dose-dependent loss of the supercoiled form due to dsbs, which convert the plasmid to a linearized form .
the conversion of closed  to linearized plasmids can be exploited to monitor the activity of tlk1b.
since the episomes are assembled in typical chromatin, the function of tlk1b in repair  would mirror its function on genomic dna.
note that the intensities of the bands were quantified with an imaging program , and that the sum of the bands  was a constant, indicating very consistent yields of episomes.
episomal vectors as reporters for dsb repair
the episomal vectors can be used as reporters for repair of dsbs and provide a useful system to test if this is the likely mechanism of radioresistance.
cells were irradiated and allowed to recover during an  <dig> hr time course , and plasmids were isolated for analysis by gel electrophoresis.
in this experiment, however, the episomes were extracted from cells by alkaline lysis .
plasmids that are linearized with a dsb or plasmids with nicks are not recovered from alkaline lysis because of strand separation.
in contrast, supercoiled/covalently closed plasmids are recovered from alkali treatment.
fig.
<dig> shows that ir causes an immediate and significant loss of supercoiled plasmids in control mm3mg cells containing the empty vector.
religation of the linear plasmids and formation of the supercoiled molecules does not occur until  <dig> to  <dig> hr of recovery from ir, and then, the recovery is only partial.
in contrast, ir causes a similar loss of supercoiled molecules at t =  <dig> in mm3mg cells expressing tlk1b, but the recovery is very fast.
at  <dig> hr  the recovery of supercoiled molecules is almost complete and it is fully restored by  <dig> hr .
the recovery of the supercoiled forms is almost certainly due to the repair of pre-existing, damaged plasmids and not due to de novo synthesis.
first, the repair time was too short to account for a large fraction of newly synthesized plasmids, and second, ir results in a dramatic arrest in dna replication in normal cells  <cit> , making it highly unlikely that any newly replicated plasmid was achieved.
this experiment was repeated with identical results, indicating that the loss of supercoiled species after ir can be easily detected by alkaline lysis with great reproducibility.
enhanced repair of genomic damage in tlk1b cells
to assess genomic repair, a modified terminal deoxytransferase  fill-in reaction was adopted.
briefly, the cells were irradiated  to create genomic breaks, which were then processed with tdt and biotinylated dntps according to the manufacturer's protocol .
macroscopic deposit of diaminobenzidine  at breakage sites was used to determine the extent of genomic damage and repair during a time course of recovery from ir .
no dab deposits were visible in non-irradiated cells.
in irradiated cells, 9– <dig> spots per cell were visible immediately after ir in both control and cells expressing tlk1b.
already at two hr of recovery from ir, in tlk1b cells the number of spots decreased by more than 50%, in contrast to control cells in which there was no appreciable recovery.
rapid repair and chromatin assembly in vitro
the direct way to probe the function of tlk1b in repair of a dsb is in vitro.
repair assays were carried out as described in methods, based on a system that demonstrated a synergism between caf- <dig> and asf <dig> in a repair-coupled nucleosome assembly  <cit> .
if tlk1b increases the activity of asf <dig> in vitro, then reactions supplemented with tlk1b should show a greater proportion of supercoiled topomers in addition to more ligated  plasmid.
briefly, repair/nucleosome assembly was carried out on bluescript plasmid that is linearized with ecori.
we wished to monitor simultaneously: 1) processing/ligation of the ends; and 2) superhelicity of the plasmid by the formation of nucleosomes on the template.
reactions contained nuclear extract, an energy mix, and additional purified tlk1b.
the plasmid was then re-extracted and analyzed by electrophoresis in agarose gels.
in fig.
7a, linearized plasmids were incubated with cell extract +/- tlk1b, and repair was monitored during a time course.
note that the addition of tlk1b greatly stimulated the speed of the reaction in the formation of dimer molecules and the ligated/supercoiled forms of the plasmids, which already appear at  <dig> min instead of 40– <dig> min for extract without tlk1b.
for shorter time points of incubation we used a more sensitive and quantitative method to monitor repair of the cut plasmids, i.e., a bacterial transformation assay.
linear plasmids do not transform bacteria, whereas repaired, covalently closed plasmids do.
after  <dig> min of incubation with cell extract, in a typical experiment, we obtained  <dig> colonies vs.  <dig> for extract supplemented with exogenous tlk1b.
therefore, it appears that tlk1b improves the accessibility of the repair and ligation machinery to the free ends of the dna or that it stimulates the deposition of histones  to assemble chromatin.
this lends strong support to our hypothesis that the principal mechanism of increased radioresistance is through more efficient repair of dsbs likely linked to chromatin remodeling.
in fig.
