Title: Recruiting and Retaining Women: A Self-Assessment Guide 
for Law Enforcement.

Series: Guide

Author: Bureau of Justice Assistance; National Center for Women & Policing

Published: 2000

Subject: Law Enforcement; Police recruitment, selection, and retention

281 pages

411,000 bytes

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Table of Contents

Preface     

How This Self-Assessment Guide is Organized

Chapter 1: 

Hiring and Retaining More Women: The Advantages to
Law Enforcement Agencies

Chapter 2:

Assessing a Law Enforcement Agency 

Chapter 3:

Developing a Job Description

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Checklist for Developing a Job Description

Chapter 4:

Recruiting Quality Candidates

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Forming a Recruitment Committee

Designing Recruitment Brochures and Posters

Establishing a Recruiting Team

Training Recruiters

Finding Sources of Women Recruits

Incentive Programs

Youth Outreach Programs

Monitoring Recruitment Efforts

Recruiting for State Agencies 

Recruiting for Sheriff's Departments

Checklist for Recruiting Quality Candidates

Chapter 5:

Removing Obstacles in the Selection Process

Statement of the Problem

Physical Testing

Written Examinations

Oral Interviews

Background Investigations

Psychological Evaluation

Medical Evaluation

Ranking and Hiring Eligible Applicants

Checklist for Removing Obstacles in the Selection
Process

Chapter 6:     

Designing Quality Recruit Academies and Field
Training Programs

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Training Committee

Curriculum

Selecting the Academy Director

Selecting the Academy Instructors

Physical Fitness and Skills

Firearms Training

Sexual Harassment, Discrimination, and Hostile Work
Environment

Selection of Field Training Officers

Monitoring Progress of Recruits

Checklist for Designing Quality Recruit Academies and 
Field Training Programs

Chapter 7:

Mentoring to Increase Retention

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Benefits of Mentoring Programs

Formal Mentoring Programs

Applicant Mentoring

New Hire Mentoring

Selection of Mentors

Training for Mentors and Mentees

Evaluation

Post-Academy Mentoring

Informal Mentoring Programs

Checklist for Mentoring for Retention

Chapter 8:

Valuing Civilian Employees

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Career Path and Civilianization of Positions

Inclusiveness

Advocacy

Equal Pay

Training

Inclusion of Civilian Staff

Checklist for Valuing Civilian Employees

Chapter 9:

Implementing Family-Friendly Policies

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Comprehensive Policies

Light Duty

Range Qualification

Uniforms

Disability Insurance and Paid Leave Benefits

Child Care Issues

Flexible Work Options

Checklist for Implementing Family-Friendly Policies

Chapter 10:

Monitoring Performance Evaluations

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

What Should be Evaluated?

Training Evaluators

Setting Goals for Performance

Reviewing Evaluations for Bias

Checklist for Monitoring Performance Evaluations

Chapter 11:

Assignments and Promotion

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Preparing Women for the Promotion Process

Examining the Promotion Process

Using Assessment Centers

Traditional Promotion Systems

Promotability Ratings

Seniority

Promoting the "First Woman"

Checklist for Assignments and Promotions

Chapter 12: 

Preventing Sexual and Gender Harassment,
Discrimination, And Retaliation 

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Developing a Comprehensive Sexual Harassment Policy

Designing an Effective Training Program

Designing and Implementing a Complaint and 
Investigation Process

Discrimination Investigation Unit

Investigation Guidelines

Screening Discrimination Investigators

Training Discrimination Investigators

Disciplining Offenders

Preventing Retaliation

Monitoring of Harassment Prevention Programs

Holding Managers and Supervisors Accountable

Checklist for Preventing Sexual and Gender
Harassment, Discrimination, and Retaliation

Chapter 13:    

Ensuring Impartial Internal Investigation and
Discipline Systems

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Complaint Investigation Policy

Selection and Training of Investigators

Anonymous Complaints

Preventing Retaliation

Discriminatory Referrals

Documenting Investigations

Breaking the Code of Silence

Investigation Timelines

Notification of Investigation Results

Data Collection and Reporting

Checklist for Ensuring Impartial Internal
Investigation and Discipline Systems

Chapter 14:     

Developing Effective Awards and Recognition Programs

Statement of the Problem

Legal Issues

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Checklist for Developing Effective Awards and
Recognition Programs

Areas for Further Research

Works Cited

Additional Resources

Reader Comments

-------------------

National Center for Women & Policing

A division of the Feminist Majority Foundation, the
National Center for Women & Policing (NCWP), promotes
increasing the numbers of women at all ranks of law
enforcement as a strategy to reduce police excessive
force, strengthen community policing reforms, and
improve police response to violence against women.
Research conducted in the United States and
internationally demonstrates that women police
officers utilize a style of policing that relies less
on physical force, are better at defusing potentially
violent confrontations and less likely to become
involved in use of excessive force, and respond more
effectively to violence against women. 

The NCWP:

o works to educate criminal justice policy makers,
the media and the public about the impact of
increasing the representation of women in policing;
ensures that gender is included in the analysis of
contemporary policing issues and reform efforts; and
promotes initiatives aimed at gender balancing law
enforcement agencies.

o produces and disseminates original research on
issues relevant to women in the field of law
enforcement. The NCWP's publications and materials
are the most authoritative available and in frequent
demand by the news media and criminal justice
policymakers and researchers.

o provides direct assistance, training, and extensive
materials to law enforcement agencies seeking to
increase the representation of women within their
ranks. The NCWP sponsors an annual leadership
development conference for command level women in
local, state, and federal law enforcement.

Contact Information:

8105 W. Third Street, Los Angeles, CA 90048

323.651.2532  Fax 323.653.2689  

womencops@feminist.org 

www.feminist.org/police/ncwp.html

------------------------

How the Self-Assessment Guide Was Developed

The National Center for Women & Policing received a
grant from the U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of
Justice Assistance to provide technical assistance to
law enforcement agencies by developing a
self-assessment guide to assist agencies seeking to
recruit and retain more women in sworn law
enforcement positions. An Advisory Board was
established consisting of state, county and municipal
law enforcement executives and members of other
professional organizations representing law
enforcement leaders and minority groups in law
enforcement.

After a draft of the sections on job description,
recruiting, selection, and mentoring were developed
and approved by the Advisory Board, they were sent
for field testing to Captain Mike Prynch at the
Boise, Idaho, Police Department and Colonel Richard
Rappoport at the Fairfax County, Virginia, Police
Department. Each department reviewed the sections and
utilized the checklists to examine their own agency's
policies and procedures. Both departments provided
valuable input regarding the content and format of
the guide. Based on this input, the remaining
sections of the guide were prepared and sent back to
the participating agencies for review. 

The members of the Advisory Board reviewed and
provided detailed input on several drafts of the
guide during its development.

The National Center for Women & Policing expresses
its appreciation to Colonel J. Thomas Manger, Fairfax
County, Virginia, Police Department and Chief Donald
Pierce, Boise, Idaho, Police Department for agreeing
to serve as test locations for the guide. Their
cooperation and the input of their staff were vital
to providing a valuable product for other law
enforcement agencies.

-------------------------

Acknowledgments

Principal Author

Chief Penny E. Harrington, Director

National Center for Women & Policing

Penny Harrington is the Director of the National
Center for Women & Policing, a division of the
Feminist Majority Foundation. Chief Harrington spent
23 years in the Portland, Oregon, Police Bureau,
rising to the rank of Chief of Police. She was the
first woman chief of a major U.S. city. After
becoming chief, Harrington began the implementation
of an agency-wide community policing program. Chief
Harrington has been instrumental in opening the field
of policing to women while being a mentor to women
nationally. She was named Ms. Magazine's Woman of the
Year in 1986 and in 2000 was installed in the
Michigan State University, School of Criminal
Justice, Wall of Fame. After leaving Portland, Chief
Harrington became the Assistant Director of
Investigations for the State Bar of California. As
Founding Director of the National Center for Women &
Policing, Penny is considered the foremost expert on
women in contemporary American policing in the U.S.
She speaks, writes, and conducts training about issues
of gender in law enforcement and often serves as an
expert witness in court cases about discrimination.
Her autobiography, "Triumph of Spirit" chronicles her
efforts to open policing to women.

Contributing Authors

Katherine Spillar, National Coordinator

Feminist Majority Foundation

Katherine Spillar is the National Coordinator of the
Feminist Majority and Feminist Majority Foundation.
She has been the driving force in executing the
Foundation's diverse programs securing women's rights
since its inception in 1987. A trained researcher and
program manager, Ms. Spillar spearheaded the Feminist
Majority's initiatives to gender-balance the Los
Angeles Police Department from 1991-94, and served as
co-convenor of the Women's Advisory Council to the LA
Police Commission from 1992-93. In her capacity as
National Coordinator, she oversees the activities of
the National Center for Women & Policing.

Kimberly A. Lonsway, PhD, Research Director

National Center for Women & Policing

Dr. Lonsway is the Research Director for the National
Center for Women & Policing. She conducts the annual
survey of the status of women in law enforcement
along with other research initiatives of the NCWP.
Lonsway was the project director on a grant from the
Violence Against Women Office to develop a sexual
assault curriculum for law enforcement on innovative
methods of responding to cases of acquaintance rape.
Dr. Lonsway is also teaches at California Polytechnic
State University.

Asst. Chief Roberta Webber (Ret.)

Portland Police Bureau 

Asst. Chief Webber retired from the Portland Police
Bureau in 1997 after nearly 26 years of service. She
was the first female Commander, Deputy Chief, and
Assistant Chief and the first woman to head the
Operations Brach of the Police Bureau. In 1994, she
was named one of Ten Outstanding Women in Oregon by
the Women's Foundation of Oregon.

Katherine A. (Kay) Baldwin
U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, 
Chief of the Employment Litigation Section of the 
Civil Rights Division at the U.S. Department of Justice, 
Ms. Baldwin is also Chair of the Attorney General's 
Advisory Committee on the Prevention of Sexual 
Harassment.

Alexandra Besser, Senior Researcher

National Center for Women & Policing

Alexandra Besser received her Bachelors of Arts in
Political Science from Barnard College, Columbia
University. Prior to joining the National Center for
Women & Policing, Ms. Besser worked as a media
researcher in Hong Kong and spent 2 years in
Washington DC as a research associate for People for
the American Way.

Steven Stanard, PhD, CEO

Stanard & Associates, Inc.

A nationally recognized expert in entry-level written
and physical ability examinations, promotional
examinations, fitness for duty assessments and
recruitment, Dr. Stanard consults with more than 500
police departments across the U.S. and
internationally.

Undersheriff Carol Daly

Sacramento County Sheriff's Department

Undersheriff Carol Daly is a 32-year veteran of the
Sacramento Sheriff's Department. She has held
assignments in every service area of the Department.
Carol served as president of the Law Enforcement
Chaplaincy Sacramento and is currently on the Board
of Directors. She is also active with the Special
Olympics and Habitat for Humanity charities.

Records Manager Debra Haugen

Portland Police Bureau 

Ms. Haugen has been with the Portland Police Bureau
for 25 years and has served as Police Records Manager
for 8 years. She is involved in a variety of
Bureau-wide issues including co-chairing The Taking
Community Policing into the Next Century committee
that was charged with creating the vision for the
Bureau.

Chief Richard Rappoport

Fairfax County Police Department, VA

Chief Rappoport has served with the Fairfax County
Police Department for 24 years and was formerly
Deputy Chief of Police for Administration. He holds a
Bachelors of Science degree in Justice from American
University and is a graduate of the F.B.I. National
Academy and the Southern Police Institute. 

Captain Ronald Webber (Ret.)

Portland Police Bureau

Captain Ronald Webber retired, after 27+ years, from
the Portland Police Bureau. He is a graduate of the
FBI National Academy and Webber has been involved in
Community Policing program planning and
implementation. His areas of expertise include
Internal Investigations, Civilian Review Boards, and
Training.

Advisory Board:

Chief Katherine Baldwin 

U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Civil Rights,
Employment Litigation Section

Undersheriff Carol Daly

National Sheriff's Association

Sacramento County Sheriff's Office, CA

Sylvester Daughtry, Executive Director

Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies

John Firman, Research Director

International Association of Chiefs of Police

Sheriff Margo Frasier

Travis County Sheriff's Office, TX

Commander Gary Gee

Asian-American Commanding Officers' Association

Bay Area Rapid Transit Police, CA

Laura Goodman-Brown, Director

President, International Association of Women Police 

Minnesota Office of Crime Victims Ombudsman

U.S. Marshal Rosa Melendez

Hispanic American Police Commanding Officers'
Association

U.S. Marshal's Service

Chief Charles Moose, PhD

Montgomery County Police Department, MD

Chief Annette Sandberg

Washington State Patrol

Katherine Spillar, National Coordinator

Feminist Majority Foundation

Steve Stanard, PhD, CEO

Stanard & Associates

Bob Stewart, Executive Director

National Organization of Black Law Enforcement
Executives

Bureau of Justice Assistance, Department of Justice:

Luke Gallant, Senior Advisor for Law Enforcement

Jeannie Santos, Program Manager

------------------------

Preface

How this Self-Assessment Guide is Organized

The National Center for Women & Policing developed
this manual, Recruiting & Retaining Women: A
Self-Assessment Guide for Law Enforcement, to assist
law enforcement agencies in hiring and retaining more
women employees. The step by step guide is designed
to help agencies examine their policies and
procedures and to identify and remove obstacles to
hiring and retaining sworn and civilian women
employees at all levels within the organization. The
guide also provides a list of resources for agencies
to use when planning or implementing changes to their
current policies and procedures.

The Guide Contains Chapters Addressing the Following
Issues:

o Hiring and retaining more women: The advantages to
law enforcement agencies

o Assessing a law enforcement agency

o Developing a job description

o Recruiting quality candidates

o Removing obstacles in the selection process

o Designing quality recruit academies and field 
training programs

o Mentoring to increase retention

o Valuing civilian employees

o Implementing family-friendly policies

o Monitoring performance evaluations

o Assignments and promotions

o Preventing sexual and gender harassment,
discrimination, and retaliation

o Ensuring impartial internal investigation and
discipline systems

o Developing effective awards and recognition
programs

Each Chapter of the Guide Contains the 
Following Sections:

Statement of the Problem

For administrators to improve their policies and
procedures for hiring and retaining women, a clear
understanding of the issues covered in each chapter
is necessary. In this section, the most common
problems found in law enforcement agencies are
discussed in detail. These problem statements are not
intended to be accusatory, but were developed to
assist agencies in gaining a more thorough
understanding of the obstacles that exist to hiring
and retaining women.

Legal Issues

Here, administrators are alerted to aspects of the
issues covered in each chapter that may require legal
input and review. Federal laws and court cases are
sometimes cited. Due to variations in state and local
laws, it is impossible to provide specific legal
information for every agency. Since the area of
employment law is frequently the subject of
litigation and collective bargaining agreements, all
changes to personnel policies and procedures should
be reviewed with legal counsel before being
implemented.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

This section provides solutions that may assist
agencies in removing obstacles to hiring and
retaining women. These suggestions are very detailed
and give practical guidance about each issue
discussed in the problem statement. Whenever
possible, model policies in use by other law
enforcement agencies have been included. 

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information 

In this section, references, resources, and points of
contact are provided for persons or agencies with
pertinent expertise and innovative programs. In
addition, a complete bibliography of related articles
is included at the end of the guide. (For updated
information on innovative programs and model
policies, contact information, and bibliographies,
see our website at
http://www.feminist.org/police/ncwp.html.)

Checklist

A comprehensive checklist provides an overview of the
steps involved at each stage of the self-assessment
process. At a glance, users of the manual can
determine whether they have reviewed key policies and
practices impacting each major area of agency
operations being assessed. 

No manual can be comprehensive enough to cover all
areas of police personnel practices. Furthermore,
there are many differences between law enforcement
agencies and the environment in which any specific
agency operates. This manual recognizes those
differences, and is intended to provide broad
direction and insight into what steps can be
undertaken by an agency undertaking a self-assessment
process. Agency size and organizational configuration
should be considered, along with state and local laws
and regulations, before the guide is used or modified
for use by an agency.

This manual is oriented primarily for medium to large
law enforcement agencies, although the general
philosophies should be applicable regardless of the
agency size. The terminology used most often is that
of a municipal police agency, but the manual is also
applicable for sheriffs departments, state agencies
such as state police, highway patrol, departments of
public safety, as well as other law enforcement
agencies such as game and fish, park and marine,
university and school police, and federal law
enforcement units.

The National Center for Women & Policing disclaims
any liability or responsibility for the consequences
of any actions taken in reliance on the statements or
opinions expressed in this manual. The materials
contained herein are not intended to establish
policy, procedure, or a standard of care. Readers
should consult a legal advisor familiar with state
and federal employment law prior to altering their
policies and procedures.

------------------

Chapter 1

Hiring and Retaining More Women: The Advantages to 
Law Enforcement Agencies 

In 1968, the Indianapolis Police Department made
history by assigning the first two female officers to
patrol on an equal basis with their male
colleagues.[1] Since that time, women have entered
the field of law enforcement in increasing numbers
and played a critical role in the development of
modern policing. Yet, the number of women in law
enforcement has remained small and the pace of
increase slow. The most recent research shows that
only 14.3% of sworn personnel are female, with an
annual increase of only 0.5% over the last several
years.[2] At this rate, women will not achieve
parity within the police profession for at least
another 70 years, and many have cautioned that time
alone is not sufficient to substantially increasing
their numbers.[3] 

In today's economy, law enforcement agencies are
facing enormous challenges recruiting qualified
candidates,[4] yet traditional strategies for
recruitment frequently overlook an entire pool of
potential applicants women.[5] The purpose of this
self-assessment guide is to provide a clear and
concrete blueprint for addressing this historic
neglect by removing the many built-in obstacles to
hiring and retaining more women in law enforcement.
First, however, we outline why these measures are
critically needed by documenting the many advantages
that women officers bring to law enforcement
agencies.

