==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Alexander, R. R. et al.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Offsite sediment benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program
              in the Southern United States

SOURCE:       University of Tennessee Agricultural Economics and Rural
              Sociology. Staff Paper SP-89-01.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Wildlife habitat criteria in relation to future use of CRP
              lands

SOURCE:       Pages 41-88 in Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural
              Council Annual meeting. June 2-4, 1993, Rapid City, S. Dak.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Report intended to identify strengths and weaknesses of the
              CRP as its development and management effects wildlife habitat.
              Information on relations between the CRP, specific conserva-
              tion practices, spatial considerations, planning, and manage-
              ment are presented. Presents discussion of the need to
              explicitly define CRP/wildlife objectives on regional and
              local scales. Content of report based largely on input
              solicited from information state and federal biologists

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Regional and state perspectives on Conservation Reserve
              Program (CRP) contributions to wildlife habitat

SOURCE:       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Aid Report, National
              Ecology Research Center, Fort Collins, Colo. 28 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Literature review and information furnished by state and
              federal biologists on relations between the CRP and
              effects on wildlife within agricultural ecosystems. Regional
              review of benefits and weaknesses of program implementation.
              Comparison of needs of endemic grassland species and those
              more traditionally affiliated with agricultural land use.
              Recommendations presented addressing need for elevated in-
              volvement of state wildlife agencies in technical assistance
              to USDA agencies and contractees, increased flexibility in
              conservation practices implemented, and greater recognition
              of regional and local priorities.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Wildlife benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program: A
              national perspective

SOURCE:       Pages 18-20 in Proceedings of the Soil and Water Conservation
              Society Conference: When Conservation Reserve Program
              contracts expire: The policy options. Washington, D.C. Soil
              and Water Conservation Society, Ankey, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:
              Brief summary of widespread benefits of CRP to game and non-
              game species. Discussion of limitations of the program and
              recommendations for increasing effectiveness of USDA conser-
              vation programs in enhancing habitat quality associated with
              agricultural ecosystems.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Wildlife benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program: A
              national perspective

SOURCE:       Land and Water: The Magazine of Natural Resource Management
              and Restoration 38:23-25.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Same as above. Article from Soil and Water Conservation Soc.
              meeting published by magazine to reach wider audience.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Agroforestry and wildlife: Alternatives and opportunities

SOURCE:       Pages 67-73 in W. J. Rietveld, technical coordinator.
              Proceedings of agroforestry, sustainable agriculture
              symposium, 7-10 August 1994. Fort Collins, Colo. U.S. Forest
              Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
              General Technical Report RM-GTR-261.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Discussion of integration of agroforestry practices into
              existing farming operations to benefit wildlife. Presentation
              of spatial design considerations of tree-dominated cover
              types within agricultural ecosystems to benefit selected
              species of wildlife. Discussion of potential negative effects
              of tree/shrub-dominated covers to endemic avian grassland
              species.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Agricultural ecosystems

SOURCE:       Pages 423-426 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P.
              D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A
              report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and
              health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S.
              Department of the Interior, National Biological Service,
              Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Summary of historical effects of agricultural production on
              quality and distribution of wildlife habitats. Discussion of
              preliminary results of multi-state monitoring of grassland
              characteristics in undisturbed fields in Southern Plains and
              Midwestern CRP fields. Overview of CRP benefits to wildlife
              populations associated with agriculturally dominated land-
              scapes.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W., and E. Ekstrand

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        An overview of wildlife and wildlife-related economic benefits
              of the Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Pages 49-58 in Economic and environmental implications of
              expiring conservation reserve contracts. Annual meeting of
              NC-214 North Central Agricultural Experiment Station). 18
              October 1994. Kansas City, Mo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A. W., Y. K. Bernal, and R. J. Moulton

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Pine plantations and wildlife in the southeastern United
              States: An assessment of impacts and opportunities

SOURCE:       U.S. Department of Interior, National Biological Service.
              Information and Technology Report 3. 32 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Report documents growing dependance on southeastern forest
              products and the major role that private lands will play in
              provision of timber resources in future decades. However,
              the priorities of owners non-industrial private forest land
              (NIPF) suggest that nontimber-related financial investment,
              recreation, and aesthetic considerations increasingly define
              acceptable management goals. Wildlife is a principal factor
              affecting management on a growing number of privately owned
              forest lands. Within the next 50 years the area of even-
              aged, pine plantations, including CRP, on southeastern NIPF
              lands is projected to exceed 20 million acres. Silvicultural
              prescriptions applied influence wildlife habitat quality
              within as well as across stand boundaries and may potentially
              influence habitat distribution on a landscape scale. Various
              alternatives in physical design, location, and subsequent
              management of pine plantations are presented to mitigate
              negative effects of large scale dependance of even-aged
              forest management on wildlife habitat.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, K

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Reflections on the past, challenges for the future: an
              examination of U.S. agricultural policy goals

SOURCE:       Pages 3-23 in K. Allen, editor. Agricultural policies in a new
              decade. Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     The development of agricultural policy has become a process
              of mutual accommodation with large numbers of narrow
              provisions being fitted together to become broad-based
              legislation often containing inconsistencies and few clues to
              real goals of policy.  Agricultural policy is forced to
              address many more issues than farm prices and incomes.  Food,
              fiber, trade, environmental health, rural macroeconomic, and
              foreign policies have all become important constituents in
              formulation of agricultural policies.  Main objective of farm
              groups remains price and income support, market stability.
              Overall goals have broadened in response to a political
              environment in which an increasing awareness among non-farm
              interests that agricultural programs have been partly
              responsible detrimental effects on the environment.

              Consumer interests: will become increasingly important to the
              largely urban Congress. Demographic changes in population
              will continue to cause changes in consumers' tastes and
              preferences. Concerns about chemical residues in foods and
              their injection into the environment are a major issue and
              will continue to be so. Public wants to provide support
              farmers but are increasingly disenchanted with subsidies that
              go largely to the largest, wealthiest farmers. Rural
              economies: Farming and agricultural service industries
              together contributed only about 8% of the personal income in
              non-metropolitan areas in 1986. Rising farm prices for select
              agricultural commodities is and inefficient way to promote
              rural economic activity. Economically diversified rural
              communities can offer greater employment opportunities to
              farmers who wish to continue farming but who also have
              difficulties meeting financial commitments. Small, marginal
              changes can yield significant results in the long-run. Long-
              term goal of agricultural policies should be promotion of a
              healthy, competitive and diverse agricultural sector and
              viable diverse rural communities.


==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, P., D. Van Dusen, J. Lundy, and S. Gliessman

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Integrating social, environmental, and economic issues in
              sustainable agriculture

SOURCE:       American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 6:34-39.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Altieri, M. A

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        How best can we use biodiversity in agroecosystems?

SOURCE:       Outlook on Agriculture 20(1):15-23.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Anderson, W. L., and L. M. David

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Results of the 1991-1992 Illinois quail hunter survey

SOURCE:       Illinois Department of Conservation, Division of Wildlife
              Resources Administrative Report. Chicago. 16 pp. + appendices.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Anderson, W. L., and L. M. David

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Results of the 1991-1992 Illinois pheasant hunter survey

SOURCE:       Illinois Department of Conservation, Division of Wildlife
              Resources Administrative Report. Chicago. 16 pp. + appendices.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Barbarika, A., T. Osborn, and R. Heimlich

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Using an environmental index in the Conservation Reserve
              Program

SOURCE:       Pages 118-133. Proceedings of the NCT-163 Post Conservation
              Reserve Program Land Use Conference. Denver, Colo. January
              10-11.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Barnes, T. G., L. A. Madison, J. D. Sole, and M. J. Lacki

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        An assessment of habitat quality for northern bobwhite in tall
              fescue-dominated fields

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(2):231-237.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Evaluation of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) fields in
              Kentucky. Fields characterized by dense vegetation, little
              bare ground, and low plant species diversity.  Tall fescue
              characterized as marginal habitat for bobwhite quail due to
              unsuitable vegetation structure, floristic composition, and
              insufficient food. Tall fescue is grown extensively for stock
              feed, turf,  and conservation purposes. It is an excellent
              pasture grass and the dominant grass seeded in most south-
              eastern CRP fields. Aggressive domination of fields tall
              fescue may reduce plant species diversity resulting in lower
              quality of habitat. Infection of endophytic fungus
              (Acremonium coenophialum) may result in fescue toxicosis,
              reproductive disorders in mammals and reduced fertility and
              hatching success in quail have been documented.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Basore, N. S., L. B. Best, and J. B. Wooley

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        Bird nesting in Iowa no-tillage and tilled cropland

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage. 50:19-28.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Crop residue associated with no-till operations is beneficial
              to ground nesting birds. Bird densities greater in no till
              fields than within tilled fields. Vegetation residue
              important for attracting birds to no-till fields, nest de-
              struction by farming implements is infrequent in contrast to
              tilled fields. No-till fields had nest density of 36/100 ha
              compared to 4/100 ha in tilled fields. Nests in tilled fields
              were in locations were there was residual vegetation.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berner, A. H.

PUBL. YEAR:   1984

TITLE:        Federal land retirement program: A land management albatross

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources
              Conference 49:118-130.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berner, A. H.

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Federal pheasants: Impact of federal agricultural programs on
              pheasant habitat, 1934-1985

SOURCE:       Pages 45-93 in D. L. Hallett, W. R. Edwards, and G. V. Burger,
              editors. Pheasants: Symptoms of wildlife problems on
              agricultural lands. Forty-ninth Midwest Fish and Wildlife
              Conference, December 8, 1987. Northcentral Section of the
              Wildlife-Society, Bloomington, Ind. 345 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berner, A. H.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        The 1985 Farm Act and its implications for wildlife

SOURCE:       Pages 437-465 in 1988/1989 Audubon wildlife report. National
              Audubon Society, 950 Third Avenue, New York, NY.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Over the last 50 years changes in land use and agricultural
              production have significantly affected wildlife inhabiting
              agricultural landscapes. Specialization and intensification
              of agricultural production are responsible for severe
              declines in many populations of wildlife. Federal commodity
              programs have contributed to much of the decline in habitat
              quality and availability. Regulations have encouraged devel-
              opment of unsafe habitat by allowing late-seeding and early
              destruction of vegetative cover on retired acres during the
              nesting season.

              The 1934 Cropland Adjustment Act was first retirement program
              with the purpose of stabilizing the market and farm economy.
              Planting of cover on retired acres was not required. 1936
              Agriculture Conservation Program created SCS and ASCS and
              required farmers to plant grass, grass-legume cover on set
              aside lands. Soil Bank established in 1956-72 provided annual
              set-asides and a multi-year set-aside (Conservation Reserve)
              programs with 3,5, and 10 year options.


              Due to the annual nature of these programs and wide variety
              of agricultural management practices, little guidance on
              appropriate management of retired lands was furnished or
              required. Option of more restrictive, beneficial guidelines
              are left to the state, county committees comprised of local
              farmers which has, many times, has resulted in environmentally
              questionable management practices.   Many committees allow
              late seeding of cover crops or require no cover, and permit
              or require destruction of established cover in the fall.

              During period of 1956-1987 low prices for crops precipitated
              by overproduction resulting in low farm income. Desire to
              stabilize farm economy and increase farm income has been
              elemental impetus for subsidy programs. Conflicting USDA
              programs resulting in conversion of non-cropland to cropland
              and increasing the crop base resulted in higher cost of
              commodity  programs.

              ARP (acreage reduction programs) pay farmers to annually idle
              land to reduce production of commodity crops. Regulations
              that once required reducing soil loss to AT@  now require
              that highly erodible croplands be farmed under an approved
              Soil Conservation plan that "substantially" reduces soil loss.
              USDA predicts that crop surpluses will exist at least through
              2000. More than 20 million acres/yr are expected to be retired
              in ARP annually. Because ARP agreements are annual farmers are
              not willing to pay to seed perennial grass-legume cover crops.
              ASCS committees generally opt to maintain maximum flexibility
              in establishing cover requirement, crop seeding dates, and
              rates and dates of cover destruction with minimal natural
              resource benefits.

              Pheasant population have substantially increased when ARP
              acres are planted early to annual cover crops (typically
              small grains)and maintained to multi-year covers. Presently,
              however, ARP encourage practices that are proven to be
              detrimental to wildlife. Pheasant production in Minnesota
              averages 30% lower in years with an ARP when compared to
              years without the program. Minor modifications could
              increase the value of these lands. Negative impacts could
              be reversed if acres were seeded to annual cover crop
              (small grains) and not disturbed for 90 days. In areas where
              winter cover may be critical, ARP, or a portion of, should
              be seeded to cover crop such as forage sorghum and left
              undisturbed throughout winter. Cover for three or more years
              would provide maximum benefits.

===============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berthelsen, P. S.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Value of the Conservation Reserve Program to birds in the
              Texas southern high plains

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. Texas Technical University, Lubbock. 106 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Greatest potential benefit of the CRP to wildlife in the
              Southern High Plains is provision of secure, high quality
              nesting and winter cover for avian species. Bird species
              composition on CRP lands represented primarily by 2 to 3
              dominant species. Seven of 13 species observed on CRP lands
              were considered migrants or winter residents. Fields of blue
              grama/kleingrass (BG/K) produced high quality winter habitat.
              This cover type produced the greatest values for avian winter
              densities, avian biomass estimates, nest densities, number of
              birds observed, and winter cover quality for pheasants. BG/K
              had highest numbers of avian species observed, followed by
              blue grama/side-oats gramma and blue grama/plains bluestem.

              CRP may promote dispersal and increase survival of pheasants
              through provision of high-quality winter habitat more evenly
              dispersed over agriculturally dominated landscapes. BG/K
              grasslands will provide quality passerine habitat in southern
              high plains during winter and reproductive seasons. CRP fields
              in vicinity of remaining grain crops may substantially enhance
              year round habitat quality.

              Greatest potential of CRP  wildlife habitat in southern high
              plains is to produce secure, high quality, long-term nesting
              and winter cover for upland game birds. Nest success on CRP
              lands averaged 22%, no apparent difference in nest success
              between CRP cover types.  BG/K had highest production of cover
              types followed by BG/PB AND BG/SO.Earlier initiation of
              pheasant nests in CRP than reported for the general area,
              may be related to increase of available nesting habitat, more
              favorable weather, or hens entering breeding season in good
              physiological condition. CRP lands enable pheasants to
              distribute from formerly concentrated habitats, particularly
              playa wetlands that were often unsafe due to seasonal
              flooding.

              Benefits of CRP are dependent upon cover management practices
              and political pressures. Approximately 1/3 of fields evaluated
              were hayed or mowed for weed control resulting in minimal to
              no value as beneficial habitat for upland nesting birds. Mowing
              of CRP fields for weed control believed unnecessary. As stands
              age grasses will out compete forbs. In addition weed control
              may reduce compositional quality of the field.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berthelsen, P. S., L. M. Smith, and C. L. Coffman

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        CRP land and game bird production in the Texas High Plains

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 44:504-507.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berthelsen, P. S., L. M. Smith, and R. R. George

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Ring-necked pheasant nesting ecology and production on CRP
              lands in the Texas Southern High Plains

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 55:46-56.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Best, L. B., K. E. Freemark, J. J. Dinsmore, and M. Camp

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        A review and synthesis of habitat use by breeding birds in
              agricultural landscapes in Iowa

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 134(1):1-29.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Data collected during breeding season (May-July). Total
              numbers of birds highest in floodplain forest and upland
              forest and lowest in small grains and herbaceous fencerows.
              Species abundances lowest in agricultural habitats (tilled
              row crops and small grains and highest in narrow strip-cover
              habitats (railroad rights-of-way, wooded fencerows and
              shelterbelts). Abundance patterns in natural habitats (forest
              marsh and prairie intermediate between ag and strip cover
              habitats. Bird species more abundant in strip cover habitats,
              at least 30% of bird species that use these habitats are
              common to very abundant. These habitats provide nest sites
              which are usually much higher density of nests. Abundance and
              diversity of arthropods greater in uncropped strip cover
              habitats with perennial vegetation than in cultivated cropland.
              Foraging concentrated in and near such areas.


              Low abundance of bird in agricultural habitat: repeated human
              disturbance of tillage, planting cultivation pesticide and
              fertilizer application and mowing. Destroy nest and adversely
              alter habitat. Disruption of site fidelity behavior in birds.
              Croplands characteristically have low species diversity and
              generally relatively simple physical structure. Acute or toxic
              exposure to toxic compounds or reduction in food sources also
              influence use of croplands.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bjerke, K.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        An overview of the agricultural resources conservation program

SOURCE:       Pages 7-10 in L. A. Joyce, J. E. Mitchell, and M. D. Skold,
              editors. The conservation reserve -yesterday, today, and
              tomorrow. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203.
              Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort
              Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bryan, G. G., and L. B. Best

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Bird abundance and species richness in grassed waterways in
              Iowa rowcrop fields

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 126:90-102.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Grassed waterways planted to smooth brome in cornfields and
              soybean fields. 48 bird species observed in waterways
              compared to 14 within croplands. Total bird abundance 3X of
              fields.  No species exclusive to croplands. Current mowing
              recommendations is to mow after July 15, but 53% of all
              species observed and all of the breeding species were at peak
              abundance in the waterways during 4-22 July. Recommend that
              waterways be mowed in late August or early September. Mowing
              should not be undertaken after mid-September because mowing
              would reduce the amount of winter cover and residual veget-
              ation required for early spring nesting. Unmowed waterways
              important habitat for birds in mid-to-late summer because
              other grass dominated cover types have already been mowed,
              concentrating birds in remaining habitat.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bryant, F. C., and L. M. Smith

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        The role of wildlife as an economic input into a farming or
              ranching operation

SOURCE:       Pages 95-98 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the
              Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest
              Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest
              and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bultsma, P. M.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Ducks and CRP

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Society of Range
              Management 48:9 (abstract only).

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Burger, L. W., Jr.

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Structural characteristics of vegetation in CRP fields in
              northern Missouri and their suitability as bobwhite habitat

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 55:74-84.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Burger, L. W., Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, T. V. Dailey, and M. R.
              Ryan

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Structural characteristics of vegetation in CRP fields in
              northern Missouri and their suitability as bobwhite habitat

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 55:74-83.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     CRP cover may provide both nesting and winter roosting
              habitat for bobwhite in northern Missouri. Fifty percent of
              all fields sampled were disturbed by clipping, haying or
              disking. Thirty four percent of fields provided potential
              roosting habitat. CP2 and CP4 fields were most likely to
              provide early season nesting habitat. Disturbance was primary
              factor limiting the potential value of CRP fields as winter
              roosting and nesting cover.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Burger, L. W., Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, T. V. Dailey, and M. R.
              Ryan

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Relative invertebrate abundance and biomass in Conservation
              Reserve Program plantings in northern Missouri

SOURCE:       Pages 102-108 in K. E. Church and T. V. Dailey, editors. Quail
              III: National quail symposium. Kansas Department of Wildlife
              and Parks, Pratt.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Burger, L. W., Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, T. V. Dailey, and M. R.
              Ryan

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Factors affecting the habitat value of Conservation Reserve
              Program lands for bobwhite in northern Missouri

SOURCE:       Pages 103-119 in M. Dicks and M. Monson, (ed.) Proceed. NC163
              Post-CRP Land Use Conf.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Caithamer, D. F., and G. W. Smith

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        North American ducks

SOURCE:       Pages 34-37 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D.
              Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A report
              to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of
              U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of the
              Interior, National Biological Service. Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Camp, M., and L. B. Best

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Nest density and nesting success of birds in roadsides
              adjacent to rowcrop fields

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 131(2):347-358.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Campa, H., III, and S. R. Winterstein

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Wildlife and vegetative response to diverted agricultural land
              in Gratiot county, Michigan

SOURCE:       Annual report. Department of Fish and Wildlife. Michigan State
              University, East Lansing. 26 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Several significant differences for vegetation variables
              (e.g., % canopy cover, height, total canopy, % grass canopy,
              % litter cover) among grasslands reported but none were
              consistently related to field age. Older fields tended to be
              characterized by a greater percentage cover of grass and
              litter. Younger fields tended to have greater forb and live
              canopy cover. Younger fields supported greater avian
              densities and diversities but productivity was higher in older
              fields.  May have been result of older fields providing more
              suitable nesting sites than younger fields due to greater
              diversity in structure.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Castrale, J. S.

PUBL. YEAR:   1985

TITLE:        Responses of wildlife to various tillage conditions

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference SO:142-156.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Discussion of minimum tillage practices on wildlife use of
              agricultural fields, primarily corn and soybeans. Three
              factors are major contributors to wildlife use of fields,
              food availability, vegetation structure, and disturbance.
              Under most circumstances, availability of insects probably
              does not limit wildlife populations in agricultural fields.
              Preferred foods may be readily available in corn and soybean
              fields but lack of adequate cover or vegetation character-
              istics may prevent some species from utilizing resources
              present.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Center for Resource Economics

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Farm Bill 1990 revisited

SOURCE:       Center for Resource Economics, Washington, D.C. 44 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cihacek, L. J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Selection criteria for retention of CRP land in permanent
              cover

SOURCE:       Pages 41-88 in Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural
              Council. Annual meeting, June 2-4, 1993, Rapid City, S. Dak.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cochrane, W. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The development of American agriculture: An historical
              analysis.

SOURCE:       University of Minnestoa Press, Minneapolis. 500 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cook, K. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        So long, CRP.

SOURCE:       Environmental Working Group/The Tides Foundation Report.
              Washington, D.C. 38 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cook, K. A., and A. B. Art

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Countdown to compliance: implementation of the resource
              conservation requirements of federal farm law

SOURCE:       Center for Resource Economics. Washington, D.C. 37 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Council for Agricultural Science and Technology

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Ecological impacts of Federal conservation and cropland
              reduction programs

SOURCE:       Task Force Report 117. 28 pp. Ames, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Council for Agricultural Science and Technology

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Ecological impacts of Federal conservation and cropland
              reduction programs

SOURCE:       Task Force Report 117. 28 pp. Ames, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Overproduction in agriculture first became a major problem
              following WWI. Food and fiber produced for the war effort
              but market disappeared following end of war.  Pattern was
              repeated following WWII. World demand is a major factor
              influencing domestic production and prices. Overproduction
              also due to increase in technology and productivity per acre.
              Between 1930 and 1980 farm production rose by almost 150%. If
              CRP reaches its goal of 45 million acres reduction in soil
              erosion estimated to be 850 million tons/yr. Other CRP
              benefits: reduction in soil erosion, improved ground and
              surface water quality, reduction in nitrate and pesticide
              use, decrease in commodity surpluses.


              Discussion of ARP guidelines to lessen negative effects:
              1. Extend period that a field may be idled from 1 to 3-5
              years, 2. Ban fallowing without cover, 3. Require ASCS to
              consider wildlife when setting rules for seeding and
              destruction of cover, 4. Include natural resource
              professionals on ASCS committees.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Council for Agricultural Science and Technology

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve: A survey of Research and Interest
              Groups

SOURCE:       Special Publication 19. 44 pp. Ames, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cowardin, L. M., T. L. Shaffer, and K. M. Kraft

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        How much habitat management is needed to meet mallard
              production objectives

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(1):48-55.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cowardin, L. M., A. B. Sargeant, and H. F. Duebbert

PUBL. YEAR:   1983

TITLE:        Low waterfowl recruitment in the prairies: the problem, the
              reasons, and the challenge to management

SOURCE:       Pages 16-18 in H. Boyd, editor. First western hemisphere
              waterfowl and waterbird symposium (abstract only).
              International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, Great
              Britain.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Nest success estimates for the northern US are in the range
              of 5-15% although two studies in western N. Dakota
              demonstrated success rates of 38% and 42%. Variation in
              success reflects variations in quality of habitat and predator
              populations. Lowest success rates are observed in areas of
              intensive agriculture. Highest success for mallard in grass-
              land, lowest in cropland. Data demonstrate a serious problem
              of low recruitment resulting from destruction of habitat and
              increased predation rates in remaining suitable habitat.
              Intensified agriculture has decreased both the availability
              of nesting cover and habitat available to resident prey
              species. Result is concentration of nesting ducks and
              foraging predators in remaining untilled grassland. Key
              management strategy is to separate nest predators from
              nesting waterfowl. Habitat preservation is essential but also
              requires purposeful management of predators.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cutler, M. R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Meeting the biodiversity challenge through coordinated
              land-use planning

SOURCE:       Renewable Resources Journal 9(4):13-16.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Dahlberg, K. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        The conservation of biological diversity and U.S. agriculture:
              Goals, institutions, and policies

SOURCE:       Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 42:177-193.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Agricultures transformation over the past several decades has
              led to an increasing genetic depletion of farm habitats and
              rural landscapes. Ways to modify policy to enhance diversity
              in agricultural landscapes include making changes in current
              set-aside policies, credit programs and rangeland management.
              Water and energy should receive priority but aesthetic value
              and diversity of rural landscapes should also be considered.
              Goal is to achieve a more diversified lower-input agri-
              cultural system.

              Agricultural practices and efforts in conservation biology
              affect each other. American agriculture has gone from small
              scale, diversified production, local marketing systems
              dependent largely upon human and animal labor to large scale
              monoculture systems depend on cheap energy and large markets.
              Size of rural populations and the number of farmers in U.S.
              population have declined. Pressures to expand production have
              led to more mono-cropping and elimination of habitat for
              wildlife and pest predators through simplification of the
              agricultural ecosystem. Resultant increase in soil erosion
              and groundwater pollution.

              High levels of energy input have led to fewer and more
              uniform crops and more simplified rural landscapes.

              An important part of seeking new policy direction will be to
              educate the public regarding the value and importance of re-
              building a strong, diverse rural America. Potential
              modifications to policy: change current set-aside policies
              designed to reduce overproduction on annual set-aside lands.
              In grain areas encourage farmers to leave unharvested portions
              of fields as cover.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Davidson, J. H.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Conservation agriculture: an old new idea

SOURCE:       Natural Resources and Environment 9(3):20-22.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Dicks, M. R., and J. E. Coombs

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        CRP in the future

SOURCE:       Great Plains Agricultural Policy Center. Oklahoma Agricultural
              Experiment Station, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. np.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Dicks, M. R., L. D. Sanders, and S. Anderson

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Agricultural ecopolitics: Conflicts of agricultural policies
              with resource conservation and sustainable agriculture

SOURCE:       Pages 89-98 in P. J. Hoefer, G. H. Fechner, and S. E.
              McDonald, technical coordinators. Trees are the answer: 42nd
              Annual Meeting, Forestry Committee. Great Plains Agricultural
              Council Publication 132.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Central theme of federal agricultural policy is controlling
              the variability in agricultural production and prices. During
              first 150 years of American history federal policy success-
              fully promoted the expansion of U.S. farmland. Past agri-
              cultural policy may have influenced resource use. Current
              policy is shifting focus to supply management placing
              restrictions on resource use rather than just land use. The
              greatest need for education and research rests with integrating
              conservation practices with cropping systems.

              1980's may be viewed as a transitional decade for agri-
              cultural policy shifting focus from production control to
              production management. The environmental impacts of altern-
              ative agricultural production control policies have been
              considered during the development and implementation of
              legislation. Since the 1930's agricultural policies have
              sought to modify farmers' allocation of resources almost
              exclusively through use of positive and negative incentives.