7b, we show an assay of supercoiling activity, which is a measure of chromatin assembly.
in this assay, the plasmid bluescript  is used as a template for the deposition of core histones in the presence of nuclear extract and an energy mix.
in the absence of histones, the extract causes the bacterially supercoiled form to convert to mostly relaxed forms due to endogenous topoisomerases .
however, after incubation in the presence of histones, the plasmid migrates as a series of discrete supercoiled forms due to the formation of nucleosomes, which decrease the linking number by one integer per nucleosome.
the addition of recombinant tlk1b stimulated the formation of the more highly supercoiled forms, particularly the form that runs like bacterially supercoiled plasmid.
discussion
in this work, we have provided four lines of evidence that the tousled kinase, tlk1b, protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs.
first, the pattern of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of h2ax and h <dig> indicated that cells overexpressing tlk1b return to pre-ir phosphorylation state much more rapidly than controls.
second, the repair of episomes damaged with dsbs was much more rapid and complete by  <dig> hr of recovery in cells overexpressing tlk1b.
third, we have found that the repair of genomic breaks occurs more rapidly in cells overexpressing tlk1b, and with kinetics that are similar to those of repair of episomes.
lastly, we demonstrated with an in vitro repair system that the addition of recombinant tlk1b promotes repair of a linearized plasmid incubated with nuclear extract.
consistent with the results published by groth  <cit>  and kodym  <cit>  we found that tlk <dig> activity is inhibited by ir, as shown by loss of phosphorylation of histone h <dig>  which is one of the best substrates of tlk <dig>  nonetheless, when tlk1b is overexpressed , the recovery of h <dig> phosphorylation was quite rapid  probably because of mass action due to higher levels of the kinase.
the role of tlk1b in radioresistance is particularly intriguing based on the recent findings that asf <dig> is also a specific tlk <dig> substrate  <cit>  known to participate with rad <dig> in chromatin remodeling at sites of dsbs  <cit> .
furthermore, the importance of histone h <dig> kinases cannot be overstated.
phosphorylation of h <dig> at s <dig> is becoming one of the most intensely studied aspects of chromatin remodeling, both during segregation of chromosomes at mitosis, and in aspects of transcription  <cit> .
therefore, studies of tlk1b and the family of tousled kinases are bound to become the center of much attention.
elevated phosphorylation of h <dig> has also been reported in several lines of oncogenically transformed fibroblasts  <cit> , although the underlying mechanism is unknown.
we have found that elevated expression of tlk1b did not oncogenically transform mm3mg cells, but the cells became highly resistant to ir or doxorubicin  <cit> .
we have preliminary results that demonstrate that tlk1b is elevated in some breast carcinomas and it is possible that this may result in a disease refractory to treatment  <cit> .
we currently favor a mechanism by which tlk1b protects the cells from dsbs, by promoting repair-coupled chromatin remodeling which depends on the phosphorylation of histone h <dig> and asf <dig>
radiation-induced damage has been shown to result in rapid phosphorylation of histone h2ax.
phosphorylated foci of h2ax co-localize with dna repair and signaling proteins, and h2ax has been demonstrated to be involved in their recruitment to sites of dsbs  <cit> .
knockout of h2ax in mice resulted in defects in concentration of repair proteins  at the sites of dna damage, and h2ax-deficient cells are ir sensitive demonstrating the requirement of h2ax in dna repair  <cit> .
the importance of radiation-induced phosphorylation of h2ax in repair of dsbs has been shown by the fact that h2ax deficiency results in genomic instability  <cit> .
in yeast, h2ax is not involved in activation of the s-phase checkpoint by dsbs, but rather in the efficiency of dna repair  <cit> .
the importance of histone h <dig> phosphorylation in dna damage has not been investigated as well as that of h2ax, but the overall effect of these modifications is likely to be chromatin remodeling and recruitment of repair proteins.
recently, h2ax was found to recruit the chromatin remodeling protein ino <dig>  <cit> .