Law enforcement today is facing a crisis--a crisis
of public confidence and trust in the wake of police
corruption scandals that are unparalleled in recent
history. Highly publicized incidents of police use of
excessive force have generated headlines in cities
around the country. Police brutality and corruption
lawsuits are costing taxpayers millions of dollars
each year, and their numbers and costs are only
increasing.[6] Money paid out in settlements and
judgments is money that could otherwise be spent on
crime prevention and treatment programs, on schools,
social services, and other community programs that
reduce crime. 

At the same time, police leaders and executives are
under pressure to implement community or
service-oriented policing, transforming the very
nature of the relationship between law enforcement
and the communities they serve. Nationwide,
communities are demanding a shift in focus from their
law enforcement agencies toward a more modern
approach that emphasizes communication and
cooperation with citizens as well as informal problem
solving. 

What Does All of This Have to do With the 
Question of Hiring and Retaining More Women? 

Research conducted both in the United States and
internationally clearly demonstrates that women
police officers rely on a style of policing that uses
less physical force. They are better at defusing and
de-escalating potentially violent confrontations with
citizens and less likely to become involved in
problems with use of excessive force. Additionally,
women officers often possess better communication
skills than their male counterparts and are better
able to facilitate the cooperation and trust required
to implement a community policing model. In an era of
costly litigation, hiring and retaining more women in
law enforcement is likely to be an effective means of
addressing the problems of excessive force and
citizen complaints. 

As an additional benefit, female officers often
respond more effectively to incidents of violence
against women - crimes that represent one of the
largest categories of calls to police departments.[7,
8] Increasing the representation of women on the
force is also likely to address another costly
problem for police administrators - the pervasive
problem of sex discrimination and sexual harassment -
by changing the climate of modern law enforcement
agencies. Because women frequently have different
life experiences than men, they approach policing
with a different perspective, and the very presence
of women in the field will often bring about changes
in policies and procedures that benefit both male and
female officers. 

All of these factors can work to the advantage of
those in the police profession and the communities
they serve. These advantages will be discussed in
greater detail below to provide impetus for the type
of improvements outlined throughout the
self-assessment guide. We begin with the research
demonstrating that female officers are equally
capable as their male counterparts, and go on to
summarize some of the work documenting the unique
advantages that women offer to the contemporary field
of law enforcement.

Six Advantages for Law Enforcement Agencies That Hire
and Retain More Women

1. Female Officers Are Proven to be as Competent 
as Their Male Counterparts.

A number of early evaluations were conducted to
determine the effectiveness of male versus female
officers in law enforcement agencies such as
Washington DC,[9] St. Louis,[10] New York City,[11]
Denver,[12] Newton, Massachusetts,[13]
Philadelphia,[14] California,[15] and
Pennsylvania.[16] 

o The results clearly indicated that "men and women
were equally capable of police patrol work."[17] 

o Similar research conducted in other countries has
reached the same conclusion,[18] as do more recent
efforts that find no meaningful difference between
male and female officers in: their activities or
productivity on patrol;[19] their commitment to law
enforcement organizations;[20] their response to
violent confrontations;[21] and their performance
evaluations received both at the academy and on the
job.[22] 

In fact, some studies indicate areas of police
performance in which women excel.

o In one study, female police executives were found
to be more flexible, emotionally independent,
self-assertive, self-confident, proactive, and
creative than their male counterparts. 

o Other research consistently demonstrates that women
in law enforcement have more education than their
male peers.[23] 

Clearly, the body of evidence suggests that male and
female police officers are equally capable to
successfully meet the demands of the law enforcement
profession. As one researcher observed, "not all
women are able to handle all police jobs--but neither
are all men [Moreover,] in some respects at least,
women are better suited for police work than
men."[24] 

2. Female Officers Are Less Likely to Use Excessive
Force.

"Police work used to be like a laborer's job...the
only requirement was that you had to be tough. Now,
that's not what we're looking for...[The job] is all
about knowing how to talk to people. We screen for
drug use, criminal background, but we don't do much
screening for people who can get along with other
people...A good cop knows how to defuse the situation
by talking it out."[25] 

As this quote indicates, a "good cop" uses
communication skills in every aspect of the job and
can often reduce the need for force by deescalating
potentially violent situations. By this criterion,
women clearly make "good cops," as demonstrated in
research both in the U.S. and internationally over
the last 25 years.

o To date, there are a number of studies
demonstrating that female officers utilize a less
authoritarian style of policing that relies less on
physical force--despite research showing women
respond to similar calls and encounter similar
dangers on duty and are as effective as their male
counterparts in performing police duties.[26] 

Other recent research finds no difference in the
level of force used by male verses female officers
during the course of routine professional duties.[27] 
Additionally, women are less likely to engage in
high-risk pursuits that may harm individuals
involved.[28] Yet regardless of whether female and
male officers use comparable levels of force during
routine activity, it is clear that women are
significantly less likely to be involved in employing
both deadly force[29]and excessive force.[30] (See
Appendix A for the Feminist Majority Foundation and
National Center for Women & Policing's study, "Gender
Differences in the Cost of Police Brutality and
Misconduct: A Content Analysis of LAPD Civil
Liability Cases: 1990-1999.")

The Question of Force and Physical Strength

The question of force lies at the heart of the
traditional reluctance to hire women into policing. 
A number of studies document that both police
officers and community members are concerned that
women are not strong enough or aggressive enough for
police work.[31] 

o Yet physical strength has not been shown to predict
either general police effectiveness[32] or the
ability to successfully handle dangerous
situations.[33] 

o In fact, there are no documented cases of negative
outcomes due to the lack of strength or aggression
exhibited by a female officer.[34] 

o Rather, some have suggested that alternative
characteristics might be preferable to physical
strength, such as the ability to defuse potential
violence[35] and maintain composure in situations of
conflict.[36] It is therefore important to note that
female officers not only exhibit more reasoned
caution than their male counterparts, but also that
they increase this tendency in their male
partners.[37] 

Given that an estimated 80-90% of policing involves
noncriminal or service functions,[38] the emphasis in
traditional policing on physical strength might
actually serve as a liability to police departments
seeking to successfully meet the demands of their
community. In addition, it serves to "weed out" women
(and men) who could potentially implement an
alternative model of policing that focuses less on
physical force and more on interpersonal
communication.[39] 

An Emphasis on Communication

A shift away from an emphasis on physical force is
likely to capitalize on the interpersonal skills that
female officers possess, not only in equal measure to
their male counterparts, but often to a greater
degree. Perhaps for this reason, at least two studies
have documented a preference among community members
for female officers to respond to potentially
dangerous situations.[40] Unfortunately, these
interpersonal skills have not traditionally been
emphasized in selection standards and background
investigations. In fact, a history of perpetrating
violence has often been ignored when screening
potential candidates.[41] 

However, in today's environment of ever-increasing
litigation, law enforcement agencies cannot afford to
overlook any means of reducing their risk of
excessive force in favor of a more service-oriented
style of policing.[42] By hiring and retaining more
women, departments can go a long way toward
transforming their focus to one that emphasizes
interpersonal skills and cooperation with the
community.

3. Female Officers Can Help Implement
Community-Oriented Policing

Community policing represents a new approach to
modern law enforcement, emphasizing communication and
cooperation with citizens as well as informal problem
solving. It is therefore important to note that women
officers receive more favorable evaluations and fewer
citizens complaints than their male counterparts.[43] 

o To illustrate, one study found that male officers
were the target of 50% more insults by citizens and
almost three times as many threats or attempts at
injury in comparison with their female peers.[44] 

o In another study, police training instructors
indicated that female officers have an advantage over
their male peers in several areas, including empathy
toward others and interacting in a way that is not
designed to "prove" something.[45] 

For their part, female officers are reportedly less
cynical in their view of citizens,[46] which is
noteworthy because such an orientation is associated
with a decreased likelihood of using both reasonable
and/or excessive force.[47] Women in law enforcement
are also less likely to be involved in misconduct,[48] 
and they report greater support for the principles of 
community policing than their male colleagues.[49] 
It is no wonder, then, that many have suggested hiring 
more female officers as a way of improving the public image 
of the police department.[50] 

4. More Female Officers Will Improve Law
Enforcement's Response to Violence Against Women.

Research indicates that 2-3 million women are
physically assaulted each year in the U.S. by their
male partners,[51] and that 21-34% of American women
are physically assaulted by a male intimate sometime
during their adult lives.[52] In addition, the most
recent national estimates indicate that one out of
six American women will be sexually assaulted[53] and
one out of 12 will be stalked[54] during their
lifetime. Clearly, the extent of the problem
highlights the critical importance of police response
to crimes of violence against women. The cost of
failure in this particular area is high, both in
human and financial terms. 

o Ineffective police response has been found to deter
victims of domestic violence from reporting future
assaults.[55] 

o Inappropriate response also adds to the risk of
litigation, as departments are increasingly being
held liable for failing to properly handle domestic
violence. This is especially true in cases where a
protective order has been issued.[56] 

Fortunately, the benefits of success are also
substantial, as effective police response has been
found to both improve the self-esteem of battered
women[57] and increase the likelihood that they will
leave abusive relationships.[58] 

Because the police response to crimes of violence
against women is so critical, it is worth noting that
female officers have long been viewed as more
effective in this area than their male counterparts.[59] 
This perception is shared by the community,[60] police 
training instructors,[61] and female officers themselves.[62] 
It is also supported by research.

o A 1985 study found that female officers
demonstrated more concern, patience, and
understanding than their male colleagues when
responding to calls of domestic violence.[63] 

o In the same study, battered women who had contact
with a female officer rated the police response as
more helpful than those without such contact. They
also rated the performance of female officers more
favorably. 

Given that domestic violence represents the single
largest category of calls made to police, this
ability is critically important to the success of
contemporary law enforcement in responding to the
needs of the community.[64] 

The Problem of Police Family Violence

Of course, it is insufficient to discuss the police
response to violence against women without addressing
the possibility that responding officers have
committed these crimes themselves.

Domestic violence has been documented in as many as
40% of police families,[65] and law enforcement
agencies around the county are increasingly faced
with the question of how to respond when these crimes
are reported.[66] Many have noted the traditional
failure of police departments to respond effectively
to officer-involved domestic violence and described
the grim reality thus faced by victims.[67] 

To improve the situation, the International
Association of Chiefs of Police recently issued a
number of policy recommendations.[68] Because
violence against women is vastly more likely to be
committed by men rather than women,[69],[70] another
obvious recommendation is to increase the number of
female law enforcement professionals. Increasing
women's numbers in the ranks of law enforcement has
the potential for lessening the chance that an
officer who has perpetrated such a crime will handle
crimes of violence against women.

5. Increasing the Presence of Female Officers Reduces
Problems of Sex Discrimination and Harassment Within
an Agency.

Research documents that women in law enforcement
continue to face a variety of obstacles, including
negative attitudes, gender discrimination, and sexual
harassment. 

o Research consistently demonstrates that the
negative attitude of male colleagues is the single
most significant problem reported by female
officers.[71] 

o Other work documents the widespread prevalence of
gender discrimination, under-utilization of female
officers, and sexual harassment.[72]  

o In multi-departmental studies as many as 63-68% of
the female officers report having experienced sexual
harassment.[73]  

This climate of "widespread gender bias"[74] seen in
contemporary police agencies has a number of
deleterious effects, not the least of which is the
negative impact on the retention and promotion of
female officers. 

In general, although women enter and remain in the
policing profession for many of the same reasons that
men do, including the desirable pay and benefits, the
challenges associated with the job, and the
opportunity to help others,[75] they often leave for
reasons that are very different, including unique stressors 
not faced by their male counterparts. These include:

o Problems with co-worker gossip, training, lack of
promotional opportunity, administrative policies that
disadvantage female officers, and pressures to
demonstrate their competence beyond what is expected
by their male colleagues.[76] 

o Decreased trust in their colleagues.[77] 

o More physical consequences of stress.[78] 

o More indicators of burnout and greater intention to
quit.[79] 

One of the most prominent impacts, however, deals
with the lack of promotional opportunities. Male and
female officers report the same desire for
promotion,[80] yet these opportunities are seen as
less available to women in comparison with their male
counterparts.[81] This is certainly part of the
explanation for the higher turnover rate that is
consistently seen among female officers, both at the
academy and on the job.[82] 

Extensive research reveals that sexual harassment is
much more likely in male-dominated workplaces and in
fields that have been traditionally considered
masculine.[83] Hiring and retaining more women within
a law enforcement agency will demonstratively reduce
the exposure to liability by simply reducing the
numeric under-representation of female officers. The
increased representation of women can also have the
benefit of transforming the very climate within a law
enforcement agency and reducing the prevalence of
gender discrimination, under-utilization, and sexual
harassment.[84] 

6. The Presence of Women Can Bring About Beneficial 
Changes in Policy for All Officers.

Lewis Sherman envisioned as early as 1973 that police
departments would be held liable for their
under-representation of female officers and that
hiring more women would not only bring them into
compliance with the U.S. Constitution but also yield
improvements in the procedures for selection,
recruitment, and retention of all sworn
personnel.[85] As he argued:

"If a woman 5 feet, 3 inches tall can perform the job
of patrol, why not a man who is the same height? If a
woman needs better physical defense training, might
not also a man? If a woman defuses a violent
situation without having to make an arrest, shouldn't
she or any man who does the same be given a high
rating for effective law enforcement performance? 
Departments could move toward making their selection
and training standards job-related, as well as toward
development of new measures of police
performance."[86] 

Improvements such as these would inevitably benefit
both female and male employees within law
enforcement. The Police Foundation similarly noted in
1974 that:

"The introduction of women will create an
incentive...to examine many management practices
which are less acceptable now that they must be
applied to men and women alike. This may result in
the development of improved selection criteria,
performance standards, and supervision for all
officers."[87] 

They further concluded that the expanded supply of
police personnel, the reduced cost of recruiting, and
better community representation were additional
benefits of hiring more female officers.[88] 

The Imperative to Hire More Women

Given the many difficult challenges facing modern
police agencies, the advantages for hiring more women
have never been more clear. However, at the current
rate of hiring, it is inevitable that women will
remain under-represented within law enforcement
unless traditional policies and practices are changed
substantially. 

The good news is that changes in policies can have a
dramatic impact on the recruitment and retention of
women police officers.

o For example, when the Albuquerque Police Department
instituted a range of policies under the "New
Workplace Project" funded by the U.S. Department of
Labor, the percentage of female recruits increased
from 10% to 25%, and they were retained at the same
rate as their male counterparts.[92] 

o Similarly, the Tucson Police Department increased
their percentage of female recruits from 10% to 29%
by implementing active strategies to retain women.
Furthermore, clear initiatives to address sexual
harassment have been documented to better prepare
officers to prevent or stop such behavior.[93] 

Based on both research and practical experience,
there is every reason to believe that such changes
will yield benefits not only to women within the
police profession, but also to their male
counterparts, the larger police organization, and the
communities they serve.

----------------

Endnotes for Chapter 1

1. Dorothy Moses Schulz, From Social Worker To
Crime Fighter: Women in United States Municipal
Policing (Praeger Publishers, 1995).

2. National Center for Women and Policing, "Equality
Denied: The Status of Women in Policing," (Los
Angeles: National Center for Women & Policing, 1999),
1-17.

3. Carole G. Garrison, Nancy Grant, and Kenneth
McCormick, "Utilization of Police Women," The Police
Chief, September 1998, 32 (7).

4. Jacob C. Clark, "Is Anybody Out There?: Stiff
Competition for Recruits Fuels Agencies' Personnel
Woes," Law Enforcement News, April 10 1998, 1, 6.

5. Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting,
Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers:
Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October
1998, 42-53.

6. Victor E. Kappeler, Stephen F. Kappeler, and
Rolando V. Del Carmen, "A Content Analysis of Police
Civil Liability Cases: Decisions of the Federal
District Courts 1978-1990," Journal of Criminal
Justice 21 (1993): 325-337.

7. Robert J. Homant and Daniel B. Kennedy, "Police
Perceptions of Spouse Abuse - A Comparison of Male
and Female Officers," Journal of Criminal Justice 13
(1985): 29-47.
Daniel B. Kennedy and Robert J. Homant, "Battered
Women's Evaluation of the Police Response,"
Victimology: An International Journal 9, no. 1
(1984): 174-179.

8. Massachusetts Coalition of Battered Women Service
Groups. Domestic Violence Factsheet.

9. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen
on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The
Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67.

10. Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen
on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal
of Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975):
434-438.

11. Sichel et al., "Women on Patrol," National
Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice
(1977).

12. H.W. Bartlett and A. Rosenblum, Policewomen
Effectiveness (Denver: Denver Civil Service
Commission, 1977).

13. Carol Kizziah and Mark Morris, "Evaluation of
Women in Policing Program," (1977).

14. Bartell & Associates, "The Study of Police Women
Competency in the Performance of Sector Police Work
in the City of Philadelphia," (1978). (cited in
Martin & Jurik, 1996)

15. California Highway Patrol, "Women Traffic Officer
Report: Final Report," (1976).

16. Pennsylvania State Police, "Pennsylvania State
Police Female Trooper Study," (1974).

17. Susan Ehrlich Martin and Nancy C. Jurik, Doing
Justice, Doing Gender: Women in Law and Criminal
Justice Occupations (Thousand Oaks California: SAGE
Publications, 1996).