              Peak of U.S. farmland acreage in early 50's at over 1200
              million acres. Farmland acreage devoted to crops peaked at
              nearly 395 million acres in early 50's. Total production of
              the basic commodities has grown rapidly since the 50's as
              technology brought increases in productivity. Federal policies
              designed to boost agricultural output through research an
              extension continue to achieve this goal.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Diebel, P., T. T. Cable, and P.S. Cook

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The future of Kansas CRP lands: The landowner's view

SOURCE:       Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas State University,
              Manhattan. 56 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Majority of survey respondents were satisfied with CRP
              program and ranked soil erosion as and important influence in
              initial enrollment. Wildlife habitat considerations affected
              decisions of 67.7% of respondents. However, 57.6 percent said
              increases in wildlife populations were undesirable. Hunting was
              most frequent form of recreation allowed on CRP land (76.4%).
              Market prices, forage, and livestock were key factors in
              decision about future use of CRP land.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Dunn, C. P., F. Stearns, G. R. Guntenspergen, and D. M. Sharpe

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Ecological benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Conservation Biology 7(1):132-139.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Unintentional, yet significant, ecological benefits of CRP:
              reversal of landscape fragmentation, maintenance of regional
              biodiversity, wildlife habitat, and regional changes in
              carbon flux. Overall program costs would be more than offset
              by benefits from increased net farm income, soil productivity
              improvements, enhanced water quality, and revenue from
              recreational activities. Dollar benefits derived from program
              are difficult precisely quantify. Other ecologically desirable
              benefits: reduced sedimentation in lakes, rivers, streams;
              reduced non-point source agricultural runoff, improved water
              quality and retention and development of wildlife habitat.
              These and other benefits should be used by policy makers to
              maintain the program.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Edwards, W. R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1984

TITLE:        Early ACP and pheasant boom and bust! - a historical
              perspective with rational

SOURCE:       Pages 71-83 in R. T. Dumke, R. B. Sthiel, and R. B. Kahl,
              editors. Proceedings: Perdix III. Gray partridge and ring
              necked pheasant workshop. Wisconsin Department of Natural
              Resources, Madison.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ekstrand, E.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Wildlife economics of the CRP

SOURCE:       Pages 52-54 in C. Lee, editor. Will there be a lasting
              conservation legacy? Proceedings of Midcontinent CRP
              conference, Manhattan, Kansas. Kansas Wildlife and Parks.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ekstrand, E., and R. L. Johnson

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Application of farm programs to water quality

SOURCE:       Pages 541-544 in D. G. Fontane and H. N. Tuvel, editors. Water
              policy and management: Solving the problems. Proceedings of
              the 21st annual conference of the Water Resources Planning and
              Management Division. American Society of Civil Engineers, New
              York.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ervin, D. (Director)

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Conservation and environmental issues in agriculture

SOURCE:       U.S. Economic Research Service, Resources and Technology
              Division. Washington, D.C. 62 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Evrard, J. O., D. A. Snobl, P. B. Doeneir, and J. A. Dechant

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Nesting short-eared owls and voles in St. Croix county

SOURCE:       The Passenger Pigeon 53(3):223-226.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     High concentration of meadow voles in CRP lands attributed
              to attracting and supporting a elevated diversity of
              predators, short-eared owl, red fox, coyote, rough legged
              hawks. Two nests of short-eared owls found in CRP. The
              species rarely has nested in Wisconsin. Presence of nests
              attributed to CRP habitat supporting high density of meadow
              voles.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Faeth, P., R. Repetto, K. Kroll, Q. Dai, and G. Helmers

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Paying the Farm Bill: U.S. agricultural policy and the
              transition to sustainable agriculture

SOURCE:       World Resources Institute. Washington, D.C. 70 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Farmer, A. H., R. L. Hays, and R. P. Webb

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on wildlife
              habitat: a cooperative study

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources
              Conference 53:232-238.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Farris, A. L., and S. H. Cole

PUBL. YEAR:   1981

TITLE:        Strategies and goals for wildlife habitat restoration on
              agricultural lands

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources
              Conference 46:130-136.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Indicators of negative farmland wildlife habitat change are
              increased urbanization of agricultural land, increased size
              of farms, increased acres in rowcrops, decreased area in
              production of small grains, wild/tame hay and pasture, larger
              field size, loss of edge, fence rows, farmsteads, wetland and
              idle lands. All have contributed to reductions in numbers and
              diversity of wildlife. Agricultural policy is the primary
              influence on agricultural land use and farmland wildlife
              habitat.

              Native grasses, while taking more care and time to establish,
              provide excellent erosion control with significantly lower
              cost and energy utilization. Long term benefits of native
              grasses over cool season grasses are significant. Cutting for
              hay should be delayed to > July 15. Encourage cost-sharing
              for farmers that devote a minimum percentage of cropped
              acreage to permanent cover capable of supporting wildlife
              (4-5% of landscape probably sufficient).

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Freemark, K.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Assessing effects of agriculture on terrestrial wildlife:
              Developing a hierarchial approach for the EPA

SOURCE:       Landscape and Urban Planning 31:99-115.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Given the intensive and extensive extent of agriculture there
              is a need to develop the conceptual and scientific basis for
              landscape design and management to promote sustainable agri-
              cultural practices that enhance conservation and environmental
              priorities associated with agricultural ecosystems. Retro-
              spective analysis may provide insights into the range of
              possibilities for future landscape design and management
              scenarios in a given area. Major limitation of many previous
              studies of wildlife on farmland has been the focus on detailed
              studies of small plots with little regard to larger spatial
              scales.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Freemark, K., and C. Boutin

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Impacts of agricultural herbicide use on terrestrial wildlife
              in temperate landscapes: A review with special reference to
              North America

SOURCE:       Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment 52(2, 3):67-91.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Fry, G. L. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Conservation in agricultural ecosystems

SOURCE:       Pages 415-443 in I. F. Spellerberg, F. B. Goldsmith, and M. G.
              Morris, editors. The scientific management of temperate
              communities for conservation. Blackwell Scientific
              Publications, Oxford. Great Britain.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Protected areas alone cannot achieve conservation goals such
              as maintenance of biological diversity. Incorporation of
              conservation measures in farm management will demand clear
              recommendations based on sound theory and evidence gained
              through practical trials. Maintenance or enhancement of habitat
              quality for a wider range of plants and animals will require
              better understanding of ecological processes at the site, field
              and landscape levels. Lack of understanding of the processes
              involved in animal distribution and the way in which species
              use corridors and what constitutes barriers is a constraint
              in designing and managing habitats. High connectivity in a
              landscape is one buffer against effects of habitat fragment-
              ation so that isolated subpopulations link to form meta-
              populations which are less vulnerable to local extinction
              processes.

              One limitation of many investigations of habitat and wildlife
              on farmland is alack of regard to management of the next field
              or surrounding landscape. The abundance of many species
              comprising animal communities on farmland are controlled
              largely by a few environmental factors. Both the timing and
              severity of agricultural practices are important factors
              governing the potential of agricultural lands as wildlife
              habitat.

              Extending width of field margins farther into the crop is one
              way of increasing habitat diversity on arable lands. Manage-
              ment decisions often will need to be made without thorough
              assessment of the impacts on wildlife.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Furrow, L. T., K. F. Millenbah, R. B. Minnis, A. J. Pearks, H.
              Campa, III, and S. R. Winterstein

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: not just for the birds

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference 55:170
              (abstract only).

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gall, G. A. E., and G. H. Orians

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Agriculture and biological conservation

SOURCE:       Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 42:1-8.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Agriculture is the dominant form of land management on all
              continents. Dramatic increase in intensity of management and
              capital investment in agriculture following WWII. Prior to
              that time agriculture was sufficiently inefficient that
              habitats were provided for many species of wildlife. Multiple
              use of land declines as management intensity increases. As
              prices of agricultural commodities have increased there is
              a decrease in recreational, aesthetic uses and values.
              Adoption of more intensive agriculture on suitable lands
              enables more food to be produced per unit area. As a result,
              pressures on marginal agricultural land could be reduced
              making them available for conservation practices that
              contribute not only to on-site habitat but enhancement of
              downstream environmental quality.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gerard, P.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Agricultural practices, farm policy, and the conservation of
              biological diversity

SOURCE:       U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service.
              Biological Science Report 4. 28 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       George, R. R., A. L. Farris, C. C. Schwartz, D. D. Humburg,
              and J. C. Coffey

PUBL. YEAR:   1979

TITLE:        Native prairie grass pastures as nest cover for upland birds

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 7(1):4-9.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Lands seeded to pure stands of switchgrass Indian grass and
              big bluestem and properly managed as warm season livestock
              forage provide suitable nest cover for ring-necked pheasants
              and other upland nesting birds. In contrast alfalfa and
              orchard grass hay fields produced no successful nests due
              to early season hay cutting. Switchgrass good cover because
              it maintains leaves, resists burial by snow, and provides
              good residual spring cover. Passerine densities were highest
              in big bluestem.

              The three grasses listed above are recommended for warm-season
              livestock forage and wildlife nesting cover. Little bluestem
              is best nesting cover but it produces less forage and is more
              difficult to establish than other native grasses. Tall native
              grasses should not be grazed below 8-10 in. Grasses should be
              left undisturbed as much as possible in order to provide
              maximum residual cover in spring. Prescribed burn every 4-5
              years will remove excess litter and prevent woody invasion.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gill, M., and S. Daberkow

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Crop sequences among 1990 major field crops and associated
              farm program participation

SOURCE:       Agricultural Resources-Situation and Outlook Report. 24
              October 1991. Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of
              Agriculture.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gilpin, M., G. A. E. Gall, and D. S. Woodruff

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Ecological dynamics and agricultural landscapes

SOURCE:       Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 42:27-51.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Many parts of society see conflicts between conservation of
              biological resources and exploitation by agriculture. Agri-
              cultural production is essential to society and also can
              provide stewardship of biological resources but inter-
              displinary effort is needed in development of strategies
              that reward agriculture for good conservation.
              Benefits of biological diversity: stabilizes soils, regulates
              water flow, buffers disturbance. Agriculture and conservation
              are not mutually exclusive and can be positively linked on
              local, regional, and global scales. Governmental policies that
              support agriculture are often fictional and deny true economic
              constraints..

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gould, J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Seasonal use of Conservation Reserve Program fields by
              white-tailed deer in eastern South Dakota

SOURCE:       M.S. thesis, South Dakota State University, Brookings. 40 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     CRP lands used by white-tailed deer in greater proportion
              than availability during spring, summer and fall. Selected
              CRP during active periods in the spring and summer and during
              bedding periods in summer and fall. Avoided CRP during fall
              active periods. CRP land provide important forage and cover
              in all seasons. Maintenance mowing, weed control detrimental
              to wildlife populations. CRP fields must have some type of
              disturbance every few years to maintain quality of habitat.
              Optimal every 3-5 years in late summer subsequent to nesting
              season . CRP may not be living up to expectations for
              provision of high quality habitat, however, in comparison
              with previous use habitat quality is better than that on most
              cropland.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Granfors, D. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        The impact of the Conservation Reserve Program on eastern
              meadowlark production and validation of the eastern meadowlark
              habitat suitability index model

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. Texas Technical University, Lubbock. 98 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Eastern meadowlark productivity compared between CRP land
              and rangelands in Lyon county Kansas. Nests in CRP fields
              had lower cowbird parasitism, larger clutch sizes and higher
              hatch rates than nests in pastures. Cowbird parasitism appears
              to be a major cause of lowered productivity of meadowlark
              nests. Eastern meadowlarks selected for less dense litter and
              more homogenous vegetation structure in both land use types.
              Nests in CRP fields had higher proportion of grass than was
              available in random sites. Residual cover was greater near
              nests in CRP fields.

              Relationships between HSI values and eastern meadowlark
              densities was poor due primarily high densities of meadow-
              larks in fields with high forb coverage. Relationships
              improved when HSI values and densities were averaged over
              the three years of the study. No discernible relationship
              between western meadowlark densities and the eastern meadow-
              lark model.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Graul, W. D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1980

TITLE:        Grassland management practices and bird communities

SOURCE:       Pages 38-47 in Management of western forests and grasslands
              for nongame birds. U.S. Forest Service General Technical
              Report INT-86. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
              Station. Ogden, Utah.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Greenwood, R. J., A. B. Sargeant, D. H. Johnson, L. M.
              Cowardin, and T. L. Shaffer

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        Mallard nest success and recruitment in prairie Canada

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources
              Conference 52:298-308.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Griffen, S. L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Pronghorn use of agricultural land in northwestern South
              Dakota

SOURCE:       M.S. thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings. 63 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Pronghorn observed CRP grasslands 5% of time. CRP grasslands
              represented 4% of study area. Suggests that CRP grasslands
              may furnish high-quality foraging areas and is a method of
              reducing depredation on small grain and alfalfa croplands.
              Use of CRP often highest in early summer and winter when
              potential for agricultural conflict was greatest. Future
              research should focus on better definition of pronghorn
              preferences for different grassland plantings permitted in
              program.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gulinck, H.

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        Landscape ecological aspects of agroecosystems

SOURCE:       Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 16:79-86.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hall, D. L., and M. R. Willig

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Mammalian species composition, diversity, and succession in
              Conservation Reserve Program grasslands

SOURCE:       Southwestern Naturalist 39(1):1-10.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Abundance of small mammals and species diversity compared
              between native shortgrass grasslands and CRP fields in
              southern high plains of Texas. CRP grasslands simulate
              shortgrass prairies in species diversity but not in species
              composition. CRP grasslands consist of introduced grasses,
              primarily lovegrass, that allow CRP to accomplish soil
              erosion goals but do not create "native habitat" with respect
              to plant or animal species composition. Successional changes
              in vegetational structure occurred in CRP sites. First year
              sites on average contained more bare ground and less cover
              than older sites. Second year sites were dense and almost
              homogenous with lovegrass. Third year sites contained dense
              lovegrass but it occurred in clusters or bunches interspersed
              with open spaces. CRP grasslands support as great a diversity
              of small mammals as do shortgrass prairie at least within the
              1st three years Species composition may be highly dependent on
              specific physiognomic parameters that are not met in either
              agricultural sites or CRP grasslands. Mammalian species com-
              position may be restored if grazing or fire disturbance were
              incorporated into long-term management of CRP grasslands.


==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Harmon, K. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1981

TITLE:        Future actions for management of private land wildlife

SOURCE:       Pages 374-382 in R. T. Dumke, G. V. Burger, and J. R. March,
              editors. Wildlife management on private lands. Wisconsin
              Chapter of the Wildlife Society, Madison.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Harmon, K. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        History and economics of farm bill legislation and the impacts
              on wildlife management and policies

SOURCE:       Pages 105-108 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the
              Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest
              Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest
              and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Harris, B. L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Landowner options when CRP ends

SOURCE:       Pages 24-26 in L. A. Joyce, J. E. Mitchell, and M. D. Skold,
              editors. The conservation reserve - yesterday, today and
              tomorrow. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203.
              Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort
              Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hays, R. L., and A. H. Farmer

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Effects of the CRP on wildlife Habitat: emergency haying in
              the midwest and pine plantings in the southeast

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 55:30-39.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hays, R. L., R. P. Webb, and A. H. Farmer

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on wildlife
              habitat: results of 1988 monitoring

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 54:365-376.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Highest amount of persistent vegetation cover is on CP-2
              (warm season grasses) fields. Highest pre-green up average
              VOR was on CP-2. Percentage of herbaceous cover made up of
              grasses was not different between conservation practices.
              Pheasants may be more limited by winter food and cover than
              nesting cover near come CRP fields. Planting of woody
              vegetation and food plots should be encouraged. CRP appears
              to be providing good nesting habitat for pheasants and fair
              nesting habitat for meadow larks. Improvement in habitat
              quality for cottontails not detected. Winter cover values
              appear to be greater on CP-2 than within CP-1 (introduced
              grasses). Unless high quality winter cover is developed on
              more CRP fields themselves, it seems likely that winter food
              will only contribute to usable pheasant habitat in years that
              have mild winters. Appears that CRP could improve pheasant
              habitat by planting more winter cover and winter food where
              these resources are in short supply.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Heimlich, R. E., and C. T. Osborn

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        After the Conservation Reserve Program: Macroeconomics and
              post-contract program design

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural Council Annual
              meeting. June 2-4, 1993, Rapid City, S. Dak. In press.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Heimlich, R. E., and C. T. Osborn

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program: What happens when contracts
              expire?

SOURCE:       Choices 3rd quarter: 9-14.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Heimlich, R., C. T. Osborn, and A. W. Allen

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Including wildlife in an environmental benefits index (EBI)
              for analyzing alternative acreage reduction scenarios when CRP
              contracts expire

SOURCE:       American Agricultural Economists meeting, Orlando, Fl. August
              1993. 8 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Heimlich, R., C. T. Osborn, A. W. Allen, and R. Roath

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Future use of Conservation Reserve Program lands in the Great
              Plains

SOURCE:       Great Plains Agricultural Council Task Force White Paper.
              University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 27 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Heimlich, R., C. T. Osborn, A. W. Allen, and R. Roath

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        What do we have to lose?

SOURCE:       Pages 13-15 in R. Clark, editor. Future use of Conservation
              Reserve Program lands in the Great Plains. University of
              Nebraska, Lincoln.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Herkert, J. R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Prairie birds of Illinois: Population response to two
              centuries of habitat change

SOURCE:       Illinois Natural History Survey, Bulletin from Symposium
              Proceedings: Our Living Heritage 34:393-398.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Herman, R. J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Wildlife management on CRP

SOURCE:       U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service.
              Champaign, Ill. Illinois Bulletin No. Ill90-3-33.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Higgins, K. F.

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        Maintenance of planted grass stands for wildlife

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the North Dakota Academy of Science 41:42.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Higgins, K. F., D. E. Nomsen, and W. A. Wentz

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        The role of the Conservation Reserve Program in relation to
              wildlife enhancement, wetlands, and adjacent habitats in the
              northern Great Plains

SOURCE:       Pages 99-104 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the
              Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest
              Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest
              and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Igl, L. D., and D. H. Johnson

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Migratory bird population changes in North Dakota

SOURCE:       Pages 298-300 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P.
              D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A
              report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and
              health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S.
              Department of the Interior, National Biological Service.
              Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Igl, L. D., and L. A. Murphy

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        CRP, succession, and Brewer's Sparrows: advantages of a
              long-term, federal land retirement program

SOURCE:       South Dakota Bird Notes 48(3):69-70.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Jahn, L. R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        The potential for wildlife habitat improvements

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 43(1):67-69.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Jahn, L. R., and E. W. Schenck

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        U.S. agricultural programs: implications for wildlife and
              potential for improvement

SOURCE:       Pages 359-371 in K. E. Church, R. E. Warner, and S. J. Brady,
              editors. Perdix V: Gray partridge and ring-necked pheasant
              workshop. Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Emporia.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Jahn, L. R., and E. W. Schenck

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        What sustainable agriculture means for fish and wildlife

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 46(4):251-255

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       James, P. C.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Internalizing externalities: granular carbofuran use on
              rapeseed in Canada

SOURCE:       Ecological Economics 13:181-184.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Jassen, L., M. Beutler, and T. Ghebremicael

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Major characteristics of post-contract land use intentions for
              Conservation Reserve Program wetland tracts

SOURCE:       Economics Staff Paper No. 94-2. South Dakota State University,
              Pierre.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       John, K., R. Walsh, and J. McKean

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Value of wetland habitat resources and benefits of waterfowl
              hunting under the Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Unpublished report to NBS, Midcontinent Ecological Science
              Center, Fort Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, D. H., and M. D. Schwartz

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program and grassland birds

SOURCE:       Conservation Biology 7(4):934-937

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, D. H., and R. R. Koford

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program and migratory birds in the
              northern Great Plains

SOURCE:       Pages 302-303 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P.
              D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A
              report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and
              health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S.
              Department of the Interior, National Biological Service.
              Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Presentation of nest densities and survival rates for
              selected common birds and waterfowl nesting in North Dakota
              and Minnesota CRP fields, croplands, and waterfowl production
              areas. Data supports conclusion that federal agricultural
              programs can have beneficial effects on wildlife resources
              over broad geographic areas. As CRP fields age their
              attractiveness to certain species may change.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, D. H., S. D. Haseltine, and L. M. Cowardin

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Wildlife habitat management on the northern prairie landscape

SOURCE:       Landscape Urban Planning 28(1):5-21.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Summary of European settlement impacts to northern prairie
              landscapes and wildlife habitat. Regional management of wild-
              life can not be effective on public lands alone. Partnerships
              with private landowners need to be developed. Wildlife
              managers need to base management activities on explicit,
              quantifiable objectives that furnish measures of survival,
              reproduction, and distribution of species. Description of
              potential landscape-level management options presented.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, D. L., and M. D. Schwartz

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program land is a plus for grassland
              birds

SOURCE:       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Information Bulletin
              42. 2 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, R. G., and S. A. Temple

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        Assessing habitat quality for birds nesting in fragmented
              tallgrass prairies

SOURCE:       Pages 245-249 in J. Verner, M. L. Morrison, and C. J. Ralph,
              editors. Wildlife 2000: Modeling habitat relationships of
              terrestrial vertebrates. University of Wisconsin Press,
              Madison.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

===============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, R. G., and S. A. Temple

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Nest predation and brood parasitism of tallgrass prairie birds

SOURCE:       Journal of Wildlife Management 54(1):106-111.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Presentation of nest densities and survival rates for
              selected common birds and waterfowl nesting in North Dakota
              and Minnesota CRP fields, croplands, and waterfowl
              production areas. Data supports conclusion that federal
              agricultural programs can have beneficial effects on wildlife
              resources over broad geographic areas. As CRP fields age their
              attractiveness to certain species may change.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, R. J., and M. M. Beck

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Influences of shelterbelts on wildlife management and biology

SOURCE:       Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 22-23:301-335.

CONTRIBUTOR:  

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, R. L., J. R. McKean, and C. L. Sandretto

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Increased recreational hunting can offset negative economic
              impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin TB92-4.
              Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 23 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     An input-out analysis using National Survey of Fishing and
              Hunting data completed for northeastern Colorado estimates
              the negative economic effects of the CRP and necessary
              increase in small game and migratory bird hunting needed to
              offset it. Offsetting CRP-related employment loss would
              require recreation hunting to rise by 1.8 times but off-
              setting the loss in sales would require and increase of 2.5.
              The negative impact and the required offsetting rise in
              recreational hunting increases sharply if farmers who
              place some land in CRP leave the region.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, R. L., K. H. John, and R. G. Walsh

PUBL. YEAR:

TITLE:        Valuation of wetland as waterfowl habitat

SOURCE:       Combining stated and revealed preference approaches. Journal
              of Ecological Economics. In preparation.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Joyce, L. A., and M. D. Skold

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        Implications of changes in the regional ecology of the Great
              Plains

SOURCE:       Pages 115-127 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the
              Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest
              Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest
              and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Joyce, L. A., J. E. Mitchell, and M. D. Skold, editors

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve - Yesterday, today and tomorrow:
              Symposium Proceedings

SOURCE:       U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203. Rocky
              Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins,
              Colo. 64 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Just, R. E., and J. M. Antle

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Interaction between environmental and agricultural policies:
              Opportunities for coordination and limitations for evaluation

SOURCE:       American Economic Review 80:197-202.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Agricultural policy has a well-documented impact on farmer's
              production decisions which in turn affects the environment.
              Growing public perception that existing agricultural policies
              are linked to agricultural pollution. Existing agricultural
              and environmental policies can have either positive or
              negative effects on non-point source pollution. Agricultural
              policy can be used to mitigate pollution if properly used.
              Agricultural production and environmental impacts depend on
              highly location-specific environmental conditions. General-
              izations about the environmental impacts of agricultural
              policies are easy to make but should be avoided.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kantrud, H. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1981

TITLE:        Grazing intensity effects on the breeding avifauna of North
              Dakota native grasslands

SOURCE:       Canadian Field Naturalist 95:404-417.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Avian species richness tended to decrease in response to
              greater grazing intensity, but total bird density increased
              due to higher populations of a few species. Total bird
              density was always highest on idle or lightly grazed sites.
              In general, distribution and abundance of most grassland
              bird species in ND have been negatively affected by agri-
              cultural and pastoral activities. Fragmentation of grass-
              lands by agriculture resulted in extirpation of some but
              cultivation of eastern tallgrass prairie has destroyed
              better habitat for more bird species than in the shorter
              grasslands to the west. Protection should be given to the
              larger remaining areas of grassland representative of
              various types found throughout state. Long-term pre-
              servation will require periodic management.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kantrud, H. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Duck nest success on Conservation Reserve Program land in the
              prairie pothole region

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 48(3):238-242.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Duck nest success higher (23.1%) on tracts of CRP than on
              Waterfowl Production Areas (8.2%). Larger field size, greater
              distance from water, lower nest densities, good vegetative
              cover on CRP believed to contribute to lower rates of
              predation.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kantrud, H. A., and K. F. Higgins

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Nest and nest site characteristics of some ground-nesting
              non-passerine birds of northern grasslands

SOURCE:       Prairie Naturalist 24(2):67-84.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Fields with numerous wetlands were more attractive to upland-
              nesting shorebirds than were similar fields where wetlands
              were more distant. All species studied used native grassland
              for nesting. Fourteen species nested in seeded grasslands and
              croplands. Nest success rates did not differ among habitat
              types for any species. Except for killdeer, few nests were
              in annually tilled croplands.

              Current management practices on lands devoted to wildlife
              should benefit from occasional management activities to
              maintain stand vigor. Results suggest that about one third of
              bird species studied, mostly shorebirds, nested predominantly
              in shorter sparser cover of pastures rather than taller idle
              grasslands. Few species attracted to recently burned fields.
              To maintain grassland bird species diversity and abundance
              large, scattered areas of grasslands in northern great plains
              should not be protected from periodic disturbance that reduce
              vegetation height, litter and the invasion of woody plants.
              Modern livestock grazing systems can increase habitat quality
              for many species of non-game birds on mixed-grass prairies in
              North Dakota. However, some species seem attracted to fields
              where vegetation height and density are reduced by grazing
              during one or more previous growing seasons even though these
              fields may be relatively unattractive when cattle are present.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kantrud, H. A., and R. L. Kologiski

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        Effects of soils and grazing on breeding birds of uncultivated
              upland grasslands of the northern Great Plains

SOURCE:       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Research Report 15.
              Washington, D.C. 33 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Livestock grazing on lands set aside for wildlife can be
              used as a management measure to increase populations of
              game species and increase diversity of plant or animal
              species. Light to moderate grazing resulted in increased
              species richness. Species richness was significantly reduced
              by heavy grazing the northern Great Plains. Grazing by
              domestic livestock generally decreased average vegetative
              height and increased exposure of bare soil, in lightly grazed
              plots height of vegetation seemed to decrease because of
              shading effect of large amounts of litter. Increased
              richness was associated with plots in which the height of
              vegetation was not appreciably reduced and the percentage of
              bare soil not greatly increased by excessive grazing.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Keeland, B. D., J. A. Allen, and V. V. Burkett

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Southern forested wetlands

SOURCE:       Pages 216-218 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P.
              D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A
              report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and
              health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S.
              Department of the Interior, National Biological Service.
              Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kelly, C. R., and J. A. Loden

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Federal farm program conservation initiatives: Past, present,
              and future

SOURCE:       Natural Resources and Environment 9(3):17-19.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     From its New Deal beginnings farm policy has been primarily
              designed to stabilize commodity prices and to support farm
              income. Natural resources capitol on which agriculture is
              dependent has not been the primary concern of those who have
              guided federal farm policy for the past 60 years. Conser-
              vation initiatives have largely served to gain political
              support or otherwise assist in achieving a given programs=
              economic objectives. Although economic well-being will be
              predominant concern of federal policy, conservation is likely
              to assume a greater importance because agricultural impacts
              are receiving greater attention. Budgetary constraints and
              international competition will accelerate market-orientated
              policies diminishing the programs' tradition role in supply
              management. Paying farmers for adopting conservation practices
              is likely to expand replacing other mechanisms for supporting
              farm income.