our current model is that in normal cells tlk <dig>  performs the normal functions of this kinase, which may have a role in chromatin remodeling and genome surveillance in unstressed conditions.
following dna damage by ir or doxorubicin, synthesis of tlk1b is induced through a translational control mechanism  <cit> .
tlk1b can then facilitate repair of dna damage.
this would greatly accelerate the response of those cells to dna damage and the efficiency with which repair is implemented, significantly increasing their resistance to ir.
an alternative that we considered for a role of tlk1b in radioprotection is that tlk1b functions in a signaling pathway that protects cells from undergoing apoptosis.
there are two compelling reasons why this is not likely .
first, overexpression of tlk1b did not change the transcriptome in mm3mg cells , indicating that its protective effect is post-transcriptional.
there were no changes in the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes, or cell cycle regulators.
second, expression of tlk1b conferred protection against ir even in yeast.
whereas proteins involved in sensing and repairing dna damage are conserved between mammals and yeast, prototypical proteins involved in the apoptotic and antiapoptotic pathways are not found in yeast.
CONCLUSIONS
studies of the tousled kinases are only now beginning to shed light upon their function, despite the early discovery of a role in flower and leaf morphology inferred by mutations in plants.
in this work, we have provided four lines of evidence that the tousled kinase, tlk1b, protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs.
first, the pattern of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of h2ax and h <dig> indicated that cells overexpressing tlk1b return to pre-ir phosphorylation state much more rapidly than controls.
second, the repair of episomes damaged with dsbs was much more rapid and complete by  <dig> hr of recovery in cells overexpressing tlk1b.
third, we have found that the repair of genomic breaks occurs more rapidly in cells overexpressing tlk1b, and with kinetics that are similar to those of repair of episomes.
lastly, we demonstrated with an in vitro repair system that the addition of recombinant tlk1b promotes repair of a linearized plasmid incubated with nuclear extract.
therefore, it appears that tlk <dig> and tlk1b have a role in genome surveillance, particularly upon genotoxic stress, which induces the expression of tlk1b.

 the tousled gene of arabidopsis thaliana encodes a protein kinase which, when mutated, results in abnormal flower development characterized by a stochastic loss of floral meristem and organs. two mammalian tousled-like kinases were cloned by sillje et al., during a pcr-based search for human kinases, who also reported that the activity of these kinases is maximal in s phase, and more recently, these kinases were reported to be targets of checkpoint kinases, atm and chk. specifically, it was reported that tlk is inhibited by chk by direct phosphorylation at s these findings identify a functional cooperation between atm and chk in propagation of a checkpoint response to dna damage and suggest that through transient inhibition of tlk the atm-chk1-tlk pathway may regulate processes involved in chromatin assembly. indeed, in at cells tlk was not inhibited after genotoxic stress. since atm and chk are involved in the dna damage checkpoint upon radiation, this suggests that tlks may be involved in some aspect of genome surveillance, particularly chromatin remodeling concurrent with dna repair. the function of tlk is not well known, although knockout of the gene in drosophila or expression of a dominant negative mutant in mouse cells causes loss of nuclear divisions and missegregation of chromosomes likely through changes in chromatin remodeling capacity. the importance of tlk in chromosome segregation was recently confirmed in c. elegans embryos. we recently cloned a cdna encoding a mammalian tousled-like kinase through a very different scheme than the one used by sillje et al., based upon polysomal redistribution of weakly translated transcripts that become preferentially recruited upon overexpression of eif4e. indeed, the human tlk1b mrna contains a 5'utr 1088-nt-long with two upstream aug codons, which was found to be very inhibitory for translation. the inhibition of translation could be relieved by either overexpressing eif4e, or by deleting a large section of the 5'utr. we subsequently discovered that tlk1b overexpression protects the cells from the genotoxic effects of ionizing radiation or the radiomimetic drug, doxorubicin. tlk1b probably exerts these effects by phosphorylating histone h and the histone h chaperone asf, and thereby promoting chromatin remodeling concurrent with repair of dna damage. interestingly, synthesis of tlk1b is induced at the translation level by the presence of double strand breaks. the discovery that tlk1b is a kinase that phosphorylates histone h came first in a series of experiments aimed at identifying the potential substrates of tlk1b. we carried out kinase assays with recombinant gst-tlk1b and