18. For a review of international research, see
Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like
Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38.

19. John R. Snortum and John C. Beyers, "Partol
Activities of Male and Female Officers as a Function
of Work Experience," Police Studies 6 (1983): 63-42.

20. Louis W. Fry and Sue Greenfeld, "An Examination
of Attitudinal Differences Between Policewomen and
Policemen," Journal of Applied Psycholoy 65, no. 1
(1980): 123-126.

21. Sean A. Grennan, "Findings on the Role of Officer
Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens," Journal
of Police Science and Administration 15, no. 1
(1987): 78-85.

22. Catherine A. Jones, "Predicting the Effectiveness
of Police Officers" (San Diego State University, 1987
(b)). (cited in Lunneborg, 1989).

23. Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the
Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law
Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 2 (1983): 149-155.
Patricia W. Lunneborg, Women Police Officers: Current
Career Profile (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas,
1989).

24. Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like
Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38.

25. Timothy Egan, "Image of 'Man' Behind Badge
Changing," New York Times, April 25 1991, A14.

26. Sean A. Grennan, "Findings on the Role of Officer
Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens," Journal
of Police Science and Administration 15, no. 1
(1987): 78-85. 
Gary R. Perlstein, "Policewomen & Policemen A
Comparative Look.," Police Chief 39, no. 3 (1972):
72-74.
Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on
Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of
Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975):
434-438.
Feminist Majority Foundation and National Center for
Women & Policing, "Gender Differences in the Cost of
Police Brutality and Misconduct: A Content Analysis
of LAPD Civil Liability Cases: 1990-1999," (Los
Angeles: Feminist Majority Foundation & National
Center for Women & Policing, 2000).

27. Robert E. Worden, "The Causes of Police
Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Use of
Force," in And Justice for All: Understanding and
Controlling Police Abuse of Force, ed. William A.
Geller and Hans Toch (Washington, D.C.: Police
Executive Research Forum, 1995), 31-60.
Joel Garner, John Buchanan, and John Hepburn,
"Understanding the Use of Force by and Against the
Police," U.S. Department of Justice, National
Institute of Justice , no. 11-96 (1996): 11.

28. Geoffrey P. Alpert, "Police Pursuit: Policies and
Training," (U.S. Department of Justice, National
Institute of Justice, 1997), 15.

29. Horvath, "The police use of deadly force: A
description of selected characteristics of intrastate
incidents," Journal of Police Science Administration
15 (1987): 226-238. (cited in Riksheim & Chermak,
1993).

30. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police
Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on
the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los
Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles
Police Department, 1991), 17.

31. Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like
Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38. 
Kenneth W. Kerber, Steven M. Andes, and Michele B.
Mittler, "Citizen Attitudes Regarding the Competence
of Female Police Officers," Journal of Police Science
5, no. 3 (1977): 337-347.
R. Linden, "Women in Policing - A study of lower
mainland Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachments,"
Canadian Police College Journal 7 (1984): 217-229.
M. Vega and I.J. Silverman, "Female officers as
viewed by their male counterparts," Police Studies 5
(1982): 31-39.
Karin E. Winnard, "Policewomen and the People They
Serve," Police Chief, August 1986, 62-63.
Nancy C. Jurkin, "An Officer And A Lady:
Organizational Barriers To Women Working As
Correctional Officers in Men's Prisons," 32, no. 4
(1985): 375-388.

32. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women
in Policing," in Police Roles in the Seventies:
Professionalization in America, ed. Jack Kinton (Ann
Arbor, MI: Edwards Brothers, 1973), 77-95.

33. Daniel J. Bell, "Policewomen: Myths and
Realities," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 10, no. 1 (1982): 112-120.

34. M.T. Charles, "Performance and socialization of
female recruits in the Michigan State Police training
academy," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 10 (1981): 209-223. (cited in Balkin,
1988).

35. Marlene W. Lehtinen, "Sexism in Police
Departments," Trial Magazine, September 1976, 52-55.

36. C.J. Rogers, "Women in Criminal Justice: Similar
and unique obstacles to their acceptance in law
enforcement and corrections" (paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice
Sciences, 1987). (cited in Balkin, 1988).

37. Susan Ehrlich Martin, Breaking and Entering:
Policewomen on Patrol (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1980).

38. Daniel J. Bell, "Policewomen: Myths and
Realities," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 10, no. 1 (1982): 112-120.
J. McGeorge and J.A. Wolfe, "Comparison of attitudes
between men and women police officers - A preliminary
analysis," Criminal Justice Review 1 (1976): 21-33.
R.G. Taleny, "Women in Law Enforcement: An expanded
role," Police 14 (1969): 49-51.

39. Alissa Pollitz Worden, "The Attitudes of Women
and Men in Policing: Testing Conventional and
Contemporary Wisdom," Criminology 31, no. 2 (1993):
203-236.

40. C.G. Sulton and R.D. Townsey, "A Progress Report
on Women in Policing," (Washington, DC: Police
Foundation, 1981). (both cited in Winnard, 1986).
J.L. Sicehl et al., "Women on Patrol: A Pilot Study
of Police Performance in New York City," (Washington,
DC: National Institute of Law Enforcement and
Criminal Justice, 1978).

41. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police
Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on
the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los
Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles
Police Department, 1991), 17.

42. The city of Los Angeles Police Department paid
out $32 million in 1999 in settlements and
judgements, triple from $10.2 million in 1998 (Los
Angeles Times, January 11, 2000). 

43. H.W. Bartlett and A. Rosenblum, Policewomen
Effectiveness (Denver: Denver Civil Service
Commission, 1977). (cited in Bakin, 1988).
Anderson, & Gervais, 1973. 
Patricia Marshall, "Policewomen on Patrol," Manpower
5, no. 10 (1973): 14-20.

44. Patricia Marshall, "Policewomen on Patrol,"
Manpower 5, no. 10 (1973): 14-20. (cited in Bell,
1982).

45. Diane L. Pike, "Women in Police Academy Training:
Some aspects of organizational response," in The
Changing Roles of Women in the Criminal Justice
System: Offenders, Victims, and Professionals, ed.
Imogene L. Moyer (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland
Press, 1985), 250-270. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989).

46. Alissa Pollitz Worden, "The Attitudes of Women
and Men in Policing: Testing Conventional and
Contemporary Wisdom," Criminology 31, no. 2 (1993):
203-236.

47. Robert E. Worden, "The Causes of Police
Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Use of
Force," in And Justice for All: Understanding and
Controlling Police Abuse of Force, ed. William A.
Geller and Hans Toch (Washington, D.C.: Police
Executive Research Forum, 1995), 31-60.

48. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen
on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The
Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67.

49. Stanard & Associates Inc., "An Investigation of
Police Officer Morale," (Chicago, IL: 1997), 17.

50. Anthony Vastola, "Women in Policing: An
Alternative Ideology," The Police Chief, January
1977.
Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in
Policing," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.

51. M.A. Straus and R.J. Gelles, Physical Violence in
American Families: Risk factors and adaptions to
violence in 8,145 families (New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction, 1990). 
M.A. Straus, R.J. Gelles, and S. Steinmetz, Behind
Closed Doors: Violence in the American Family (Garden
City, NJ: Anchor Press, 1980). (both cited in
Browne, 1993).

52. I.H. Frieze et al., "Types of Battered Women"
(paper presented at the Annual Research Conference of
the Association for Women in Psychology, Santa
Monica, CA, 1980). D.E.H. Russell, Rape in Marriage
(New York: Macmillan, 1982). (cited in Browne, 1993).

53. Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, "Stalking in
America: Findings From the National Violence Against
Women Survey," (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Justice, National Institute of Justice, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 1998), 19.

54. Violence Against Women Grants Office, "Stalking
and Domestic Violence: The Third Annual Report to
Congress under the Violence Against Women Act,"
(Washington, D.C.: Violence Against Women Grants
Office, 1998), 67. 

55. E.M. Abel and E.K. Suh, "Use of police services
by battered women," Social Work 32, no.
November/December (1987): 526-8. (cited in Martin,
1997).

56. Greg Anderson, "Sorichetti v. City of New York
Tells the Police that Liability Looms for Failure to
Respond to Domestic Violence Situations," University
of Miami Law Review 40, no. 307 (1985): 333-358.

57. Mary C. Brown, "The Plight of Female Police: A
Survey of NW Patrolmen," The Police Chief 61, no. 9
(1984): 50-53.

58. M. Pagelow, Woman-Battering: Victims and Their
Experiences (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1981). (cited in
Martin, 1997).

59. Dorothy Moses Schulz, From Social Worker To
Crime Fighter: Women in United States Municipal
Policing (Praeger Publishers, 1995).
Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in
Policing," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.
Katharine van Wormer, "Are Males Suited to Police
Patrol Work?," (1981): 41-44.

60. Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like
Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38.
Kenneth W. Kerber, Steven M. Andes, and Michele B.
Mittler, "Citizen Attitudes Regarding the Competence
of Female Police Officers," Journal of Police Science
5, no. 3 (1977): 337-347.
Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on
Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of
Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975):
434-438.
Karin E. Winnard, "Policewomen and the People They
Serve," Police Chief, August 1986, 62-63.

61. Diane L. Pike, "Women in Police Academy Training:
Some aspects of organizational response," in The
Changing Roles of Women in the Criminal Justice
System: Offenders, Victims, and Professionals, ed.
Imogene L. Moyer (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland
Press, 1985), 250-270. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989).

62. Catherine A. Martin, H.E. McKean, and Lane J.
Veltkamp, "Post-traumatic stress disorder in police
and working with victims: A pilot study," Journal of
Police Science and Administration 14 (1986): 98-101.
Tineke Ritmeester and Melanie Shepard, "Violence
Against Women: Do Female Police Officers Make a
Difference?" (paper presented at the Minnesota
Association of Women Police, Fall Training
Conference, Duluth, Minnesota, October 1991), 29.
(cited in Lunneborg, 1989).

63. R.J. Homant and D.B. Kennedy, "Police perceptions
of spouse abuse - a comparison of male and female
officers," Journal of Criminal Justice 13 (1985):
29-47.

64. The Women's Advisory Council To The Los Angeles
Police Commission, "A Blueprint for Implementing
Gender Equity in The Los Angeles Police Department,"
(Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles Police Commission,
1993), 76.

65. Peter H. Neidig, Harold E. Russell, and Albert F.
Seng, "Interspousal Aggression in Law Enforcement
Families: A Preliminary Investigation," Police
Studies: International Review of Development 30, no.
Spring (1992): 30-38.

66. Larry Boyd et al., "Domestic Assault Among
Police: A Survey of Internal Affairs Policies,"
(Arlington: Arlington, TX Police Department,
Southwestern Law Enforcement Institute of the
Southwestern Legal Foundation, 1995), 10.

67. John Feltgen, "Domestic Violence: When the Abuser
is a Police Officer," The Police Chief, October 1996,
42-47.
Lonald D. Lott, "Deadly Secrets: Violence in the
Police Family," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (1995):
12-16.

68. Jacob C. Clark, "Is Anybody Out There?: Stiff
Competition for Recruits Fuels Agencies' Personnel
Woes," Law Enforcement News, April 10 1998, 1, 6.

69. Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, "Prevalence,
Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against
Women: Findings from the National Violence Against
Women Survey," (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Justice, National Institute of Justice, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 1999), 16.

70. "Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate
Partner Violence," (National Institute of Justice,
2000).

71. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police
Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on
the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los
Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles
Police Department, 1991), 17.
William M. Timmins and Brad E. Hainsworth,
"Attracting and Retaining Females in Law Enforcement:
Sex-Based Problems of Women Cops in 1988,"
International Journal of Offender Therapy and
Comparative Criminology (1988): 197-205.
Judie Gaffin Wexler and Deana Dorman Logan, "Sources
of Stress Among Women Police Officers," Journal of
Police Science and Administration 11, no. 1 (1983):
46-53.

72. Carole G. Garrison, Nancy Grant, and Kenneth
McCormick, "Utilization of Police Women," The Police
Chief, September 1998, 32 (7).
Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police
Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on
the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los
Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles
Police Department, 1991), 17.
Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work - Annie
Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988): 124-127.
Susan E. Martin, "On The Move: The Status of Women in
Policing," (1990).

73. Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work -
Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988):
124-127.
Susan E. Martin, "On The Move: The Status of Women in
Policing," (1990).

74. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police
Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on
the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los
Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles
Police Department, 1991), 17.

75. Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work -
Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988):
124-127.
Eric D. Poole and Mark R. Pogrebin, "Factors
Affecting the Decision to Remain in Policing: A Study
of Women Officers," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 16, no. 3 (1988): 49-55.
William M. Timmins and Brad E. Hainsworth,
"Attracting and Retaining Females in Law Enforcement:
Sex-Based Problems of Women Cops in 1988,"
International Journal of Offender Therapy and
Comparative Criminology (1988): 197-205.

76. Joanne Belknap and Jil Kastens Shelley, "The New
Lone Ranger: Policewomen on Patrol," American Journal
of Police 12, no. 2 (1992): 47-75.
Carol Ann Martin, "Remarks: Women Police and Stress,"
The Police Chief, March 1983, 107-109.
Judie Gaffin Wexler and Deana Dorman Logan, "Sources
of Stress Among Women Police Officers," Journal of
Police Science and Administration 11, no. 1 (1983):
46-53.

77. Stanard & Associates, Inc. "An Investigation of
Police Officer Morale," (Chicago, IL: 1997), 17.

78. Virginia E. Pendergrass and Nancy M. Ostrove, "A
Survey of Stress in Women in Policing," Journal of
Police Science and Administration 12, no. 3 (1984):
303-309.

79. M.H. Silbert, "Job stress and burnout of new
police officers," Police Chief 1982, 46-48. (cited in
Penndergrass & Ostrove, 1984).

80. Susan Ehrlich Martin, Breaking and Entering:
Policewomen on Patrol (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1980).

81. Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the
Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law
Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 2 (1983): 149-155.
Donald G. Zytowski, "Kuder Occupational Interest
Survey scores and self-descriptive information on 348
women police" (Unpublished raw data, 1989). (cited in
Lunneborg, 1989). This is also true for female
correctional officers (Jurik, 1985). 

82. Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the
Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law
Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 2 (1983): 149-155. 
Peter Horne, Women in Law Enforcement, 2nd ed.
(Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1980).

83. Koss, et al, 1994.

84. Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation
(New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977).

85. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women
in Policing," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.

86. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women
in Policing," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.

87. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen
on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The
Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67.

88. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen
on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The
Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67.

89. Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation
(New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). (cited in
Belknap & Shelley, 1992).

90. Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation
(New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). (cited in
Belknap & Shelley, 1992).

91. Henry Etkowitz et al., "The Paradox of Critical
Mass for Women in Science," Science 266, no. 5182
(1994): 51 (4).
Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation
(New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977).

92. Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting,
Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers:
Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October
1998, 42-53.

93. Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting,
Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers:
Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October
1998, 42-53.

----------------------

Chapter 2

Assessing a Law Enforcement Agency

Many approaches can be used to conduct an assessment
of a law enforcement agency. 

Assessment by Chief Administrator 

The administrator of the agency may be able to make
several improvements in the agency's practices just
by reading this guide and identifying suggestions
that will help solve an immediate problem. Many of
the suggestions in the guide have minimal fiscal
impact and are within the power of the chief
administrator to implement.

Internal Team Assessment 

The chief administrator may decide to establish
internal assessment teams to look at certain sections
of the guide and conduct an assessment of the
agency's policies and procedures. The teams can then
make recommendations for improvements.

Community Assessment Process 

When conducting an assessment of the personnel
policies and practices of a law enforcement agency,
the chief administrator may also include a diverse
group of employees and community members in the
process. Labor unions, command staff, civil service
administrators, elected officials, and community
members all can have input into developing
improvements. Conducting a self-assessment provides
law enforcement administrators with an excellent
opportunity to utilize a community-policing approach
to improving agency practices.

To most effectively conduct a comprehensive
assessment, the agency administrator should give the
process a high priority. Sufficient resources must be
allocated, including staff support to the assessment
team. As many women as possible, from all ranks
within the agency, should be involved in the
assessment process.

Recommended Process for Medium-to-Large Agencies

o Establish an assessment committee consisting of:

     o A diverse group of agency managers and field
     personnel, representing a cross section of units and
     functions.

     o Women from all ranks of the agency, including
     civilian women.

     o Labor union representatives.

     o Personnel experts with experience working to
     increase women in non-traditional jobs. The Equal
     Employment Opportunity director and representatives
     from the public entity with the responsibility for
     entry and promotion testing should be included.

     o Criminal justice professors with expertise in
     issues related to women in policing and community
     policing.

     o Community representatives, especially those
     with expertise in women's employment and sex
     discrimination issues (for example, representatives
     of the American Association of University Women,
     YWCA, Women's Bar Association, and National
     Organization for Women) or attorneys with expertise
     in employment and civil rights laws.

     o Liaisons from the public entity that controls
     the law enforcement budget.

     o Elected officials or their representatives.

o Convene a full-day meeting to discuss the
assessment process, introduce all members of the
committee, review the status of women in the law
enforcement organization, and make committee
assignments.

o Establish working committees by subject matter. We
suggest that at least four committees be formed.
(Additional committees may be formed as needed.)