              Political problems of green-payments: Favored recipients of
              green payments are not likely to be the same farmers favored
              by current income transfers.  Larger farmers are favored by
              current programs.  Current programs favor producer in midwest.
              Green payments are likely to be greatest where environmental
              problems are greatest and nearest to population centers
              resulting in shift to coasts and major watersheds.  May not
              provide benefits to small farmers because it can be argued
              that attention should be greatest to those who farm the most
              land.  No guarantee that green payments would provide
              sufficient income to satisfy farmers.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kennedy, C. L., and K. F. Higgins

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Effects of grazing on nongame breeding birds, insects, and
              vegetation in Conservation Reserve Program grasslands in North
              Dakota

SOURCE:       Annual meeting of the Society of Range Management 48:32-33.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kimmel, R. O., A. H. Berner, R. J. Welsh, B. S. Haroldson, and
              S. B. Malchow

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Population responses of grey partridge (Perdix perdix),
              ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and meadowlarks
              (Sturnella sp.) to farm programs in Minnesota

SOURCE:       Pages 797-806 in M. Birkan, editor. Proceedings of Perdix VI,
              First International Symposium on Partridges, Quails, and
              Francolins. Giber Fauna Sauvage, Volume 9.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       King, J. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on selected
              wildlife populations in southeast Nebraska

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 39 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       King, J. W., and J. A. Savidge

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on wildlife in
              southeast Nebraska

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(3):377-385.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Pheasant numbers in southeast Nebraska higher in areas with
              approximately 20% of cropland in CRP than in areas with <5%
              Meadowlark numbers and cottontail numbers did not differ
              between areas. No differences found between numbers of birds
              or avian richness between cool-season and warm-season cover
              types. Vegetation structure and amount of cover were more
              important in determining bird densities and richness than was
              plant diversity. No relationship between bird numbers and
              vegetation diversity suggesting that structure may be more
              important than species composition. In general vegetation was
              taller in warm-season grass fields than cool-season fields.
              Suggest burning every 3-5 years to rejuvenate fields. Fields
              seeded to single grass species generally become more dense as
              they mature resulting in decline in habitat quality.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kirsch, L. M., H. F. Duebbert, and A. D. Kruse

PUBL. YEAR:   1978

TITLE:        Grazing and haying effects on habitat of upland nesting birds

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 43:486-497.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Klett, A. T., H. F. Duebbert, and G. L. Heismeyer

PUBL. YEAR:   1984

TITLE:        Use of seeded native grasses as nesting cover by ducks

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 12(2):134-138.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Klett, A. T., T. L. Shaffer, and D. H. Johnson

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Duck nest success in the prairie pothole region

SOURCE:       Journal of Wildlife Management 52(3):431-440.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Klute, D. S., and R. J. Robel

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Comparative avian usage of rowcrop, burned and unburned CRP
              fields, and grazed pastures in eastern Kansas

SOURCE:       Horned Lark 20(4):4 (abstract only).

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Knopf, F. L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Conservation of steppe birds in North America

SOURCE:       ICBP Technical Publication 7:27-41.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Only 9 avian species are wholly endemic to the tall and short
              grass prairies. An additional 19 species have strong
              affinities to the grasslands but also occur in adjacent
              vegetation types. Endemic species spend entire year within the
              grassland the remaining species tend to migrate into brush-
              land and other habitats in Mexico and central America. About
              260 species of birds regularly breed in the grasslands of
              North America, however most are associated with wetlands or
              man-altered landscapes. Locally, bird communities within
              grassland average only three to five species during the
              breeding season with substantial seasonal and annual
              variation in densities. Programs should identify the needs of
              the area dependent stenotopic specie for a locale when
              planning steppe purchases. Invasion by woody species provides
              habitat for birds more typical of eastern deciduous forests
              which accelerate patterns of avifaunal mixing at potential of
              primary and most secondary species of steppe birds.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Knopf, F. L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Conserving the biotic integrity of the Great Plains

SOURCE:       In Conservation of Great Plains Ecosystems. Western Governor's
              Association. Denver, Colorado, and U.S. Environmental
              Protection Agency, Kansas City, Kans.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Koford, R. R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Nest success in Conservation Reserve Program fields in North
              Dakota and Minnesota

SOURCE:       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Information Bulletin
              43. 2 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kurzejeski, E. W., L. W. Burger, Jr., M. J. Manson, and R.
              Lenkner

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Wildlife conservation attitudes and land use intentions of
              conservation reserve program participants in Missouri

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 20(3):253-259.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Sixty-two percent of respondents indicated wildlife was an
              important consideration in choice of farming practices. Only
              9.4% of all respondents enrolled land in permanent wildlife
              habitat. Fifty-six percent of respondents indicated that they
              were unaware of this practice. Increased educational efforts
              to promote wildlife management options should target both
              landowners and administering agencies.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kramer, C. S., B. J. Elliott, L. M. Rubey, and G. E.
              Rossmiller

PUBL. YEAR:

TITLE:        The political economy of U.S. agriculture: Challenges for the
              1990s

SOURCE:       Pages 267-281 in C. S. Kramer, editor. The political economy
              of U.S. agriculture: Challenges for the 1990s. National Center
              for Food and Agricultural Policy. Resources for the Future.
              Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kruse, A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: A bargain for the U.S. taxpayer

SOURCE:       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jamestown, N. Dak.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Langer, L. L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Land use changes and hunter participation: the case of the
              Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 54:382-390.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Lauber, B.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Birds and the Conservation Reserve Program: A retrospective
              study

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. University of Maine, Orono. 252 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Little, T., and R. A. Hill

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        CRP having an impact

SOURCE:       Iowa Conservationist September/October:4-9.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Description of agricultural and settlement impacts to
              wildlife habitats in Iowa. General description of CRP
              benefits to wildlife. Converting as little as 4% of county
              from rowcrops to CRP significantly increased pheasant
              numbers seen on survey routs. Higher numbers of pheasants
              attributed to greater over-winter survival due to CRP. More
              than 15 nests of non-game birds per 40 acres of CRP compared
              less than one in same area of rowcrops. Nest success of bird
              in CRP 33% as compared to 20% in hay fields. Waterfowl nest
              success in CRP as good, or better, than wildlife management
              areas.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Luttschwager, K. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Effects of two haying provisions on duck nesting in
              Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) fields in South Dakota

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings. 51 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Evaluation of 1988, 1989 release of eastern South Dakota CRP
              fields effects on duck nest density and success.  Nest
              densities in idled (non-hayed) strips and non-hayed fields
              were significantly greater than in hayed strips. Nest
              densities in idled and hayed blocks were similar. Nest
              success was lowest in idled strips which apparently attracted
              predators as well as ducks. Recommends leaving a minimum of
              25% of hayed fields in non-hayed cover in a block rather
              than strips.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Luttschwager, K. A., and K. F. Higgins

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Nongame bird, game bird, and deer use of Conservation Reserve
              Program fields in eastern South Dakota

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 71:31-36.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Luttschwager, K. A., K. F. Higgins, and J. A. Jenks

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Effects of emergency haying on duck nesting in Conservation
              Reserve Program fields, South Dakota

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 403-408.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Lysne, L. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Small mammal demographics in North Dakota conservation reserve
              program plantings

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. University of North Dakota, Grand Forks. 48 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Mankin, P. C.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Agricultural land use and the eastern cottontail in Illinois

SOURCE:       Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 94
              pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       McKean, J. R., and R. L. Johnson

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Can increased migratory bird hunting offset negative economic
              impacts of the CRP in northeast Colorado?

SOURCE:       Colorado State University Experiment Bulletin. Fort Collins,
              Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       McKean, J. R., E. Ekstrand, and R. L. Johnson

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Recreational fishing offsets to the negative economic impacts
              of the CRP in Wisconsin

SOURCE:       Colorado State University Experiment Bulletin. Fort Collins,
              Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Miller, E. J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Wildlife management on Virginia Conservation Reserve Program
              land: the farmers' view

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
              University, Blacksburg. 91 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Seventy-two percent of respondents indicated that they wanted
              to improve wildlife habitat on retired land. Most respondents
              indicated that they had not been informed about improving
              habitat on CRP land. USDA personnel were primary source of
              habitat information for program participants. Only 5% of land
              was planted to permanent wildlife habitat. Mowing of entire
              CRP acreage was primary means of weed control. Leasing of CRP
              land to hunters was uncommon. Results indicate high level of
              interest in wildlife and need for getting more detailed
              information to landowners from USDA and wildlife agencies.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Miller, E. J., and P. T. Bromley

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Wildlife management on Conservation Reserve Program land: The
              farmer's view

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 44(5):438-440.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Survey results from CRP participants in Iowa and Virginia.
              Results indicate that CRP participants in sample population
              have high interest in improving wildlife habitat. Lack of
              information  and education about how to specifically improve
              lands for wildlife appeared to be an important limitation.
              Objection to regulations and Ared tape@ may constrain
              acceptance of programs to stimulate improvement in habitat
              quality. Improvements in wildlife issues on CRP lands will
              require aggressive information and education efforts by wild-
              life agency staff (rather than USDA county staff) who can
              furnish precise information useful for improvement in habitat
              values.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Miller, M. S., D. J. Buford, and R. S. Lutz

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Habitat use, productivity, and survival of Rio Grande wild
              turkey hens in southwestern Kansas

SOURCE:       Page 27 in 1991 Noxious brush and weed control: range and
              wildlife management. Texas Tech University, Lubbock.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Mills, R. C.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        CRP grassland and wildlife management

SOURCE:       U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service.
              Missouri Bulletin No. MO300-3-1. Columbia. 9 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Minnesota Extension Service

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The CRP in the Midwest: What should we do next?

SOURCE:       University of Minnesota, St. Paul. 16 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Miranowski, J. A., and R. L. Bender

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        Impact of erosion control policies on wildlife habitat on
              private lands

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 37(5):288-291.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Moulton, R. J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Sorting through cost-share assistance programs

SOURCE:       Tree Farmer. November/December 1994.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Moulton, R. J., B. Baldwin, and J. Snellgrove

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Impacts of Conservation Reserve Program tree planting on
              biological diversity

SOURCE:       Annual meeting of southern forest economists. February 20-22,
              1991. Washington, D.C. n.p.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Sample of CRP plantations in southeast showed that most were
              comparatively small and over 70% were not adjoined by existing
              pine stands and none adjoined pine on all four sides. Trees
              replaced what had been continuous cropland or extension of
              cropland on 80% of observations. Over 2.2 million acres of
              trees planted under CRP in 41 states and Caribbean. However,
              the majority are in southeastern states. Trees represent >90%
              of CRP in Florida and Georgia, 79% in South Carolina and >50%
              in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and North
              Carolina.  97.3% of all trees planted are softwoods (loblolly
              and slash  pine).Over 70% of CRP pine plantations were free-
              standing, not adjacent to other stands of pine on any side.
              22% joined plantations on one side. CRP pine replaced
              cropland in 80% of cases.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       National Audubon Society

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Investing in wildlife, multiple benefits for agriculture and
              the American people

SOURCE:       27 pp. Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       National Biological Survey

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        CRP and wildlife: Preliminary report on CRP benefits to
              wildlife

SOURCE:       Midcontinent Ecological Science Center, Fort Collins, Colo.
              np.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       National Research Council

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        Impacts of emerging agricultural trends on fish and wildlife
              habitat

SOURCE:       National Academy Press. 244 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Newtow, J. A., and J. S. Beck

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program fish and wildlife benefits. State
              of Oregon report to local Soil and Water Conservation
              Districts

SOURCE:       Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Salem.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Nowak, P. J., M. Schrepf, and R. Barnes

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        When Conservation Reserve Program contracts expire...A
              national survey of farm owners and operators who have enrolled
              land in the Conservation Reserve

SOURCE:       Soil and Water Conservation Society. Ankeny, Iowa. 80 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       O'Connell, M. A., and R. F. Noss

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Private land management for biodiversity conservation

SOURCE:       Environmental Management 16(4):435-450.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     For the purpose of conservation ecosystem diversity must be
              defined on basis of geographically recognizable, or mappable,
              units representing commonly associated flora and fauna.
              Species profiting from habitat diversification are generally
              least in need of conservation efforts (e.g, species assoc-
              iated with diversification in cover types)  Managers have
              customarily enhanced local species diversity by maintaining
              numerous edges between habitat types, which is usually to the
              detriment of endemic species. Maintenance of diversity from
              regional and global perspective actually permits more flexi-
              bility in land-use options than a strategy that considers
              sites in isolation. Loss of a species from a specific site
              may not have detrimental effects of biodiversity if the
              species is regionally or globally abundant. Regional bio-
              diversity management does not preclude habitat manipulation to
              favor certain species, however,  standards for private land
              management consistent with goal of conserving biodiversity are
              not simple to delineate.Paper provides specific steps and
              guidelines for identification of biodiversity priorities
              on private lands.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       O'Connor, R. J., and M. Shrubb

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        Farming and birds

SOURCE:       Cambridge University Press, Great Britain. 290 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ogg, C. W., M. P. Aillery, and M. O. Ribaudo

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Implementing the Conservation Reserve Program: analysis of
              environmental options

SOURCE:       U.S. Forest Service, Economic Research Service, Agriculture
              Economic Report 618. 26 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Osborn, C. T., F. Llacuna, and M. Linsenbigler

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program, enrollment statistics for
              signup periods 1-11 and fiscal years 1990-92

SOURCE:       Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service,
              Statistical Bulletin Number 843. Washington, D.C. 86 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Osborn, C. T., M. Schnepf, and R. Keim

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        The future use of Conservation Reserve Program Acres: A
              national survey of farm owners and operators

SOURCE:       Soil and Water Conservation Society. Ankeny, Iowa. 47 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Owens, R. A., and M. T. Myres

PUBL. YEAR:   1973

TITLE:        Effects of agriculture upon populations of native passerine
              birds of an Alberta fescue grassland

SOURCE:       Canadian Journal of Zoology 51:697-713.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Disturbance of fescue grasslands by mowing for hay or grazing
              by cattle reduced or eliminated Baird' sparrow and Sprague's
              pipit but permitted ingress of horned lark and chestnut-
              collared longspur. Total elimination of native grassland by
              plowing and cultivation for cereal crops eliminated all
              passerine species except the horned lark.  Peripheral disturb-
              ance of areas resulting from cultivation such a field boundaries
              and ditches may have benefitted species that tend to occur in
              edge habitats. Vegetation physiognomy is probably factor
              determining the distribution of grassland passerine species.
              Prairie passerines which evolved to exploit original grass-
              land environments have been forced to make use of various
              habitats created by agriculture. Species dependant upon dense-
              grass situations are largely eliminated when grazing is heavy.
              Variable grazing intensities will affect habitat distribution
              differently resulting in changes in composition of grassland
              bird community. Under grazing practice which area aimed at
              maintaining range in good condition the full range of
              prairie passerines may occur. Under heavier than normal
              conditions species that favor short grass conditions will
              predominate. Some species will be present under any condition
              (meadowlarks). This study suggests that passerine avifauna
              which evolved on plains is adapted to survive in habitats
              which are the product of gazing by native ungulates and
              periodic fires. Therefore, areas managed to preserve grass-
              lands and native avifaunas must allow these factors to
              operate to create similar conditions.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Patterson, M., and L. B. Best

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Avian abundance and productivity on Conservation Reserve
              Program lands in central Iowa

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference 55:171
              abstract only).

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Patterson, M. P., and L. B. Best

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Bird abundance and productivity in Iowa CRP fields: the
              importance of vegetation structure and composition

SOURCE:       Am. Midland Nat. 135:153-167.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Although many bird species frequent row-crop fields abundance
              is relatively low and few species nest there. Because of
              predation, parasitism, and farming activities  bird repro-
              duction in row crops may be below levels needed to sustain
              populations. CRP likely has contributed to an increase in
              abundance of many bird species in central Iowa because the
              row crop habitats were replaced by permanent cover.  CRP
              fields are better nesting habitat for grassland birds than
              roadsides, grassed waterways, and other covers ts associated
              with Iowa agriculture. Presence of diverse vegetation
              structure and composition, large block nature, and reduced
              agricultural activity are believed to account for benefits to
              avian species. Recommendations: that species planted on CRP
              fields should be selected based on the structural and
              composition attributes to which birds respond; mowing and
              spraying of CRP fields for weed control be deferred until
              after July; plant a variety of grass  species, avoid mono-
              cultures: maintain whole field enrollments; effects of
              disturbances (disking, burning, grazing and interseeding)
              need to be evaluated.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Pajak, P.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Fisheries implications of the 1990 Farm Bill

SOURCE:       Fisheries 16(4):4.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Pajak, P., and J. Bauman

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Fisheries resources: Opportunities for enhancement through the
              Conservation Title

SOURCE:       The social, economic, and environmental consequences of the
              conservation components of the Food Security Act of 1985. Soil
              and Water Conservation Society Symposium, March 1-2, 1989.
              Columbus, Ohio.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Paoletti, M. G., D. Pimentel, B. R. Stinner, and D. Stinner

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Agroecosystem biodiversity: matching production and
              conservation biology

SOURCE:       Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40:3-23.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Pimentel, D., L. Mclaughlin, A. Zepp, B. Lakitan, T. Kraus, P.
              Kleinman, F. Vancini, W. J. Roach, E. Graap, W. S. Keeton, and
              G. Selig

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Environmental and economic effects of reducing pesticide use

SOURCE:       Bioscience 41(6):402-409.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Pimental, D. U. Stachow, D. A. Takacs, H. W. Brubaker, A. R.
              Dumas, J. J. Meaney. J. A. S. O'Neil, D. E. Onsi, and D. B.
              Corzilius

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Conserving biological diversity in agricultural/forestry
              systems

SOURCE:       BioScience 42(5):354-362.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Reichelderfer, K.

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Environmental protection and agricultural support: Are
              trade-offs necessary?

SOURCE:       Pages 201-230 in K. Allen, editor. Agricultural policies in a
              new decade. Resources for the Future and National Planning
              Association. Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Traditional means of supporting farm income tend to
              exacerbate environmental problems. Under current programs
              agricultural protection and environmental protection reflect
              conflicting societal preferences. Public reaction to environ-
              mental problems suggests that non-farm population believes
              that it has a right to a clean, safe and healthy environment
              which may be infringed upon by farming activity.

              Long-run environmental goals of American public conflict with
              the short-run profit objectives of individual farmers.
              Adoption of new technologies requires capital investment high
              adjustments cost increased operating costs, or some for-
              feiture of yield any of which can reduce farm income, at
              least in the short run. Efforts must focus on increasing the
              cost-effectiveness  of the current or reduced levels of
              funding to meet policy objectives. Farm bill has proved to
              provide consistency between environmental and agricultural
              policy objectives, but it could be better. Farm Programs: For
              over 50 years  programs that support commodity prices and
              transfer of income to farm sector have formed the core of US
              agricultural policy. Until recently these programs included
              no explicit conservation objectives. Main objectives of agri-
              cultural policy are to support farm income and ensure a
              stable and reasonably priced food supply. These multiple
              objectives are achieved through a system of farm programs
              that insulate the farm sector from the market economy by arti-
              ficially supporting certain commodities prices and managing
              those supplies. Each mechanism employed to achieve farm and
              supply control has unique secondary and unintentional effects
              on environmental quality.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Renner, R. W., R. E. Reynolds, and B. D. J. Batt

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        The impact of haying Conservation Reserve Program lands on
              productivity of ducks nesting the Prairie Pothole Region of
              North and South Dakota

SOURCE:       Ducks Unlimited, Inc. Bismarck, N. Dak. Unpublished report. 25
              pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Reynolds, R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Evaluation of the effect of CRP on duck recruitment in the
              Prairie Pothole Joint Venture Area of FWS, Region 6

SOURCE:       1992 Progress Report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
              Bismarck, N. Dak. 6 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Report on results of 1992 pilot effort to evaluate waterfowl
              production in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Nest
              success estimated to be about 2 to 3 times higher in CRP
              grasslands than in Waterfowl Production Areas.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Reynolds, R. E., T. L. Shaffer, J. R. Sauer, and B. G.
              Peterjohn

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: Benefit for grassland birds in
              the northern plains

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 59:328-336.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ribaudo, M. O.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Water quality benefits from the Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       U.S. Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report
              606. Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Riddle, M., M. D. Skold, and W. L. Trock

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        The future of the Conservation Reserve Program in Colorado

SOURCE:       Agricultural Experiment State Cooperative Extension Department
              of Agricultural and Resource Economics Technical Report
              TR94-5. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 41 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Survey of contractees to ascertain expectations related to
              future of CRP. Most important reason for enrolling in CRP
              was the income the program provided. Soil conservation also
              an important consideration. Expected that if program expired
              that about 38% of land would return to production and about
              same amount would remain in grass. Economic factors were the
              most important reason for program participation. Infra-
              structure to accommodate livestock generally not available on
              CRP grasslands. New fences and development of water resources
              would be needed to convert CRP grassland to grazing.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Rietveld, W. J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        When CRP contracts expire: alternative strategies to encourage
              environmentally acceptable land use

SOURCE:       Pages 89-96 in Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural
              Council. Annual meeting, June 2-4, Rapid City, S. Dak.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Riley, T. Z.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Ring-necked pheasants and food plot size

SOURCE:       Prairie Naturalist 24(3):185-189.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Riley, T. Z.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Effects of CRP on ring-necked pheasants in Iowa (1985-91)

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference 55:172
              (abstract only)

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Riley, T. Z.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Association of Conservation Reserve Program with ring-necked
              pheasant survey counts in Iowa

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(3):386-390.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Pheasant numbers in Iowa increased 30% during first 5 years
              of CRP compared to a similar period prior to program. Numbers
              increased 34% in counties with >70% of cropland and 26% in
              counties with 50-70% cropland. Increases not detected in
              counties with <50% in cropland. Pheasant numbers positively
              related to CRP but also influenced by percent cropland and
              cumulative snowfall. Positive association between pheasant
              survey counts and CRP land enrollment may have resulted from
              an increase in nesting and winter cover. Addition of idle
              grass-forb fields provided by program might have improved
              survival of females and enhanced reproductive success by
              increasing amount and dispersion of roosting and nesting
              cover. Association of pheasant counts with % CRP probably
              a function of % cropland. Value of existing grass cover and
              that added by CRP may have been reduced by the persistence of
              snow cover.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Rodiek, J., and G. DelGiudice

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Wildlife habitat conservation: Its relationship to biological
              diversity and landscape sustainability: a national symposium

SOURCE:       Landscape Urban Planning 28(1):1-3.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Robinson, A. Y.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Agriculture and wildlife in 2020

SOURCE:       Pages 67-76 in T. J. Peterle, editor. 2020 Vision: Meeting the
              fish and wildlife conservation challenges of the twenty-first
              century. Symposium Proceedings, 53rd Midwest Fish and Wildlife
              Conference, December 3, 1991. Des Moines, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Robinson, R. A., L. L. Atkins, C. R. Kirby, P. A. Dommel, F.
              J. Schaefer, Jr., and J. D. Hall

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: Cost effectiveness is uncertain

SOURCE:       Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural
              Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related
              Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, House of
              Representatives. U.S. General Accounting Office.
              GAO/RCED-93-132. Washington, D.C. 14 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Rodenhouse, N. L., L. Best, R. J. O'Connor, and E. K.
              Bollinger

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Effects of temperate agriculture on neotropical migrant
              landbirds

SOURCE:       Pages 280-295 in D. M. Finch and P. W. Stangel, editors.
              Status and management of neotropical migratory birds. U.S.
              Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
              Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report
              RM-229. Fort Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Rodgers, R. D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1983

TITLE:        Conservation tillage impacts on wildlife

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 38:212-213.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Roseberry, J. L., and L. M. David

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program and northern bobwhite
              population trends in Illinois

SOURCE:       Illinois Department of Conservation, Federal Aid in Wildlife
              Restoration Job Completion Report. Project W-106-R. 64 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Roseberry, J. L., and L. M. David

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program and northern bobwhite
              population trends in Illinois

SOURCE:       Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 87(1,
              2):61-70.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Contributions of CRP to improvements in Illinois quail
              habitat less than expected. CRP land positively contributed
              to local habitat quality but in some situations CRP may have
              neutral or negative effects. CRP land comprises small
              proportion of total habitat base. CRP contribution to quail
              habitat could be improved if there is less mid-summer
              mowing, more weedy vegetation as a consequence of strip
              discing and burning, and less planting of cool-season
              grasses.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ryan, M. R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1985

TITLE:        Nongame management in grassland and agricultural ecosystems

SOURCE:       Pages 117-136 in J. B. Hale, L. B. Best, and R. L. Clawson,
              editors. Management of nongame wildlife in the midwest: a
              developing art. Proceedings of a symposium held at the
              forty-seventh Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference, Chelsea,
              Mich.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Low faunal richness in prairie communities. Acquisition,
              reclamation and proper management of grassland resources
              must become a priority if we are to conserve the genetic
              diversity of native prairie flora and fauna. Must further
              define the role of agriculture in prairie wildlife con-
              servation and develop effective management strategies.
              Modern views of grasslands may be distorted by the
              remaining grassland tracts that are too small to show the
              characteristic variability of natural prairie ecosystems.
              Grasslands contain substantial habitat diversity primarily in
              the horizontal plane. View of grassland ecosystem as a
              mosaic of habitat types influenced by soil moisture and
              grazing intensity are the primary controlling factors and
              set the stage for the development of wildlife management
              goals and strategies. Opportunity to mange prairie tracts of
              sufficient size to include all aspects of the prairie
              vegetation continuum is rare. Alternative is to manage
              smaller tracts as components of the overall prairie mosaic.
              Goal of nongame grassland management should be the
              conservation of wildlife species native to prairie habitats.
              Management actions must be defined on a state or region wide
              level. If richness of species indigenous to prairie eco-
              systems is objective the management plan must be developed
              on large scale and implemented through integrated management
              at the local unit level.

              A large block of similar habitat will contain and conserve
              more species than a small unit. However, there is controversy
              around the question of whether a large tract will maintain
              more species than several small tracts that, combined, equal
              the larger tract.  Ranking of sites for selection 1: sites
              that regardless of size contain rare species or habitats that
              could support them; 2 large tracts containing a variety of
              habitat conditions that maintain a mosaic of habitat types;
              3 clusters of small tracts that provide, or can be managed
              for, a variety of components of the prairie mosaic. 4 large
              homogeneous blocks of grassland, and 5 small highly isolated
              units of grassland. Monotypic seeded fields are less likely
              to be of value to nongame wildlife than multi-species fields.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ryan, M. R., L. W. Burger, Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, and T. D.
              McCoy

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        The relationships of forage quality and land capability class
              with vegetation on CRP lands in northern Missouri

SOURCE:       Final Rep. to the Missouri Dep. Natural Resources, Jefferson
              City, MO. 47pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sample, D. W., and M. J. Mossman

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Preliminary management recommendations for grassland bird
              habitat on CRP and ACR (set-aside) fields in southern
              Wisconsin

SOURCE:       Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Research,
              Monona. 2 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sample, D. W., and M. J. Mossman

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Conclusions from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
              study of grassland bird use of CRP and ACR (set-aside) fields

SOURCE:       Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Research,
              Monona. 2 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Saunders, D. A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Can we integrate nature conservation with agricultural
              production?

SOURCE:       Landscape and Urban Planning 28:63-71.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Schramm, H. L., Jr., L. M. Smith, F. C. Bryant, R. R. George,
              B. C. Thompson, S. A. Nelle, G. L. Valentine

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        Managing for wildlife with the Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Management Note 11. Texas Technical University, Lubbock. 6 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Schenck, E. W., and L. L. Williamson

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program effects on wildlife and
              recreation

SOURCE:       Pages 37-42 in L. A. Joyce, J. E. Mitchell, M. D. Skold,
              editors. The Conservation Reserve - yesterday, today and
              tomorrow. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203.
              Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort
              Collins, Colo.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Soil Conservation Service

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        LTP - Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) National Bulletin No.
              300-2-15

SOURCE:       Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Soil and Water Conservation Society

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Implementing the Conservation Title of the Food Security Act

SOURCE:       Final report. Ankeny, Iowa. 76 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Soil and Water Conservation Society

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        When Conservation Reserve Program Contracts Expire: the policy
              options

SOURCE:       Ankeny, Iowa. 143 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Stauffer, D. F., G. A. Cline, and M. J. Tonkovich

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Evaluating potential effects of CRP on bobwhite quail in
              Piedmont Virginia

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 55:57-67.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Conversion of cropland to permanent introduced herbaceous
              cover is likely to have a positive effect on the quality of
              quail habitat. But beneficial effects are likely to be
              maintained only while a suitable grass-forb mixture is
              maintained. If grasses such as tall fescue dominate and
              form dense sod benefits effects will be reduced.

              As croplands are converted to pine plantations the quality
              of habitat for quail will decline over time. For the first
              5-7 years after conversion plantations typically will furnish
              suitable herbaceous cover. As pines mature and canopy begins
              to close the quality of habitat will decline due to minimal
              understory cover for nesting, brood rearing, cover and food.