various typical substrates, only a few of which were phosphorylated efficiently. however, we found that tlk1b phosphorylated very well histone h at s but not the other core histones or h. we subsequently confirmed that the mm3mg cells overexpressing tlk1b had a higher constitutive level of h phosphorylation in asynchronous cells. we could also show genetically that tlk1b is a histone h kinase. we showed that inducible expression of tlk1b in a yeast strain carrying a temperature-sensitive allele of the major h kinase could rescue growth at the non-permissive temperature. in addition, it restored normal levels of histone h phosphorylation. significantly, expression of tlk1b in yeast increased radioresistance, indicating a conservation of function and substrates. interestingly, we also found that ir results in a loss of h phosphorylation, but the significance of this result was unclear. the dephosphorylation of h after ir was reported also by another group. recently, a possible explanation for this effect was described. these authors showed that tlk is inhibited by γ-radiation. the inhibition is presumably mediated by atm and chk by direct phosphorylation at s. it seemed possible that physiologically the increased tlk1b synthesis following ir can help offset the loss of tlk activity resulting from ir and restore appropriate levels of histone h phosphorylation. in this paper we present evidence that overexpression of tlk1b protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs, and that the steady state phosphorylation of h and h2ax is restored to pre-ir much more rapidly in tlk1b overexpressing cells.  tlk1b protects cells from ir we previously published initial evidence that tlk1b protects a normal mammary cell line from ir. this result is now reproduced in fig. in a more complete assay with serially diluted cells plated for clonogenic assays. we show that 90% of untransfected mm3mg were killed at gray, in contrast to only 55% of those transfected with tlk1b. at gy, very few mm3mg cells survived, in contrast to 4% of cells expressing tlk1b. this confirmed that overexpression of tlk1b significantly increased their radioresistance. inverse phosphorylation of h2ax and h after ir we previously reported that tlk1b phosphorylates very well histone h at s but not the other core histones or h. interestingly, we also found that ir results in a loss of h phosphorylation, but the significance of this result was unclear. if tlk is the major kinase involved in a "chromosomal response" to dna damage, then inhibition of tlk or tlk1b activity by ir through atm is expected to result in a loss of phosphorylation of histone h to probe for the significance of the h dephosphorylation, we carried out a time course of recovery from ir and monitored the phosphorylation of h2ax and h in the mm3mg cells that overexpress tlk1b. radiation-induced damage has been shown to result in rapid phosphorylation of histone h2ax at dsb sites, while brca a protein that localizes to dsbs, was found to accumulate to sites of condensed chromatin colocalized with phosphorylated h. as seen in fig. phosphorylation of h2ax is, as expected, very rapid after ir in both control and tlk1b cells. in the control, phosphorylation of h2ax remains elevated for at least hr and slightly reduced after hr of recovery. further, phosphorylation of h drops drastically after ir and only recovers after hr in the control. in tlk1b cells, basal phosphorylation of h is elevated at t = as previously reported and then decreases after ir. however, between hr and hr, the phosphorylation of h recovers completely. at the same time, phosphorylation of h2ax drops precipitously. this suggests that repair of dna is much more rapid in tlk1b cells, if the phosphorylation state of histones h and h2ax and presumed remodeling of chromatin can be taken as an indicator of dsb repair. blocking atm activity with wortmannin prevents the loss of h phosphorylation after ir if tlk and tlk1b are kinases that are largely responsible for the phosphorylation of h in unstressed conditions, and if activation of atm following ir is responsible for inhibiting tlk1/b, then inhibition of atm with wortmannin should prevent in large part the dephosphorylation of h following ir. fig. shows that this is indeed the case, since cells pretreated with wortmannin and subjected to ir showed only a very modest decrease in h phosphorylation throughout the time course of ir and recovery. contrary to the expectation, phosphorylation of h2ax was not inhibited by wortmannin in either control or cells overexpressing tlk1b. this was somewhat surprising since atm is believed to directly phosphorylate this histone after ir. however, very recently, it was demonstrated that atr, which requires much higher concentrations of wortmannin for inhibition, also phosphorylates h2ax after radiation, although with somewhat delayed kinetics. episomal vectors as reporters for dsbs to overexpress tlk1b, we used an episomal vector called bk-shuttle. an important advantage is that these plasmids can be easily rescued from mammalian cells by the hirt's supernatant protocol. most stable cell lines carrying these