Resolved: Institutional Racism is Significantly Present in America

Firstly, I'd like to point out that, according to conventional debate rules as stated in this DDO blog article [1], the contender cannot reject or revise the instigator's definitions without a compelling reason. Examples of compelling reasons: the instigator's definition doesn't make sense, is not backed up with a source, makes the resolution unwinnable for the contender, etc. Since the Con has provided no such reason, I ask our readers/voters to consider all arguments according to the definition of institutional racism I provided in round one.For clarity's sake, here is that definition again:Institutional racism: societal patterns that have the net effect of imposing oppressive or otherwise negative conditions against identifiable groups on the basis of race or ethnicity. [2]And here is the correct link (link in my round 1 argument is incomplete): http://civilliberty.about.com...I must also emphasize that, according to this definition, institutional racism is not limited to intentional discrimination by social institutions, but rather, any behavior or policy that imposes "negative conditions" on minorities.In her article "What is Institutional Racism?" law professor Vernellia Randall agrees with this definition:"Institutions can behave in ways that are overtly racist (i.e., specifically excluding Blacks from services) or inherently racist (i.e., adopting policies that result in the exclusion of Blacks)." [3]Professor Randall argues that institutional racism need not involve intentional discrimination (although it can), nor policies targeting minorities. All that's necessary is actions or policies that result in racially disparate outcomes. This can include, for example, policies that attack traits associated with minorities, such as poverty or certain clothing styles.To demonstrate significant institutional racism in America, I'll be touching on three social institutions relevant to any American's life - education, business, and the criminal justice system - to show that significant institutional racism exists in each.EDUCATIONHigh Minority Schools are Neglected and Under - Funded In 2000, the American Civil Liberties Union filed a class action lawsuit against the state of California, alleging the state "denied children their fundamental right to an education under the California Constitution" [4]. According to the New York Times, the lawsuit names a lack of "textbooks, trained teachers, and safe classrooms" as some of the problems experienced by roughly 1.5 million California students, almost exclusively from low-income neighborhoods. California ultimately conceded the ACLU's allegations and settled for $138 million. How is this an example of institutional racism? Statistics from the National Center for Law and Economic Justice show that latinos and blacks are two and three times more likely respectively than whites to live in poverty [5]. As such, California&apos;s failure to maintain the quality of public schools in poorer areas disproportionately affects minority students, and is consistent with the aforementioned definition of institutional racism.Numerous studies echo the ACLU lawsuit. A 2000 study by the Applied Research Center found similar "glaring inequities and discrimination in public schools" throughout America [6]. The study's results held that minority students are suspended/expelled at disproportionate rates, graduate at disproportionately lower rates, and have less access to gifted programs than white students. A 2015 study found that, despite higher rates of exposure to factors associated with disability, black students are significantly underrepresented in special education programs [7]. This suggests unequal access to school resources for minority students.Minorities Lack Access to Important Subjects and Experienced Teachers Finally, according to statistics from the US Education Department's 2011-2012 Civil Rights Data Collection program, as relayed by the Huffington Post, issues of school and teacher quality shown in the 2000 ACLU lawsuit persist, even more than 10 years later. The study found that minority-heavy schools generally offer a less diverse range of subjects and pay teachers lower salaries, indicating less experiencrd teachers. They also tend to have more brand new teachers than schools with fewer minorities [8].BUSINESSThe Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits American employers from discriminating on the basis of race. However, research has emerged which suggests that, even almost fifty years later, minorities still face discrimination in the private sector.Minorities Face Severe Hiring Discrimination In her 2001 - 2002 study titled "Are Emily and Brendan More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal?" University of Chicago legal scholar Marianne Bertrand investigates racial bias in hiring. Researchers sent 5000 "fictitious resumes" with equivalent credentials to 1300 employers throughout Chicago and Boston. They then analyzed callback rates to determine whether applicants with names commonly considered to be "black names" were called back at lower rates than those with "white names." Bertrand found that those with "black names" were called back 50 percent less, which, she concludes, "suggests a significant amount of discrimination in this first stage of the job recruiting process" [9]. Bertrand's study indicates that whites are often favored over blacks with equal qualifications. But what about when blacks are more qualified for the job in question? A study by Northwestern University sociologist Devah Pager measured and compared callback rates among four groups - whites with no criminal record, whites with a criminal record, blacks with no criminal record, and blacks with a criminal record. Predictably, both groups of whites were called back more than their black counterparts. What's more shocking, however, is the fact that whites with records were called back more often than blacks without records, suggesting race takes precedence even over criminality as a factor in hiring [10].THE JUSTICE SYSTEMNumerous scientific studies have concluded that discrimination and racially-charged policies are rampant throughout both law enforcement and the courts.Blacks are Arrested Disproportionately for Drug Crime A 2014 study from the Brookings Institute found that , although whites are more likely than blacks to sell drugs and equally likely to use them, blacks are roughly three times more likely to be arrested for drug dealing/possession [11]. Another comprehensive study by Human Rights Watch, which analyzed drug arrest data between 1980 and 2007, supports this conclusion [12]. Both violent and property crime by blacks are consistently lower each year, leading the Brookings study to conclude that "the drug war has a profoundly negative effect on racial equality, and on rates of upward mobility."Minorities are Profiled by Police According to the New York Civil Liberties Union, blacks and latinos compose 87% of those stopped and frisked by police, despite being only 53% of New York City's population. The study also shows that police concentrate "stop and frisk" in the most minority-heavy parts of the city, such as Brownsville, where 93% of residents were stopped and frisked in 2009 [13].Furthermore, a separate ACLU study found racial profiling to be the norm in multiple areas throughout the country, especially regarding traffic stops [14]Minorities are at a Disadvantage in Court Due to higher poverty rates, minorities are disproportionately likely to use a public defender rather than a private lawyer when arrested. A 2009 report by the American Bar Association found that public defenders are overworked, drastically under - funded compared to prosecutors, and as such, often can't provide adequate counsel [15]. This governmental choice regarding PD funding can be said to disproportionately harm minorities, and as such, amounts to institutional racism. Even more concerning is the rate at which blacks are illegally rejected from jury duty. A 2010 Equal Justice Initiative study analyzed jury selection in 8 US states, and appellate courts in 7 of 8 of these "have been forced to recognize continuing problems with racially biased jury selection" [16]. In certain jurisdictions, as many as 80% of blacks are routinely excluded from jury duty.CONCLUSION I've used credible scientific studies to show significant racism in several major social institutions. At this point, the resolution is affirmed. SOURCES[1] http://debateorg.blogspot.com...[2] http://civilliberty.about.com...[3] http://academic.udayton.edu...[4] http://www.nytimes.com...[5] http://www.nclej.org...[6] http://eric.ed.gov...[7] http://www.aera.net...[8] http://m.huffpost.com...[9] http://www.chicagobooth.edu...[10] http://www.epi.org...[11] http://www.brookings.edu...[12] https://www.hrw.org...[13] http://m.huffpost.com...[14] https://www.aclu.org... [15] "Eliminating Excessive Public Defender Workloads" -American Bar Association. (Available for free download through a google search)[16] "Illegal Racial Discrimination in Jury Selection" -Equal Justice Initiative (Available for free download through a google search)