     1) A committee on job descriptions, the
     selection process, and promotion;

     2) A committee on recruiting;

     3) A committee on training, mentoring, performance
     evaluation, and awards;

     4) A committee on family issues, sexual
     harassment, retaliation, internal affairs, and the
     discipline system. 

o Establish a timeline for assessment and the
development of recommendations. The process of
assessing and developing recommendations should be
completed in 6 months, if possible. A 6-month goal
will help keep the committees focused. 

o Assign adequate staff to provide information and
participate in the assessment process.

o One command-level person should be designated as
the responsible party to provide the agency
administrator with monthly briefings and to ensure
that a comprehensive review is conducted. 

o Designate a person from the law enforcement agency
to be the coordinator for all requests for 
information from the committees. This person will
arrange for law enforcement personnel to appear at
committee meetings and answer questions, as well as
providing documents requested by the committees.

o Hold a staff meeting with all high-ranking law
enforcement personnel to explain the charge to 
the committees and the commitment of the agency to
cooperate with the process. 

o When the committees have completed their
assessments and prepared a final report, all members
of the assessment team must be willing to listen to
their ideas for improvement. Many times, they have
new approaches that will help improve the operations
of the law enforcement agency. In addition, the
committee can be extremely helpful in obtaining
budget funds from the elected officials and in
gaining community support for the changes. 

o Determine what changes will be made and develop a
detailed time/task plan for implementation. Specific
responsibilities for implementing changes should be
assigned. 

o Assign an implementation committee and a
chairperson to monitor the progress of implementing
recommended changes and report quarterly to the
agency head and elected officials.

Recommended Process for Small Agencies

Because small agencies are limited in the amount of
resources and staff available, the following is a
modified assessment process:

o Form a committee consisting of:

     o The command person in charge of recruiting,
     hiring, or training.

     o Women employees, if possible. If there are no
     women officers in the agency, seek assistance from a
     neighboring agency with women officers.

     o A woman community representative.

     o A personnel expert.

     o A lawyer experienced in civil rights and
     employment law.

o Convene a meeting to discuss the assessment
process, introduce all members of the team, learn
about the status of women in the law enforcement
organization, and make assessment assignments. Assign
assessments to members of the team according to their
expertise and time available.

o Establish a timeline for assessment and the
development of recommendations.

o When the members have completed their assessment,
reconvene the committee and discuss the findings of
each part of the assessment. Prepare a final report
with recommendations on changes that need to be made.
Recommend priorities for making the changes. 

o When recommendations have been approved, assign a
high-ranking person to monitor progress and report
quarterly.

A Word About Gender Neutrality 

When an agency is working to improve the environment
for women employees, the use of gender-neutral
language is crucial. One of the easiest ways to write
or speak in an inclusive manner is to always use
plurals. For example, instead of saying "the officer
will write his/her report," it is much easier to say
"officers will write their reports." During the
assessment process, it would be desirable to have one
person assigned to review the manual of procedures
and other similar publications to identify areas
where such revision is desirable. 

----------------------

Chapter 3

Developing a Job Description

Before a law enforcement agency can implement the
strategies recommended in this manual to hire,
promote, and retain women in policing, the agency
must first write or update its job description for
police officer. A current, appropriate job
description for police officer is essential to the
success of the recruitment, selection, training, and
performance evaluation processes. Therefore, it
should be carefully crafted and reviewed for gender
bias.

-----------------------

Throughout this manual we use the term "community
policing" or "community oriented policing." Community
Policing is a way of policing, not a specific
program. We use the term to mean a philosophy of
providing police services that is utilized within all
divisions of the law enforcement agency, not just for
the individuals who are assigned to a "community
policing" unit. The following is excerpted from the
definition of "community policing" or "community
oriented policing" developed by the U.S. Department
of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Services
(COPS) Office:

----------------------

Community Oriented Policing is Proactive, 
Solution-Based, and Community Driven 

It occurs when:

A law enforcement agency and law abiding citizens
work together to do four things:

o arrest offenders;

o prevent crime;

o solve on-going problems;

o and improve the overall quality of life.

Hiring in the Spirit of Service

A police department's most valuable asset is its
officers; and progressive departments "hire in the
spirit of service, not the spirit of adventure." How
officers treat citizens in their own neighborhood
will dictate citizens' perceptions and support of
their police department. Officers hired in the spirit
of service and trained in community policing are
transforming policing in America.

The Future

Community oriented policing stimulates creative
solutions to crime problems - solutions that begin in
neighborhoods. When we invest in community policing
we see officers and citizens depending on one another
to make neighborhoods safer. For maximum
effectiveness, community policing must permeate every
aspect of a department--recruiting, hiring,
training, assignment and promotion--reflecting a
true community policing focus.

Statement of the Problem 

Many existing job descriptions--and the job
announcements based on those descriptions 
for entry-level law enforcement officers--continue to
place a heavy emphasis on physical attributes over
other skills. These descriptions often convey the
message to potential recruits that the only response
to fighting crime is through the use of force, and
that skills such as communication and mediation are
not as highly valued. This traditional portrayal of
police work will most likely screen out qualified
women as potential applicants. 

Police agencies are increasingly moving from a 'law
enforcement' model of policing to a
'service-delivery' model known as community policing.
Community policing emphasizes working in cooperation
with community members to solve crime and livability
issues. This model of policing requires that officers
be skilled in mediation, organizing, and mobilizing
the community, de-escalating violence, and
coordinating services with other governmental
agencies. 

Therefore, job descriptions that do not include these
skills as essential to the role of law enforcement
will not attract the most qualified candidates for
policing today. In addition, by failing to update the
job description to reflect a community policing
philosophy, organizations are sending conflicting
messages to police officers about their duties and
responsibilities as public servants.

As stated in the Community Policing Monograph on
Selection and Recruitment for Community Policing:

"In particular, the role of the police officer
needs to be carefully defined or redefined in most
cases. Failure to do so will replicate mistakes of
the past and make the organization incapable of
matching future demands of policing."[1] 

In order for law enforcement agencies to be effective
in community policing they should reflect the diverse
population of the communities they serve. A job
description that emphasizes the variety of duties and
activities police officers face on a daily basis is
essential in ensuring that women, as well as other
well-qualified candidates, apply for law enforcement
positions. 

In addition, since the job-related job description
will be the basis for designing all recruitment
programs, selection systems, training, promotion
systems, and performance evaluation reports, it is
crucial that it be current and reflect the type of
law enforcement desired by the agency.

Legal Issues

Federal law requires that an employer's selection
procedures be job-related for the position in
question and consistent with business necessity. The
job description is the basis for fulfilling this
legal requirement. Therefore, personnel and legal
counsel should review all job descriptions and
consult with appropriate experts to make sure that
the content is job-related. 

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

The keys to developing the best job description for
law enforcement officer are to emphasize the value
that the organization places on community policing
and detail the skills and duties required to
successfully implement community policing practices. 
For example, the job description should highlight
skills such as the ability to de-escalate violent
situations, communicate with diverse groups of
people, mediate disputes, and the capability to
coordinate with other government and social service
agencies. Of course, specific activities and
responsibilities of a patrol officer continue to be
necessary in any entry-level law enforcement job
description.

In summary, the job description should clearly define
the duties of a law enforcement officer and the
knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform
those duties. The primary emphasis of the job
description should be providing service to the
community. Duties and activities should include
public service, problem solving, conflict resolution,
and community organizing, in addition to law
enforcement duties such as traffic control, response
to crimes, and testifying in court.

If an organization is transitioning to a community
policing philosophy, it should be careful to define
the skills required to implement this style of law
enforcement in order to attract the most qualified
candidates. In addition to conducting an internal job
analysis, one of the best ways to develop a job
description that describes the community policing
philosophy is to have community organizations assist
in its development. This can be accomplished by
establishing a working group of community members who
reflect the diversity of the community, especially as
it relates to racial minorities and women. In
addition, the membership of this group should reflect
other populations and resources in the community such
as the elderly, disabled, teens, social service
agencies, college criminal justice educators, and a
diverse group of employees of the law enforcement
agency. 

Small police departments without the resources to
develop a job description may find it helpful to
adapt one from another agency. (Refer to the Appendix
for specific examples of effective job descriptions
for police officer.) 

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information

o Refer to Appendix B for the Port St. Lucie,
Florida, Police Department job descriptions for
Neighborhood Officer and Neighborhood Patrol Officer. 

o Refer to Appendix C for the Boulder Police
Department job description for police officer. 

--------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 3

1. Community Policing Monograph, "Recruitment and
Selection for Community Policing," (Community
Policing Consortium) Section 4.

--------------------

Checklist for Developing a Job Description

o The job description accurately reflects the duties
that police officers are expected to perform.

o Community input was obtained when developing the
job description.

o The job description has been reviewed by a legal
expert to ensure that it is job-related.

o The job description describes and emphasizes
community policing activities along with traditional
law enforcement duties.

o The job description emphasizes the following
knowledge, skills, and abilities:

     o The ability to communicate with diverse
     community members.

     o Knowledge of the value of cultural diversity.

     o The ability to de-escalate violent
     situations.

     o The ability to mediate disputes.

     o The ability to organize and work
     cooperatively with community groups.

     o The ability to communicate with diverse
     groupings of people.

     o The ability to develop and prioritize
     solutions for crime and community livability
     problems.

     o The ability to empathize with those holding
     different values.

     o The ability to work cooperatively with other
     governmental and social service agencies.

     o The ability to identify proactive measures to
     prevent problems and enhance community livability.

     o The ability to handle conflicting priorities.

     o The ability to drive a police car in
     hazardous conditions.

(** Note: This is not an all-inclusive checklist, but
merely some suggestions to assist law enforcement
agencies in developing their own job descriptions.)

-----------------
 
Chapter 4

Recruiting Quality Candidates

Statement of the Problem

Law enforcement agencies nationwide are experiencing
severe problems in recruiting qualified candidates.
An article in Governing Magazine, reprinted by the
Office of the Police Corps, lists some of the reasons
young people are not attracted to policing as a
career:

o Independent minded youth of today don't mix well
with the rigid paramilitary hierarchy to which most
police agencies still adhere.

o Young people do not like being micro-managed.

o The private security industry is growing and
siphoning off people who might otherwise become
police officers.

o Police are associated with terror and repression in
some cultures.

o Many candidates have used drugs or have criminal
records.[1] 

Stereotypes of Law Enforcement

Problems recruiting women and minorities are even
more severe and represent major challenges of most
agencies. In order to recruit more women into
policing, law enforcement agencies must overcome the
common perception that policing is a "male-oriented
profession" limited to duties that require only
physical strength. Movies and television programs
frequently show law enforcement officers in
high-speed pursuits, fistfights, shoot-outs, hostage
situations, and other highly dramatic situations. The
reality is that day-to-day law enforcement work is
seldom this eventful. Yet this stereotype of law
enforcement creates serious problems for departments
interested in recruiting women and men more
interested in a community-oriented career. 

Indeed, the media stereotype of police officers
contributes enormously to dissuading people who would
make excellent officers under a community-policing
model from pursuing a career in law enforcement.
Because many women are not drawn to "use of force" as
a style of law enforcement they often do not apply
for jobs with law enforcement, agencies-even though
in reality they have the potential to perform as well
as male officers. 

Defining the "Ideal" Officer 

Some law enforcement agencies have failed to
re-define skills, experience, and background
qualifications they are seeking in law enforcement
officers to reflect contemporary community policing
values. This has seriously compromised recruiting and
hiring practices in those agencies. In other words,
law enforcement agencies are frequently looking for
the "wrong" type of person in the "wrong" types of
places. 

Looking to the Military

Some large police agencies concentrate most of their
recruiting efforts on military bases. Although this
approach may generate some qualified candidates, it
is extremely limited when trying to recruit women
because the military has very low numbers of women.
Overall, approximately 14% of the members of the
armed services are women.[2] 

Moreover, a military background alone should not be
viewed as an indicator of a qualified candidate. The
military should not be excluded as a source of
potential recruits, but it should not be the main
emphasis in a recruitment program. In its monograph
entitled "Recruitment and Selection for Community
Policing," the Community Policing Consortium
observes: 

"Military Experience. The positive arguments for
recruiting ex-military personnel are that they are
perceived as being mature, disciplined, physically
fit, have character and are often multi-skilled. The
paradox is that while military values may have been
in accord with the traditional crime-fighting model--
emphasis on the 'fighting'--their values are not
congruent with those of community policing. Moreover,
military progress on issues of diversity, equal
opportunities, equity and fairness is no model for
replication in U.S. police agencies."[3] 

Some law enforcement agencies also conduct recruiting
efforts at sporting events, sports facilities, and
private security companies. Although these locations
should not be overlooked, the number of women a law
enforcement agency will reach using these recruiting
strategies is minimal. 

Community policing puts an emphasis on working as
partners with community members to find solutions to
crime. Law enforcement agencies need to identify and
pursue other sources that will produce qualified
candidates with specific skills necessary to
cooperatively work with various segments of the
community. 

Agency's Civilian Workforce

Many law enforcement agencies have also overlooked
their own civilian workforce as a viable recruitment
target. The civilian staff is overwhelmingly
comprised of women who are familiar with law
enforcement work and an excellent source of recruits
for sworn law enforcement careers.

Lack of Women Law Enforcement Role Models

Because women comprise only 14% of sworn law
enforcement officers nationwide, they are less
visible to the community. In many communities, women
never have the opportunity to see women officers as
role models. For this reason, policing as a career is
often not considered by most college-age women. 

In addition, officers have a propensity to recruit
friends and relatives and to mentor them during the
selection and training process. Therefore, officers
in a predominantly male law enforcement agency will
tend to recruit more male applicants. 

Lack of a Recruitment Plan

Due to the strong economy, recruiting has become more
difficult for many agencies. Often, law enforcement
agencies try to recruit without actually developing a
recruitment plan targeted at women that contains
measurable outcomes. Many organizations tend to rely
on the same recruiting strategies they have used for
years rather than targeting their recruiting to
expand and diversify the pool of qualified
applicants. Frequently, there is no assessment of the
recruiting efforts to determine the success of
various strategies. In addition, law enforcement
agencies should recognize that successful recruitment
is an ongoing effort and should not be limited to the
period immediately preceding an examination or
creation of job openings. 

Hostile Work Environment

Women are reluctant to apply for jobs as law
enforcement officers with agencies that have a
reputation of hostility towards female officers or if
the agency has a high turnover rate for female
officers. If they believe they will be unwelcome,
women will not apply.

A poll reported in Law and Order Magazine showed that
only 9% of male officers accepted females openly. By
contrast 38% had problems accepting females. Another
34% accepted them slowly.[4] Clearly, agencies must
address the attitudes of male officers about the
value of women in law enforcement.

Legal Issues

It should be emphasized that it is generally not
permissible to recruit only members of one race,
national origin, or gender. Programs that require
meeting specific hiring goals for any particular
group are generally prohibited under federal law
except when necessary to remedy discrimination. 

Examples of permissible targeted recruitment
advertising efforts may include (a) development 
of recruitment materials featuring women; 
(b) distribution of recruitment materials and
applications to businesses owned or frequented by
women, minority neighborhoods, community centers and
churches, and health clubs or sports teams with
primarily female membership; (c) advertisements in
publications and on radio and television stations
with a predominantly female audience.

Examples of permissible outreach efforts include
career fairs and open houses featuring women
representatives of the department; contacts with
women's groups; contacts with schools with an all (or
predominately) female enrollment; and efforts to
include women in junior officer, ride-along, and
similar programs on an equal basis with men. 

Outreach programs and recruiting efforts targeted at
women and minorities seek to broaden the pool of
potential applicants by reaching a greater number of
qualified individuals. These practices are likely to
be considered lawful when they are part of a broader
recruitment effort that makes employment
opportunities known to all potential applicants
regardless of their race, national origin, or gender. 

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Developing a Recruiting Plan that Targets Women

To successfully increase the number of women in
policing, law enforcement agencies should develop a
specific plan of action that targets women in the
recruiting process and emphasizes the agency's desire
to significantly increase the number of women in its
ranks. The plan should also seek to recruit
candidates who possess qualities necessary to for
successful community policing. 

In order to understand the importance of targeting
recruitment efforts to groups underrepresented in a
law enforcement agency, the Commission on
Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc.,
states:

"The recruitment standards of the law enforcement
accreditation process have embraced several important
philosophical concepts in this chapter. The first
concept is the expectation that an accredited agency
will be an equal opportunity employer. EEO
understands equal opportunity as the removal of
barriers that prevent people from being treated
fairly for employment purposes. The second concept is
the expectation that the agency's sworn work force
will be representative of the available workforce in
the agency's service community relative to its ethnic
and gender composition. If any group is
underrepresented, the recruitment plan will include
proactive steps to encourage members of that group to
seek employment opportunities"[5] [emphasis added].

A law enforcement agency should allocate sufficient
funds, personnel, and time for recruitment. The
amount of money spent in well-designed recruitment
efforts will bring long-term benefits. 

** Note: If the law enforcement agency is not the
government entity that actually conducts the
recruiting effort, this guide should be provided to
the responsible unit.

-------------------------

Resource:

Donna Milgram, Director of the Women & Policing
Institute, presents training programs on developing
recruitment plans for law enforcement agencies. She
has developed a recruitment assessment tool for
agencies developing their recruitment plans.
Contact Information: www.womenpolice.com

-------------------------

A. Forming a Recruitment Committee

A committee should be convened to assist in the
development of a recruitment program. Successful
targeted recruiting requires that the recruitment
committee have active support and resource commitment
from the head of the law enforcement agency. Small
agencies can accomplish these activities by pooling
their resources with other agencies in their region,
thereby developing and implementing a recruiting
program that fits the needs of all. 