vectors typically have hundreds of copies of the episomes, which have the typical structure of mini-chromosomes and thus behave like genomic dna. we previously showed that the extraction of episomes is a very simple and efficient protocol that yields very consistent amounts of plasmids that are linear with respect to cell numbers in fig. we show an example of how these episomes can be used to study protection from ir-mediated dsbs. we have found that ir causes significant damage to the episomes, as shown by a large proportion of linearized molecules due to dsbs. plasmids isolated from untreated cells migrate as a predominant supercoiled fast-migrating form and a relaxed circular form. plasmids isolated from irradiated cells show a dose-dependent loss of the supercoiled form due to dsbs, which convert the plasmid to a linearized form. the conversion of closed to linearized plasmids can be exploited to monitor the activity of tlk1b. since the episomes are assembled in typical chromatin, the function of tlk1b in repair would mirror its function on genomic dna. note that the intensities of the bands were quantified with an imaging program, and that the sum of the bands was a constant, indicating very consistent yields of episomes. episomal vectors as reporters for dsb repair the episomal vectors can be used as reporters for repair of dsbs and provide a useful system to test if this is the likely mechanism of radioresistance. cells were irradiated and allowed to recover during an hr time course, and plasmids were isolated for analysis by gel electrophoresis. in this experiment, however, the episomes were extracted from cells by alkaline lysis. plasmids that are linearized with a dsb or plasmids with nicks are not recovered from alkaline lysis because of strand separation. in contrast, supercoiled/covalently closed plasmids are recovered from alkali treatment. fig. shows that ir causes an immediate and significant loss of supercoiled plasmids in control mm3mg cells containing the empty vector. religation of the linear plasmids and formation of the supercoiled molecules does not occur until to hr of recovery from ir, and then, the recovery is only partial. in contrast, ir causes a similar loss of supercoiled molecules at t = in mm3mg cells expressing tlk1b, but the recovery is very fast. at hr the recovery of supercoiled molecules is almost complete and it is fully restored by hr. the recovery of the supercoiled forms is almost certainly due to the repair of pre-existing, damaged plasmids and not due to de novo synthesis. first, the repair time was too short to account for a large fraction of newly synthesized plasmids, and second, ir results in a dramatic arrest in dna replication in normal cells, making it highly unlikely that any newly replicated plasmid was achieved. this experiment was repeated with identical results, indicating that the loss of supercoiled species after ir can be easily detected by alkaline lysis with great reproducibility. enhanced repair of genomic damage in tlk1b cells to assess genomic repair, a modified terminal deoxytransferase fill-in reaction was adopted. briefly, the cells were irradiated to create genomic breaks, which were then processed with tdt and biotinylated dntps according to the manufacturer's protocol. macroscopic deposit of diaminobenzidine at breakage sites was used to determine the extent of genomic damage and repair during a time course of recovery from ir. no dab deposits were visible in non-irradiated cells. in irradiated cells, 9– spots per cell were visible immediately after ir in both control and cells expressing tlk1b. already at two hr of recovery from ir, in tlk1b cells the number of spots decreased by more than 50%, in contrast to control cells in which there was no appreciable recovery. rapid repair and chromatin assembly in vitro the direct way to probe the function of tlk1b in repair of a dsb is in vitro. repair assays were carried out as described in methods, based on a system that demonstrated a synergism between caf- and asf in a repair-coupled nucleosome assembly. if tlk1b increases the activity of asf in vitro, then reactions supplemented with tlk1b should show a greater proportion of supercoiled topomers in addition to more ligated plasmid. briefly, repair/nucleosome assembly was carried out on bluescript plasmid that is linearized with ecori. we wished to monitor simultaneously: 1) processing/ligation of the ends; and 2) superhelicity of the plasmid by the formation of nucleosomes on the template. reactions contained nuclear extract, an energy mix, and additional purified tlk1b. the plasmid was then re-extracted and analyzed by electrophoresis in agarose gels. in fig. 7a, linearized plasmids were incubated with cell extract +/- tlk1b, and repair was monitored during a time course. note that the addition of tlk1b greatly stimulated the speed of the reaction in the formation of dimer molecules and the ligated/supercoiled forms of the plasmids, which already appear at min instead of 40– min for extract without tlk1b. for shorter time points of incubation we used a more sensitive and quantitative method to monitor