              When conversion of cropland to CRP increases the overall
              habitat diversity adds components previously lacking and
              increase in quail populations can be expected. But when
              overall diversity is reduced quail populations are likely to
              decline. The large amount of CRP being placed in pine
              plantations is likely to cause substantial local declines
              in quail. Addition of woody cover in the form of pine
              plantations will lower overall habitat diversity. Consider-
              ation needs to be given to juxtaposition and interspersion
              of CRP. Also a large amount of cropland converted to CRP may
              not be beneficial if large fields are converted; more
              diversity in habitat will be created by converting many
              smaller fields rather than fewer large fields.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Thomas, M. B., S. D. Wratten, and N. W. Sotherton

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Creation of "island" habitats in farmland to manipulate
              populations of beneficial arthropods: Predator densities and
              species composition

SOURCE:       Journal of Applied Ecology 29:524-531.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Trenbath, B. R., G. R. Conway, and I. A. Craig

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Threats to sustainability in intensified agricultural systems:
              analysis and implications for management

SOURCE:       Pages 337-365 in S. R. Gliessman, editor. Agroecology:
              researching the ecological basis for sustainable agriculture.
              Springer-Verlag, New York.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Agricultural intensification usually results in 1) a greater
              proportion of available land more intensively farmed; 2)
              level of technological input elevated; and 3) a given area
              is used more often.  The combination of these effects is
              often accompanied by damage to the natural resource base. May
              damage nonagricultural systems within or outside the
              developed area as well as other agricultural systems down-
              stream of the area. Intensive exploitation of available area
              has led to increases in productivity but commonly leads to
              decline in wildlife populations associated with less intensive
              kinds of use.  Where wildlife viability is dependent upon
              relatively large patches of less disturbed habitat populations
              may disappear.

              The more frequent use of land is a common aspect of intensi-
              fication that is potentially exhaustive of land capability.
              With shorter fallow period between crops natural soil
              processes may be unable to regenerate fertility and there may
              be a build up of pests.  Both require greater use of agro-
              chemicals to alleviate problem. Use of pesticides may lead to
              spectacular increased of yield, but experience shows that
              after a number of years of application pesticides may
              progressively lose effectiveness. Decline due to an increased
              proportion of pest genotypes in population that are resistant
              to chemicals. If use continues, especially with higher
              dosages, the proportion of resistant genotypes increased
              rapidly to point where the pesticide must be replaced by new
              chemical. Emergence of pesticide resistance reduce profit-
              ability through crop losses and need for different inevitably
              more expensive chemical the less obvious and some times delayed
              effects on the environment, particularly wildlife may be
              substantial.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Targeting environmental priorities in agriculture: Reforming
              program strategies

SOURCE:       OTA-ENV-640. Washington D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office.
              72 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Agriculture, Trade, and the Environment: Achieving
              Complementary Policies

SOURCE:       OTA-ENV-617. Washington D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office.
              241 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. General Accounting Office

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Farm programs: Conservation Reserve Program could be less
              costly and more effective

SOURCE:       Report to the Chairman, Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition,
              and Forestry. U.S. Senate. GAO/RCED-90-13. Conservation
              Reserve Program. 79 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     USDA could improve effectiveness of CRP by targeting cropland
              eroding at the highest rates and land that contributed most
              to surface water and groundwater contamination. CRP cost will
              be offset to some extent as farmers enroll acres that would
              otherwise be used for growing crops covered by price and
              income  income support programs. USDA incurred additional
              cost in tree planting initiative by increased rental rates
              in 5 southeaster states most suitable for tree planting to
              increase the numbers of acres planted to trees. Higher rental
              rates were paid to all farmers in 5 states whether or not
              they planted trees. USDA instructions to local county offices
              allowed CRP rental rates in many area to exceed local rental
              rates. Recommends that USDA implement competitive bid system
              and modify the 25% limit on acreage to allow more flexibility
              in program enrollment.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. General Accounting Office

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: Alternatives are available for
              managing environmentally sensitive cropland

SOURCE:       GAO/RCED-95-42. Washington D.C. 68 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. Department of Agriculture

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Agricultural resources: Cropland, water, and conservation
              situation and outlook

SOURCE:       Resources and Technology Division, Economic Research Service,
              U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. AR-19. 55 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. Department of Agriculture

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Conservation in the 1990 Farm Bill

SOURCE:       FACTA Fact Sheets 1-9 November. Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. Department of Agriculture

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: 12th sign-up statistics

SOURCE:       U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization and
              Conservation Service. Washington, D.C. 16 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R. E.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Nest ecology of grassland passerines on road rights-of-way in
              central Illinois

SOURCE:       Biological Conservation 59(1):1-7.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Availability of suitable grassland cover has decreased in
              response to increase in rowcrop farming. Fescue sustained
              relatively few breeding birds. Where farming is diversified
              and habitat conditions are more favorable rights of way and
              other linear habitats are used more extensively by birds. Use
              is influenced by habitat conditions in vicinity of strip and
              regional land use. Managed roadsides were important to
              passerines even where hay was present because most nests in
              hay are destroyed during harvest. Management practices to
              benefit grassland birds: 1 seed to brome-alfalfa and or
              native grasses and forbs; 2 delay mowing until after August 1;
              3 maximize strip width; 4 establishment of shelterbelts and
              woody plants should be encouraged in some areas to enhance
              diversity of species attracted to strip vegetation.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R. E.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Agricultural land use and grassland habitat in Illinois:
              Future shock for grassland birds?

SOURCE:       Conservation Biology 8(1):147-156.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     During the period of most intensive agricultural production
              grasslands existed only as linear edges with resultant low
              density and diversity of grassland nesting birds. Nest
              densities and species diversity were highest where grassland
              was nearby, cover types heterogeneous, and where corridors
              connected grasslands in surrounding landscape. Too simplistic
              to conclude that linear habitats compared to field settings
              are predator traps. Nest destruction high in years when both
              predators and nesting pheasants were concentrated in
              relatively little grassy cover. The percentage of pheasant
              nests hatched annually from 1973 to 1981 was positively cor-
              related with the amount of grassland per hen in spring where
              grassland consisted of both edge habitats (including
              roadsides) and fields of hay and small grain. Landscape
              characteristics associated with use of edges by nesting birds
              and reproductive success. Nest densities and species
              diversity increased relative to degree of spatial hetero-
              geneity and to how well plots were connected to surrounding
              landscape by corridors. Potential for enhancing use of grassy
              farmland edges by establishing filter strips border fields
              and existing edges and by locating hay and small grains near
              wider grassland corridors. Not all linear habitats are
              predator traps. Predation rates vary with predatory-prey
              assemblages, density of birds in nest habitats and extent to
              which other cover and prey attract predators away from
              relatively attractive nest sites. Landscape-level phenomena
              poorly understood at this time.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R. E., and S. L. Etter

PUBL. YEAR:   1985

TITLE:        Farm conservation measures to benefit wildlife, especially
              pheasant populations

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 50:135-141.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Three spatial factors are key in understanding interaction of
              agriculture and pheasants, FIELD: primary site for particular
              biological needs; FARM: represents a unit of land management
              and describe cover types near sites of biological activity;
              REGIONAL: mosaic of cover over an extended area that en-
              compasses several farms. All scales are significant to
              occurrence, location, and outcome of specific events in the
              life of pheasant. Scales vary in importance from season to
              season depending upon weather, type of farming, and biological
              activity. Regional scale important to movement during crop
              harvest and fall tillage and to winter grouping and spring
              dispersal. Farm scale important during brood rearing and
              establishment of territories. Field scale most relevant to
              nest success, roosting, predation.

              Optimal management practice should extend over several
              contiguous townships. Permits movements of bird from farm-
              to-farm in response to individual management activities.
              Conservation measures must be extensive and long-term to
              significantly benefit pheasant populations. Addressing
              factors that are critical during the reproductive season
              are first priority (suitable undisturbed vegetative cover
              of sufficient area).

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R. E., and S. L. Etter

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        The dynamics of agriculture and ring-necked pheasant
              populations in the cornbelt, USA

SOURCE:       World Pheasant Association Journal 11:76-89.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Weitman, D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Water quality improvement and wetlands restoration

SOURCE:       Pages 20-22 in When Conservation Reserve Program contracts
              expire: The policy options. Soil and Water Conservation
              Society. Ankeny, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Westemeier, R. L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1983

TITLE:        Responses and impact by pheasants on prairie chicken
              sanctuaries in Illinois: A synopsis

SOURCE:       Pages 117-122 in R. T. Dunabe, R. B. Stiehl, and R. B. Kahl,
              editors. Perdix III: Gray partridge and ring-necked pheasant
              workshop, Campbellsport, Wis. Wisconsin Department of Natural
              Resources, Madison.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Western, D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Conservation without parks: Wildlife in the rural landscape

SOURCE:       Pages 158-165 in D. Western and M. C. Pearl, editors.
              Conservation for the twenty-first century. Oxford University
              Press, New York.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       White, B.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Managing CRP grasslands for bobwhite quail

SOURCE:       U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Biology Technical Note MO-14.
              5 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Whiteside, R. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1983

TITLE:        Aspects of the ecology and management of pheasants in the high
              plains of Texas

SOURCE:       Ph.D. Dissertation. Texas Tech University, Lubbock. 65 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Whitworth, M. R., and D. C. Martin

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Instream benefits of CRP filter strips

SOURCE:       Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
              Resources Conference 55:40-45.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Wildlife Management Institute

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Achieving agriculture conservation/commodity balance:
              recommendations for the 1990 Farm Bill

SOURCE:       Washington D.C. np.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Wildlife Management Institute

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        America needs the Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Washington D.C. 20005. 16 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Wildlife Management Institute

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        How much is enough? A regional wildlife habitat needs
              assessment for the 1995 Farm Bill

SOURCE:       Washington, D.C. 30 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Wildlife Society

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        1995 Farm Bill: Wildlife options in agricultural policy

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society, Technical Review 95-1. Bethesda, Md. 23 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Williams, C. F., and J. W. Myelde

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Conducting a financial analysis of quail hunting within the
              Conservation Reserve Program

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 22:233-241.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     Upsurge in outdoor recreation has strained the public land
              system. Public hunting lands remain in short supply. The
              greatest opportunity to supply quality hunting lies in the
              development of opportunities on private land.

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Willson, G. D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        The Great Plains

SOURCE:       Pages 295-296 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P.
              D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A
              report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and
              health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S.
              Department of the Interior, National Biological Service.
              Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Young, C. E., and C. T. Osborn

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program: an economic assessment

SOURCE:       U.S. Economic Research Service. Agriculture Economic Report
              626. Washington, D.C. 32 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Young, L. S.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Effects of agriculture on raptors in the western United
              States: an overview

SOURCE:       Pages 209-218 in Proceedings of the Western Raptor Management
              Symposium and Workshop. National Wildlife Federation,
              Washington, D.C.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Young, R. E., G. M. Adams, and B. Willcott

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Extending CRP contracts vs. commodity program costs

SOURCE:       Pages 30-34 in Proceedings of the Conference: When
              Conservation Reserve Program Contracts expire: The policy
              options, Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:

==============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Zinn, J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The next generation of U.S. agricultural conservation policy

SOURCE:       Soil and Water Conservation Society White Paper. Ankeny, Iowa.
              40 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:  Northern Prairie

COMMENTS:     White paper based on results from National SWCS forum (March
              14-16 1993) of stakeholders and interest groups to assess how
              current agricultural policies are working. Provides detailed
              summaries of current strong and weak points pertaining to
              effects of agricultural policies on environmental issues.
              Regional focus group results present summary of problems and
              potential solutions to agriculturally related issues.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       McCoy, T. D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Avian abundance, composition, and reproductive success on
              Conservation Reserve Program fields in Northern Missouri

SOURCE:       M.S. thesis, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia

CONTRIBUTOR:  Betty Euliss (bettyeuliss@nbs.gov)
                   on Thursday, January 23, 1997 at 21:44:08 (GMT)

COMMENTS:     Grassland bird species richness higher on structurally
              diverse CP1 fields than on CP2. CP2 were tall, dense
              monocultures of warm season grass (switchgrass). In areas
              where grass monocultures exist disturbances to decrease the
              height and density of vegetation and increase plant
              diversity may be beneficial. Provisions for periodic haying
              and grazing may enhance habitat value.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Millenbah, K. F., S. R. Winterstein, H. Campa III, L. T.
              Furrow, and R. B. Minnus

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Effects of Conservation Reserve Program field age on avian
              relative abundance, diversity, and productivity

SOURCE:       Wilson Bull. 108(4), pp. 760-770

CONTRIBUTOR:  Betty Euliss (bettyeuliss@nbs.gov)
                   on Thursday, January 23, 1997 at 21:40:13 (GMT)

COMMENTS:

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Delisle, J. M., and J. A. Savidge

PUBL. YEAR:   1997

TITLE:        Avian use and vegetation characteristics of Conservation
              Reserve Program fields

SOURCE:       Journal of Wildlife Management 61(2):318-325

CONTRIBUTOR:  Betty Euliss (bettyeuliss@nbs.gov)
                   on Wednesday, July 02, 1997 at 13:09:14 (CDT)

COMMENTS:     Comparison of avian use of cp1 (cool season grasses and
              legumes)and cp2 (warm-season, native grasses in southeastern
              Nebraska. Total bird abundance did not differ between cp 1
              and 2 In winter and breeding season cp2 had taller denser
              vegetation than cp1 fields. Bobolinks more abundant in cp1
              common yellowthroats sedge wrens more abundant in cp2 fields.
              American tree sparrows and pheasant most abundant species
              during winter and most abundant in cp2. Meadowlarks most
              abundant in cp1.

              Sedge wrens preferred fields with structurally complex
              vegetation but disappeared after these fields had been mowed or
              burned. Yellow throats associated with tall vegetation and
              were more abundant in cp2. Grasshopper sparrow disappeared
              from fields as litter depth increased and dead vegetation
              accumulated. CP2 field that maintain consistent grasshopper
              sparrow numbers was mowed 3 out of 4 years. CP2 preferred by
              pheasants for winter cover. Native plantings alone could
              provide habitat for all native birds if some fields were
              managed more intensively to simulate historical disturbances.
              CP1 provided best habitat for species that nest directly on
              ground and prefer low vegetation height and litter depth.
              CP2 use predominantly by species that nest higher in veget-
              ation and prefer dense growth.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Klute, D. S., and R. J. Robel

PUBL. YEAR:   1997

TITLE:        Will Conversion of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) Lands to
              Pasture be Detrimental for Grassland Birds in Kansas?

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist, 137:206-212

CONTRIBUTOR:  Betty Euliss (betty_euliss@nbs.gov)
                   on Tuesday, July 29, 1997 at 13:21:02 (CDT)

COMMENTS:

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Delisle, J. M., and J. A. Savidge

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Reproductive success of grasshopper sparrows in relation to
              edge

SOURCE:       Prairie Naturalist 28:107-113

CONTRIBUTOR:  Douglas H. Johnson (Douglas_H_Johnson@nbs.gov)
                   on Monday, September 08, 1997 at 08:22:59 (CDT)

COMMENTS:

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Robles, Marcos D., and Ingrid C. Burke

PUBL. YEAR:   1997

TITLE:        Legume, grass, and Conservation Reserve Program effects on
              soil organic matter recovery

SOURCE:       Ecological Applications 7:345-357

CONTRIBUTOR:  Douglas H Johnson (Douglas_H_Johnson@nbs.gov)
                   on Monday, September 15, 1997 at 10:35:51 (CDT)

COMMENTS:

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berthelsen, P. S., and L. M. Smith

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Nongame bird nesting on CRP lands in the Texas Southern High
              Plains

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 50(6) 672-675

CONTRIBUTOR:  Betty Euliss (betty_euliss@usgs.gov)
                   on 4:30 pm on Monday, January 5, 1998

COMMENTS:

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kantrud, H. A., R. R. Koford, D. H. Johnson, and M. D.
              Schwartz

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program: good for birds of many
              feathers

SOURCE:       North Dakota Outdoors August 1993:14-17

CONTRIBUTOR:  Betty Euliss (Betty_Euliss@usgs.gov)
                   on 3:54 pm on Tuesday, June 20, 2000


COMMENTS:

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Allen, A.W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contributions to avian
              habitat.

SOURCE:       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Aid Report, National
              Biological Survey,  National Ecology Research Center, Fort
              Collins, CO. 19 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Summary of CRP contribution to distribution and quality of
              habitat for game and non-game birds affiliated with agri-
              cultural ecosystems. Report concentrates largely on species
              endemic to grassland ecosystems. Presents discussion  of
              identification of CRP contracts furnishing greatest potential
              benefits, landscape planning, and management recommendations.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Angelstram, P.

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        Predation on ground-nesting birds' nests in relation to
              predator densities and habitat edge.

SOURCE:       Okios 47: 365-373.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Discussion of how predators utilize different habitats. As the
              size of habitat islands decrease influences from surrounding
              cover become increasingly important. Since relative amount of
              edge increases as patch size decreases the predation rate
              should be inversely related to the size of patch. Permanently
              high densities of generalist predators are often a consequence
              of human activities (agriculture).   Edges in more productive
              habitats will experience greater predation than edges in less
              productive habitats.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ball, I.J., R.J. Eng, and S.K. Ball

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Population density and productivity of ducks on large grass-
              land tracts in north-central Montana

SOURCE:       Wildl. Soc. Bull. 23(4):767-773.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Analysis of variation in duck productivity associated with
              block size and effects of the presence of red fox versus
              coyotes. Productivity of dabbling ducks on large grassland
              tracts with relatively low populations of predators was
              higher than recorded where habitat fragmentation and high
              populations of predators supported by alterations in habitat
              were more severe.

              Attempts to improve nest success at an inappropriately small
              scale may be counterproductive if hens and predators are
              attracted to same limited area.  Increasing surface water
              area where low rates of nest success prevail attracts pairs
              to areas where mortality exceeds recruitment. Due to foraging
              strategies and prey preferences productivity of dabbling
              ducks can be expected to be higher in large grassland tracts
              where coyotes are primary predator. More fragmented habitats
              where red fox is dominant predator can be expected to have
              lower waterfowl productivity.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Barker, J.R., G.A. Baumgarder, D.P. Turner, and J.J. Lee.

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Carbon dynamics of the Conservation and Wetland Reserve Programs.

SOURCE:       J. Soil and Water Conservation 51(4):340-346.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Data from Conservation and Wetland reserve programs analyzed
              to quantify carbon (C) dynamics of cropland converted to
              grassland or forest land. Cropland converted to forest land
              gained C at a rate  about 7 times greater than cropland
              converted to grassland. Maintaining existing CRP grassland
              will provide substantial C sequestration on a national scale
              due to large area enrolled in long-term set aside.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berner, A.H.

PUBL. YEAR:   1984

TITLE:        Federal land retirement program: a land management albatross.

SOURCE:       Trans. North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conf.
              49:118-130.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Acreage reduction portion of Soil Bank and Feed Grain Program
              did not require seeding of grass-legumes on retired acres.
              Annual programs have emphasized administrative flexibility in
              commodity control to the detriment of soil and wildlife
              conservation. Most acres in these programs are fallow or
              disked by the end of July to the determent of both game and
              non-game species. Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation
              Service (ASCS) regulations require most fields be planted
              late (>June 15)and covers destroyed by mowing, disking, or
              plowing before grain matures (usually mid July). Present land
              retirement programs are narrow in scope dealing exclusively
              with controlling production of domestic commodities. Policies
              tend to encourage conversion of non-cropland to cropland even
              if those lands are highly erodible. Uncertainties of program
              structure across years make planning difficult, therefor
              farmers tend to prepare all acres for planting exposing even
              retired acres to erosion.

              Recent annual land retirement programs (1961-1983) have
              aggravated soil erosion and wildlife habitat problems and
              encouraged unwise use of land. Long term retirement options,
              resulting in grass-legume stand virtually eliminate soil
              erosion and provide secure habitat for many species of
              wildlife associated with farmland landscapes.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Berner, A.H.

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Federal pheasants - impact of federal agricultural programs
              on pheasant habitat, 1934-1985.

SOURCE:       In Pheasants: Symptoms of wildlife problems on agricultural
              lands.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Federal agricultural programs designed to assist farmers
              through cropland diversion and deficiency payment programs
              have significantly impacted the amount and quality of
              pheasant habitat over the last 50 years. Pheasants have
              responded positively to multi-year cropland diversion
              programs but negatively to annual cropland set-aside
              programs that allow poor cover management and require
              periodic disturbance. Programs that require the annual set-
              aside of lands for commodity production such as the Feed
              Grain Program (FGP) and Wheat Production (WHP) result in
              habitat destruction. Although potentially beneficial to some
              species but early destruction of cover, prior to seed head
              development greatly reduced set aside value as safe nesting
              and brood-rearing cover. In Minnesota pheasant population
              data indicate that set aside lands have a pronounced nega-
              tive effect on pheasants. Beneficial or negative effects are
              dependent on if the cover is left through the nesting season
              and summer. Majority of fields are fallow or are lightly
              seeded to small grain in early June and destroyed by July 15.
              Nesting cover on set aside lands was absent, poor or fair on
              about 80% of lands and good to excellent on about 20%.
              Hunting cover and winter cover were about 4.4% fair, 7.4%
              good, and 2.8% excellent. Proper management of these lands
              could greatly benefit game and non-game populations.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Best, L. B., H. Campa, III, K.E. Kemp, R. J. Robel, M. R.
              Ryan, J. A. Savidge, H.P. Weeks, Jr. and S. R. Winterstein

PUBL. YEAR:   1997

TITLE:        Bird abundance and nesting in CRP fields and cropland in the
              midwest: a regional approach.

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 25(4):864-877

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Comparison of abundance and nesting success of avian species
              in CRP and rowcrop fields over 5 years (91-95) in 6 midwest
              states (IN, KS, MO, MI, NE, IA). Bird abundance 1.4 to 10.5
              times great in CRP than rowcrop. Nests of 33 bird species
              found in CRP with only 10 species in rowcrops, number of
              nests found 13.5 times greater in CRP. Nest success was 40%
              in CRP. Nest success in rowcrops similar to that of in CRP
              but total number of nest found in rowcrop was 7.4% of that
              in CRP.   Predation was greatest cause of nest failure. Long-
              term farm set-aside programs that establish perennial grass
              cover  provide many benefits for grassland birds including
              several species for which conservation is a great concern.
              Recommend further investigation of species specific habitat
              requirements in relation to planting, management and spatial
              configuration of CRP.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Best, L.B., R.C. Whitmore, and G.M. Booth.

PUBL. YEAR:   1990

TITLE:        Use of cornfields by birds during the breeding season: the
              importance of edge habitat.

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 123:84-99.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Elimination of woody vegetation from fencerows and other
              habitat adjacent to crop fields will affect assemblage of
              bird species found within fields. The amount of linear edge
              relative to field area has a major effect on field use by
              birds, larger fields are use proportionately less. The
              proportion of linear field edge decreases as field size
              increases has important implications on bird use of cropland
              because of trend in last decades to consolidate fields and
              increase size of cropping units. Bird abundance greater in
              wooded edges than in herbaceous edges. More bird species and
              about five times more birds used the perimeters of cornfields
              than the centers, demonstrating a significant edge effect.
              Continued land use practices that increase crop field size
              and eliminate woody vegetation from edge habitats will affect
              both richness and abundance of avifauna affiliated with
              agricultural ecosystems.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Boatman, N.D. and N.W. Sotherton.

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        The agronomic consequences and costs of managing field
              margins for game an wildlife conservation.

SOURCE:       Aspects of applied biology 17:47-56.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Removal of weeds, either through herbicides or mowing
              decreases insect density and diversity associated with cereal
              crops. Increased use of herbicide in recent decades has
              removed host plants of many insects and more recently the
              use of insecticides has caused direct mortality of other
              species of insects. Consequently there has been a reduction
              in the numbers and diversity of insect species which are the
              primary forage of early age class chicks of uplands species.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bock, C.E., V.A. Saab, T.D. Rich, and D.S. Dobkin.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Effects of livestock grazing on neotropical migratory land-
              birds in western North America.

SOURCE:       Pages 296-309 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status
              and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September
              12-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins, CO:
              U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
              Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Strongly encourage finding ways to make present CRP grasslands
              valuable to owners, possibly encouraging moderate grazing by
              livestock or controlled haying. Would be especially desirable
              if program could be coupled with creation of livestock
              exclosures in other areas such as National Grasslands.
              Substantially increase the amount of public rangeland from which
              all livestock grazing is excluded.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bogenschutz, T.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        An evaluation of corn and sorghum as a winter food source for
              ring-necked pheasants.

SOURCE:       M.S. Thesis. University of South Dakota, Bookings. 65 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Corn and sorghum furnish higher quality winter food for
              pheasants than do natural wild foods and soybeans. Natural
              foods are high in fiber and low in digestible energy.
              Soybeans contain trypsin, a digestive inhibitor that lowers
              the metabolizable energy content of the diet. Sorghum
              provides better winter cover due to vegetative structure.
              Best option in most cases would be to include both corn and
              sorghum in food plots. If winter cover is not limiting corn
              is a better option. If little to no winter is nearby food
              plots dominated by sorghum are preferred.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bohning-Gaese, K, M.L. Taper, and J.H. Brown

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Are declines in North American insectivorous songbirds due to
              cause on the breeding range?

SOURCE:       Conservation Biology 7(1):76-86.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Predation on breeding grounds in North America has played a
              larger role in decline of migratory songbirds than deforest-
              ation on wintering grounds in topics. Predation pressure had
              a major impact on population trends and terrestrial mammals
              were perhaps the most important predators. Vulnerability
              traits of low and open nests and high parasitism by cowbirds
              had additive effects. Suggest that even a small effects of
              cowbird parasitism could be enough to push a songbird
              population experiencing high predation rate to a negative
              replacement rate and population decline.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bolen, E.G., L.M. Smith, and H.L. Schramm Jr.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Playa lakes: prairie wetlands of the southern high plains

SOURCE:       Bioscience 39(9):615-623.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     When inundated playas form shallow lakes and wetlands that
              significantly increase plant and animal diversity in an
              intensively cultivated landscape.  With rare exceptions each
              playa and it's watershed is a closed system. Avifauna
              dominates the vertebrate animal life in playas. Lagomorphs
              reach high densities in playa habitat. Playas developed for
              agriculture have lower insect production than do unmodified
              basins do to reduction in fluctuation of water level. The
              value of playas as habitat lies in the diversity of vegetation
              and associated fauna. Playas receiving irrigation runoff had
              increased interspersion of vegetation and open water resulting
              in higher habitat quality. Cultivation of playas decreases
              their value as wildlife habitat. Reduction of vegetation
              surrounding lakes can influence water quality. Establishment
              of pits reduces abundance and diversity of vegetation that
              require alternating wet and dry periods. Majority of phyto-
              plankton associated with aquatic macrophytes important for
              production of macroinvertebrates and forage for wintering
              waterfowl. Pits diminish value of lakes as waterfowl habitat
              which often prefer densely vegetated sites. Losses of
              vegetation in littoral zone and of island of vegetation
              reduce nesting habitat and waterfowl production. Loss of
              food production both invertebrates important to breeding,
              wintering waterfowl and shorebirds and seed production.
              Loss of tall emergent and woody vegetation reduces
              roosting and nesting habitat for other birds. Conversely,
              modified lakes hold water during dry seasons and may support
              greater plant biomass and diversity. Modified playas may
              provide high quality habitat particularly during periods of
              drought. However, wildlife benefits remain contingent on the
              extent of the modification and on the temporal aspects of
              water-level fluctuations.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bollinger, E.K. and T.A. Gavin.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Eastern bobolink populations: ecology and conservation in an
              agricultural landscape.

SOURCE:       Pgs 497-506 in J.M. Hagen III, and D.W. Johnston, eds. Ecology
              and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds. Smithsonian
              Inst. Press. Washington DC 609 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Bobolink abundance was greatest in old hayfields (<8 yr).
              Abundance increased exponentially with hayfield size.
              Conservation practices designed for grassland birds should
              concentrate on creating or maintain large habitat patch that
              resemble old hayfields. Recommendations: create or maintain
              patches of relatively sparse grass-dominated cover with some
              broadleaf forbs. Fewer, larger patches tend to contain more
              breeding bobolinks than numerous small ones. May be because
              nest predation and parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds tends
              to be higher in small patches of grassland. Manage to prevent
              encroachment of woody vegetation. These practices should help
              populations of declining grassland species as well. Eastern
              meadow lark, upland sandpipers, Henslow's sparrow, and
              grasshopper sparrow, were all positively correlated with
              bobolink densities.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Boutin, C. K.E. Freemark, and D.A, Kirk.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Farmland birds in southern Ontario: field use, activity
              patterns and vulnerability to pesticide use.