Ideally, a recruitment committee will consist of
persons committed to increasing diversity by gender
and race within the law enforcement agency. Examples
of persons who could be included on a recruitment
committee are: 

o Specialists in equal employment
opportunity/affirmative action;

o Experts in advertising, marketing, or public
relations;

o Persons knowledgeable in the testing process, (for
example, a civil service representative or a human
resources manager from a major corporation in the
community);

o A diverse group of employees from the law
enforcement agency, including women and minorities; 

o Persons to be assigned as recruiters;

o Representative from organizations and businesses
that primarily serve women and minorities;

o Faculty members of local college criminal justice
programs;

o Elected officials or their representatives.

The recruitment committee should be charged with
developing recruiting goals for women and timetables
for achieving those goals. 

It would be advisable to survey current women
employees to determine how they first learned of jobs
with the law enforcement agency, what attracted them
to their job, and what they find most satisfying
about their careers. This information can be
extremely useful in developing a recruiting strategy. 

To illustrate, the New York State Police recently
conducted a survey of young women to determine what
would attract them to a career in law enforcement.
"Project results indicated that the most preferred
job attributes for women between the ages of 19 and
29 were: financial inducements and job security;
supportive work climate; job enrichment (skill and
task variety); and family-friendly work policies. It
was also determined that misperceptions of danger may
be detracting from the number of female
applicants."[6] 

Based on the available budget, a plan should be
developed to maximize advertising resources. The plan
should address ways to involve the community and
current employees of the law enforcement agency in
recruiting qualified candidates. 

A monitoring system to measure the effectiveness of
various recruiting methods should be included in the
plan. When the plan has been developed, approved, and
implemented, the recruitment committee should meet at
least once every 6 months to assess progress and make
any necessary modifications to the plan.

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information

o Refer to Appendix D for the executive summary from
the New York State Police survey, "Improving the
Recruitment of Women in Policing: An Investigation of
Women's Attitudes and Job Preferences." For the
entire study contact Lieutenant Colonel Deborah
Campbell, New York State Police, at 518-485-0854. 

o Officer Diane Carmenty, San Antonio Police
Department, has developed a successful recruiting
program and offers training for recruiters. Contact
her at 201-207-4227.

o The New Haven Police Department recently designed a
community-based recruiting program. Contact Director
Kay Codish at 203-946-6308.

B. Designing Recruitment Brochures and Posters

The recruitment brochure is an opportunity for a law
enforcement organization to describe the job of a
police officer and to encourage women to apply for
that job. Frequently, recruitment brochures and
posters are outdated and do not reflect current
policing philosophies. Brochures should emphasize
community policing and the skills needed to be
successful in that approach to law enforcement.
Brochures should not imply that time spent in patrol
is short and that officers can move into specialty
positions rapidly. Typically, women are attracted to
careers in law enforcement because they want to help
their communities. Brochures should stress the
important role that law enforcement officers play in
working with the community to prevent and solve crime
problems. In addition, brochures should describe the
testing process in enough detail for applicants to
understand exactly what will be expected of them.
This is especially important when describing the
physical agility testing process. Legal counsel
should review the completed brochure. 

o The brochure should stress the organization's
commitment to Community Policing and describe that
approach to law enforcement. The brochure should
emphasize and list the qualities desired in an
officer in a community-policing system such as good
communication skills, the ability to work with all
types of people in the community, and the ability to
resolve problems and de-escalate violence. 

o The brochures and posters should feature pictures
of women in uniform performing police tasks. The
potential applicant has to be able to envision
herself in that role. Include women in high-ranking
positions and quotes from current women officers
about why they like their job. 

o The brochure should give an overview of the
benefits of becoming a law enforcement officer. In
addition to benefit programs such as health
insurance, maternity leave, and retirement, the
brochure should stress the benefits of helping the
community and assisting people in crisis. Since most
law enforcement agencies have good starting salaries,
the starting pay should be highlighted.

o A realistic expectation of career advancement
opportunities should be provided. Any discussion of
assignment to specialty units or possibility of
promotions should be carefully written. Law
enforcement organizations should attract people who
will probably spend a great deal of their career as
street patrol officers. 

o The brochure should describe the application and
testing process in detail so that the applicant can
take steps to prepare for that process. If an agility
test is to be used, it should be clearly described
and the applicants should be informed of
opportunities that will be provided to help prepare
them for the test.

o Both the training program at the academy and the
field training program should be described. Women
need to understand that they will receive a great
deal of training before being expected to perform the
duties of a law enforcement officer.

o A commitment to equal opportunities and
non-discriminatory selection procedures should be
asserted in the brochure.

o Highlight the telephone number (preferably
toll-free) and website where applicants may obtain
further information.

o Posters should be developed which illustrate women
working in law enforcement and summarize the
information contained in the brochures.

o The brochure and accompanying posters should
include a tear-off form that allows applicants to
request an application or additional information by
mail.

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information

o Refer to Appendix E for posters from the Michigan
State Police as an example of a good recruiting tool.

o Refer to Appendix F for posters from the New Haven
Police Department and the Riverside County Sheriff's
Department which depict different approaches to
attracting the attention of potential candidates. 

C. Establishing a Recruiting Team

Part of the success of a good recruitment campaign
depends on the personnel selected as recruiters. Many
women are apprehensive about applying for the job of
law enforcement officer and they do not have a clear
understanding of what the job entails. They want to
know how they will be treated as a law enforcement
officer and need detailed information about the
selection process. They want to know about the law
enforcement academy and training process. They have
questions about pregnancy leave and other
family-related issues, and they want to talk to women
who are currently doing the job. 

Persons selected as recruiters should be especially
enthusiastic about increasing the numbers of women in
the agency. Assignment as a recruiter should be
viewed as a desirable, career-enhancing opportunity.
Recruiters should be able to respond to the questions
women have about policing. While it is crucial that
recruiting teams include as many female
representatives of the law enforcement agency as
possible, recruiters should not be selected solely
because of their gender. Individuals should be
selected who are unbiased, enthusiastic advocates,
good speakers, and good listeners. 

D. Training Recruiters

Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies standard 31.1.2 requires "Individuals
assigned to recruiting activities are knowledgeable
in personnel matters, especially equal employment
opportunity as it affects the management and
operations of the agency."[7] 

The CALEA manual goes on to state, 

"Prior to initiating recruitment activities,
recruiters should undergo a training program that
provides knowledge and skills in the following areas:
the agency's recruitment needs and commitments;
agency career opportunities, salaries, benefits, and
training; federal and state compliance guidelines;
the community and its needs (including demographic
data, community organizations, educational
institutions, etc.); cultural awareness, or an
understanding of different ethnic groups and
subcultures; techniques of informal record-keeping
systems for candidate tracking; the selection process
utilized by the central personnel agency (including
procedures involved in conducting background
investigations and written, oral, or physical agility
examinations); recruitment programs of other
jurisdictions; characteristics that disqualify
candidates; and medical requirements."[8] 

CALEA standard 31.3.3 requires "the agency maintains
contact with applicants for sworn positions from
initial application to the final employment
disposition."[9] 

We support these recommendations and add that the
training of recruiters should also include
information about the following:

o the agency's pregnancy and family leave policies

o issues unique to women in law enforcement

o reasons why women may not have considered law
enforcement as a career

-----------------------------

Resources:

The Washington State Patrol has developed a training
program and resource manual for recruiters.
Contact Information: Chief Annette Sandberg,
360-753-6545

-----------------------------

E. Finding Sources of Women Recruits

Many agencies state that they would like to hire more
women, but they cannot find any who are interested in
becoming law enforcement officers. Yet women comprise
about 50% of the labor force in this country, and
they are clearly interested in challenging and
rewarding work. Many women who are the primary wage
earners in their families are concentrated in
low-paying, dead-end jobs. These women are an
untapped pool of potential applicants. To find
potential recruits, the agency should examine its
local jurisdiction and determine which places and
events are likely to attract large numbers of women. 

---------------------------

One of the very best places to recruit women is at
community colleges. Many of these students are still
searching for the right career opportunity. In
addition, they are frequently looking at jobs that do
not pay as much as policing. 

---------------------------

Community organizations and businesses can be
invaluable in recruiting women. Agencies need to form
partnerships with community groups--particularly those
promoting career opportunities for women--and enlist
them in the drive to increase the numbers of women in
law enforcement. Businesses and organizations can be
asked to assist with resources, distribution of
recruitment materials and applications, and training
for the written and physical examinations. 

o Research your community to identify and target
women in female-dominated occupations such as
teachers, child-care workers, secretaries, social
workers, clerical support personnel, civilian members
of the law enforcement agency, and other 
government agencies. 

o Recruiting women into civilian positions such as
the crime laboratory, academy instructors, 911
operators, data processing technicians, fiscal
operations, crime prevention, public relations, and
other support positions is very important. These
women become a pool of potential candidates for sworn
officers.

o Many women have never considered policing as a
career because they have not been exposed to women in
policing. Making women officers visible is therefore
essential. Agencies should take advantage of public
events as an opportunity to inform the public about
their commitment to diversity and gender equality in
the workforce. They should strive to include female
officers in outreach efforts and in specialty positions 
such as public information officer, honor guards, 
DARE programs, and all public presentations
that could serve to attract women to law enforcement.

o Agencies embracing a community policing philosophy
usually have many community meetings to discuss law
enforcement issues. Recruiting for diversity should
be an item of discussion at these meetings. Community
members should be urged to assist in the search for
qualified candidates.

o Research your community to identify and target
locations frequented by women, including women-owned
and oriented businesses, YWCAs, schools, grocery
stores, laundromats, day-care centers, gyms, health
clubs and sports programs, and athletic teams with
predominantly female membership.

o Develop special recruitment programs to encourage
applications from women of diverse ethnic and
minority backgrounds reflective of the community.
Areas with large immigrant populations also provide a
wealth of potential candidates. Different recruiting
strategies may be needed to reach women in various
subgroups within the community. Experts in these
communities should be consulted for assistance in 
developing targeted strategies. Recruiting materials
should be translated into the languages used in the
community.

o Out-of-state/out-of-city recruiting is not
generally recommended unless it will help increase
the numbers of women and minority applicants.
Recruiting members of the community who are aware of
the problems and culture is preferred. Out-of-state 
recruiting is expensive and may contribute to a high
turnover of new recruits, but law enforcement
organizations located close to a state border may
have justification in recruiting from border
communities in other states.

o Applications, brochures, and posters should be
placed throughout the community, not just at the law
enforcement facility or government office. Again,
applications, brochures, and posters should be placed
in locations frequented by women. Candidates should
be able to return applications by mail.

o All advertising campaigns should emphasize the
organization's commitment to community policing and
the desire of the agency to hire more women. The
emphasis on community policing and better approaches
to resolving community problems should be highlighted
in all recruitment efforts. Emphasize in all
recruitment advertisements and materials the need for
problem solving abilities, communication, community
involvement, self-control under stress, and good
judgment. 

Using the Media to Increase Recruitment of Women
Officers

o Agencies should undertake activities that maximize
media attention and exposure for the department's
efforts to recruit more women as law enforcement
officers. One technique to increase media exposure is
to kick off the recruiting campaign with a press
conference. The Chief/Sheriff/Director should lead
the press conference and have members of the local
political body present to speak about their
commitment to increasing the numbers of women in the
law enforcement organization. Women officers in
uniform should speak at the press conference to talk
about why policing is a good career for women. Major
events, places to obtain applications, and the
toll-free number for more information should be
announced at the press conference.

o Take advantage of no-cost media such as radio talk
shows and television news shows. The chief and women
law enforcement officers can announce the recruitment
campaign and urge women to apply for these jobs on
community affairs programs. 

o Encourage print and broadcast journalists to write
or produce feature stories regarding women in law
enforcement, including women in the academy, women as
community law enforcement officers, and awards for
and promotions of women. For example, the Boise
Police Department encouraged a news reporter to go on
ride-alongs with a woman officer. They got a good
story about the officer and her work, and the
television station continues to use the footage of
the woman officer as a teaser for their news program.

o Utilize public service announcements on local radio
and television stations year round to inform women of
the career opportunities in your law enforcement
organization and of specific job opportunities during
the application period for particular positions.

o Every public appearance the Chief/Sheriff/Director
and other high-ranking officials make during a
recruitment drive should stress that the agency is an
equal employment opportunity employer and that women
and minorities are encouraged to apply for positions
as law enforcement officers. This is especially
important in television appearances.

o Placing articles in municipal, county, or state
employee newsletters may bring in more applicants. 

o All media should be translated and issued in
foreign language outlets such as newspapers, radio
stations, and cable television channels.

o Law enforcement agencies may also want to consider
making a recruitment videotape and having it
available at all police sites. This tape could be
given or loaned to potential recruits. It could also
be available for viewing at the law enforcement site. 

o Consider developing a cable access program about
the department and the opportunities for careers for
women. Utilize women members of the department as
speakers to talk about their jobs. 

Internet Opportunities

o Every law enforcement organization should have a
well-designed, continuously updated Internet site
that illustrates and stresses the organization's
commitment to equal employment opportunity and the
recruitment of qualified women. 

o Law enforcement organizations should reach out to
community women's organizations with high-volume
websites and ask them to place notices of job
vacancies on their sites, or to provide a link to
each law enforcement department's own site.

o Agencies may want to consider implementing an
on-line application process.

Advertising Opportunities

o Advertisements should be placed in publications
with a high percentage of female readers and radio
and television stations with a high percentage of
female listeners and viewers. Advertisements should
also be placed in publications and on radio and
television stations with the widest circulation and
audiences. They should be placed in public locations
such as bus stops, train stations, and on public
transportation. 

o All advertisements should depict women in uniform
performing jobs as law enforcement officers.

o Ask local merchants to donate billboard space or
other print advertisements.

o Ask local movie theaters to display recruitment
slides in their pre-show presentations. 

o Ask local utility companies to insert a recruitment
flyer when mailing utility bills. 

o Ask local grocers to print recruitment flyers on
grocery bags.

Utilizing Current Employee Resources

o Train all employees on the importance of diversity
and on the role of targeted recruitment as a means of
building a qualified, diverse workforce. Urge them to
recruit qualified applicants.

o The civilian staff of any law enforcement agency is
another source of women recruits. In most law
enforcement agencies, women account for over 65% of
the civilian staff. 

o Ride-along programs can be a useful tool to recruit
women to law enforcement careers. 

o Ensure that hiring officials and supervisors are
invested in the recruitment process and that the
individuals responsible for recruitment seek their
input on how, when, and where to recruit.

o Managers should be evaluated on their commitment to
equality and to increasing the numbers of qualified
women. They should participate in recruitment
activities and encourage their subordinates to
recruit qualified women.

o Involve minority and women's groups within the
department in recruitment efforts.

o Offer career support and mentoring programs to
encourage retention of recruits.

Special Events

o Career fairs are excellent opportunities to
recruit. Law enforcement agencies should participate
in community career fairs, but should also hold their
own career events. 

o An open house where women are invited to the law
enforcement facility or academy to learn more about
the job can be a successful technique. Women from the
law enforcement organization should be available to
answer questions. Formal presentations about the
selection process, benefits, and the job should be
made.

Schools and Educational Programs

o High school and college career centers and guidance
counselors should be included on the recruitment
planning committee and should be part of a routine
program of recruiting.

o Participate in career days at high schools and
colleges.

o Instructors in criminal justice programs are an
excellent source of referrals. 

o Current employees should be encouraged to
participate as instructors or guest speakers at local
colleges.

o High school and college work/study or intern
programs should be established to encourage young
women to pursue law enforcement careers.

o Involve schools in pre-test training for the
written, oral, and physical abilities examinations.

Social Service Organizations

o Identify community organizations that assist in job
placement and encourage them to participate in the
recruiting efforts. Provide them with posters and
brochures to have available year-round and with
applications during the period preceding the 
examination. Schedule dates when recruiters will be
at these sites to answer questions. For example, the
YWCA is an excellent place to recruit women.

Women's Non-Profit Organizations

o Many young women want to better the world and help
others. Volunteers with domestic violence shelters,
rape crisis centers, Big Sisters programs, and other
agencies working with youth and women are excellent
sources of potential candidates. Additionally, many
non-profit organizations have mailing lists of women
members who could be contacted for recruiting
purposes. 

o Professional organizations for groups such as
social workers, juvenile probation officers, health
care workers, dietitians, probation officers,
corrections officers, security guards, and physical
therapists may be a source of applicants.

o Women's professional groups are often seeking
speakers for their meetings. Sending women officers
to speak and encourage women to help recruit women
and/or consider policing as a career may be
effective.

Organizations that Employ Women

o Many women are unhappy in low-paying, labor
intensive jobs that provide little mental challenge.
Law enforcement agencies should closely examine the
major employers in their geographic areas to identify
manufacturers, factories, and other blue-collar
employers as possible sources of applicants. 

o In addition to blue-collar jobs, many women are
unhappy in traditionally female-dominated jobs such
as restaurant service, childcare, and other similar
occupations. These businesses may be an excellent
source of applicants. 

Video Production

o Produce a video describing community policing and
utilizing female law enforcement officers discussing
their jobs and its benefits.

o Show the video at open houses and career fairs and
make the video available to community groups, public
libraries, and career fairs.