repair of the cut plasmids, i.e., a bacterial transformation assay. linear plasmids do not transform bacteria, whereas repaired, covalently closed plasmids do. after min of incubation with cell extract, in a typical experiment, we obtained colonies vs. for extract supplemented with exogenous tlk1b. therefore, it appears that tlk1b improves the accessibility of the repair and ligation machinery to the free ends of the dna or that it stimulates the deposition of histones to assemble chromatin. this lends strong support to our hypothesis that the principal mechanism of increased radioresistance is through more efficient repair of dsbs likely linked to chromatin remodeling. in fig. 7b, we show an assay of supercoiling activity, which is a measure of chromatin assembly. in this assay, the plasmid bluescript is used as a template for the deposition of core histones in the presence of nuclear extract and an energy mix. in the absence of histones, the extract causes the bacterially supercoiled form to convert to mostly relaxed forms due to endogenous topoisomerases. however, after incubation in the presence of histones, the plasmid migrates as a series of discrete supercoiled forms due to the formation of nucleosomes, which decrease the linking number by one integer per nucleosome. the addition of recombinant tlk1b stimulated the formation of the more highly supercoiled forms, particularly the form that runs like bacterially supercoiled plasmid. discussion in this work, we have provided four lines of evidence that the tousled kinase, tlk1b, protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs. first, the pattern of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of h2ax and h indicated that cells overexpressing tlk1b return to pre-ir phosphorylation state much more rapidly than controls. second, the repair of episomes damaged with dsbs was much more rapid and complete by hr of recovery in cells overexpressing tlk1b. third, we have found that the repair of genomic breaks occurs more rapidly in cells overexpressing tlk1b, and with kinetics that are similar to those of repair of episomes. lastly, we demonstrated with an in vitro repair system that the addition of recombinant tlk1b promotes repair of a linearized plasmid incubated with nuclear extract. consistent with the results published by groth and kodym we found that tlk activity is inhibited by ir, as shown by loss of phosphorylation of histone h which is one of the best substrates of tlk nonetheless, when tlk1b is overexpressed, the recovery of h phosphorylation was quite rapid probably because of mass action due to higher levels of the kinase. the role of tlk1b in radioresistance is particularly intriguing based on the recent findings that asf is also a specific tlk substrate known to participate with rad in chromatin remodeling at sites of dsbs. furthermore, the importance of histone h kinases cannot be overstated. phosphorylation of h at s is becoming one of the most intensely studied aspects of chromatin remodeling, both during segregation of chromosomes at mitosis, and in aspects of transcription. therefore, studies of tlk1b and the family of tousled kinases are bound to become the center of much attention. elevated phosphorylation of h has also been reported in several lines of oncogenically transformed fibroblasts, although the underlying mechanism is unknown. we have found that elevated expression of tlk1b did not oncogenically transform mm3mg cells, but the cells became highly resistant to ir or doxorubicin. we have preliminary results that demonstrate that tlk1b is elevated in some breast carcinomas and it is possible that this may result in a disease refractory to treatment. we currently favor a mechanism by which tlk1b protects the cells from dsbs, by promoting repair-coupled chromatin remodeling which depends on the phosphorylation of histone h and asf radiation-induced damage has been shown to result in rapid phosphorylation of histone h2ax. phosphorylated foci of h2ax co-localize with dna repair and signaling proteins, and h2ax has been demonstrated to be involved in their recruitment to sites of dsbs. knockout of h2ax in mice resulted in defects in concentration of repair proteins at the sites of dna damage, and h2ax-deficient cells are ir sensitive demonstrating the requirement of h2ax in dna repair. the importance of radiation-induced phosphorylation of h2ax in repair of dsbs has been shown by the fact that h2ax deficiency results in genomic instability. in yeast, h2ax is not involved in activation of the s-phase checkpoint by dsbs, but rather in the efficiency of dna repair. the importance of histone h phosphorylation in dna damage has not been investigated as well as that of h2ax, but the overall effect of these modifications is likely to be chromatin remodeling and recruitment of repair proteins. recently, h2ax was found to recruit the chromatin remodeling protein ino. our current model is that in normal cells tlk performs the normal functions of this kinase, which may have a role in chromatin remodeling and genome surveillance in unstressed conditions. following dna damage by ir or doxorubicin, synthesis