SOURCE:       Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 72(239-254).

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Three factors are major determinants of bird distribution
              in agricultural land, type of crops grown, configuration and
              physical structure of non-crop habitat, and frequency and
              extent of agricultural practices such as tillage, pesticide
              application and harvest. The lack of data on avian use of
              cropland in different agricultural landscapes is a major
              obstacle in assessing the effects of agriculture in many
              areas of North America.

              Most species surveyed used edge habitat significantly more
              than expected. More arthropods found in field edges than in
              interiors. Many field margins or herbaceous borders are
              either sprayed directly for control of pests or are
              subjected to spray drift. Impacts of spraying on edges has
              diminished diversity of plants and insects important for
              young birds. Especially critical in agricultural landscapes
              already depauperate in vegetative diversity.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Bowen, B.E. and A.D. Kruse.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Effects of grazing on nesting by upland sandpipers in south
              central North Dakota.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage. 57(2):291-301.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Results suggest that grazing during the late spring an early
              summer has a detrimental effect on reproduction, especially,
              nest density of upland sandpipers in the northern great
              plains. Grazing should be delayed until at least mid to late
              June. Traditional season-long grazing June - October should be
              avoided. Autumn grazing at high stocking rates may be an
              acceptable alternative. In some cases vegetation may be too
              tall. In central Great Plains sandpipers nested in grazed
              fields rather than in ungrazed fields where vegetation was
              too tall.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Brennan, L.A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        How can we reverse the northern bobwhite population decline.

SOURCE:       Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19(4):544-555.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Bobwhite populations have declined at an alarming rate in
              the past 3 decades. Every population index indicates
              significant downward trends in 77% of the states within
              geographic range of species. Most precipitous declines have
              occurred in the southern region of the US.  Clean farming
              practiced and forest management   systems that maximize basal
              area are most likely causes. Increasing size of farms have
              eliminated weedy fence rows and millions of acres of small
              fields. Marginal farmlands in SE have been converted to pine
              plantations. Pesticides have been implicated as a possible
              bobwhite mortality factor. Indirect effects of pesticides on
              quail are poorly understood. Agricultural chemicals indirectly
              affect game population by suppressing arthropod populations
              that are key food resources for broods. Weeds provide food and
              feeding substrates that are essential for growth and
              development of chicks.

              CRP: Potential for CRP to enhance habitat is far from being
              realized. Required mowing during peak nesting season is a
              major problem. Conversion of cropland to pine plantations
              also major problem. Periodic disturbance of CRP is essential
              to maintain annuals and forage production.  Strip-disking a
              good option.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Brennan, L.A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Future directions for bobwhite quail and wildlife research in
              the southeastern United States.

SOURCE:       Proceedings of the 1993 Tall Timbers Game Bird Seminar. Tall
              Timbers Research Station. Tallahassee,  FL.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Increase in arthropod abundance in response to burning and
              strip-disking. Herbicides disrupt the food chain and limit
              populations. Widespread application of herbicides suppresses
              weed population so well that sufficient insect populations
              are not available for hens and chicks. Modification of
              herbicide application, e.g., Conservation Headlands
              substantially increased production of partridge in GB.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Brennan, L.A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Strategic plan for quail management and research in the
              United States: Introduction and background.

SOURCE:       Pgs. 160-169 in Quail III: National Quail Symposium. Kansas
              Department of Wildl. and Parks.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Habitat management by the private sector is apparently having
              little broad-scale impact on bobwhite populations. Need
              leadership from professionals with creative vision for solving
              problems caused by changing land use patterns. Large and
              growing interest in quail. Detrimental effects of Federal
              Agricultural Policies: annual spring burning, summer mowing,
              cool-season grasses (e.g., tall fescue and brome), extensive
              stands of monoculture pine and lack of flexibility in
              management are limiting value of CRP. Paper provides detailed
              recommendation for modification in Federal agricultural
              policies to improve conditions for quail.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Burger, L.D., L.W. Burger, and J. Faaborg.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Effects of prairie fragmentation on predation on artificial
              nests.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage. 58(2):249-254.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Artificial nests in smaller prairies smaller depredated more
              than those in larger prairies 37 vs 13.9%. Although highest
              predation rates were observed in smallest prairie size classes
              and prairie size had an effect on predation, proximity to
              woody cover was a more important factor affecting predation
              rates on artificial nests. Smallest prairies may have had
              higher predation rates due to higher proportion of area near
              woody cover. The potential effects of prairie size and woody
              vegetation on success of ground-nesting birds should be
              considered in decisions of acquisition and management of
              prairie habitats.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cable, T.T.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Windbreaks, wildlife, and hunters.

SOURCE:       Pgs. 35-55 in J.E. Rodiek and E.G. Bolen, eds. Wildlife and
              habitats in managed landscapes. Island Press. Washington DC.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Even though their value is widely recognized windbreaks
              continue to be lost due to removal for farming and deterior-
              ation of condition and quality. Loss of hedgerows in five
              midwestern states being lost at a rate of 0.6 to 3.1%/yr.
              Degree of importance of windbreaks varies according to needs
              of specific wildlife species. Important to resident species
              as well as migrants. Less than 3% of great plains is
              forested. Although woodland habitats are scarce, woodland
              birds account for 46% of avifauna in western Kansas.
              Functions of windbreaks: reproductive, escape, protective
              cover, particularly important during severe winter weather.
              Shelterbelt presence may result in higher rates of predation
              on ground nesting birds in vicinity wooded cover. Shelterbelts
              provide additional sources of food both seed and insects.
              Number of  species and individuals that were completely or
              partially insectivorous increased as the size of the windbreak
              increased. Windbreaks serve as wooded islands in  agricultural
              landscape that can serve as travel corridors and dispersal
              habitat between riparian habitats and other wooded covers.
              Value of shelterbelts to wildlife typically a function of
              size, number of rows, plant diversity, height. Location,
              better for wildlife if located in or adjacent to grain fields
              rather than grazed pasture.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Carmichael, D.B., Jr.

PUBL. YEAR:   1997

TITLE:        The Conservation Reserve Program and wildlife habitat in the
              southeastern United States.

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 25(4):773-775.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Discussion on lack of significant wildlife benefits of CRP in
              southeastern states compared to that realized in midwest and
              great plains. Discussion of limitations of pine plantations and
              tall fescue as CRP covers in souther states.  Pine plantations
              ultimately represent loss of early successional and agri-
              cultural habitats. Fescue forms dense sod that is impenetrable
              by smaller animals. Both practices have provided only limited
              benefits to wildlife. Provides summary of recommendations to
              improve new CRP and need for FSA and wildlife professionals
              to commit to improvement in regional conservation policies.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Carroll, C.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        The interface between natural areas and agroecosystems.

SOURCE:       Pages 365-383 in C.R. Carroll, J.H. Vandermeer, and P.
              Rosset eds. Agroecology. McGraw-Hill. New York.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Farming systems generate weedy phenotypes including plants
              animals and pathogens that may become invaders of natural
              areas. Furthermore crops may become important food sources
              for certain species thereby distorting their impact on other
              populations of wildlife. For example, crows, jays, racoons
              whose enhanced populations seriously threaten nesting bird
              populations. Agricultural landscapes may distort the natural
              history of embedded natural areas.

              Expansion of agriculture disrupts natural areas in three ways.
              Natural ecosystems become fragmented. Fragmentation increases
              boundary phenomena resulting in exacerbation of edge impacts.
              Loss of natural areas generally means that remaining patches
              are increasingly isolated, consequently  re-colonization is
              difficult increasing likelihood of local extinctions. Most of
              these impacts are cumulative and proceed as a consequence of
              many independent decisions hat are made without regard to
              possible combined effects. Little attention given to analysis
              of long term and broad scale effects.

              In absence of active ecological management most small natural
              areas begin to degrade and become less representative of the
              original ecosystem.  Small sites typically require more
              management effort per unit area than is required for large
              areas. Long term security of natural areas in agricultural
              landscape will strongly depend on the way that the land
              surrounding the natural area is used. Must be economically
              sustainable, socially equitable, and explicitly linked with
              management objectives in the embedded natural area.

              Factors that should be addressed in agricultural buffer zones
              around natural areas: Design of agricultural areas should be
              explicitly related to the ecological management goals of the
              natural area. Should minimize activities and processes that
              degrade the habitat such as invasion by weeds and fire. Buffer
              zone activities should be able to be modified to meet new
              contingencies. Programs should be flexible so that change can
              be made without drastically disrupting local economy. Buffer
              should not be sensitive to rapid change in market prices,
              rising production costs, decreasing returns, nor should it
              rely on intensive use of agrochemicals fire or other methods
              that may strongly impact nearby natural areas.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Clark, R.G. and T.D. Nudds.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Habitat patch size and duck nesting success: the crucial
              experiments have not been performed.

SOURCE:       Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19(4): 534-543.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Authors argue that there is conflicting evidence concerning
              relations between patch size and nest success of upland
              nesting birds. Some studies show that nest success increases
              with greater area and lower density of nests while others
              indicate that there is no positive relationship between area
              and success. Argue that more information about relations
              between patch size and composition of managed habitats and duck
              nesting success is needed. Key questions include: what kind of
              cover needs to be planted and how much; are ducks doing better
              in managed patches than in unmanaged patches, what is the
              standard of comparison (e.g, nest success, duckling survival);
              are programs cost effective? Their review of literature does
              not clearly support or refute the hypothesis that duck nesting
              success should be greater in larger patches. Questions the
              rational of establishing relatively small (<300 ha) areas of
              cover. Instead it might be better to redirect effort and
              limited funds to other programs, for instance, to management
              alternatives which could direct changes in agricultural policy.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Clark, W.R., R.A. Schmitz, and T.R. Bogenschutz.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Site selection and nest success of ring-necked pheasants as
              a function of location in Iowa landscapes.

SOURCE:       J. Wildlife Management 63(3):976-989.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Managers should strive to provide undisturbed grassland in
              blocks of >15 ha (40 ac)for nesting pheasants. Success was
              highest in fields >160 ac. Cover in several large blocks is
              better than one large block. Both probability of nest-site
              selection and success influenced by configuration of habitat
              within 1 home range radius of nest site. Specific vegetation
              type at nest location was not predictive of selection or
              success.Biologists must understand how landscape configuration
              is influenced by agricultural policy if managers are
              ultimately to influence wildlife populations.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Claassen, R., L. Hansen, M. Peters, V. Breneman, M. Weinberg,
              A. Cattaneao, P. Feather, D. Gadsby, D. Hellerstein, J.
              Hopkins, P. Johnston, M. Morehart, and M. Smith.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Agri-environmental policy at the crossroads: guideposts on
              a changing landscape.

SOURCE:       Agricultural Economic Report Number 94. USDA, Economic
              Research Service. Washington, D.C. 66 pp

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Agricultural policies implemented over the last 20 years have
              played an important role in reduction of soil erosion,
              protection and restoration of wetlands and crating wildlife
              habitat. Emerging agri-environmental issues , evolution of
              farm income policies and limits imposed by trade agreements
              may point toward reformulation of agri-environmental policies.
              Report identifies types of policy tools available and design
              features that have enhance effectiveness of current programs.
              Agri-environmental payments are analyzed in depth as a
              potentially important tool for future policies.

              Agri-environmental payments that pay producers who achieve
              good environmental performance or who use environmentally
              sound practice have bee proposed but have been the subject
              of only limited formal analysis. Such payments bay be useful
              in addressing environmental issues and boosting farm income.
              In a multi-objective policy there is considerable risk of
              conflict among potential objectives. Consistency between
              income support and environmental objectives has enhanced
              through compliance mechanisms. Continued coordination among
              all farm programs is needed to minimize contradictory or
              duplicative efforts.

              Performance base payments may be advantageous because only
              environmentally relevant actions are subsidized and producers
              have flexibility to select low-cost alternatives. One-size-
              fits-all solutions are unlikely to be successful with agri-
              environmental problems. Performance based payments will focus
              activity on the practices that are effective in a given
              resource setting, reduce costs by allowing selection of least
              cost alternatives. These methods bay involve high cost of
              planning and enforcement because farm or fields specific plans
              must be devised.

              Incentives to expand crop production can undermine agri-
              environmental program performance. Payments for good
              performance or practices can encourage expansion of crop
              production onto previously uncropped land. In the absence of a
              sodbuster-type provision this problem can be severe.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cline, G.A.

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Habitat relationships of bobwhite quail and cottontail
              rabbits on agricultural lands in Halifax county, Virginia.

SOURCE:       MS Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
              University. Blacksburg. 99pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Evaluation of a Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) model. Wooded
              fallow fields, length of pasture/fallow, forest/forest edge,
              and total number of all edges present were positively related
              to quail presence. Management recommendations maximize the
              number of different edges and number of fallow fields in early
              successional stages. Cultivation of field borders, corners,
              waterways and other idle areas should be discouraged. A large
              number of small fields, each with a fallow or brushy border, is
              better than same acreage encompassed in only a few fields.
              Concluded that model can correctly predict which habitats are
              preferred by bobwhite.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cowardin, L.M., D.S. Gilmer, and C.W. Shaiffer.

PUBL. YEAR:   1985

TITLE:        Mallards  and agricultural programs.

SOURCE:       Trans. North American Wildlife and. Natural Resource
              Conferece 49:132-140.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Declining quality of wildlife habitat has not been considered a
              high priority problem by ASCS committees charged with allocating
              Agricultural Conservation Program dollars. Prior to the farm bill
              biologists from 12 of 14 midwestern states documented declines
              in habitat quality   due primarily to changing land use and
              agricultural practices. Species population data revealed 91%
              decrease in pheasant, 72% decline in cottontail, and 83% decline
              in bobwhite. Large increase in acreage of row crops at cost of
              area in quality nesting cover, small grains, pasture, and non-
              farmed cover types. Loss of edge, old farmsteads wetlands and
              idle areas. Increased farm and field size. Major shift from
              diversified farms to simplistic agricultural landscapes.
              Provides summary of weak points of agricultural programs
              (e.g., Payment in Kind) and basic wildlife recommendations for
              1985 Farm Bill.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Cox, R.R., Jr., D.H. Johnson. M.A. Johnson, R.E. Kirby, J.W.
              Nelson, and R.E. Reynolds.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Waterfowl research priorities in the northern Great Plains.

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(3):558-564.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Waterfowl Working Group identified the following as high
              priority issues for future research in Northern Great Plains:
              Determine effects of landscape factors on demographic and
              recruitment of ducks in Prairie Pothole region. Studies needed
              that quantitatively assess ow landscape characteristics
              influence breeding pair density, spring summer survival, and
              recruitment rates.

              Develop and improve estimates of important parameters use in
              models for management and planning. Refinement in variables
              that describe habitat characteristics (preference for various
              cover types and corresponding nest success rates) needed for
              species other than the mallard.

              Evaluate waterfowl management activities at regional scales.
              Greater attention to multiple or large-area application of
              management treatments needed to correspond to large scale
              management plans (e.g., Prairie Habitat Joint Venture, North
              American Waterfowl Management Program) needed.

              Direct studies of species of concern. Some species have shown
              little response to increased presence of wetlands in recent
              years (e.g., pintail, lesser scaup). Studies to identify
              factors limiting populations of these species are needed.

              Evaluation of applicability of bird-conservation area concept
              to waterfowl. Assumption  that core areas of excellent habitat
              in landscapes with little hostile habitat will maintain viable
              populations of breeding birds as it applies to waterfowl needs
              to be evaluated. Need to identify population source and sink
              habitats and how they may be configured or manipulated to
              benefits ducks.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Curtis, J., T. Profeta, and L. Mott.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        After silent spring: the unsolved problems of pesticide use
              in the United States.

SOURCE:       Natural Resources Defense Council. New York, NY. 56 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     In 1991 2.2 billion pounds of pesticides were applied in the
              US - 8 pounds for every man, woman and child in the country.
              Seventy-one active ingredients in pesticides that have been
              found to cause cancer in animals or humans are used on food
              crops. EPA estimates that 10% of public water supply wells
              contain pesticides, 440,000 rural private water wells contain
              pesticides. At a minimum 1.3 million people drinking water
              contaminated with one or more pesticides.

              Agriculture is generally considered the largest source of
              surface water pollution in the US and pesticides are one of
              the principle contaminants. Recent USGS study of Mississippi
              river basin showed that carcinogenic herbicide atrazine was
              detected in 100% of samples and exceeded the federal drinking
              water standard in 27% of samples. Atrazine levels 3x the legal
              limit in Platte river.  Herbicides are used on corn and
              soybeans on 95% of farms.In 1991 amount of active ingredients
              applied to farmland was 2.7 lb/ac. 25,000 chemical products on
              market today containing approximately 750 active ingredients.

              Groundwater source of drinking water for 97% of rural
              resident and more than 50% of total US population. EPA (1988)
              documented 74 different pesticide in groundwater of 32 states.

              Since 1962 number of resistant insects and mites has risen
              from 137 to 447. Additionally over 100 species of plant
              pathogens and 48 species of weeds have developed pesticide
              resistance.

              Pesticide use can be reduced from 25 to 80 % on nine major US
              crops by using currently available practices including
              Integrated Pest Management, biological control and crop
              rotations, cover crops, biological control, ridge-till.

              In 1990 38% of US food samples contained pesticides. An
              underestimation because the five most commonly used laboratory
              tests can detect only half of pesticides used on foods. At
              least 300 different pesticides are used on food as many as 71
              are known carcinogens. Others are neurotoxic and reproductively
              toxic causing premature birth and low birth weight. Of 426
              pesticides FDA has identified as likely to leave residues in
              food routine methods can only detect 203. Children getting
              larger doses of pesticides because their food intake is larger
              percentage of body weight. Average toddler drinks 31 times
              more apple juice as percentage of body weight than mother.

              Recent (1992) NOAA report documents fish kills, and decreased
              mean density and diversity of species due to runoff of 35
              commonly used agricultural pesticides into coastal waters.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Danielson, B.J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Habitat selection, interspecific interactions and landscape
              composition.

SOURCE:       Evolutionary Ecology 6(5):399-411.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Author describes three types of habitat 1) source:
              reproduction exceeds mortality, 2) sink limited reproduction
              but will not, on average, compensate for mortality, 3)
              unusable, comprises the matrix of all habitats that are never
              exploited by the species. Patches of source and sink habitat
              are embedded in usable habitat. Preserving population and
              community characteristics that have evolved under natural
              conditions by restoring landscapes to natural state is rarely
              possible. May be able to compensate for fragmentation where
              unusable habitats have been increased by clustering patches
              of usable habitat and connecting the patches with dispersal
              corridors. Spatial dimensions of landscape must be defined
              by the ecology of the species in question.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Davis, C.A., T.Z. Riley, R.A. Smith, H.R. Suminski and M.D.
              Wisdom.

PUBL. YEAR:   1979

TITLE:        Habitat evaluation of lesser prairie chickens in eastern
              Chaves county, New Mexico.

SOURCE:       Dept. Fish. Wildl. Sci., New Mexico Agricultural Experiment
              Station. 141 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Recommended 64 ha exclosures to insure sufficient habitat
              for winter cover and nesting.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Dillaha, T.A. III, J.H. Sherrard, and D. Lee.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Long-term effectiveness of vegetative filter strips.

SOURCE:       Water, Environment and Technology. pp. 418-421.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Summary of filterstip effectiveness. Taller weeds shaded
              desirable grasses and reduced effectiveness. Mowing,
              herbicides and reseeding or combinations of the three could
              improve effectiveness. Cattle decrease quality and
              effectiveness of filter strips.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Dion, N., K.A. Hobson, and S. Lariviere.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Interactive effects of vegetation and predators on success
              of natural and simulated nests of grassland songbirds.

SOURCE:       The Condor 102:629-634.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     The type of predator or predator community is critical in
              determining the influence of cover on nest fate. Successful
              natural nests had greater forb and lesser grass cover than
              unsuccessful nests. High predator diversity may reduce the
              chance of safe nest sites and suggests that the behavior of
              low-level predators may change when top-level predators are
              removed. Use of simulated nest for assessing effects of
              vegetation requires caution as vegetative characteristics
              of simulated nests may not reflect those of natural ones.
              Parental activity may attract some predators. Vegetation
              differences perceived by birds and predators may have been
              undetected in sampling. Most predators depredated nests with
              different vegetation characteristics after medium sized
              carnivores were removed. Nest success of grassland songbirds
              did not improve significantly following removal of duck nest
              predators (Dion et al 1999). Nature and diversity of the
              local predator community can interact with vegetative cover
              at nests and these two factors are closely linked.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Doak, D.F., P.C. Marino, and P.M. Kareiva.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Spatial scale mediates the influence of habitat fragmentation
              on dispersal success: implications for conservation.

SOURCE:       Theoretical Population Biology 41(3):315-336.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Heterogeneity has different and conflicting effects on animal
              movement at different scales. Explicit consideration of scale
              is essential in discussion of habitat fragmentation and of
              optimal conservation strategy. Major impact of fragmentation
              is disruption of animal dispersal. Dependent upon two scales;
              the relative size of the habitat fragments and the spatial
              scale at which these fragments are arranged. When fragmentation
              is unavoidable, dispersal mortality may be minimized by
              clustering habitat fragments. The spatial scale of clustering
              must be defined. Clustering seems to have a positive influence
              on dispersal success. Scale effects risks of mortality,
              degrees of connectedness or independence among patches an the
              influence of environmental catastrophes.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Doering, O.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Federal policies and incentives or disincentives to eco-
              logically sustainable agricultural systems.

SOURCE:       Pages 21-36 in R.K. Olson, editor. Integrating sustainable
              agricultural, ecology and environmental policy.  Haworth Press,
              New York.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Sustainable agriculture involves less use of off-farm inputs
              while introducing new management and cropping systems that
              better utilize on-farm resources. Until recently federal farm
              policies have not been concerned with environmental issues but
              have reflected goals of increased farm income and low cost
              food for the nation.  Federal policies had other goals such as
              improving rural conditions, increasing rural income, improving
              farming operations, and conserving natural resources as part
              of the base of agricultural productivity. At times policies
              have conflicted. Future policies must be concerned with the
              environmental impact of agriculture.

              Five year average input prices amount of increase (1950-1985):
              land +710%, pesticides +45%, fertilizer +88%, labor +387%,
              +fuel 372%, machinery +921 %. Increase in quantities of farm
              inputs 1950-1987: fertilizers and pesticides +426%, lb/ac
              nitrogen +950%, phosphate +136%, labor -71%.

              Government commodity programs in the past have rewarded
              farmers for producing the primary commercial food and feed
              grain crops, encouraged farmer towards monocultures. Since
              world war II fertilizers  and pesticides have become
              comparatively cheaper compared to labor fuel machinery
              encouraging greater use.

              The CRP has reduced environmental problems but the program
              does not address sustainability or environmental concerns
              relative to those acres remaining in production and the
              long-term use of CRP acres. What is required is a much
              more strongly held view by the general public that they
              have interest in long-term decisions about land use and
              resources.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ervin, D.E.

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        Constraints to practicing soil conservation: land tenure
              relationships

SOURCE:       Pages 95-107 in S.B. Lovejoy and T.L. Napier. Conserving
              soil: insights from socioeconomic research. Soil Conservation
              Society of America. Ankeny, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Farmland tenancy in U.S. experienced three changes during
              the 1970's: percentage of total farmland owned by non-operator
              landlords rose, use of fixed-cash rental contracts increased,
              and landlords contributed a lesser share of total farm
              production and capital expenditure. These events imply
              increased separation of ownership from management of farmland.
              The tenants only incentive is to invest in soil erosion control
              if the productivity benefits or input cost saving outweigh
              erosion control expenses during the time he rents the land.
              Landlords may under-invest in soil erosion control because
              benefits will be captured by tenant who do not share in the
              costs. Unless tenant operators expect to rent land for an
              extended period of time or intend to purchase the land a
              program oriented to renter will miss the long-term incentives
              that owners have.  Attempts to persuade landowners and tenants
              that conservation is a good thing without sound data may
              succeed in short run but approach will ultimately fail when
              the real benefits and costs are realized. 40% of US farmland
              is leased.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Fawcett, R.S.

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        Weed control strategies under different tillage regimes.

SOURCE:       Pg. 12 in R.B. Dahlgren, compiler, Proceeding of Midwest
              Agricultural Interfaces with Fish and Wildlife Resources
              Workshop. Iowa Cooperative Research Unit. Ames.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Use of selective herbicides has allowed reduction in the
              amount of tillage performed by farmers resulting in improved
              weed control. Increased crop yields but losses of habitat and
              forage. Herbicides have little direct effect on wildlife.
              About 97% of all corn and soybeans in Iowa are treated with
              herbicides.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Frawley, B.J.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        The dynamics of nongame bird breeding ecology in Iowa alfalfa
              fields.

SOURCE:       Ms thesis. Iowa State University, Ames. 94 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Eight non-game bird species (dickcissle, red winged blackbird,
              western meadowlark, common yellow throats, sedge wrens,
              grasshopper sparrow and vesper sparrow) established
              territories in alfalfa fields before mowing.  Mowing reduced
              numbers and density. Only dickcissles, grasshopper sparrow,
              w. meadowlarks and vesper sparrows attempted to nest in second
              growth alfalfa fields. Common yellowthroats selected the
              tallest densest vegetation with relatively high coverage of
              grass, grass hopper sparrows used areas of sparse vegetation.
              Western meadowlark abundance seemed unrelated to vegetation
              changes.

              Needs of ground nesting birds difficult to integrate with
              forage management practices. Highest yields are obtained by
              harvesting alfalfa with maximum quality is obtained by harvest
              in early June in Iowa. Typically harvested two more times at 5
              1/2 week intervals. Forage production on private lands will
              continue to intensify with greater production, new cultivars
              and earlier mowing. New species of cultivars have permitted
              earlier mowing and still maintain yields.  CRP provides some
              compensation for losses of habitat in alfalfa. Mowing of CRP
              in nesting season negates potential benefits of CRP.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Freemark, K.

PUBL. YEAR:   1988

TITLE:        Agricultural disturbance, wildlife and landscape management.

SOURCE:       Pgs 77-84 in M.R. Moss ed. Landscape ecology and management.
              Canadian Soc. for Landscape Ecology and Management Symposium,
              Univ. Guelph. Ontario.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Investigation of bird species richness and reproduction in
              forested habitats impacted by agricultural production.
              Wildlife in agricultural landscapes are subject to a number
              of disturbances such as habitat fragmentation and pesticide
              use which have impact on their spatial and temporal
              distribution. Understanding relations between landscape
              structure, disturbance  and distribution of wildlife is needed
              to develop better management strategies to minimize potential
              impact and to enhance the persistence of wildlife community.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Freemark, K.E., J.R. Probst, J.B. Dunning, and S.J. Heji.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Adding a landscape ecology perspective to conservation and
              management planning.

SOURCE:       Pgs 346-352 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status and
              management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September
              21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins,
              CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
              Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Populations within individual habitat patches can decline,
              become extinct, and become reestablished by dispersal of
              individuals from other patches. The set of local populations
              which interact through dispersal is a meta-population. Within
              a landscape the probability of local extinction within a
              habitat patch is inversely related to size of the patch
              population which is proportional to the size and habitat
              quality within the patch. Probability of re-colonization is
              proportional to proximity and connectedness to similar habitat
              patches and permeability of the intervening matrix. Effective
              conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds may require
              preservation of suitable but intermittently unoccupied habitat.
              Management plans should protect the diversity of habitats and
              landscapes used, not just where the species is most common.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gard. N.W., M.J. Hooper, and R.S. Bennett.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Effects of pesticides an contaminants on neotropical birds.

SOURCE:       Pages 013-413  in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status
              and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September
              21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins,
              CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
              Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Provides summary of potential effects of chemicals on
              migratory birds. More is unknown than is known and problems
              or affects of chemical applications and pollution remain
              difficult to assess. Recommends standardization of monitoring
              programs and selection of specific species as indicators.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gatti.