---------------------------

Resource:

The Boise Idaho Police Department puts on an event
for women interested in becoming law enforcement
officers, along with their families. Spouses and
parents of women officers are invited to participate
and answer questions. They are given nametags that
identify them as a spouse or parent.
Contact Information: Captain Mike Prynch, Boise
Police Department, 208-377-6665.

-----------------------------

F. Incentive Programs

Most law enforcement agencies report that the best
source of new recruits is current law enforcement
officers. This is often an untapped source for
recruiting women, and agencies are often unsure how
to motivate their staff to locate potential recruits.
Some law enforcement agencies have developed a unique
incentive program. This plan rewards officers for
bringing in a recruit who is qualified to perform the
duties of a community law enforcement officer and who
has the knowledge, skills, and experience the
department is seeking. Rewards may take the form of
money, extra time off, or other benefits. 

A good incentive program provides a lucrative reward
and spreads it over a long period of time. For
example, a reward of $1,000 could be offered to any
officer who brings in a qualified applicant who
becomes a law enforcement officer. The reward would
be given in this manner: one third at the time the
person is hired, one third at the time the recruit 
completes the academy training, and one third when
the recruit completes probation. Not only does this
program guarantee a good supply of recruits, it also
builds in a mentoring system for the entire
probationary period. An officer who will receive
$1,000 if his or her recruit completes probation will
most likely take a keen interest in the recruit's
welfare and accomplishments at every step of the
training program. Female and minority recruits are
likely to benefit the most from this kind of program
that establishes and makes accessible informal
mentoring to all recruits. Law enforcement agencies
should place recruiting reminders and materials in
the paycheck envelopes of all employees to promote
this effort. 

Even though this program may sound expensive, it is
actually very cost-effective. Agencies will want to
review the success and expense of all components of
their recruitment program and consider whether some
or all of the money that would normally be spent on
advertising, career fairs, and other similar programs
can be diverted to the incentive program. 

Legal Issues

Agencies should check with their legal counsel and
elected officials to determine how to lawfully
implement this type of program. This program would
likely fall under the "meet and confer" terms of any
labor agreement. Also, the implementation of a
monetary incentive program may be adversely affected
by Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) considerations.

G. Youth Outreach Programs

Some law enforcement administrators tend to not
emphasize recruiting and youth outreach programs
until they have openings to fill. This does not
always result in finding the best available
candidates. Recruitment efforts should be ongoing.
Many of the approaches described in this plan, such
as use of the media, advertisements, career fairs,
and contacts with community colleges and
organizations, can and should be implemented year
round. Some agencies have taken a long-term approach
to recruiting by implementing programs in middle and
high schools in their community. By interesting
students at an early age in a career in law
enforcement, the organization can develop an ongoing
pool of highly motivated, qualified applicants. 

Internship programs for high school and college
students are excellent tools to recruit women to
policing. In addition, cadet programs, explorer
scouts, and community crime prevention programs are
ways to bring women into the law enforcement agency.
Some law enforcement agencies have formed
partnerships with local community colleges and local
school districts to develop programs to attract young
women to policing. For example, the City University
of New York CUNY/New York Police Department 
Cadet Corps program offers students the opportunity 
to combine study towards their college degree with a 
program of specialized law enforcement-related
training and work experience. Following successful
completion of the associate degree, program
participants are appointed as NYPD officers and enter
the Police Academy.

-----------------------------

Resource:

The Police Corps provides opportunities for
recruitment. Young people can get their college
education paid for if they go into law enforcement as
a career. This should be used as a tool to recruit
women and minorities. This program would be
especially appealing to single mothers and minority
women. 
Contact Information: Director Jeff Allison, U.S.
Department of Justice, Police Corps, 202-353-8953.

-------------------------------

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information

The Oakland, California, Police Department has
developed a recruiting program that begins in
elementary school and continues through college. 

The Los Angeles Police Department and the Los Angeles
School District have developed magnet school programs
for law enforcement. Contact Roberta Weintraub,
310-246-0404, or jrpolice@aol.com

City University of New York and the New York Police
Department have a cooperative program for recruiting
women and minorities.[10] 

H. Monitoring Recruitment Efforts

Once a recruitment program is implemented, it should
be continually monitored and evaluated to determine
what works and what changes may need to be
implemented. To effectively monitor and evaluate
recruitment efforts, the application for law
enforcement officer should contain questions about
how the applicant learned about the position. In
addition, when potential candidates call the
recruiting office, they should be asked how they
heard about the positions. At least once every 6
months the recruitment committee should meet and
review the recruitment program. Careful data should
be kept in order to determine which pieces of the
recruitment plan are successful. Successful programs
should be expanded and unsuccessful programs should
be discontinued or modified. Because targeted
recruiting can only be successful in conjunction with
a commitment to retention of qualified women,
agencies should also keep records of the comparative
retention rates of women and men.

----------------------------------

The Washington State Patrol has developed a
comprehensive tracking system to evaluate what
activities are effective in recruiting candidates
Contact Information: Chief Annette Sandberg,
360-753-6545

---------------------------

I. Recruiting for State Agencies

In many state law enforcement agencies, outdated
policies that require newly hired employees to make a
major geographic move in order to be hired are having
an extremely negative impact on hiring individuals
who have families or partners who are unable to
relocate. Some agencies also require employees to
make continuous geographic moves to progress up the
career ladder, again with an adverse effect on the
officer's personal life. The requirement for
geographic relocation places an unreasonable burden
on the spouse or partner who is forced to seek new
job opportunities with every geographic move. 
Agencies need to review the requirement for
geographic movement as a prerequisite for upward
mobility. It is a factor that drastically cuts the
pool of qualified applicants--both men and women.
Having a policy that only requires employees to be
assigned within their immediate region in order to
receive a promotion would relieve the concerns many
officers face about working and child-rearing.

J. Recruiting for Sheriff's Departments

Many sheriff's departments are responsible for
correctional systems in addition to traditional field
enforcement and investigative duties. Therefore,
newly hired law enforcement officers may be required
to serve in a correctional facility for a period of
time at the beginning of their careers. This can be a
disincentive for some potential candidates. 

The training opportunities and experience gained in
the correctional setting should be emphasized as an
advantage for newly hired officers. Correctional
duties offer candidates the opportunity to work with
clients in a controlled environment that enhances
their abilities to investigate crime in the patrol or
detective setting. Assignments in jail facilities
also offer unique shift schedules conducive to family
and educational needs. Working in corrections can
also give a long-time employee job variety and
end-of-career options.

Sheriff's departments should examine their career
rotation policies and practices to ensure that the
career advancement of women officers is not unduly
delayed because of lengthy assignments in
corrections. Some departments such as Travis County,
Texas, have classified corrections and law
enforcement positions differently, providing career
paths in both fields.

-----------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 4

1. Christopher Swope, "The Short Blue Line,"
Governing Magazine, November 1999.

2. Lory Manning and Jennifer E. Griffith, "Women in
the Military: Where they Stand," (Women's Research
and Education Institute, 1998).

3. Community Policing Monograph, "Recruitment and
Selection for Community Policing," (Community
Policing Consortium) Section 5.

4. Arthur Sharp, "Recruiting & Retaining Women
Officers," Law and Order Magazine, May 1993.

5. Committee on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law
Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed.
(1999) 31.1.

6. Deborah J. Campbell, Byron D. Christman, and
Melissa E. Feigelson, "Improving the Recruitment of
Women in Policing: An Investigation of Women's
Attitudes and Job Preferences," (University at
Albany, 2000).

7. Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law
Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed.
(1999) p 31.1

8. The Commission on Accreditation for Law
Enforcement Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the
Law Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th
ed. (1999) 31.2.

9. The Commission on Accreditation for Law
Enforcement Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the
Law Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th
ed. (1999) 31.3.

10. Amy Ramson, "Women in Policing: A Success Story,"
Women Police, Winter 1993, 15-19.

--------------------------

Checklist for Recruiting Quality Candidates

Recruitment Plan

o A Recruitment Committee has been established
consisting of:

     o An Equal Employment/Affirmative Action/Civil
     Rights expert.

     o An Advertising/Marketing/Public Relations
     expert.

     o A representative knowledgeable about the
     agency's testing process.

     o High-ranking women and minority members of
     the law enforcement agency.

     o Members of the community who represent
     women's and minority organizations and businesses. 

     o Recruiters from the agency or government
     office responsible for recruiting.

     o Faculty members from local college criminal
     justice programs.

     o High school and college career counselors.

     o High-ranking department officials.

o A recruiting plan has been developed that includes
goals for hiring women and a timetable for achieving
those goals.

o An adequate budget has been provided for
recruiting, including funds for advertising and
marketing.

o The recruiting plan addresses ways to involve the
community.

o The recruitment committee meets at least twice a
year to evaluate progress and make necessary
modifications to the plan.

Recruitment Brochure

o The photographs feature women in uniform.

o The photographs depict women officers performing
community service functions such as working with
children, the elderly, victims of domestic violence,
or similar situations, as well as performing more
traditional police services.

o The descriptive information about the job
emphasizes the role of law enforcement officers in
solving community problems and helping people.

o The brochure emphasizes the qualities desired in a
community police officer.

o Physical requirements of the job are not
over-emphasized.

o Pay and benefits, including family-friendly
policies, are highlighted.

o Minimum entry requirements are clearly described.

o Career advancement opportunities are realistic.

o The application and testing process is described in
detail.

o The training process is described in detail.

o There is one telephone number to call to obtain
information or sign up for the examination.

o There is a tear-off form to send for an
application.

o The brochure states the agency's commitment to
equal employment opportunity.

Recruiting Team 

o The recruiting team includes a diverse group of law
enforcement officers who are committed to community
policing and the recruitment of women. 

o Recruiters are selected for their skills in
recruiting, including effective advocacy, good 
public speaking, and public relations skills.

o Recruiters are selected for their positive
attitudes about women in policing.

o Recruiters have a dedication to increasing
diversity.

o Recruiters are demonstrably committed to community
policing values.

o Recruiters have a friendly personality and are easy
to talk to.

o Recruiters have received training.

o Recruiters have knowledge of the agency's policies
and procedures, especially those that affect women,
such as pregnancy leave.

o Recruiters have knowledge of women's issues such as
sexual harassment, family leave, and other similar
problems.

Locating Women Recruits

o The recruiting unit has an adequate budget to cover
advertising, printing, mailing, booth rental, travel,
and telephone costs.

o The recruiting campaign places an emphasis on
recruiting at community colleges on an ongoing basis.
Community colleges and high schools are regularly
visited to encourage women applicants.

o Businesses frequented by women are targeted as
partners in the recruitment effort. Examples of some
businesses are: day-care centers, elder-care centers,
and grocery stores.

o Community organizations such as churches, service
clubs, and neighborhood associations are enlisted as
partners in the recruitment effort, with special
emphasis on organizations in minority communities.

o A press conference is utilized to kick off the
recruiting campaign.

o Community meetings about crime issues are utilized
as opportunities to recruit women.

o Job fairs are utilized as an opportunity to find
women applicants.

o Career Days are held and women are encouraged to
attend and learn more about a career in policing.
These career days are held on weekends to promote
better attendance. Day-care is provided if possible.

o Radio and television stations have agreed to
provide public service announcements aimed at
recruiting women.

o Police personnel appear on local radio talk shows
and television community affairs programs to interest
women in law enforcement careers.

o The local press is encouraged to write feature
stories regarding women in law enforcement.

o Local movie theaters have agreed to provide
pre-movie advertising in the theater aimed at
recruiting women.

o The Chief/Sheriff/Director of the organization
continually emphasizes the organization's commitment
to equality and the desire to attract more women into
law enforcement in speeches, media interviews, and
other public appearances. The political leaders of
the community also emphasize this desire to hire
women as law enforcement officers.

o Advertising features women performing law
enforcement duties and is placed in publications, and
radio and television stations likely to be seen or
heard by women and in locations likely to be
frequented by women.

o Posters and brochures are distributed throughout
the community to places likely to be visited by
women.

o The agency has a website that provides employment
information.

o Advertisements are placed in publications with high
female readership and in public locations such as
transit stops.

o Local businesses are enlisted as partners in the
recruiting effort and provide resources for
advertising.

Incentive Program

o An incentive program is in place to encourage
officers to recruit diverse candidates.

o The reward offered is spread over time and is
achieved when the recruit completes probation.

o The reward is sufficiently generous to encourage
officers to participate in the program.

o The civilian staff is involved in the recruiting
effort.

Youth Outreach

o Programs at the middle and high school levels
encourage students to aspire to a career in law
enforcement.

o Mentoring systems are in place to identify highly
desirable candidates and keep them interested in a
law enforcement career over a multi-year span of
time.

o Ride-alongs, internships, cadets, and Explorer
Scout programs are utilized as recruitment tools.

o Recruitment efforts are engaged in year round.

o Law enforcement managers are actively involved in
the recruitment effort and are evaluated on their
achievements in this regard.

o Women officer and minority officer organizations
are involved in the recruitment effort.

o Instructors and career counselors at high schools
and colleges are involved in the recruitment effort.

o Community social service and job placement agencies
are involved in the recruitment effort.

o The Police Corps program is utilized.

Monitoring Recruitment Efforts

o A system has been implemented to monitor and
evaluate law enforcement recruiting programs.

o Application forms ask how the applicant learned
about the law enforcement job.

o The recruiting program is evaluated every 6 months
with a formal report prepared for the administrator
of the organization.

--------------------
 
Chapter 5

Removing Obstacles in the Selection Process

Statement of the Problem

The entry-level selection process poses a great
potential for liability on issues of discrimination.
It is very important that the process be thoroughly
reviewed to ensure that it is fair and job-related
and to avoid the expense and negative publicity
resulting from litigation. 

There may be several problems with the entry-level
sworn officer selection process used by law
enforcement agencies. First, the testing and
selection system may be unfairly biased against
women. Second, the process may not test for the
attributes necessary to become successful community
oriented-police officers, male or female. Third, the
method used to rank and hire candidates may not be
effective in achieving diversity. 

Testing for the "Wrong Things" 

Prior to the 1970s, law enforcement agencies hired
men for sworn positions and many of those hired had a
military background. This resulted from many factors,
including the availability of veterans in the labor
market, the paramilitary structure of law enforcement
agencies, and our society's tendency to view policing
as an exclusively male occupation. During that
period, hiring procedures evolved that greatly
favored men over women by awarding bonus points for
military backgrounds and placing great emphasis on an
applicant's ability to use physical strength to
enforce the law. The screening process relied heavily
on physical agility testing and did not emphasize
verbal communication skills or backgrounds in problem
solving.

In today's environment of community oriented
policing, citizens are identified as "customers" to
be served, and policing involves more communication
skills and negotiating ability. Given changes in
society and innovations in technology and crime
suppression, it is therefore necessary to find new
ways to assess an applicant's suitability for
policing. Unfortunately, some civil service commissions,
city and state governments, and law enforcement agencies
have not yet changed their hiring processes to
reflect the reality of modern policing. Testing
programs, oral interviews, background investigations, 
psychological evaluations, and (especially)
pre-employment physical performance testing all
may need to be adjusted to assess the skills and
abilities required of today's law enforcement
professional. In addition, some civil service
commission rules or other established regulations
that control law enforcement hiring may need to be
evaluated and modified to ensure that the most fair
and job-related processes are in place. If this is
not done, agencies that are successful in recruiting
a pool of well-qualified women applicants may lose
them through an outdated and biased process of
selection and hiring.

Identifying Bias in the Testing Process 

Each phase of the hiring and selection process should
be examined for potential adverse impact on women
candidates. With appropriate data collection, it is
easy to find where women are being washed out in the
hiring process and thus identified which aspects of
the process should be examined for gender bias. An
agency should examine their records for every part of
the selection process from the past few years and
look at the percentage of women and men who passed 
at each step. It should also compare the percentage of
female applicants hired to the percentage of male
applicants hired.

The "4/5ths or 80% rule" is a formula that has been
developed by federal civil rights enforcement
agencies to help identify which segment of a
selection process may be artificially screening out
women or minority groups. If the passing rate for
women or minorities at any step of the selection
process is less than 4/5th (80%) of the selection
rate for the group with the highest pass rate, the
test is said to have "adverse impact" and an analysis
of the job-relatedness of that component must be
conducted. For instance, if 60% of the men pass a
physical performance test, but only 40% of the women
pass, a problem may exist. In this example, 40%
percent is only 67% of the passing rate for men, so
the test should be further evaluated to determine
whether it is lawful and job-related. In addition to
the 4/5ths rule, a statistical test called a standard
deviation analysis may be performed to determine
whether a selection component has adverse impact. It
is recommended that someone who is very familiar with
employment testing statistics undertake this study. 

If the scores on a selection component are used to
rank order candidates as part of a larger battery of
tests, the average scores need to be compared by sex,
race, and national origin. In such circumstances, if
the average male score is statistically significantly
higher than the average female score, the selection
component must be demonstrated to be job-related. In
other words, if males who pass receive an average
score of 95 and females who pass receive an average
score of 80, the component must be validated. 

In determining whether to use a particular test
offered by a test vendor, an agency should first
evaluate information from other agencies that have
used the same test to assess whether it has adverse
impact on women or minorities. These data can 
be provided by an agency summarized by sex, race, 
and national origin without breaching ethics or
confidentiality guidelines. Legal and testing experts
should be retained to review the passing rates by
sex, race, and national origin. If a test vendor or
developer refuses to supply data gathered from the
test's use in other similar agencies, the agency
should be very cautious about using that vendor's
test. 

Evaluation of the Job-relatedness of Selection
Components 

Whenever a test has a disparate impact on
a gender or minority group, federal law requires the
employer to ensure that the test: 1) is job-related
for the position in question and consistent with
business necessity, and 2) minimizes adverse impact
to the extent possible. 