of tlk1b is induced through a translational control mechanism. tlk1b can then facilitate repair of dna damage. this would greatly accelerate the response of those cells to dna damage and the efficiency with which repair is implemented, significantly increasing their resistance to ir. an alternative that we considered for a role of tlk1b in radioprotection is that tlk1b functions in a signaling pathway that protects cells from undergoing apoptosis. there are two compelling reasons why this is not likely. first, overexpression of tlk1b did not change the transcriptome in mm3mg cells, indicating that its protective effect is post-transcriptional. there were no changes in the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes, or cell cycle regulators. second, expression of tlk1b conferred protection against ir even in yeast. whereas proteins involved in sensing and repairing dna damage are conserved between mammals and yeast, prototypical proteins involved in the apoptotic and antiapoptotic pathways are not found in yeast.  studies of the tousled kinases are only now beginning to shed light upon their function, despite the early discovery of a role in flower and leaf morphology inferred by mutations in plants. in this work, we have provided four lines of evidence that the tousled kinase, tlk1b, protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs. first, the pattern of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of h2ax and h indicated that cells overexpressing tlk1b return to pre-ir phosphorylation state much more rapidly than controls. second, the repair of episomes damaged with dsbs was much more rapid and complete by hr of recovery in cells overexpressing tlk1b. third, we have found that the repair of genomic breaks occurs more rapidly in cells overexpressing tlk1b, and with kinetics that are similar to those of repair of episomes. lastly, we demonstrated with an in vitro repair system that the addition of recombinant tlk1b promotes repair of a linearized plasmid incubated with nuclear extract. therefore, it appears that tlk and tlk1b have a role in genome surveillance, particularly upon genotoxic stress, which induces the expression of tlk1b. 
the function of tlk is not well known, although knockout of the gene in drosophila or expression of a dominant negative mutant in mouse cells causes loss of nuclear divisions and missegregation of chromosomes probably, due to alterations in chromatin remodeling capacity. lastly, we demonstrate with an in vitro repair system that the addition of recombinant tlk1b promotes repair of a linearized plasmid incubated with nuclear extract. in this work, we provide several lines of evidence that tlk1b protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs. tlk1b specifically phosphorylates histone h and asf likely resulting in changes in chromatin structure, particularly at double strand breaks sites. this was also true for repair of genomic damage. first, the pattern of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of h2ax and h indicated that cells overexpressing tlk1b return to pre-ir steady state much more rapidly than controls.
 the mammalian protein kinase tlk is a homologue of tousled, a gene involved in flower development in arabidopsis thaliana. the function of tlk is not well known, although knockout of the gene in drosophila or expression of a dominant negative mutant in mouse cells causes loss of nuclear divisions and missegregation of chromosomes probably, due to alterations in chromatin remodeling capacity. overexpression of tlk1b, a spliced variant of the tlk mrna, in a model mouse cell line increases it's resistance to ionizing radiation or the radiomimetic drug doxorubicin, also likely due to changes in chromatin remodeling. tlk1b is translationally regulated by the availability of the translation factor eif4e, and its synthesis is activated by ir. the reason for this mechanism of regulation is likely to provide a rapid means of promoting repair of dsbs. tlk1b specifically phosphorylates histone h and asf likely resulting in changes in chromatin structure, particularly at double strand breaks sites.  in this work, we provide several lines of evidence that tlk1b protects the cells from ir by facilitating the repair of dsbs. first, the pattern of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of h2ax and h indicated that cells overexpressing tlk1b return to pre-ir steady state much more rapidly than controls. second, the repair of episomes damaged with dsbs was much more rapid in cells overexpressing tlk1b. this was also true for repair of genomic damage. lastly, we demonstrate with an in vitro repair system that the addition of recombinant tlk1b promotes repair of a linearized plasmid incubated with nuclear extract. in addition, tlk1b in this in vitro system promotes the assembly of chromatin as shown by the formation of more highly supercoiled topomers of the plasmid.  in this work, we provide evidence that tlk1b promotes the repair of dsbs, likely as a consequence of a change in chromatin remodeling capacity that must precede the assembly of repair complexes at the sites of damage. 