PUBL. YEAR:

TITLE:        Nest cover for pheasants and ducks.

SOURCE:       Final Report, Study No. 127. Project W-141-R. Wisconsin
              Department Natural Resources. Madison. 51 pp

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Nest success not consistently related to field size, shape,
              distance to water, cover height density, plant diversity, or
              cover type. Nest success was lower for nests closest to cover
              edges. Duck nest density negatively related to plant diversity
              and positively related to height density of residual cover.
              Pheasant use was higher in fields with lower diversity of
              plant species, greater structural diversity, more irregular
              in shape and further from water. Widespread establishment of
              switchgrass nest cover and management of existing duck nest
              cover towards monotypic stands of switchgrass not justified
              based on costs, use or nest success. Recommend management for
              diversity of cover types.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gillespie, G.W. and F.H. Buttel.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Understanding farm operator opposition to government
              regulation of agricultural chemicals and pharmaceuticals:
              the role of social class, objective interests, and ideology.

SOURCE:       American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. 4(1):12-21.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Based on 1982 survey of farmers in New York. Farmer opposition
              to government regulation of agricultural chemicals is
              primarily due to farmer ideology and has little relationship
              with whether farmers actually use the chemicals. Farmer
              activity increasingly affected by forces external to
              agriculture including increased role of manufactured inputs
              into agricultural production. Farmers tend to have
              conservative socio-political orientation. Farmers are
              concerned about the externalities of agricultural chemical
              use, primarily due to health and safety rather than concern
              about environmental quality. General strong tendency for
              farmers to oppose regulation. Opposition to government
              regulation of agrochemicals tends to be associated with
              operating large farms, with full time farming and denial of
              possible side effects of chemicals.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Gliessman, S.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1984

TITLE:        An agroecological approach to sustainable agriculture.

SOURCE:       Pages 160-171 in  W. Jackson, W. Berry and B. Coleman,
              editors. Meeting the Expectations of the Land: Essays in
              sustainable agriculture and stewardship.  North Point Press,
              San Francisco.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     An agroecological approach in research addresses the questions
              of how can agriculture be more in balance with the natural
              environment and depend less on costly inputs. Must establish a
              framework for long-term sustainability of agricultural systems.
              Agricultural ecology, is based on premise that the short-term,
              mainly economic focus, of food production must be redirected
              toward long-term management systems base on cycles and
              interactions found in natural systems. As agriculture has
              become increasingly viewed as a production system linked
              closely with economics with the consequence of loss of the
              strong ecological foundation upon which agriculture originally
              developed.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Granfors, D.A., K.E. Church, L.M. Smith.

PUBL. YEAR:

TITLE:        Eastern meadowlark nesting in rangelands and Conservation
              Reserve Program fields in Kansas.

SOURCE:       J. Field Ornithology 67(2):222-235.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Comparison of microhabitat, nest-site selection and nest
              success on Kansas rangelands and CRP. Daily nest survival
              rates and numbers fledged per female did not differ
              significantly between land use types. Mowing CRP fields was
              source of nest failure and induced adults to abandon some
              fields. CRP had significantly higher values for depth and
              density of litter cover, taller herbaceous canopy, less
              herbaceous cover and more standing dead cover than rangelands.
              CRP has increased the diversity of available nesting habitats.
              Meadowlarks selected sites with greater litter cover, higher
              proportion of grass, more uncompacted litter, and more
              structural homogeneity that on random plots. Delay of mowing
              and burning recommended to enhance and maintain habitat
              suitability in CRP fields.

              Management recommendations: mowing caused undesirable build
              up of litter and, depending on time of year, may cause
              abandonment of fields and direct failure of nest. Partial
              mowing of fields recommended over complete mowing of field.
              Spot mowing after July 15 recommended. Disadvantage of
              grazing is increased probability of trampling and attracting
              cowbirds. Prescribed burning can reduce litter and increase
              the proportion and vigor of native grasses while decreasing
              percentage of cool-season grasses and forbs. Recommend spring
              burning every 3-4 years. May cause temporary early-season loss
              in habitat quality but increased grass cover and reduction of
              litter should enhance quality in later season and subsequent
              years.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Graul, W.D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1980

TITLE:        Grassland management practices and bird communities.

SOURCE:       Pgs. 38-47 in Management of western forests and grasslands
              for nongame birds. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rept
              INT-86. Intermountain For. Range Expt. Stn., Ogden UT.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Grasslands contain relatively few bird species. However,
              there are many subtypes of grass lands that occur in a mosaic
              and different species are restricted to different subtypes.
              Consequently, a general habitat category can contain
              considerably more species. Grassland bird communities tend
              to be numerically dominated by one or two abundant, widespread
              species. Grassland types contain species with extremely
              restricted habitat characteristics. Viable approach to
              grassland management is to consider the habitat requirements
              of avian species with most restrictive needs and maintain
              enough suitable habitat to support substantial numbers of
              the species. Assumed that species with broader habitat
              requirements will find suitable habitat.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Helmers, D.L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Shorebird management manual.

SOURCE:       Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, Manomet, MA.
              58 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Disappearance or degradation of spring stopover habitats
              (many associated with agricultural ecosystems) may be
              detrimental to entire populations. Altered wetlands have been
              changed by impoundment or alteration in watersheds. Associated
              uplands used by nesting shorebirds are dominated by short,
              sparse vegetation. Twelve shorebird species breed within the
              great plains geographic region. Nest site range from bare sand
              or gravel substrates associated with fresh, alkaline, or saline
              wetlands. A mosaic of wetland types from ephemeral to
              semipermanent interspersed with short to moderate height
              grassland provide reproductive and brood rearing habitat for
              many of the shorebirds utilizing the great plains.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Henry, J.J.

PUBL. YEAR:   Ring-necked pheasant response to habitat improvements.

TITLE:        1986

SOURCE:       Ohio Dept. Natural. Resources., Div. Wildl. Final Report
              Federal Aid in Wildl. Restoration. Project. W-301-R-72
              through R-92. 37 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Ideally nesting cover should only be established in areas
              within 1/4 mi of secure winter cover. Minimum goal of 25
              ac/section or 900 acres/township should be goal (4% of area).
              To maximize benefits of intensive habitat restoration program
              knowledge of land-use patterns and habitat deficiencies must
              be identified within township level and within each section
              in management area.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Heard, L.P., A.W. Allen, L.B. Best, S.J. Brady, W. Burger,
              A. J. Lesser, E. Hackett, D.H. Johnson, R.L. Pederson, R.E.
              Reynolds, C. Rewa, M.R. Ryan, R.T. Molleur, and P. Buck.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        A comprehensive review of Farm Bill contributions to wildlife
              conservation, 1985-2000.

SOURCE:       U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
              Conservation Service, Wildlife Habitat Management Institute,
              Technical Report, USDA/NRCS/WMI-2000. 208 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     A comprehensive review of scientific literature describing
              wildlife responses to USDA programs established under the
              Conservation Title of the 1985and 1990 and 1996 amendments.
              Annotated literature and summaries are provided for the CRP,
              Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), Wildlife Habitat Incentives
              Program (WHIP), and Environmental Quality Incentives Program
              (EQIP). In general, wildlife have showed a positive response
              to these programs. Programs are making significant
              contributions toward conservation on fish and wildlife
              resources. Most literature deals with CRP studies. Fewer
              documentation sources for other programs exist due to lack of
              scientific investigations focused on these programs.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Herkert, J.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Breeding bird communities of midwestern prairie fragments:
              the effects of prescribed burning and habitat area.

SOURCE:       Natural Areas Journal 14:128-135.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Study competed in Illinois. Comparison of relative importance
              of habitat area and prescribed burning showed that habitat
              area had a much greater influence on breeding bird community
              composition than prescribed burning. Large prairie fragments
              must be managed to provide a mosaic of burned and unburned
              areas to ensure the availability of suitable habitat for
              species experiencing significant population declines and
              predominately restricted to large grassland areas. Benefits of
              burning include increased in above ground plant biomass which
              may provide greater concealment for nests thereby decreasing
              predation success. Higher densities of insects also present in
              burned prairies as compared to unburned prairies. Management
              of large fragments of prairie is more complex than that of
              smaller fragments due to the presence of burn-sensitive
              species. The habitat requirements of these species can be
              addressed by providing a mosaic of habitat types. General
              guidelines; conduct prescribed burns on large prairie
              fragments (>80 ha) on rotation of 20-30% of area annually.
              On small fragments larger percentage may be burned but
              probably should not exceed 50-60% of area, especially if
              burn sensitive species are present.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Herkert, J.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        The effects of habitat fragmentation on midwestern grassland
              bird communities.

SOURCE:       Ecological Applications. 4(3):461-471.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Breeding bird species richness patterns significantly
              increased with fragment size.  Eight of 15 bird species had
              distributions among fragments influenced by habitat area.
              Estimates of minimal area requirements for five area sensitive
              species ranged from 5 to 55 ha.  Absence of area sensitive
              grassland bird species from some small fragments may result
              from limited availability of habitat.  All five area sensitive
              species regularly avoided structurally suitable habitat on
              small grassland fragments. Habitat fragmentation is likely to
              have caused midwestern grassland bird declines especially for
              area-sensitive species. Both area and vegetation structure
              significantly influence midwestern grassland bird populations.
              Management directed toward minimizing breeding season
              disturbances and controlling features that attract nest
              predators, woody encroachment, and attention to needs of area
              sensitive species would be major benefits to midwestern
              grassland birds. Local or regional extinctions are likely if
              loss and fragmentation of midwestern grassland habitat
              continues.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Herkert, J.R., D.W. Sample, and R.E. Warner.

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Management of midwestern grassland landscapes for the con-
              servation of migratory birds.

SOURCE:       Pgs. 89-116 in F.R. Thompson, III, ed. Management of mid-
              western landscapes of the conservation of neotropical
              migratory birds. USDA, Forest Service, North Central Forest
              Experiment Station.  St. Paul, MN.  General Technical Report
              NC-187.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Avian species of high priority for conservation were associated
              with a variety of grassland habitats including dry prairies,
              pastures, old fields, hayfields, wet prairies, sedge meadows
              and grasslands with interspersed shrubs. Diverse habitat
              associations of bird species with high management concern
              suggests that problems facing grassland birds are widespread
              and involve variety of grassland habitats. One common feature
              was sensitivity to habitat fragmentation. Declines in grassland
              bird numbers significantly correlate with declines in regional
              acreage of pastures and hay fields. Grassland nest success
              highest 2-3 years following prescribed fire. Mid length (3-5)
              year rotational burn program appears to be optimum under most
              circumstances. Need greater understanding of winter ecology and
              habitat requirements of grassland bird species. Relatively few
              avian species use fields with monotypic grass cover. Pastures
              are regions= most abundant grassland habitat accounting for
              7.8 million ha (5.7% of regions land area). Provide important
              habitat because when not over-grazed they can support diverse
              assemblages of grassland bird species including those with
              declining populations. Pasture/hayfield reached peak in
              midwest in early 1900's but have declined ever since.


              Large scale, diverse grassland management is needed to meet
              the habitat needs of migratory grassland bird species of the
              greatest conservation concern in midwest region. Habitats of
              highest management concern will vary regionally.  Management
              should focus on providing habitat for large populations of
              area-sensitive species to increase the likelihood of long-term
              persistence of populations. Good discussion on effects of
              grazing, burning. Conclusions are, however, that results can
              be highly variable depending on extent of management, season,
              species etc. Mosaic of burned and unburned, mowed, un-mowed
              grassland provide full range of habitat preferences. Managed
              under a rotational system will provide best long-term
              conditions. Still not enough data regarding individual
              species' prediction about the way various species respond to
              differing management practices under varying conditions.
              Information on short-term responses common but little
              available on long-term effects.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Homan, H.J., G.M. Linz, and W. Bleier.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Winter habitat use and survival of female ring-necked
              pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in southeastern North Dakota.

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 143:463-480.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Study monitored winter habitat selection and survival of
              female pheasants in SE North Dakota. Relatively heavy snows
              forced pheasants from upland CRP grassland cover into cattail
              cover associated with large Class IV wetlands. CRP grasslands
              in study area often contained wetlands which became foci of
              wintering pheasants during milder periods of winter weather.
              CRP grassland cover became unsuitable in more severe snow
              periods when cover in upland and small embedded wetlands
              became snow-packed.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Horn, D.J. and R.R. Koford.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Relation of grassland bird abundance to mowing of Con-
              servation Reserve Program fields in North Dakota.

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(3):653-659.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Evaluation of haying of CRP fields in central North Dakota.
              Compared relative abundance of birds in idled and mowed
              portions of fields one year after mowing. Results consistent
              with other evaluations that show bird species responding to
              differing characteristics of fields as defined by height and
              structure of vegetation. Some species more abundant in idled
              portions of fields while other species were more abundant in
              hayed portion of field. By late spring of the year following
              mowing portions of fields that were hayed had vegetation 2
              height of idled portions of fields (This supports the
              conclusion of Allen et al 2001 that fields recovered to pre-
              haying conditions by two years following harvest.) Recommend
              partial mowing of CRP fields to provide a mosaic of grassland
              habitats of with different physical characteristics to meet
              need of diverse population of avian species.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hubbard, M.W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Habitat changes in central Iowa and their relationship to
              ring-necked pheasant populations, 1981-1990.

SOURCE:       Masters Thesis. Iowa State University, Ames. 64 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) model evaluated by relating
              outputs to pheasant numbers using multiple regression. 133,000
              ha in analysis. Pheasant numbers negatively related to
              alfalfa/hay acreage and positively related to pasture lands.
              Only one variable, area in roadside and spring VOR was
              positively related to pheasant numbers. Other influences
              affected relationships between model output and numbers of
              birds (e.g., weather, population numbers). Pheasant
              populations have undergone widespread declines in the
              northern plains states since mid 60's as consequence of
              habitat loss due to increased mechanization and conversion of
              non-crop acreage to croplands. Original HSI model appeared to
              of winter food for pheasants. Three variables disked corn,
              chiseled corn and disked soybeans were incorporated into the
              model. Model source is not described, nor is the model
              presented.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hughes, J.P. R.J. Robel, K.E. Kemp, J.L. Zimmerman.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Effects of habitat on dickcissel abundance and nest success
              in Conservation Reserve Program fields in Kansas.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage. 63(2):523-529.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     CRP fields studied dominated by indian grass, big bluestem,
              little bluestem, sideoats, switchgrass, and western
              wheatgrass. These grasses comprised over 95% of all
              vegetation. Dickcissel abundance was associated significantly
              with field-level vegetation characteristics, field edge
              characteristics, and land use surrounding CRP fields. Nest
              success was associated withfield-level vegetation variables
              only, specifically those associated  with vegetation volume.
              Responded positively to increased litter cover but negatively
              to live and grass canopy covers. Forbs have been recognized as
              referred nesting substrates. Forbs were relatively uncommon in
              CRP fields evaluated. Efforts to enhance dickcissel habitat
              should focus on modification of vegetation structure within
              fields. Positive relation to litter cover which would
              increase under less frequent burning regimes.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hughes, J.P., R.J. Robel, and K.E. Kemp.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Factors influencing mourning dove nest success in CRP fields.

SOURCE:       Journal of Wildlife Management 64(4):1004-1008.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Evaluation of dove nesting success in northeastern Kansas
              CRP fields. Daily nest survival rates were associated
              positively with height of live vegetation and negatively with
              percent grass cover and percent live vegetation cover.
              Management practice that produce sparse overall cover but
              tall vegetation may increase dove nest success in CRP fields.

              Evaluated fields planted to CP2 native warm season grasses
              (indiangrass, big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama,
              switchgrass and western wheatgrass). Dove nests found in 7 of
              9 fields evaluated. In 1994 and 8 of 9 fields in 1995. Nest
              success did not differ between years. Apparent nest success =
              55.6% in both years. Good success rate compared to other
              studies. Daily nest survival rates were influenced by field-
              level vegetation structure, but not field-edge characteristics
              or surrounding land use variables. Dove appeared to have
              higher success in fields with tall live vegetation and low
              amounts of grass and live vegetation cover.

	            Recommend intermediate level of disturbance that provides
	            low amounts of live vegetation and grass cover but high height
	            of vegetation. Recommend spring burning every 3 years.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hultquist, J.M. and L.B. Best.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Bird use of terraces in Iowa rowcrop fields.

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 145 (2):275-287.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Bird abundance in terraces was less than that recorded in
              other strip cover habitats such as grassed waterways and
              roadsides but greater than that in rowcrops. The relative
              contribution of terraces to grassland bird conservation is
              minor. Changes in current management practices of terrace
              would not likely improve conditions for bird nor be economical.
              Dominant cover on terraces was smooth brome. The species is
              main one recommended by NRCS. Bird species richness and
              abundance may be lower in terraces because terraces are
              narrower than other strip-cover habitats and vegetation is
              less diverse. Bird densities in terraces higher than recorded
              in CRP because of greater concentration of birds in narrow
              strip covers than in block-cover CRP.

              Conclusion is that relative contribution of terraces to
              grassland bird conservation is minor. Bird abundance is low
              and productivity is poor compared to other strip cover
              habitats. Use is, however, greater than recorded in rowcrops.
              Bird use and species composition also may improve is plant
              species were diversified in terrace seedings rather than
              brome monocultures

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hurley, R.J. and E.C. Franks.

PUBL. YEAR:   1976

TITLE:        Changes in the breeding ranges of two grassland birds.

SOURCE:       Auk 93:108-511.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Changes in the ranges of the dickcissel and horned lark
              attributed to man-made environmental changes. Dickcissel
              attracted to alfalfa but this cover is a biological trap
              because harvesting typically coincides with prime nesting
              period.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Hurley, T.M., B.A. Babcock, R.E. Reynolds, and C.R. Loesch.

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Waterfowl populations and the Conservation Reserve Program
              in the Prairie Pothole Region of North and South Dakota.

SOURCE:       Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State
              University, Ames. Working Paper 96-WP 165. 30 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Estimates of density of waterfowl breeding pairs under current
              distribution of CRP land only 12.5% greater than what would
              have been realized had land been randomly enrolled in program.
              Suggests that old enrollment rules did relatively poor job of
              targeting best waterfowl habitat. Estimates of improved
              targeting to waterfowl habitat of higher quality would double
              density of breeding pairs. Further improvement in pair density
              may be realized if CRP land were associated with Wetland
              Management Districts that furnished better waterfowl habitat.
              More important to focus targeting efforts within multiple
              county regions rather than between regions. Benefits of such
              planning would extend to wildlife species other than waterfowl.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Igl, L.D. and D.H. Johnson.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Dramatic increase of Le Conte's sparrow in Conservation
              Reserve Program fields in the Northern Great Plains.

SOURCE:       Prairie Naturalist 27(2):89-94.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Substantial increase in Le Conte=s sparrow numbers in CRP in
              1994 compared to 1990-1993. Changes in habitat associated
              with drought from 89-93 and above normal precipitation from
              mid 1993 to mid 1994 likely produced favorable breeding
              conditions for this species in CRP fields. CRP may provide
              important habitat only under wet conditions.  Influence of
              emergency mowing and grazing of CRP fields on breeding bird
              populations remains poorly understood.


============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Igl, L.D. and D.H. Johnson.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Le Conte's sparrows breeding in Conservation Reserve Program
              fields: precipitation and patterns of population change.

SOURCE:       Studies in Avian Biology 19:178-186.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Breeding Le Conte=s sparrows studied in CRP grassland fro 1990
              to 1996. Status changed from an uncommon breeding species to
              one of the most abundant species recorded in last two years
              of study. Results emphasize importance of range-wide
              conservation efforts and long-term observations of grassland
              birds. In 6 year study period 111 species of birds recorded
              using CRP grasslands during the breeding season. Dramatic
              increase in populations of this sparrow  coincided with
              occurrence of wet conditions in northern Great Plains.
              Geographically large conservation programs such as the CRP
              important for long-term conservation of grassland birds.
              Attribute the program to benefitting many species of grassland
              birds.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ignatiuk, J.B. and D.C. Duncan.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Nest success of ducks on rotational and season-long grazing
              systems in Saskatchewan.

SOURCE:       Nest success of ducks on rotational and season-long grazing
              systems in Saskatchewan.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Rotational grazing systems implemented to increase duck
              production in the Canadian prairie pothole region have had
              limited success. Comparison between one-over rotational
              systems and season-long pastures in Saskatchewan failed to
              reveal differences in nest survival between grazing systems.
              Rotational systems could be beneficial if they preserve or
              improve grassland areas, attract more ducks from less
              productive habitats, or increase duck survival. Strong
              evidence that pastures have high success of nest compared
              to most other habitat types including small plots of planted
              cover. Conversion of cropland to pasture and retaining
              existing pastures recommended to improve duck production.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, D.H.,S.D. Haseltine, and L.M. Cowardin.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Wildlife habitat management on the northern prairie landscape.

SOURCE:       Landscape and Urban Planning 28:5-21.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Summary of European settlement impacts to northern prairie
              landscapes and wildlife habitat. Regional management of
              wildlife can not be effective on public lands alone.
              Partnerships with private landowners need to be developed.
              Wildlife managers need to base management activities on
              explicit, quantifiable objectives that furnish measures of
              survival, reproduction, and distribution of species.
              Description of potential landscape-level management options
              presented.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, D.H. and L.D. Igl.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Contributions of the Conservation Reserve Program to
              populations of breeding birds in North Dakota.

SOURCE:       Wilson Bull. 107(4):709-718.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Evaluation of projected changes in North Dakota breeding bird
              populations if CRP land was converted back to agricultural
              production. Of 18 species common on CRP, crop fields, or both,
              12 were more abundant in CRP. Six of these species had
              suffered significant decline in populations. None of species
              common in cropland cover types had declined significantly.
              Termination of CRP and return of lands to cultivation
              projected to cause population declines for sedge wren,
              grasshopper sparrow, savannah sparrow, dickcissel and lark
              bunting.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Johnson, D.H. and L.D. Igl.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Area requirements of grassland birds: a regional perspective.

SOURCE:       Auk 118(1):24-34.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Grassland habitat loss is only one concern affecting avian
              breeding success. Degradation remaining grasslands due to
              improper or inadequate management, disruption of natural
              disturbance regimes, encroachment of woody and exotic
              vegetation, and fragmentation are other key issues influencing
              habitat quality. Three fragmentation factors affect avian
              grassland habitat quality patch-size, edge, and isolation.
              Study is an evaluation of influence of fragmentation and
              isolation of CRP grassland fields of grassland breeding bird
              populations in the northern Great Plains. Fields were planted
              with perennial grasses and legumes usually wheatgrasses,
              brome grasses and alfalfa. Breeding bird assemblages
              associated with these fields were very similar to those in
              idle native grasslands in the same region. Authors conclude
              that locating a CRP field near existing grassland, or
              establishing one large CRP field rather than several small
              ones would benefit more grassland bird species than would
              creating small isolated CRP fields.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kamler, J.F. and P.S. Gipson.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Home range, habitat selection, and survival of bobcats, Lynx
              rufus, in a prairie ecosystem in Kansas.

SOURCE:       Canadian Field Naturalist. 114:388-394.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Bobcats in Kansas (Fort Riley)  prefer grassland habitats in
              summer due to a greater diversity and possibly higher
              abundance of small mammals and found within woodlands. More
              restricted to woodlands during winter when competition with
              other predator species was higher. Coyotes may be more
              tolerant of bobcats in summer when prey was more abundant.
              Resident male bobcat used grasslands more than females
              possibly because of larger body size reduced risk of
              predation by coyotes. Transient bobcat used open areas more
              and woodland areas less than residents.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kaufman D.W. and G.A. Kaufman.

PUBL. YEAR:   1989

TITLE:        Nongame wildlife management in central Kansas: implication
              of small mammal use of fencerows, fields, and prairie.

SOURCE:       Trans. of the Kansas Academy of Science 92(3-4):198-205.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Prairie-cropland ecotone provides suitable habitat for several
              native small mammals. Fencerows between prairie and cropland
              are potentially valuable habitats. Fencerows between prairie
              and cropland furnish better habitat than fencerow with same
              cover type on both sides.  Provides food, cover, and access
              to other cover types as well as dispersal corridors. Prairie-
              cropland fencerows supported an abundant, diverse assemblage
              of native small mammals. The association of these species
              was apparently dependent on tall, dense vegetation, deep
              litter, and ready access to food in cropfields. Interiors of
              cropland, even when fallow, were insufficient to support most
              species of small mammals. Small ungrazed herbaceous and woody
              habitats scattered within a matrix of cultivated fields would
              maintain a higher density diversity of small mammals than
              would be found if these habitats were removed.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kessler, W.B., H. Salwasser, C.W. Cartwright, Jr., and
              J.A. Caplan.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        New perspectives for sustainable natural resources management.

SOURCE:       Ecological Applications 2(3):221-225.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Management of public lands and resources requires knowledge
              about ecosystems, including relationships to human values,
              activities, patterns of use, closer partnerships with managers
              to complete large-scale studies, and adaptive management of
              public lands and resources. Managers must respond to more
              complex views of public lands and their roles in meeting human
              needs and aspirations. Need to define objectives that relate to
              ecological and aesthetic conditions of the land a desired
              future condition to sustain land uses and resource yields. Must
              recognize that grasslands are sustainable in nature by dynamic
              forces such as fire, flood and grazing. These forces
              continually change vegetation patterns and processes having
              major effects on biological diversity, water quality, and other
              values. The public must be fully informed about the conditions,
              capabilities, and options for lands and resources and share in
              knowledge that professionals accrue through research and
              management experience. Science must take into consideration
              the values and needs of people rather than concluding what is
              good or bad for society from their own technical perspectives.
              Changes in perspectives must address cumulative effects of
              management and landscape fragmentation. Systems must be looked
              at as a whole rather than individual parts.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Klute, D. S.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Avian community structure, reproductive success, vegetative
              structure, and food availability in burned CRP fields and
              grazed pastures in northeastern Kansas.

SOURCE:       Ms. thesis. Kansas State University, Manhattan. 168 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Comparison of avian community structure, reproductive success,
              vegetative structure, and food availability in burned CRP
              fields with local dominant cover type, burned, grazed, native
              grass pastures. During summer, relative abundance of avian
              species was significantly greater in grazed pastures than in
              CRP fields. Differences primarily due to vegetative structure.
              Vegetative height an biomass (VOR) greater in CRP than grazed
              fields. Total invertebrate biomass during summer was
              significantly grater in grazed pasture than CRP. Greater forb
              coverage in grazed pastures may have contributed to greater
              invertebrate biomass in grazed pastures over CRP. During
              winter relative avian abundance did not differ significantly
              between CRP and grazed pastures. Mean species richness
              greater in CRP. Winter CRP fields had taller vegetation and
              more bare ground than grazed pastures.  Total biomass of
              available seed did not differ significantly between CRP and
              grazed pastures, however, CRP contained more seeds which are
              preferred food items for wintering birds. CRP overall better
              winter habitat. Moderate grazing of CRP may contribute to
              reduced vegetative height, increased total canopy overage,
              and increased forb coverage which should improve habitat
              for grassland birds.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Knopf, F.L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Avian assemblages on altered grasslands.

SOURCE:       Studies in Avian Biology. 15:247-257.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     As a group, populations of endemic grassland bird species have
              declined more than other (including neotropical migrants) in
              the last quarter century. Unlike most forest species, that
              winter in the neotropics most birds that breed in North
              American grasslands also winter on the continent and problems
              driving declines in grassland species are associated almost
              entirely with North American processes. Eastern tallgrass
              prairie virtually obliterated, western shortgrass prairies
              fragmented. During last 25 years grassland species have shown
              steeper, more consistent and geographically widespread
              declines than any other behavioral or ecological guild of
              North American species.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Knopf, F.L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Faunal mixing, faunal integrity, and the biopolitical template
              for diversity conservation.