For example, when women pass a test or other
selection component at a rate that fails to satisfy
the 4/5ths rule or which is statistically
significantly lower than the pass rate for men, the
test has adverse impact and must be demonstrated 
to be "valid," in accordance with federal and
professional testing guidelines, standards, and
principles. This is also true for tests that have
adverse impact on the basis of race or national
origin. Because assessing the validity of an
employment test is a highly technical undertaking, 
it is recommended that only a capable testing expert 
do this evaluation. 

For example, task-based physical performance tests
frequently have adverse impact against women and may
present validation problems. In some instances the
passing points have been set artificially high and/or
a particular element of the test may not be
job-related (e.g., climbing a 6' solid brick wall or
pushing a squad car off a roadway when the activity
is not job-related or may even be prohibited by
general order). A physical ability test with such a
problem should be modified or replaced with a test
that only measures skills and abilities at the minimum
level actually needed to be able to perform the job 
successfully. 

For written examinations, oral interviews, assessment
centers, and personality and psychological evaluations, 
a failure to satisfy the 4/5ths rule also requires the agency 
to demonstrate that the selection component is job-related. 
There is no reason women should not perform as well as 
men on these measures. However, these tests can pose
significant barriers to both men and women of color. 

The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies, Inc. states, "A job-related useful and
non-discriminatory selection process is dependent
upon a number of professionally and legally accepted
administrative practices and procedures which include
informing the candidates of all parts of the
selection process at the time of formal application;
maintaining written procedures governing lateral
entry and reapplication of unsuccessful candidates;
and insuring timely notification of candidates about
their status at all critical points in the process.
These procedures and practices significantly
contribute to a more efficient, effective and fair
selection process."[1] 

Entry-level tests should not test for knowledge,
skills, or abilities that will be taught in the law
enforcement academy. Entry level testing should only
identify knowledge, skills, and abilities that will
enable a person to become a successful community
policing officer after appropriate training. 

Search For Alternatives with Less Adverse Impact 

Even if a test is job-related, it may violate the law
to use it. Under federal law, if such a test has
adverse impact, the employer should look carefully to
see whether there are other tests that have less
adverse impact but that would do an equally good job
of selecting qualified candidates. Employers need to
look at possible alternative uses of the same test
and should also determine whether there are any other
tests that are equally job-related but have less
adverse impact. If several such alternatives are
available, federal law requires the employer to
select the alternative with the least adverse impact
on the basis of sex, race, and national origin. 

Record Keeping

Keep detailed, accurate records of the entire
recruiting and selection process. Data should be
gathered on the numbers of persons, by race, national
origin, and gender that apply for positions. In
addition, for each test or component of the selection
process, data must be kept on the numbers who
participate and the scores and numbers of who pass
or fail. This data is crucial to thoroughly examining
the agency's selection system for problem areas and
potential liability for unlawful discrimination. 

Each step of the testing process will be discussed
briefly in this section and the most troublesome
problems will be identified. However, the technical
aspects of testing are beyond the scope of this
guide. Testing experts and the federal and
professional testing guidelines, standards, and
principles listed below in the resource section
should be consulted for further guidance. 

Improvement of the testing process as described will
assist agencies in selecting the best possible
community police officer candidates and will protect
them from discrimination lawsuits. 

------------------------

Whenever a department decides to change any portion
of the selection process, it should be done in
consultation with legal experts and testing experts.
In addition, it is important to use the job-related
job description as the foundation for developing all
parts of the selection process. 

------------------------

A. Physical Testing

Entry-level physical ability tests are often
outdated, are not job-related, and are testing for
physical requirements not needed to perform the job
of a modern law enforcement officer. They put
unnecessary emphasis on upper body strength and rely
on methods of testing that eliminate large numbers of
women who are, in fact, well qualified for the job. 

An important consideration for a law enforcement
agency in reviewing its entry-level physical
abilities test is whether officers who are currently
performing the job can satisfactorily pass the test.
By establishing a standard of physical performance
for entry-level candidates, agencies are saying that
a particular level of performance is necessary to do
the job of law enforcement officer. However, if
current law enforcement officers do not maintain that
level of physical ability and they are still effective as 
officers, then the level of physical performance being 
tested for is obviously not required to perform the tasks 
of the job. 

Type of Physical Test

There are basically two schools of thought about
physical ability testing--general fitness and job
task-based. Under the general fitness approach
candidates are given tests that measure their general
physical fitness through activities such as running,
sit-and-reach, and similar activities. The tests are
usually gender-and age-normed. This means that the
candidate's level of performance is measured by
standards relative to gender and age. Fitness tests
do not have adverse impact on women and do not
purport to be job-related. Instead, they provide some
measure of assurance that candidates who pass are
more likely to successfully complete training and
less likely to experience on-the-job injuries. Under
this approach, job-related physical abilities are
taught and assessed after hire during academy
training. 

Task-based tests simulate duties performed by law
enforcement officers and measure the candidate's
ability to perform those tasks within established
time parameters. Examples of these tests are a dummy
drag, fence climbing, tire changing, and other
similar activities. It may be problematic to
demonstrate that these types of tests measure
abilities that are required for the job. For example,
some agility tests require that candidates push a
police vehicle, climb a 6' wall, lift and carry a
dummy, or run obstacle courses that would be
challenging for most athletes, much less for police
officers successfully performing their jobs. These
tests typically have an adverse impact on women and
therefore must be documented to be job-related and
consistent with business necessity in order to
minimize adverse impact to the greatest extent
possible. 

A third type of physical testing has begun to be used
by some agencies in recent years. This type of test
contains events such as a 300-meter run, a vertical
jump, sit-ups, push-ups, and a 1.5-mile run. Because
this test is validated using a task-based physical
test, it may have the same problems associated with
those tests. In addition, with the third type of
test, there may be significant problems with the way
the connection is drawn between the test events and
the physical tasks actually required on the job. In
evaluating such a test, an agency should consult with
an expert in employment testing as well as an
independent expert in testing statistics.

Legal Issues for Physical Testing 

A word about upper body strength. One of the biggest
obstacles to women in physical testing is upper body
strength. Is upper body strength a bonafide
occupational requirement for law enforcement officer?
The law does not absolutely require or prohibit
testing applicants for upper body strength. Nor does
the law require upper body strength to be measured in
a particular way, if it is to be measured. However,
because of inherent physiological differences between
men and women that are well-established in scientific
research, tests of upper body strength typically have
an adverse impact against women, meaning that men
perform disproportionately better than women on such
tests. 

When an employment test has such an adverse impact,
the law requires the employer who uses the test to
demonstrate that the test is both "job-related to the
position in question" and "consistent with business
necessity." This almost always requires the employer
to retain experts, such as industrial organizational
psychologists, statisticians, and exercise
physiologists, to perform scientific studies. These
studies must demonstrate both that the characteristic
being tested is important to the job, and that the
cutoff score being used on the test is appropriate.
With respect to the latter, these studies must
establish that the cutoff score measures the minimum
amount of the characteristic that is necessary for
successful performance on the job. If the test is to
be used on a rank-ordered basis, there must be
substantial empirical evidence to demonstrate that
higher scores on the test predict better performance
on the job. Additionally, if there is another test
that has less adverse impact but will also serve the
employer's interest in selecting qualified law
enforcement officers, the law requires the employer
to adopt this test. In the law, this is known as a
less discriminatory alternative test. Employers should 
search for less discriminatory alternative tests early on 
during the process of developing employment tests 
and should periodically renew and update this search, 
ideally before each recruitment and selection effort. 

The most important recent case about agility testing
was decided in July 1999 by the federal appeals court
in Philadelphia. The SEPTA (Lanning v. South Eastern
Pennsylvania Transit Authority) decision held that
employers who use a task-based physical test that has
an adverse impact must show not only that the quality
or characteristic being measured by the test is
important to the job, but that the passing point of
the test is set to measure the minimum amount of that
characteristic necessary to perform the job
successfully. Stated differently, if current employees
who cannot pass the test are still able to perform the 
job safely, then the cutoff score is unlawful and may 
not be used.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices for
Physical Testing

Job-Related Tests 

Test developers should carefully and thoroughly
evaluate the physical duties to be performed by law
enforcement officers. Designers of such tests should
thoroughly evaluate the disparate impact these tests
often have on women candidates and seek to minimize
that impact to the greatest extent possible. Current
employees should be tested to set the standard of
performance. 

Fitness vs. Job Performance

No research shows that the physical agility and
strength tests actually predict performance in the
job of community police officer. In addition, most
law enforcement agencies do not have any standards
that require officers to maintain a certain level of
physical agility and strength after they leave the
law enforcement academy. In any law enforcement
department in the United States, there are examples
of officers who are excellent law enforcement 
officers and who have stellar records in all areas of
law enforcement yet who could not pass the
entry-level physical ability test. 

Agencies that desire to improve the fitness level of
their employees may implement programs that encourage
physical conditioning. Many organizations now provide
on-site workout facilities or membership in local
health clubs. Federal law enforcement agencies allow
special agents four hours per week to work out. But
unless the organization is willing to make all
officers pass the entry-level physical test every
year, they should closely examine their physical
requirements for new recruits.

The best strategy is to use a "fitness model" for
entry-level hiring and then train recruits during the
academy to reach the level of agility proven to be
necessary for the job. Techniques required to perform 
the job are best taught in the academy setting. 

------------------------

The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department
eliminated all physical agility testing for
applicants for entry-level positions. During the
recruit academy, students are given physical
conditioning training. They are required to pass the
California Peace Officers Standards & Training (POST)
agility test before they can graduate from the
academy. If anyone fails the test, they are offered
positions as custody assistants until they can 
re-test. Using this approach, the Sheriff's
Department has been able to increase the numbers of
women hired.
Contact Information: Captain John Dredd,
562-946-7802, is in charge of the Training Academy
and Lt. John Franklin, 323-981-5852, is in charge of
recruiting.

------------------------------

Preparation for Physical Testing

If a physical test is to be given, applicants should
be provided information about the type of physical
testing to be performed and opportunities to practice
the test. This is best done through a training course
given for a minimum of 8 weeks immediately prior to
the administration of the test. Some organizations work
with local colleges and health clubs to ensure that
these kinds of courses are offered. It has been
demonstrated that such courses, if properly
conducted, substantially improve female candidates'
performance on the test. 

Use of Test Scores

Physical tests should be used on a pass or fail basis
and not ranked by a score. 

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact
Persons, and Other Useful Information for Physical Testing

For additional information on agility testing
standards refer to the following websites:

King County Sheriff's Office, WA
http://www.metrokc.gov/ohrm/psd/22rc1001.htm

Americans for Effective Law Enforcement, Inc. Legal
Center

http://www.aele.org/dc131.html

B. Written Examinations

Women as a group usually do quite well on written
examinations. However, these tests may have an
adverse impact on women and men of color, and if they
do, they must be demonstrated to be job-related.
Tests that include technical policing questions or
seek to measure knowledge of specific statutes or
laws should not be used because these concepts are
taught in training.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices for
Written Examinations

Legal and testing experts should be consulted to
assist in designing or revising written examinations.
Tests should not be used if they have an adverse
impact on a protected group and that cannot be
demonstrated to predict job success in accordance
with federal and professional testing guidelines,
standards, and principles. 

Many agencies use subject matter experts when
designing tests. These are law enforcement officers
who are currently performing or have performed the
job for which the test is being devised. Test
developers should be sure to include a diverse group
of officers as subject matter experts.

C. Oral Interviews

The structured oral interview process is an area
where gender bias may manifest itself and women are
negatively impacted. 

Bias of Interviewers 

The persons chosen as interviewers may have conscious
or unconscious biases against women serving as law
enforcement officers that affect their evaluation of
the women candidates. They may have mistaken ideas about 
the physical requirements of the job. Even when
well-intentioned people are selected, these biases
can creep into the scores they give to women. 

Emphasis on Military Background 

Additionally, some interviewers may have the mistaken
belief that persons with a background in the military or security 
work or other law enforcement-related jobs will make better
officers. As pointed out earlier, very few women have
those types of backgrounds, and they are not
necessarily what are needed for community policing. 

Legal Issues for Oral Interviews

As with the written examination, the oral interview
should be analyzed to ensure that it does not have a
disparate impact on any race, sex, or national origin
group. In addition to looking at the pass rates of
applicant groups, the average scores of candidates
considered by sex, race, or national origin should be
closely evaluated if the oral interview scores are
used to rank candidates for selection. 

Each rater's scores should be examined to determine
if there is a disparity in the scores given to male
candidates vs. female candidates. In other words,
every aspect of the oral interview should be closely
examined for gender bias. It is often helpful to have
an independent testing expert evaluate these issues.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices for
Oral Interviews

The structured oral interview provides an excellent
opportunity to test for the types of skills needed
for effective community policing. Verbal
communication, reasoning, the ability to de-escalate
violence, and sensitivity to issues of diversity are
the types of skills that lend themselves well to
evaluation by an oral interview panel.

In this discussion of oral interviews, we define a
structured oral interview as the part of the early
selection process that determines whether a person
will be placed on a hiring list. We do not include
the hiring interview in this section. The hiring
interview is conducted when the department head or
designee makes the final selection of which persons
will be hired from the list of eligible applicants. 

Selection and Training of Panels 

The oral interview panel should be gender and
racially diverse, and include members of the local
community. Sworn and civilian law enforcement
employees may also be utilized as panelists. All
raters should be supportive of women in policing.
Raters should be thoroughly trained about the rules
of the interview process. The training should
include:

o An overview of discrimination law and the concept
of "adverse impact" as they apply to the oral
interview process. 

o A discussion of how bias can creep into ratings,
even at a subconscious level and the need for
consistently applied and objective evaluation
criteria.

o A review of the job description for law
enforcement officer and the knowledge, skills, and
abilities the raters should be looking for.

o Policing philosophy of the agency and the traits
desired in a law enforcement officer.

o A review of the questions to be asked and the
reasons for each question. Any follow-up questions
permitted should be clearly delineated.

o Types of questions that should never be asked.
Raters should never ask a question not on the
interview form.

o Explanation of the rating system and how to
assign a score or rating.

o Whether or not raters are allowed to discuss
their ratings with other panel members.

o The fact that their ratings will be reviewed and
evaluated for reliability and possible gender bias.

Oral interviews should be structured to produce a
score that can be averaged for women and men. This
way, oral interview panelists can get feedback to
identify and correct any bias implied by their
ratings. If using multiple panels, a professional
test developer should apply a score standardization
technique. These calculations should be done every
day during an oral interview process so mid-course
corrections can be made. Any rater who consistently
rates women lower than men should be removed.

Non-discriminatory, Job-related Questions

The questions developed for the oral interview should
test for the skills and abilities needed for
community policing such as the ability to work with
all types of people, de-escalate violence, mediate
disputes, and engage in problem-solving.

The same questions should be asked of each candidate.
Organizations have been sued because oral interview
panelists were allowed to ask whatever they want.
This can and often does lead to discriminatory
outcomes.

Community Policing Emphasis 

With the emphasis on community policing and the
skills required for that type of law enforcement
service, emphasis in the oral interview process
should be placed on experiences that show the
candidate's ability to work with all types of people,
de-escalate violence, mediate disputes, and engage in
problem-solving. Candidates should be asked about
their involvement in the community, and points should
be given to candidates who have backgrounds showing
community involvement.

Types of Questions to Include in an Oral Interview 

An oral interview presents an excellent opportunity
to learn what a candidate thinks about issues and to
observe how the candidate responds under stress. The
following are a few examples of how oral interview
questions can be used to help probe sensitive issues
such as use of force, attitudes toward women,
community focus, and ability to mediate disputes.

o Please describe what you have done for your
community without receiving pay for doing it.
(Reveals whether the person has a commitment to the
community and to public service.)

o Have you ever known a victim of domestic
violence? What types of things do you think it would
be important to do for a victim of domestic violence?
(Does the candidate understand any of the issues
about domestic violence and the need to provide
assistance to the victim? Is the candidate
sympathetic?)

o When would it be appropriate for a husband to use
physical force against his wife or children? (Further
probes attitudes about domestic violence.)

o What types of people do you have the most trouble
dealing with in tense situations? Why? (May identify
biases.)

o Have you ever been involved in a physical
altercation? What led up to it? How did you feel
about the outcome of it? (Seeks information about
resorting to physical force.)

o Imagine that you are a police officer and have
been sent to a call about a neighborhood disturbance.
When you arrive, you discover two men yelling at each
other and pushing each other. They are fighting about
who owns a power tool. How would you handle this
situation? (Looks for mediation skills, not for
knowledge of police procedures or the law.)

o If you were a police officer, what do you think
would be the biggest challenge in working with a
partner of the opposite gender? (Examines possible
gender bias.)

D. Background Investigations

Background investigations can be extremely
subjective, creating the possibility for
discrimination. Background investigators with biases
against women as law enforcement officers may
overstep their boundaries in looking for reasons to
disqualify candidates. Some of the unacceptable
reasons for disqualifying women candidates may be:

o She was out of the job market for an extended
period of time while raising her children.

o She was the victim of domestic violence or sexual
assault.

o She has no law enforcement-related background
such as military service, security guard, private
investigator, etc.

o She is married to a law enforcement officer.

o She has engaged in sexual relationships outside
of marriage. 

o She is a lesbian.

o She had an abortion.

o She was on welfare.

o She has poor credit.

o She has a relative with a criminal history.