SOURCE:       Trans. N. American Wildl. Conf. 75:330-342.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Conservation biologist striving to protect a diversity of
              habitats and species in the increasingly altered landscapes
              of NA, primarily by protecting samples of the biota in natural
              preserves. At many locations local species assemblages have
              been affected  addition of new species from contiguous or
              distant sites. Shifts in the composition of native biological
              diversity can lead to declines in regionally unique species.
              Often augmented faunas are viewed by the public and local fish
              and Game agency personnel as indicative of good wildlife
              conservation. Future conservation of faunal integrity requires
              enhanced coordination among natural resource agencies. Faunal
              mixing is dilemma for biologists dedicated to protecting the
              integrity of native, endemic faunas. Dichotomy between
              preserving the biological diversity of and enhancing vertebrate
              populations. Traditional policies of natural resource agencies
              favor the spread of ecological-generalist species  across
              landscapes. Most popular game species are characteristic of
              early succession respond favorably to greater edge and
              diversity in habitat. Enhancing species richness through
              fragmentation in landscape is no longer favored and growing
              evidence suggests that increasing the quality of edge can harm
              the composition of some wildlife communities. Ecological
              consequences of species substitutions are masked in management
              that focus purely on species richness. Actions for conservation
              of biological diversity: 1 minimize practices promoting site-
              specific diversity, 2 emphasize between-habitat diversity on
              management units and implement a step-down (national/regional/
              local) approach to conservation of biological diversity.
              Conservation of biological diversity must complement the
              conservation of endangered species. Despite the extinction of
              many species and a general decline in the biological diversity
              of north America many local faunas contain more species today
              than historically present. Introduction and range expansion
              into altered landscapes have augmented local species richness.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Knopf, F.L.

PUBL. YEAR:   1986

TITLE:        Changing landscapes and the cosmopolitanism of the eastern
              Colorado avifauna.

SOURCE:       Wildl. Soc. Bull. 14:132-142.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Development of riparian forests on the Great Plains has
              provided corridors for movement of forest birds across grass-
              lands that have historically y served as an ecological barrier
              to dispersal. Illustrates relevance of current conservation
              theory to decisions on local management and the need for
              interstate regionalization of management plans.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Knopf, F.L. and F.B. Samson.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Conserving the biotic integrity of the Great Plains.

SOURCE:       Pgs. 121-133 in S.R. Johnson and A Bouzaher, eds.
              Conservation of Great Plains Ecosystems: Current Science,
              Future Options. Kluwer Academic Press.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Despite relatively simplistic composition of endemic avifauna
              in the Great Pains, endemic species are currently showing
              steeper more consistent and geographically widespread declines
              than any other group of North American species. Of 32
              grassland bird species 10 declined at a statistically
              significant rates from 1966-1991.

              Principle processes that shaped endemic plant and animals on
              the great plains have been drought, grazing and wildfire.
              These factors favored broad expanses of monotypic vegetation
              with minimization of ecological edges. Activities that have
              had universal effects on native diversity include
              fragmentation of grasslands, drainage of wetlands, invasion
              or introductions of alien and exotic species, and water
              development activities.

              Impoundment of rivers and elimination of natural fire regimes
              has had severe consequences to native flora and fauna of the
              western Great Plains than has the most agricultural production.
              Ninety percent of breeding bird species in northeastern
              Colorado did not breed there at the turn of the century.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Knopf, F.L. and M.L. Scott.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Altered flows and created landscapes in the Platte River Head-
              waters, 1840-1990.

SOURCE:       Pgs 70-74 in J.M. Sweeney, ed. Management of dynamic ecosystems.
              North Cent. Sect., The Wildl. Soc., West Lafayette, Ind.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Impoundment has altered flow dynamics with annual runoff peaks
              and total discharge severely reduced. Deciduous gallery forest
              provides local habitats for more wildlife species than currently
              occur elsewhere, or historically in the headwaters. Unique
              characteristics of riparian ecosystems is the pulsed flow
              resulting from spring runoff and linear connectively across
              elevational gradients. Stabilization of hydrodynamics regimes
              in headwater streams drastically alters the characteristic
              fluvial processes that shaped these ecosystems.  Annual floods
              tend to maintain wide, shallow, and active river channels with
              high sediment loads. Changes in hydrology can be attributed to
              removal of beaver, water development for agriculture, municipal
              and industrial use. VEGETATION RESPONSE TO ALTERED FLOWS: Woody
              vegetation on pristine rivers occurred as widely scattered
              stands of cottonwood and willows. Hydrologic conditions
              controlled the patterns of establishment and growth of woody
              riparian species. Crop irrigation recharge to the river raised
              local water tables and favors created perennial, lower flow.
              ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES: Enhanced summer low flows have been
              the driving ecological force in Platte rivers and have enabled
              dramatic movements of faunal assemblages at the local and
              regional level. Connectivity proved by the riparian corridor
              has allowed western expansion of species such as white-tailed
              deer, fox squirrel and numerous small mammals and avian
              species.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Koford, R.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Density and fledgling success of grassland birds in Con-
              servation Reserve Program fields in North Dakota and west-
              central Minnesota.

SOURCE:       Studies in Avian Biology 19:187-195.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     CRP fields were suitable breeding habitat for several species
              whose populations declined prior to program. Habitat furnished
              appeared to be as secure as other suitable habitats in federal
              Waterfowl Production Areas within these states. Additional
              cover provided by CRP may have lowered breeding densities in
              all habitats with possible benefits if reproduction is density
              dependent. Additional habitat also may have allowed birds to
              breed that otherwise would not have bred such as second year
              birds thereby supporting higher growth of populations.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Koford, R.R., and L.B. Best.

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Management of agricultural landscapes of the conservation of
              neotropical migratory birds.

SOURCE:       Pgs. 86-88 in  F.R. Thompson, III, ed. Management of mid-
              western landscapes for the conservation of neotropical
              migratory birds. USDA, Forest Service, North Central Forest
              Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. General Technical Report
              NC-781.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Thirty eight neotropical migratory birds are common in midwest
              agricultural landscapes. Most species depend on herbaceous or
              wooded habitats which are declining as average size of farms
              increase.  Recommendations: minimize cultivation, encourage
              moderate grazing, delay spring mowing of hay, increase acres
              in grassed waterways and roadsides, avoid nighttime mowing,
              encourage longer intervals between mowings, avoid fall mowing
              and annual mowing of grassed waterways and roadsides, retain
              fencelines, maintain idle land, and change configuration of
              idle land to enhance species richness and nesting success.

              Immediate effect of tillage is exposure of arthropods and other
              prey to foraging birds, long term effect is reduction in
              abundance of litter-dwelling arthropods. Conventionally tilled
              fields have lower arthropod abundance than no-till or idle areas.
              Herbicides can affect birds by reducing availability of seeds.
              Insecticides reduce abundance and diversity of foliage-dwelling
              arthropods. Strip cover: grassed waterways, terraces, fencerows
              roadsides and windbreaks/shelterbelts usually provide habitat
              that is more long term than that provided by areas enrolled in
              crop-retirement programs. Strip cover has decreased in recent
              years. Orientation of crop rows relative to grassed waterway
              influenced disturbance. Nest densities greater when rows
              parallel to waterways.

              Management objectives: Conserve remnants of prairie and
              savannah that still exist. Large scale restoration impractical
              but remnants can be saved for education and  research.
              Increase crop residues, CRP, minimize tillage, diversify crops.
              Encourage moderate grazing of pastures with prescription for
              species needs of those in most trouble. Delay spring mowing of
              hay as long as possible, avoid night mowing, increase
              intervals between mowing. Maintain idle land in blocks rather
              than strips, increase species composition of vegetation, On
              terraces improvements can be made through flattening of back-
              slopes, improve grass stands and planting alternative
              vegetation. Don't burn all ditches roadsides in same year,
              Encourage fencerows greater than 3 m wide.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Kurzejeski, E. W.

PUBL. YEAR:   1996

TITLE:        Vegetation structure and avian species composition in diverted
              farmland.

SOURCE:       Federal Aid Project No W-31-R-05. Final Report.  Missouri
              Department of Conservation.  Jefferson City.  75 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Comparison of vegetative conditions, avian abundance,
              composition and productivity on CP1,  CP2, and rowcrop fields
              in northern Missouri.  Total bird abundance, grassland bird
              abundance, nest density and number of nesting species all
              lower on crop than on CRP fields. Bird community using crop
              fields differed from that of CRP fields with short grass and
              open-ground feeding birds predominant on crop fields. The
              conservation value of CRP fields for declining grassland bird
              species was higher for CP1 fields than CP2 fields. Monotypic
              stands of both warm-season and cool-season grasses should be
              avoided to increase the potential wildlife benefits of CRP
              and other idle grassland habitats. Management recommendations:
              cost sharing of grass plantings should be limited to multi-
              species seedings. Periodic haying and grazing may increase
              habitat value of monotypic fields and non-game bird habitat.
              Mowing may effectively decrease height and density of
              vegetation, however. litter build up an accelerated grass
              succession may negatively affect wildlife values of fields.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Leddy, K.L., K.F. Higgens, and D.E. Naugle.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Effects of wind turbines on upland nesting birds in
              conservation reserve program grasslands.

SOURCE:       Wilson Bull 111(1):100-104.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     CRP grasslands without turbines and areas located 180 m from
              turbines supported 4 x higher densities of grassland birds
              than areas within 80m of turbines. Recommend that turbines
              be placed in cropland that support lower densities of
              grassland passerines than found in CRP grasslands. Human
              disturbance, noise, and physical movements of turbines may
              have disturbed nesting birds.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Lewis, T.

PUBL. YEAR:   1969

TITLE:        The diversity of insect fauna in a hedgerow and neighboring
              fields.

SOURCE:       J. Applied Ecology 6(3):453-458.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Hedgerows contribute to enriched insect fauna in neighboring
              fields. In terrestrial insect communities, diversity was
              greatest in hedge, lower in beans, and least in pasture.
              Diversity of aerial insects decreased with increasing
              distance from the hedge. Presence of hedge enriched aerial
              population for a distance from trees to 10 times  height on
              downwind side and one to two times on upwind side.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Lokemoen, J.T. and J.A. Beiser.

PUBL. YEAR:   1979

TITLE:        Bird use and nesting in conventional, minimum-tillage, and
              organic cropland.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage. 61(3):644-655.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Seasonal use by birds and nesting evaluated in fallow,
              sunflower, and wheat fields among conventional farms, minimum
              tillage farms, reduced tillage, and organic farms (no
              synthetic pesticides). Spring bird densities were highest in
              minimum-tillage, fallow fields that provided food and cover.
              No differences in bird densities among crops of field types
              in fall or winter but mean densities in summer were highest
              in fallow fields. Fallow fields also had  greater mean number
              of nesting species and highest mean densities of nests
              probably due to increased amounts of plant litter cover.
              Mean number of nesting species and nest densities were higher
              in minimum tillage and organic fields. Overall hatching
              success low for waterfowl and shorebirds  and low nest success
              for passerines. Nest losses due to predation and farming
              activities. Hatch success higher in minimum tillage fields for
              passerines and wheat fields for shorebirds. Nest densities in
              CRP were 6 times larger than that found in minimum tillage
              stubble and organic fallow and 11 times larger than densities
              in other field types and crops.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Madden, E.M., R.K. Murphy, A.J. Hansen, and L. Murray

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Models for guiding management of prairie bird habitat in
              northwestern North Dakota.

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 144(2):377-392.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Remains difficult to summarize effects of management on
              individual bird species due to differences in environmental
              conditions (moisture, soils, plant species composition).
              Vegetation attributes are important determinants of grassland
              bird abundance. Vegetation structure and to a lesser extent
              composition can be manipulated by managers. Paper gives
              specific characteristics of vegetation (shrub cover, herb
              cover, VOR) for a number of prairie bird species. Authors
              conclude that most public grasslands devoted to wildlife
              traditionally have been managed to promote tall, dense,
              nesting cover for game birds. Some avian species of
              importance are most associated with native bunch grasses
              rather than the broad-leaved, exotic grasses often planted
              for duck nesting cover. Vegetation attributes preferred by
              these endemic species are characteristic of grasslands
              receiving periodic defoliations such as those produced by
              fire or grazing. Need of mosaic of available vegetation types
              to maximize avian biodiversity. Visual obstruction (VOR),
              presence of grass, forb, or shrub cover were important
              features for all specialized species.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Mankin, P.C. and R.E. Warner.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Responses of eastern cottontails to intensive row-crop farming.

SOURCE:       J. Mammalogy 80(3):940-949.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Home ranges averaged 2.3 times larger during growing season
              that in non-growing season. During non-growing season home-
              steads were major component of home ranges. Less than 2% of
              study area but comprised 23% of home ranges and 40% of rabbit
              locations. Declines in rabbit numbers have been most
              pronounced in most intensively farmed regions where row crop
              agriculture has replace pasture and other early successional
              permanent vegetation, forage crops, small grains, and miscell-
              aneous uncropped land. Loss of cottontail habitat in midwest
              also attributed to greater use of herbicides and intensive
              fall tillage.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       McCoy, T.D., M.R. Ryan, E.W. Kurzejeski, and L.W. Burger.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: source or sink habitat for
              grassland birds in Missouri.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage 63(2):530-538.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Further documentation of CRP effects on bird populations are
              needed. Relative value of CRP can be assessed by comparing
              reproductive habitats. Data from CRP habitats are limited.
              Claims that CRP is a panacea for grassland wildlife are
              overstated, but CRP likely has contributed to conservation of
              many species including several of special concern.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       McCoy, T.D., M. R. Ryan and L.W. Burger, and E.W. Kurzejeski.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Grassland bird conservation: CP1 vs. CP2 plantings in
              Conservation Reserve Program fields in Missouri.

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 145(1):1-17.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Comparison of relative value of different CRP plantings for
              breeding grassland and winter birds in CP1 and CP2 fields in
              northern Missouri. Differences in species abundance were
              evident between season but overall species richness,
              abundance, and nesting success of grassland birds during the
              breeding season and total bird use in the winter did not
              differ between conservation practices. Shorter more diverse
              cool-season grass fields were equal or better habitat than
              taller, more vertically dense switchgrass-dominated fields for
              grassland birds including several of high conservation
              concern. Single species plantings of warm or cool season
              grasses should be avoided to maximize potential benefits to
              wildlife.

              Authors concluded that CP2 fields did not differ from CP1 in
              value as reproductive and winter habitat for birds. CP2s=,
              however, were switchgrass monocultures. Greater value may be
              realized with a mix of warm-season native species. All 8
              switchgrass fields were monocultures whereas CP1 fields had
              been planted to orchard grass/lespedeza, or timothy/clover.
              One field was planted to fescue.

              Mowing in late summer and early fall results indicated that
              CP1 fields had sufficient regrowth of cool season grasses,
              legumes and annual weeds to provide cover and food for
              wintering birds. Dominance of warm-season grasses was reduced
              for at least the following two summers after CP2 fields were
              mowed resulting in structural and vegetational diversity until
              switchgrass again dominated fields.

              Landowners are not likely to intensively manage CRP for
              wildlife unless this is a condition of the contract and/or
              there is a monetary incentive to do so.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       McMaster, D.G. and S.K. Davis.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        An evaluation of Canada=s permanent cover program: habitat
              for grassland birds?

SOURCE:       Journal of Field Ornithology 72 (2):195-210.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     In the early 90's Agriculture Canada's Permanent Cover Program
              (PCP) converted over 445,000 ha of cropland to perennial
              vegetative cover. PCP sites supported higher avian species
              richness than cropland and 9 of 10 commonly detected grassland
              bird species occurred at higher frequencies in PCP than
              cropland. PCP sites were characterized by taller, denser
              vegetation and less bare ground than cropland sites. Hayed and
              grazed PCP site differed significantly in vegetative structure
              an avian community composition, but did not differ in species
              richness or evenness. Unlike the CRP, the PCP allows use of
              forage produced on program lands. PCP vegetation most commonly
              comprised of combinations or wheatgrass, brome, alfalfa, and
              crested wheatgrass. Habitat maintained in a mosaic or
              successional stages will provide habitat for the richest
              diversity of grassland species.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Millenbah, K.F.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        The effects of different age classes of fields enrolled in
              the Conservation Reserve Program in Michigan on avian
              diversity, density, and productivity.

SOURCE:       MS thesis. Michigan State University, East Lansing.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Avian communities and vegetative characteristics examined in 6
              age class fields (1-6 growing seasons) in central Michigan to
              determine relations between field age and characteristics of
              avian communities. Younger CRP fields characterized by forbs
              and bare ground supported greater avian densities and
              diversities than older fields. Older fields supported greater
              high of grasses and litter cover. Implications - grassland
              birds may require a diversity of age classes of CRP fields in
              agricultural landscapes to meet habitat requirements. Results
              suggest relationship between age of field and relative avian
              abundance, diversity and productivity. Younger fields
              maintained the greater diversity and density of avian species.
              Older fields with greater litter cover and grass cover
              supported the greatest productivity. One year old CRP fields
              supported greatest diversity of avian species. As fields aged
              diversities declined but productivity increased. Both the
              number of active nests and successful nests were greatest in
              older fields. Litter cover serves as mechanical barrier to
              seedlings decreasing the amount of light energy available for
              growth. On new fields  horizontal cover is sparse. As forb
              and grass cover increased through the fourth growing season,
              horizontal cover increased. As fields became more grass-
              dominated and sparser during years 5 and 6 horizontal cover
              decreased.

              Insects: Greater biomass and diversity of insects were
              available on younger fields. Few significant differences found
              among field age classes but mean insect diversities and
              biomass generally decreased as fields aged. Younger fields
              supported greater diversity. Landowner attitudes: 70% of
              surveyed landowners gave improvement of wildlife habitat at
              least some importance in enrollment into CRP. Recommendations:
              controlled disturbance in years 4-6. Perturbations which
              provide multiple successional stages may best provide for
              simultaneous high density, diversity and productivity of
              avian species.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       O'Leary, C.H. and D.W. Nyberg.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Treelines between fields reduce the density of grassland
              birds.

SOURCE:       Natural Areas Journal 20(3):243-249.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Fragmentation of grassland by fencerows could be a factor
              contributing to decline of grassland birds, especially those
              species that are area sensitive. Recommendations to maintain
              habitat quality for grassland birds: reduce woody vegetation
              within fields, replace woody vegetation separating fields with
              grass, connect fields to furnish larger interior area.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Pimentel, D., H. Acquay, M. Biltonen, P. Rice, M. Silva, J.
              Nelson, V. Lipner, S. Giordano, A Horowitz, and M. D'Amore.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Environmental and Economic costs of pesticide use.

SOURCE:       Bioscience 42(10):750-760.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     In U.S. approximately 600  different types of pesticides are
              used annually. Approximately 160 million ha/yr receives a
              heavy pesticide dose, averaging 3 kg/ha.  Estimates are that
              without pesticides pests would account for 10% of crop loss
              with specific crop losses ranging from 0 to nearly 100%.
              Despite widespread use of pesticides, insects, plant
              pathogens, and weeds destroy 37% of all potential food and
              fiber crops.

              Tenfold increase in insecticide use from 1945 to 1989 but
              total crop loses from insect damage have nearly doubled from
              7 to 13%. Rise in insect damage is in part due to changes in
              agricultural practices. Natural predators play a major role
              in keeping populations of many insect pests under control.
              These species are adversely affected by pesticides. Pesticide
              applications disrupt natural biological control. Fungicides
              can contribute to pest outbreaks when they reduce fungal
              pathogens that are naturally parasitic on many insects. An
              estimated $520 million/yr can be attribute to costs of
              additional pesticide applications and increased crop losses
              following destruction of natural enemies by pesticides
              applied to crops.

  	          Three most common pesticides found in groundwater are insect-
      	      icide aldicarb and herbicides alachlor and atrazine. Estimates
  	          are that nearly 1/2 of ground water and well water in US has
  	          potential to be contaminated. Adding monitoring and cleaning
      	      costs the total cost of pesticide polluted groundwater is
  	          approximately $1.8 billion/yr.

              High pesticide concentrations in water directly kill fish,
              low-level doses kill susceptible fry and essential foods of
              fish and eliminated. Pesticides washed into aquatic system by
              runoff and soil erosion.  Few if any of the widespread and
              more frequent low-level pesticide poisoning are dramatic
              enough to be observed. Therefore most of unrecognized and
              unreported. A low estimate of annual losses is 24 billion/yr.
              Probably several times this amount.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Renner, R.W., R.E. Reynolds, and B.D.J. Batt.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        The impact of haying Conservation Reserve Program lands on
              productivity of ducks nesting in the Prairie Pothole region
              of North and South Dakota.

SOURCE:       Trans. North American Wildl. Nat. Resource. Conf. 60:221-229.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Comparison of nest success and duck production in hayed
              versus non-hayed portions of CRP fields. Production higher on
              non-hayed portions. Suggest that effects on litter depth and
              vegetation structure may effect nesting through entire year
              following haying. Recommend haying no more than once every 5
              years to maintain vegetation quality and habitat diversity.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ribic, C.A., R.E. Warner, and P.C. Mankin.

PUBL. YEAR:   1998

TITLE:        Changes in upland wildlife habitat on farmland in Illinois
              1920-1987.

SOURCE:       Environmental Management 22(2):303-313.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Developed index to evaluate changes in agricultural ecosystems
              as they affected wildlife habitat. Indices at county level
              have potential to be used in a multi-scale analysis to
              investigate the impact of policy changes on large-scale
              areas of the midwest and to develop regional perspectives of
              the impacts of agriculture on upland wildlife and habitats.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Riley, T.Z. and J.H. Schultz.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Predation and ring-necked pheasant population dynamics.

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 29 (1):33-38.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     To improve pheasant survival an recruitment a predator
              removal program would require a significant reduction in
              predator number during March-July the nesting and brood rearing
              seasons. Control area would have to be extensive to prevent
              rapid recolonization by predators. Widespread reductions in
              predator number may be an unacceptable option to much of the
              public due to an increasing appreciation of the ecological
              role of predators. Benefits of predator control programs last
              only as long as the predator control program remains in effect.

              Habitat management focused on winter availability of suitable
              cover is key in provision of sufficient density of hens in
              reproductive season. Landscapes dominated by rowcrops should
              have 25-30% grass cover.  New national farm legislation must
              recognize that quality winter habitat may be limiting pheasant
              survival on one farm while brood-rearing habitat may be
              limiting on nearby farms. Flexibility must continue to be a
              part of, and expanded, to allow optimal management of
              agricultural lands for pheasants. Increased reliable knowledge
              about the effectiveness of farm program is essential to design
              more effective programs.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Robinson, S.K., J.A. Grzybowski, S.I. Rothstein, M. C.
              Brittingham, L.J. Petit, and F.R. Thompson.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Management implications of cowbird parasitism on neotropical
              migrant songbirds.

SOURCE:       Pages 93-102 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status and
              management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September
              21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins,
              CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
              Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Cowbirds benefit directly from human activities resulting in
              population increases that now potentially threaten populations
              of many neotropical migrant songbirds. Recommend development of
              broad-scale approaches to management such as landscape-level
              management , consolidation of ownerships to preserve large
              tracts of land minimizing edge habitat.

              Best preventative measure is to manage large areas on a
              landscape level. Bigger tracts are preferable to smaller ones
              and compact shapes (square)are better than complex shapes with
              high ratios of edge to interior. Prairie habitats: maintain
              and restore extensive areas of contiguous grassland.
              Acquisition should focus on inholdings to minimize
              fragmentation. Woody fencerows, snags and corridors within and
              adjacent to prairie should be removed.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Rodenhouse, N.L. and L. B. Best.

PUBL. YEAR:   1983

TITLE:        Breeding ecology of vesper sparrows in corn and soybean
              fields.

SOURCE:       Am. Midl. Nat. 110(2): 265-275.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Nesting success in corn and soybean fields low. Nest losses
              due primarily from agricultural operations and predation. Nest
              predation was higher near agriculturally nonproductive areas
              due to increase use by and density of predators. On cultivated
              land, nest predators use linear nonproductive area as travel
              lanes, thus higher predation near or in these remaining areas
              can be expected. Breeding success would be greater if the
              number of tillage operations was reduced and crop residue was
              retained on the fields.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Rodenhouse, N.L., L.B. Best, R.J. O'Connor, and E.K.
              Bollinger.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Effects of temperate agriculture on neotropical migrant
              landbirds.

SOURCE:       Pages 280-295 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status
              and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September
              21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins, CO:
              U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
              Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Ecology of neotropical migrant landbirds is reviewed for
              purpose of developing management recommendations. Migrants
              constitute about 71% of bird species using farmland and 86% of
              bird species nesting there.  Number and abundance of migrants
              using farmland are greatest in uncultivated edges with trees
              and shrubs less in uncultivated, grassed areas and least in
              rowcrops.  Increasing agricultural mechanization and chemical
              use have probably lowered the breeding productivity of
              migrants.  Homogeneous, larger farms specializing in few
              commodities have created ecosystems that often lack suitable
              interspersion of required habitat resources.  Practices that
              promote greater productivity include reduced tillage,
              inorganic fertilizer application, and use of integrated pest
              management.

              Most migrants using temperate farmland are field or edge
              species. Agriculture is implicated in decline of all nine
              neotropical migrants currently listed ta threatened or
              endangered or that are candidates. How agriculture has
              contributed to this is not entirely clear but farmland
              structure and types of crops grown are probably major factors.
              The percentage of farmland in hay or pasture or in
              uncultivated semi-natural habitat has decreased in proportion
              to increased in area of intensively cultivated rowcrops.

              Migrant richness abundances are greater in wider strips of
              uncultivated edge vegetation.  Uncultivated wooded areas
              include wooded fencerows or the edges of fields bordering
              woodland, grassed edge includes some fencerows, waterways,
              terrace berms, road edges and most land in the CRP. Breeding
              productivity of migrants in farmland often low relative to
              number of offspring estimated needed to balance adult and
              juvenile mortality. Percentage of county area in the CRP was
              positively associated with the abundance of 19 migrant species
              12 of which were field specie.

              Many migrants are wholly or partly insectivorous.  Abundance
              of litter-dwelling arthropods greater in fields where plant
              litter on soil surface is more dense.  Herbicides and insect-
              icides reduce potential forage. Areas in permanent cover,
              even if only grasses and no-till cropland often support
              higher arthropod abundance than conventionally tilled fields.
              Arthropod abundance greater near permanent vegetated field
              edges and greater in fields surrounded by complex habitats.
              Weed seeds more abundant near uncultivated areas because
              seeds disperse from uncultivated areas and because permanent
              vegetation concentrates wind dispersed arthropods and seeds.
              Homogenization of farmland lowers diversity and abundances of
              plants, seeds, arthropods within field and the landscape.


              Presence of sheltering vegetation may be needed for some
              migrants particularly edge species to use farmland during
              breeding and migration. Farmland complexity declining in most
              agricultural regions due to increased use of large equipment,
              larger field size, trends toward producing and rotating fewer
              crops, consolidation of farms and increased average size of
              farms. All contribute to reduction in spatial diversity.
              Absence of safe nesting sites may be the factor most limiting
              reproduction and survival of migrants in cropland.
              Agricultural increased the spatial concentration of nesting
              birds as well as predators.

              FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE: Two scenarios likely; some farms will
              become larger, externally owned and intensively managed,
              others will remain small, owner operated )often part-time( and
              less intensively managed. Changes in practices and landscapes
              envisioned for small farms might benefit migrants but the
              extent of benefit will depend on the relative areas of the two
              farm types.  Establishment of native prairie grasses as forage
              crops, production of livestock, polyculture, reductions in the
              frequency and intensity of tillage, more permanent cover,
              reduced field size, green manures and crop rotations all will
              be of benefit to migrants.  Addition and increased use of
              legumes may result in decreased use of inorganic fertilizers
              and lower use of pesticides.  Long term programs such as CRP
              are needed because they allow opportunities for research an
              increase diversity in the agricultural ecosystem.

              MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS: Key to acceptance is that
              recommendations do not reduce and perhaps enhance farm
              profits. Must consider farmland structure as well as agri-
              cultural practices and be approached in an interdisciplinary
              manner. Agricultural practices; maintain as much crop residue
              as possible, use integrated pest management, reduce the number
              of field operations that destroy nests, delay spring mowing as
              long as possible, prevent night mowing, space mowing as widely
              as possible in time to permit maximum success of nests.
              Farmland structure: encourage complex vegetation structure in
              uncultivated edges, maintain and enhance farmland diversity,
              increase crop diversity, reduce field size, CRP land could be
              allocated to strip cover within fields for along field edges,
              preserve wetlands and encircle them with broad buffers of
              herbaceous vegetation.

              CRP was associated with significantly more migrant species
              than resident species.  Migrants strongly dominate the bird
              communities of farmland and numerous major crops are
              positively associated with some migrant species.
              Uncultivated edge, CRP important habitat components for
              these species.

              RESEARCH NEEDS; Priority needs to be placed on definition  of
              dynamics of neo tropical migrants in farmland, including
              identification of required habitat features, effects of
              agricultural practices and farmland structures that may
              create and maintain population sources and or sinks. Special
              emphasis should be placed on determining effects of
              agriculture on  abundance and activities of nest predators.
              CRP provides these opportunities. Long term programs such as
              the CRP are needed because they provide opportunities for
              research on bird responses to farm management. Must get
              technical information to users in a form that is
              understandable and useable to the farming public.
              Information can not be restricted to technical or professional
              journals.


============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Ryan, M.R., L.W. Burger, and E.W. Kurzejeski.

PUBL. YEAR:   1998

TITLE:        The impact of CRP on avian wildlife: a review.

SOURCE:       Journal of Production Agriculture 11(1):61-66.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Review of quantitative data on grassland bird occurrence
              (species richness) and abundance and reproductive success
              in CRP during breeding season in central USA. Over 90 species
              were documented using CRP planting during breeding season.
              Evidence of nesting by more than 40 species. CRP supported
              1.4 to 10.5 time the number of individual birds as did crop
              fields. Nest abundance was from 8.8 to 27 times higher in CRP
              fields than in crop fields. Overall CRP produced about 14
              times a many songbirds as did crop fields. Waterfowl nesting
              in CRP fields similar to those covers managed for waterfowl
              production. Pheasant numbers 3 to 5 times higher after CRP
              plantings were established. Nest success of pheasants in CRP
              was greater than necessary for population growth. Although
              use of CRP by bobwhites was substantial direct evidence of
              CRP contributing to quail population growth was lacking.

              Overall, CRP provide high-quality breeding habitat for many
              grassland birds, including several that have experienced long-
              term declines in populations. Avian response to CRP is
              sufficient to justify efforts to maintain long-term set aside
              provisions in future federal legislation.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sample, D.W., and M.J. Mossman.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Habitat management guidelines for grassland birds on public
              and private land in Wisconsin.

SOURCE:       State of Wisconsin Memorandum, Bureau of Research. Monona.
              13 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Likely major cause of decline of grassland birds is loss or
              breeding habitat due to conversion of pasture to rowcrops and
              early and frequent mowing of alfalfa. Primary goal of habitat
              management for grassland birds should be to maximize the
              diversity and viability of grassland bird populations
              statewide, or on a regional basis. Special attention should
              be given to identifying current or potentially large tracts
              suitable for management.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sampson, F., and F. Knopf.

PUBL. YEAR:   1994

TITLE:        Prairie conservation in North America.

SOURCE:       Bioscience 44(6):418-421.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Since European settlement declines in the area of native
              prairie range up to 99.9%. In addition to direct loss over-
              grazing and recreation use add to the stress on remnant
              prairie.  55 grassland species currently threatened. Advocates
              inventory and monitoring of remaining prairie ecosystems,
              discouragement of establishment of woody plants and woody
              corridors within prairie dominated ecoregions, and realignment
              of administrative an ecoregion borders to increase efficiency
              in inventory and monitoring.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sargeant, A.B.

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        A case history of a dynamic resource - the red fox.

SOURCE:       Pgs. 021 -731 in G.C. Sanderson, ed. Midwest furbearer
              management. Proc. 34rd Symp. Midwest Fish and Wildl. Conf.
              Wichita, KS. Dec. 1981.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Red fox major predator of upland nesting birds. Factors
              contributing to expansion of range and increase in population:
              westward expansion of agriculture furnished  highly
              diversified habitat and reduction of coyote reduced inter-
              specific competition. Agricultural expansion created landscape
              high in diversity and edge resulting in a more broad-based
              food supply of greater stability.  Red fox generally increase
              in abundance in response to declines in coyote numbers.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sauer, J. R., G. W. Pendleton, and B. G. Peterjohn.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Evaluating causes of populations change in North American
              Insectivorous songbirds.

SOURCE:       Conservation Biology 10(2):465-478.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Results of Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) analysis do not provide
              evidence that predation on breeding grounds played a causal
              role in population changes. Results show that more species of
              Neotropical migrant birds have increased than have declined
              since the BBS began, general declines have been recent and
              limited to eastern part of continent.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Schmitz, R.A. and W. R. Clark.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Survival of ring-necked pheasant hens during spring in
              relation to landscape features.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage.63(1):147-154

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Density of edge between grassland and other habitats was
              predictive of the hazard rate and odds of mortality which
              increased 2% for every 10m/ha of additional edge in the home
              range. Management to reduce vulnerability to predation should
              be targeted to areas with high measures of edge. Reduction in
              edge density by increasing field size of permanent cover would
              increase spring survival. Need to estimate how landscape
              changes at township scale if full advantages of agricultural
              policies are expected.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Schmutz, J.K.

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        The effect of agriculture on Ferruginous and Swainson's hawks.

SOURCE:       J. Range Manage. 40(5):438-440.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Raptors are important an component of plains ecosystems.
              Summarization of the effects of cultivation and agricultural
              activity on hawk density in prairie region of Alberta. Density
              of ferruginous hawks declined with increasing cultivation. In
              contrast, Swainson 's hawk density was higher in areas of
              moderate cultivation (11-03%) than in grassland (<10%
              cultivation). Swainson's hawk tolerated high levels of
              cultivation (<90%) ferruginous did not. Ferruginous hawks have
              great affinity for land with sparse and short vegetation and
              avoid areas where grasses are replaced by dense and tall
              crops. In contrast, Swainson's hawks are more highly adapted
              to smaller prey common in ungrazed grassy borders of ponds,
              roads, and farmsteads than in intensively grazed pastures.  If
              small patches of natural or semi-natural cover containing
              trees or shrubs are strategically distributed in agricultural
              areas Swainson's hawks are likely to remain in reasonable
              numbers. Ferruginous hawks require grassland and will be
              common only where this land use is dominant.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sieg, C.H., C.H. Flather, and S. McCanny.

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Recent biodiversity patterns in the Great Plains: Implications
              for restoration and management.

SOURCE:       Great Plains Research (Fall 1999): 277-313.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     95% of land in the U.S. portion of the Great Plains is in
              private ownership making private lands in this region
              particularly important to the conservation of imperiled
              species and habitats. Grassland nesting birds had the highest
              overall rate of loss and the proportion of grassland species
              that declined (>44%) was greatest in the southern plains. An
              average of 9% of the wetland bird species have declined across
              the region between 1966 and 1996.

              Much uncertainty associate with plans to restore an maintain
              biodiversity of the Great Plains. For most aspects of
              biodiversity we lack a comprehensive understanding of past and
              current status. We have a relatively poor understanding of the
              role that disturbances (drought, fire, grazing, flooding)
              played in shaping various prairie types and their distinct
              landscape components. We know even less about how to
              incorporate disturbances into landscapes vastly altered by
              intensive land use, fragmentation, and the introduction of
              dozens of exotic species. Properly planned grazing regimes are
              appropriate components of a strategy to restore biodiversity
              throughout the Great Plains. Grazing systems should be tailored
              to a particular ecosystem and include variation in grazing
              duration and intensity. Restoration of fire in management
              plans should be considered with prescriptions based on
              historical patterns including burning at varying intervals and
              in different seasons.

              Management designed to conserve biodiversity should focus on
              provision of a diversity of habitats with varying successional
              and structural stages. Monitoring and evaluation of management
              actions  will be critical in developing future management
              options and policy guidelines. Public policies that focus on
              ecosystem protection and furnish private landowners with
              incentives to manage their property to meet conservation
              objectives are needed to assure long-term sustainability of
              Greta Plains ecosystems.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Snyder, W.D.

PUBL. YEAR:   1985

TITLE:        Survival of radio-marked hen ring-necked pheasants in
              Colorado.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage. 49(4):1044-1050.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Lowest monthly survival occurred in April due to avian
              predation. Great horned owls, Cooper's hawks,and prairie
              falcons, were primary avian predators. Coyote and feral house
              cats primary mammalian predators.  Presence of trees
              contributed to high rates of avian predation. Concealment
              quality of early spring residual cover was important factor
              in survival of hens.  Study area contained extensive tree and
              shrub plantings that attracted wintering pheasants and avian
              predators. Pheasants associated with trees incur a higher rate
              of avian predation than counterparts in habitats not
              containing trees.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Soutiere, E.C.

PUBL. YEAR:   1984

TITLE:        Farm wildlife production: what does it cost?

SOURCE:       Trans. North American Wildlife and Natural Resources
              Conference. 49:159-163.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Issues that negatively influence farmers' willingness to
              produce wildlife:  harassment and problems associated with
              increased hunting pressure and demand; increased crop damage;
              and loss of income from diverted lands.

              Delayed haying: Effects of delayed haying; lower tonnage and
              hay that is of lower digestibility and protein content. Dairy
              cows fed late-cut hay will require 1.5 -2 times more grain
              supplement and the grain mixture needs to contain an
              additional 5% protein.

              Can it be expected that farmers will carry the cost of
              providing wildlife habitat? The answer is reflected in the
              continued removal of wetlands, idle areas and fencerows. If
              the costs of wildlife are compared to the costs of
              agricultural products (grain, hogs) the costs of production on
              prime farmland are very high. Raising pen reared birds is a
              comparative bargain at these prices. Compensation to the
              farmer for wildlife habitat would probably need to be at
              least equal to 75-80% of the market value of the yield per
              acre of crop normally produced on set-aside land. Meaningful
              increase in wildlife numbers probably require that at least
              5% of land be devoted to wildlife habitat.

              Any solution to production of wildlife on farmland must
              include the acceptance of farming practices that produce
              wildlife as a no-cost, by-product of production. Agencies need
              to aggressively advocate and demonstrate farming technologies
              that help both the farmer and wildlife. The best approach for
              farmland wildlife management is to deal with resources and
              programs that encourage sound land use for all resources over
              the long term. Wildlife's only hope on prime farmland is farm
              practices, programs and policies that bring reduced costs or
              added income to the individual farmer.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Sovada, M.A., M.C. Zicus, R.J. Greenwood, D.P. Rave, W.E.
              Newton, R.O. Woodward, and J.A. Beiser.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Relationships of habitat patch size to predator community and
              survival of duck nests.

SOURCE:       Journal of Wildlife Management 64(3):820-831.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Evaluation of duck nest success an predator community
              composition in relation to size of discrete patches of nesting
              cover in the Prairie Pothole region. Study focused on CRP
              grasslands in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota.
              Activity patterns of red fox, badger, striped skunks, coyotes,
              and Franklin=s ground squirrels related to patch size and
              daily survival rate of upland duck nests. Estimated annual
              mean daily survival rates generally greater in larger habitat
              patches. Although authors believe a positive relationship
              between habitat patch size and nest success probably exists,
              they conclude that absolute proof remains elusive.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Swanson, D.A., D.P. Scott, and D.L. Risle

PUBL. YEAR:   1999

TITLE:        Wildlife benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program in Ohio.

SOURCE:       Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 54(1):390-394.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Use of CRP by grassland-dependent species was related to
              availability of CRP. More than half of fields sampled were
              mowed during the nesting season. Twenty-one of 40 fields were
              disturbed prior to August. On average disturbed fields had 51%
              of acreage mowed or burned. Disturbed fields had significantly
              lower values for VOR, percent grass canopy cover and mean
              herbaceous height. Mean age of fields was five years (2-7).
              Mean field size 20 ac (8.1 ha). Contract species dominated
              with 82.5% in timothy, orchardgrass and clover. Forty-three
              breeding bird species used CRP fields. Use by eastern
              meadowlarks and bobolinks significantly larger in nonused
              fields. All species were numerically more abundant in CRP
              fields contiguous with other grassland habitat.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Swanson, T.M.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Wildlife and wildlands, diversity and development.

SOURCE:       Pages 1-14 in T.M. Swanson and E.B. Barbier, eds. Economics
              for the wilds. Island Press, Washington DC.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Diversity and development need not be mutually exclusive, in
              fact maintaining the diversity of wild resources is a necessary
              condition for sustainable development. Wild resources should be
              treated as a input to the development process and cannot be
              excluded. The conservation of biodiversity implies the need to
              conserve not only a given stock of wildlife but the capacity
              for the species to mix and evolve in an ongoing interactive
              process. In other words, the habitat must be provided that will
              meet the needs of the targeted species across the landscape as
              well as through time. Important to integrate the value of
              wildlife/biodiversity into the economic process rather than
              shield them from it.  The economic value of resources will be
              the key to their continuing survival.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Szentandrasi, S., S. Polasky, R. Berrens, and J. Leonard.

PUBL. YEAR:   1995

TITLE:        Conserving biological diversity and the Conservation Reserve
              Program.

SOURCE:       Growth and Change 26:383-404.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Effective protection of wildlife species will oftern take
              place on land used primarily for purposes other than wildlife
              habitat. CRP lands currently are targeted to regions (e.g.
              midwest and great plains) that have relatively few threatened
              and endangered species. Paper describes method to re-target
              CRP to address T&E species concerns in Oregon or other regions
              where there are greater numbers of these species. Need for
              improved targeting if CRP is to continue to provide important
              environmental benefits. Primary agencies involved in
              management and monitoring of he CRP (USDA) do not have a t
              raditional wildlife-oriented mission, consequently species
              preservation and habitat protection considerations have been
              relatively under-investigated.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Taylor, M.W., C.W. Wolfe, and W.L. Baxter.

PUBL. YEAR:   1978

TITLE:        Land use change and ring-necked pheasants in Nebraska.

SOURCE:       Wildl. Soc. Bull. 6(4):6226-230.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Positive relationships between spring densities of hens and km
              of fencerows, hectare of pasture and hay, and wheat and wheat
              stubble. Populations inversely related to area of row crops,
              percent of land fall-tilled and hectares being irrigated.
              Irrigation generally involves extensive land leveling or
              clearing which eliminated idle areas, fence rows, old farm-
              steads, wetlands and other habitats of high value. Tillage of
              crop residue in fall, especially wheat stubble, reduced cover
              for wildlife. Interspersion index useful for predicting
              pheasant habitat quality and density of birds presented.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Thomas, M.B., S.D. Wratten, and N.W. Sotherton.

PUBL. YEAR:   1991

TITLE:        Creation of island habitats in farmland to manipulate
              populations of beneficial arthropods: predator densities and
              emigration.

SOURCE:       J. Applied Ecology 28(3):906-917.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Replacement of natural vegetation by crop monocultures can
              eliminate many indigenous insects. Diversity in habitat
              structure on both macro and micro scales will enhance
              abundance and diversity of insect populations. Decrease in
              diversity of habitats resulting from larger fields results in
              lower density of insects in interiors of larger fields.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Thompson, F.R., S.J. Lewis, J. Green, and D. Ewert.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Status of neotropical migrant landbirds in the midwest:
              Identifying species of management concern.

SOURCE:       Pages 145-158 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangel, eds. Status
              and Management of neotropical migratory birds. USDA Gen Tech
              Rept RM-229.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Encourage ecosystem management that addresses the needs of
              the many species of high management concern in the midwest.
              Grasslands one of several habitats that deserve special
              management attention. Grassland species identified as special
              management concern in order of decreasing importance; Bairds'
              sparrow, dickcissel, mountain plover, bobolink, long-billed
              curlew, grasshopper sparrow, lark bunting, upland sandpiper,
              burrowing owl, scissor-tailed flycatcher, Swainsons= hawk,
              lark sparrow.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Trautman, C.G.

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        History, ecology and management of the ring-necked pheasant
              in South Dakota.

SOURCE:       South Dakota Dept. Game and Parks. Pierre. 118 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Winter concentrations are invariably near weed patches, grain
              stubble, cornfields and other food sources. Distances traveled
              rarely exceed 1/4 mi. The nearness to available food is
              dominant factor in choice of winter roosting sites. Marshlands
              provide high quality winter cover. Detailed presentation of
              ring-necked pheasant history, ecology and management in South
              Dakota.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       U.S. Department Agriculture.

PUBL. YEAR:   1993

TITLE:        Conservation Reserve Program: Cost-Effectiveness is Uncertain.

SOURCE:       U.S. General Accounting Office. GAO/RCED-93-132. Washington,
              D.C. 14 pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Precise balance between the costs and environmental benefits of
              CRP cannot be calculated because dollar value of the
              environmental benefits from the program cannot be precisely
              assessed. The USDA has not quantified the effect on the
              environment of removing enrolled acres from production.  USDA
              will pay more than $91 billion to remove 63.5 million acres
              from production over ten year life of program. Benefits
              perceived be to only temporary. USDA goals of program were to
              reduce commodity production, support farm income and lastly to
              provide environmental benefits. As a result of these priorities,
              land with fewer environmental benefits was initially allowed
              into the program. Other USDA programs (Conservation Compliance,
              Agricultural Conservation Program, and Small watershed Program)
              were identified as covering more acres of cropland, cost less
              and provide more long-term environmental benefits. However,
              these programs are not intended to curb excess production and
              only indirectly support farm incomes. Advantages of these
              programs are that they do not take land out of production.
              (Implications to wildlife; less land set aside in permanent
              cover, probability of lower overall wildlife benefits).

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Vance, D.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1976

TITLE:        Changes in land use and wildlife populations in southeastern Illinois.

SOURCE:       Wildl. Soc. Bull. 4(1):11-15.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Summary of consequences of changes in land use (1939-1974) on
              wildlife populations in SE Illinois. Extensive grasslands and
              fencerows reduced by 48%. Intense cash-grain farming expected
              to cause further declines in habitat and populations. Soybeans
              have largely replaced grassland. Remaining  grassland (1% of
              area) is over grazed pasture. Three major compo nents of
              habitat, grassland, woody cover, and edge reduced by
              intensification of agricultural production. What remains of
              edge is of little value due to lower structural diversity.
              Fourteen species of birds declined due to loss of grassland,
              edge and savanna type habitats.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Vickery, P.D. and J.R. Herkert.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Recent advances in grassland bird research: where do we go
              from here?

SOURCE:       Auk 118(1):11-15.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Although several species of grassland birds have shown
              benefits and positive response to the CRP other species have
              shown continuing declines in population. Continued declines
              point to the complexities in diagnosing reasons behind
              population declines. One or more of the following reasons may
              be the cause; CRP has not provided enough habitat to offset
              losses of grasslands, CRP fields may be too small, CRP
              grasslands are possibly population sinks, problems affecting
              the species that continue to decline are not limited to the
              breeding grounds. More research needs to be directed toward
              definition of problems on wintering grounds.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Voigt, D.R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1987

TITLE:        Red fox.

SOURCE:       Pgs 378-392 in M. Novak, J.A. Baker, ME. Obbard and B.
              Malloch, eds. Wild furbearer management in North America.
              Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Toronto.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Increases in red fox numbers associated with declines in
              coyote. Competition with other canids, particularly coyote,
              strongly influence numbers of fox but not distribution.
              Foxes avoid raising pups in areas where coyotes had
              established a home range.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Voigt, D.R. and B.D. Earle.

PUBL. YEAR:   1983

TITLE:        Avoidance of coyotes by red fox families.

SOURCE:       J. Wildl. Manage. 47(3):852-857.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Foxes avoid raising pups in areas where coyotes traditionally
              travel and raise pups. Coyote ranges 5-7 times larger than
              fox territories may significantly limit the number of fox
              families in an area.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R.E.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Nest ecology of grassland passerines on road rights-of-way
              in central Illinois.

SOURCE:       Biological Conservation 59(1):1-7.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Availability of suitable grassland cover has decreased in
              response to increase in rowcrop farming. Fescue sustained
              relatively few breeding birds. Where farming is diversified
              and habitat conditions are more favorable rights of way and
              other linear habitats are used more extensively by birds.
              Use is influenced by habitat conditions in vicinity of strip
              and regional land use. Managed roadsides were important to
              passerines even where hay was present because most nests in
              hay are destroyed during harvest. Management practices to
              benefit grassland birds: 1 seed to brome-alfalfa and or native
              grasses and forbs; 2 delay mowing until after August 1; 3
              maximize strip width; 4 establishment of shelterbelts and
              woody plants should be encouraged in some areas to enhance
              diversity of species attracted to strip vegetation.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R.E., L.M. David, S.L. Etter, and G.B. Joselyn.

PUBL. YEAR:   1992

TITLE:        Costs and benefits of roadside management for ring-neck
              pheasants in Illinois.

SOURCE:       Wildl. Soc. Bull. 20:279-285.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Mitigating the effects of agricultural land use on upland
              wildlife remains a foremost challenge to resource agencies.
              Successful habitat programs in agricultural environment are
              most likely those that are relatively compatible with farming
              operations. Habitat initiatives  are rarely evaluated relative
              to response by target species, economics or the perceptions of
              cooperating landholders. Roadsides right-of-ways frequently
              mowed during the growing season have little habitat value for
              nesting pheasants. Paper summarizes economic costs and
              benefits of roadside seeding and maintenance in relation to
              improved habitat availability and production of pheasants.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R.E., S.L. Etter, L.M. David, and P.C. Mankin.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Annual set-aside programs: a long-term perspective of habitat
              quality in Illinois and the Midwest.

SOURCE:       Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(2):347-354.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Concludes that although the CRP has been beneficial, its
              future is uncertain because of its high cost. Long-term
              conservation strategies must include grassland preserves and
              development of relatively sustainable farming systems that
              accommodate needs of grassland dependent species. Short term
              contracts must be at least 3 years and support vegetative
              cover is present year to year.

              Relative benefits of native versus introduced grasses are
              presented as being unknown. Concludes that growing evidence
              exists that fields of cool-season grasses or forage legumes
              may be more attractive to nesting birds than are native
              species. Emphasis on native species may not be warranted when
              for typical landholder seeding of native species requires
              specialized equipment and several years for stand to become
              established.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Warner, R.E., P. Hubert, P.C. Mankin, and C.A. Gates.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        Disturbance and the survival of female ring-necked pheasants
              in Illinois.

SOURCE:       Journal of Wildlife Management 64(3):663-672.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Study conducted in east central Illinois in intensively farmed
              landscape; 93% rowcrops (corn and soybeans in equal
              proportion). Hens exhibiting disturbance-avoidance (farm
              operations, hunting, weather) behavior associated with
              extended movements coped well with hazards except during
              nesting. Relatively long-lived birds made extensive use of
              corn and soybeans while minimizing use of cover traditionally
              considered attractive to pheasants. Nesting season associated
              with high death rates of long-lived birds. Primary nest cover
              in study area was annual set-aside land planted to temporary
              cover crops(wheat, oats). Significant improvements in
              availability and permanence of quality cover  must occur on
              farm by farm over larger space an time scales to improve
              survival rates and population stability in intensively farmed
              landscapes.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Whitmore, R.

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        Insect biomass in agronomic crops as food for ring-necked
              pheasant chicks.

SOURCE:       PhD. Diss. Univ. Nebraska. Lincoln. 64. pp.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Corn, soybeans and alfalfa had significantly lower amounts of
              insect biomass than wheat, oats, sweet clover and oats-
              sweetclover. Estimated # chicks/ha supported by insect
              biomass: corn 8; soybeans 10, sweetclover 64; oats 86; oats-
              sweetclover 106.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Willson, G.D. and J. Stubbendieck.

PUBL. YEAR:   2000

TITLE:        A provisional model for smooth brome management in degraded
              tallgrass prairie.

SOURCE:       Ecological Resotration 18(1):34-38.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     In warm season pasture and native prairies smooth brome is
              considered a highly competitive weed because of its
              rhizomatous sod-forming root system and prolific seed
              production. Brome exhibits two predominant periods of tiller
              emergence and development. Most active period of tiller
              emergence is after flowering in June and continues into fall.
              The less active period of tiller emergence occurs from about
              mid-March through early May. Tiller elongation begins in early
              May in the central Great Plains and Midwest in response to
              greater day length.

              Management: Clipping during its active period of growth will
              lower the production of aboveground biomass of brome. Mowing
              and raking in an Illinois prairie in late April resulted in
              significant decrease in seasonal growth of brome. 50%
              reduction in smooth brome tiller density after a prescribed
              burn in early may at time of tiller elongation. Early spring
              burns appear best to limit biomass production of brome.
              Herbicides  also effective. Atrazine applied in late April at
              1.9 lbs/ac reduced smooth brome by 91% and shifted dominance
              from cool to warms season grasses. Only atrazine was
              effective in reducing brome tiller density, possibly because
              the herbicide killed the whole plant.

              Burning at emergence does not affect secondary tiller (after
              treatment growth) density in years when precipitation is
              normal or below normal although in years with  with above
              normal precipitation brome increases dramatically. Burning
              during other threes growth stages significantly reduces both
              tiller density and biomass, especially when repeated annually.

              Two factors that are particularly important in smooth brome
              management: post fire competition and seasonal timing of the
              fire. Single spring (Dill et al 1986) application oaf atrazine
              restored a pasture dominated by smooth brome when big bluestem
              and Indiangrass comprised only 20% of pre-treatment vegetation.
              Appears that warm-season tall grasses must comprise more than
              20% of species mix of degraded site before a prescribed burn
              will effectively reduce brome. Fire alone will not restore a
              degraded tall grass site dominated by smooth brome. At severely
              degraded sites (CRP, former cropland) other methods must be
              used such as herbicide applications followed by seeding of
              warm season grasses.

              Annual spring burning can lower species diversity by
              eliminated or preventing establishment of cool-season forbs
              (Knapp and others 1998). A single burn before tiller
              elongation that removes most of the litter may increase growth
              of brome due to increased light reaching growing leaves.

              In situations where smooth brome is the dominant specie sand
              warm-season grasses are absent burning will have no long-term
              negative effect on smooth brome and may actually increase
              abundance of the species. Burning of smooth brome during spring
              tiller elongation provides the most immediate and persistent
              reduction in both tiller density and biomass.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Woodward, A.J.W., and S.D. Fuhlendorf.

PUBL. YEAR:   2001

TITLE:        Influence of landscape composition and change on lesser
              prairie chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) populations.

SOURCE:       American Midland Naturalist 145 (2):261-274.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Declining populations of lesser prairie chickens were
              associated with landscapes characterized by greater rates of
              total landscape change (11% per decade) and loss of shrubland
              cover types compared with landscapes in which populations did
              not decline. Amount of cultivation was not associated with
              population trends for 13 populations monitored in Texas, New
              Mexico and Oklahoma. Smaller land ownerships in Oklahoma
              increased the potential for more variable management and
              greater amounts of landscape change. Landscapes that have
              undergone the most rapid change over the past several decades
              also had the most intensive settlement patterns resulting in
              smaller land holdings. Management should focus on maintaining
              stability of land use and continuity of shrublands within 4.8
              km of active leks.

============================================================================
AUTHOR:       Wooley, J. R. George, B. Ohde, and W. Rybarczyk.

PUBL. YEAR:   1982

TITLE:        Nesting evaluations of native grass pastures and narrow-row
              soybeans.

SOURCE:       Pgs 5-6 in R.B. Dahlgren, compiler, Proceedings of Midwest
              Agricultural Interfaces with Fish and Wildlife Resources
              Workshop. Iowa Coop. Res. Unit. Ames, Iowa.

CONTRIBUTOR:

COMMENTS:     Native grasses have a dense growth form similar to other types
              of pheasant nest cover and are unlikely to be mowed or grazed
              until after most eggs hatch. Leaving the recommended 20-25 cm
              (8-10 in) stubble to ensure optimum plant growth should
              provide residual cover for nesting the following spring.

              Pheasant nest densities high in both switchgrass and little
              bluestem, success greatest in switchgrass. Mowing operations
              in early June destroyed all nest and killed 8 of 11 hens
              nesting in alfalfa/orchard grass. Pheasant and passerine nest
              success higher in switchgrass that was not grazed or mowed
              the previous summer. Greater residual cover presumably more
              attractive to nesting females and resulted in greater numbers
              of successful nests. Switchgrass managed for nest cover
              should be left undisturbed.

============================================================================