Background investigators need to take into
consideration the fact that many women in our country
are single mothers, raising their children with
little or no financial support from the fathers. This
may result in problems with credit, welfare, etc.
Using such criteria as credit ratings or a history of
welfare dependency to automatically disqualify
candidates may deprive an agency of candidates whose
life experience has equipped them with resources,
problem-solving skills, and compassion that would
make them exemplary community policing officers.

On the other hand, some law enforcement agencies have
not taken advantage of the opportunity to use the
background investigation to screen out persons with a
tendency towards violence in their homes or in their
everyday life. If properly conducted, background
investigations can be one of the most important tools
in the selection process.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices for
Background Investigations 

A good background investigation is crucial to hiring
the right people. Background investigators should
have a thorough understanding of the types of persons
the chief executive of the law enforcement agency
wants to hire. In order to ensure quality background
investigations, the issues discussed below should be 
considered.

Background investigators should not make
recommendations about hiring. The background
investigation report should be a detailed, factual
statement of the results of the investigation,
allowing the chief executive to make an informed
hiring decision.

As discussed previously, validation applies to all
steps of the selection process, not just to written and 
physical tests. Thus, at each step of the process, data 
on pass rates must be kept and validation must be done 
at any step that has adverse impact. 

Screening Background Investigators 

Persons to be assigned as background investigators
should be carefully selected. They should 
be screened for potential bias against women as law
enforcement officers and for other biases that would
prevent them from performing an accurate and fair
investigation. A panel of experts in an oral interview 
procedure may do this screening or a qualified psychologist 
may do it. Any person who has participated in
discriminatory or harassing behavior should not be 
selected as a background investigator. The staff assigned 
to background investigations should be gender and 
racially diverse. 

Training Background Investigators 

Once the investigators have been selected, qualified
experts should provide training about discrimination
and equal employment opportunity. Training
investigators about the types of questions that
cannot be asked is important. Background
investigators should also thoroughly understand the
organization's community policing philosophy and the
types of skills and abilities required of a community
policing officer. 

Format of Investigation

Organizations should develop a format for background
investigators to use as a guide for conducting the
investigation. This format should include information
about how many references to check, when to perform a
neighborhood visit, how to order a credit history,
and other important steps to perform. Any
prohibitions on questions or areas of inquiry should
be clearly stated. All background investigations
should be documented with a written report.

Criteria for Collecting Data

Explicit, objective guidelines for the collection of
information about candidates should be developed and
carefully followed. Developing these criteria will
require input from legal and personnel experts. If automatic
disqualifiers are determined, the criteria for
disqualification should be clearly described and
explained in writing, for the benefit of the
investigators, the candidates, and the hiring
authorities. If the organization develops automatic
disqualifiers, background investigators should be
instructed to check those areas first. 

The information to be collected should be based on
the job description and on a written statement from
the department executive that describes the traits of
the ideal law enforcement officer. For example,
organizations with an emphasis on community policing
should collect information about communication
skills, the types of experiences and training of the
candidate, the commitment to community service, 
and the ability to de-escalate violence. Background
investigators should be directed to develop
information about the candidate's abilities in these
areas. 

Screening for Gender Bias

The background investigation should be used as a tool
to screen applicants for gender bias against women as
law enforcement officers. It can easily be used as a
tool to screen out applicants who display negative
attitudes towards women as law enforcement officers
or towards women who are victims of domestic
violence, sexual assault, and other crimes against
women. Specific questions about these issues may be
asked of the applicants and of people who know the
applicants. 

Polygraph

Some law enforcement agencies use polygraph
examinations as a part of their background
investigation process. Polygraph tests are
particularly useful for determining prior undetected
crimes, other serious undetected misconduct in the
applicant's past, or false statements made during the
application process. Because of the highly personal
nature of the questions posed during the polygraph
interview and test, it is critical that agencies be
sensitive to race/gender issues which may arise. 

Polygraphists should be screened for gender bias and
receive formal training in polygraph operation as
well as training in cultural sensitivity, interview
techniques, and legal requirements for personnel
testing and selection. To ensure the highest level 
of professionalism, all polygraphists should hold
membership in a polygraph association which maintains
national standards of practice and should receive
continuing education in polygraph techniques and
scientific advances. 

Both the general areas of inquiry and the specific
questions asked during a polygraph test should be
directly related to the requirements of the position,
and they should be reviewed by the agency's legal
department and approved by the agency head. The
questions should be applicable to both male and
female candidates alike. Questions that refer to
sexual acts should be directed toward undetected
criminal activity, and not an exploration of legal
sexual activity between consenting adults.

Tests should be monitored periodically (via one-way
mirror or closed circuit TV) to ensure that polygraph
examiners are consistent and professional. Test
charts should be scored by a second examiner (or by
computerized scoring software) to control for hidden
biases or polygrapher/candidate personality issues.
Only the chart results should be reflected in the
final score and decision. The polygraphist's notes
should be retained in separate locked files to
protect the privacy of the candidate, and only the
information necessary to make a hiring decision
should be included in the candidate's
applicant/personnel file. 

Large agencies with several polygraphists should make
an effort to ensure diversity within the polygraph
section. While it is not always possible, or even
advisable, to provide candidates with a polygrapher 
of their same race or gender, the agency should provide 
a mechanism of appeal for candidates who raise issues of 
bias. For example, the candidate may be offered an opportunity 
for a re-test or a specific-issue test conducted by a different
examiner. Even if an examiner of the candidate's race
or gender is not available, the issue may be resolved
by a new examiner with a different personality and
interview techniques. By requiring periodic
statistical reports (monthly, quarterly, yearly) of
polygraph testing and results, the agency head will
be able to monitor the performance of their testing
process.

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact
Persons, and Other Useful Information for Background
Investigations

For additional information on polygraph tests
refer to the following websites:

American Association of Police Polygraphists 
http://www.polygraph.org/states/aapp

American Polygraph Association
http://www.polygraph.org

National Polygraph Association
http://www.nationalpolygraph.com

Department of Defense Polygraph Institute 
http://www.dodpoly.org

Screening for Violence and Family Issues 

The background investigation should always be used to
screen out applicants who have a history of
perpetrating spouse or child abuse, sexual
harassment, violent behavior, or non-payment of
spousal or child support obligations. Records of
restraining orders should be checked. Divorce
petitions should also be examined for evidence of the
use of violence. The address of the applicant should
be checked for instances of 911 calls regarding
domestic violence.

Background investigators should understand that
sometimes an abuser will file a restraining order
against the victim as a means of harassment and as a
tool for later use in court. This is especially true
in child abuse situations.

Rejections of Applicants Based on Background Issues

Applicants should be told, in general terms, why they
were unsuccessful in the background investigation.
There is a possibility that they may be able to
remedy the situation and re-apply at a future date.
For example, if the use of credit is an issue, the
applicant may be able to work at correcting some
credit problems.

E. Psychological Evaluation

The psychological evaluation is a very important
element in selecting officers. It also offers an area
where women may be disqualified because of bias on
the part of the testing psychologist. Some psychologists 
hold erroneous beliefs about the ability of women to 
perform law enforcement duties. One area of possible 
bias is when the woman has been the victim of sexual 
assault or domestic violence. One in every six women in 
the United States has been the victim of sexual assault 
and one in every two women will be the victim of domestic 
violence in her lifetime.[2] This should not be an automatic
disqualifier. In fact, women who have been victims of
violent crimes may possess a greater understanding
and compassion for dealing with other victims of
these crimes, crimes that may account for up to 50%
of 911 calls for service. Yet, psychologists may,
based on their own beliefs, disqualify these women as
being "weak." Lesbian women are sometimes
disqualified based on discriminatory beliefs or
psychological profiles.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices for
Psychological Evaluation

Purpose of the Examination 

The purpose of the psychological examination should
be clearly defined. Emphasis should be on screening
out applicants with a tendency to resort to physical
force and on screening in applicants who exhibit the
ability to de-escalate violence. Heavy emphasis
should be placed on communication skills, the ability
to communicate with all types of persons, compassion,
and other similar traits that are highly desired when
selecting a candidate for a law enforcement officer
in an organization that embraces community policing. 

Selecting the Psychologist 

Persons to be utilized as evaluators for the
psychological screening process should themselves be
screened for bias toward women and for outdated
beliefs about the ability of women to perform law
enforcement duties. This can be done by a thorough
interview and also by checking with the state
licensing board to determine if there have been any
complaints made about the therapist. Psychologists
selected should thoroughly understand the type of law
enforcement officer desired for community policing.
They should be thoroughly familiar with the current
job description.

Results of the Examination

As a general rule, the psychological examination
should not be "graded." Applicants could be
classified according to "acceptable" or "not
acceptable" or other similar terminology. The
psychologist should be required to prepare a detailed
written report about each candidate. If the
psychologist is recommending that a candidate not be
hired, the reasons for that decision should be
clearly explained in the report. 

F. Medical Evaluation

The medical evaluation may be a source of problems in
the selection of women candidates. Some of the most
common issues to be confronted are breast, ovarian or
uterine cancer, menstrual problems, past depression,
pregnancy, complications from pregnancy, or other
issues unique to women. 

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices for
Medical Evaluation 

Establishing Criteria for Evaluation

The law enforcement organization should develop clear
criteria for what is to be tested during the medical
examination. Medical personnel performing the
evaluation should be thoroughly familiar with the job
description and the types of physical activities
routinely performed by law enforcement officers.
Medical decisions should be based on the person's
overall health and whether the applicant can perform
those described duties. Any automatic disqualifiers should 
be explained to the medical experts.

Screening the Medical Personnel 

The medical person should be screened for gender bias
and any history of improper behavior with patients. Most states 
have a medical board that keeps track of complaints against 
licensed physicians.

------------------------

Fairfax County (VA) Police Department's Occupational
Health Center employs several physicians to provide
physical examinations and classify applicants for
employment; however, one central physician oversees 
and acts as a "quality control" point for disqualified
candidates and exceptional cases. By using one
coordinating physician who is highly trained on the
medical/physical issues of police service to evaluate 
classifications and appeals, they believe they
achieve more consistency and fairness in the process.
In addition, a female physician's assistant is
available to assist with the medical examination
process for female candidates. 
Contact Information: Fairfax County Police,
Administrative Support Bureau, at 703-246-7574.

-----------------------

Cancer 

Some young women today are survivors of breast cancer
or cancer of the reproductive system. This should in
no way eliminate them as candidates for hire.

Abortion 

Whether or not a woman has undergone an abortion is a
personal issue that should not be considered in the
physical examination. The physician should not even
ask the question.

Results of the Examination

As with the psychological examination, the medical
examination should result in a finding of "acceptable
for hire" or "not acceptable for hire." On any "not
acceptable" finding, the doctor should prepare a
report that describes in detail the reason for
rejecting the candidate. 

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact
Persons, and Other Useful Information for Medical Evaluation

Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures,
43 Fed. Reg. 38290 (Aug. 25, 1978).

Questions and Answers to Clarify and Provide a Common
Interpretation of Uniform Guidelines, 44 Fed. Reg. 11996 
(Mar. 2, 1979).

Additional Questions and Answers to Clarify and
Provide a Common Interpretation of the Uniform
Guidelines, 45 Fed. Reg. 25930 (May 2, 1980).

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing,
American Psychological Association ("APA Standards")
(1999).

Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel
Selection Procedures: Third Edition, Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology ("SIOP
Principles") (1987).

G. Ranking and Hiring Eligible Applicants

Many law enforcement agencies use some type of
ranking system to place candidates on an eligibility
list for hire. This raises several areas of concern
given the many ways gender bias may artificially
depress the scores of women candidates throughout the
testing process. The primary problem with any
ranking system is that minor differences in scores do
not necessarily mean that one person is better
qualified than another. For example, if one person
obtains a score of 97 and another person obtains a
score of 97.5, it does not mean that the person with
the score of 97.5 will make a better law enforcement
officer unless there is clear validation evidence
demonstrating that higher test scores in fact predict
better job performance. Yet many agencies continue to
hire in strict rank order off of the lists.

Veteran's Preference Rules 

A second factor affecting rankings and adversely
impacting women candidates is veterans' preference
points. There are federal and state laws on veterans'
preference points. Some states have what is called an
"absolute preference." This means that veterans must
be given preference over all other candidates. Some
states have laws that allow for scoring and adding
veterans' preference points to the overall score.
Each jurisdiction should obtain legal advice to learn
about the laws in their state and make certain that
veterans' preference points are being properly
applied.

Legal Issues for Ranking and Hiring Eligible
Applicants

The key with veterans' preferences is to ensure that
the definition of "veteran" set forth in the relevant
veterans' preference law is carefully followed. Not
all veterans are entitled to a preference. For example, 
some laws limit the preference to veterans who have 
served in combat and specify the wars and time periods 
during which the individual should have served in the 
U.S. military.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices for 
Ranking and Hiring Eligible Applicants

Pass/Fail Scoring and "Rule of the List" Systems

One solution to the problem of ranking candidates is
to score each part of the testing process on a pass
or fail basis. Candidates who pass all portions of
the selection process are placed on an eligibility
list. The appointing authority should then develop a
non-discriminatory method for selecting candidates.
This is sometimes called a "rule of the list" system.
Some agencies, such as the Oakland California Police
Department, have successfully used this system to
increase diversity in its new recruit classes.

Another technique used to ensure non-biased hiring is
to place all qualified applicants on a hiring list
and then draw names at random for hiring. 

Banding Scores

When Civil Service rules require that a score be
given to be placed on an eligibility list for hire,
banding may be the solution to increase diversity.
Under this approach, a certain group of scores are
banded together and any person within that group may
be hired. For example, scores from 95-100 could be in
Band A, scores from 90-94 in Band B, etc. Anyone
within B and A can be hired, thus increasing the
number of applicants to chose from for any opening.
If banding is to be used, it should be developed in
consultation with a testing expert familiar with the
statistical principles surrounding measurement error.

Expanding the "Rule of 3" 

Many civil service systems require the appointing
authority to choose from among the three top-scoring
persons on the eligible list. If the systems described above, 
rule of the list and banding, are not adopted, it may be 
possible to convince the Civil Service Board to expand 
to a Rule of 5 or 10, thereby giving the appointing authority 
more leeway.

Also, when establishing a hiring list, thought should
be given to providing additional points to applicants
who possess 2 years of college credits. Since the
percentage of women in college is high, giving
preference points for education should help increase
the numbers of women with higher scores on the
eligibility list. If a college requirement is to be
instituted, agencies should first determine that
minorities will not be adversely affected. After the
requirement is instituted, the agency needs to
monitor closely to ensure that the requirement has 
no adverse impact on minorities.

Selecting Law Enforcement Officers 

No matter what selection process is used, the chief
administrator of an organization usually has the
prerogative to select from a group of persons on the
eligibility list. Hiring new law enforcement officers
is the most important decision that a chief
administrator will make. The chief administrator
should personally interview the eligible candidates
to decide which ones to appoint. If the chief is
unable to allocate time for this important duty, it
should be delegated to someone in the command staff
or a diverse panel supportive of community policing
and diversity.

Older Applicants

Law enforcement agencies should not overlook the
advantages of hiring older applicants to increase the
diversity of their department. An advantage of hiring
older applicants is that they have more life
experience that may help them be more understanding
of the problems people face. Some women leave the
workforce for a brief period of time to deal with
family-related responsibilities. They are a valuable
resource that should be tapped.

--------------------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 5

1. Committee on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law
Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed.
(1999) 32.1.

2. Massachusetts Coalition of Battered Women Service
Groups, Domestic Violence Factsheet.

---------------------------

Checklist for Removing Obstacles in the Selection Process

General - Applicable to all selection components

o All selection components have been developed based
on the information contained in the updated job
description.

o Each selection component has been examined for
adverse impact on the basis of sex, race, and
national origin.

o Each selection component that has adverse impact
has been either:

     o validated by legal and testing experts and
     determined to be the job-related alternative with the
     least adverse impact; or

     o replaced by the job-related alternative with the
     least adverse impact. 

o A comprehensive record-keeping system is in place
to gather information about performance on each
component of the selection process by applicant
gender, race, and national origin.

Physical Abilities Test

o Test developers thoroughly evaluated the physical
duties actually performed by officers.

o Physical duties required for the job are taught
and tested during the training academy.

o If the test is likely to have adverse impact on
women, a course is given to assist those taking the
test to prepare for it.

o Physical abilities tests are graded as pass or
fail.

o The agency has ongoing physical conditioning
programs for all employees.

Written Examinations

o The written examination measures skills and
abilities needed for community oriented policing.

o The written examination does not ask questions
about police procedure or laws.

o If subject matter experts are utilized to develop
areas of questions for written examinations, women
officers are included as experts.

Structured Oral Interview

o The oral interview panel is gender and racially
diverse.

o The panel includes members of the local community.

o Panelists are supportive of employing women as law
enforcement officers.

o Panelists have been thoroughly trained on:

     o Discrimination law and adverse impact;

     o How personal bias can distort the rating process;

     o Job description;

     o Policing philosophy of the organization;

     o Questions to be asked;

     o Rules about follow-up questions;

     o Types of questions that should never be asked;

     o Explanation of the rating/scoring system; and

     o Review of ratings for gender bias.

o Oral interviews are scored.

o Any rater who consistently scores equally
qualified women lower than men is removed.

o Questions used during the interview measure skills
and abilities needed to de-escalate violence,
communicate with all types of people, mediate
disputes, engage in problem-solving, and other skills
needed for community policing.

o Extra points are awarded to candidates with a
history of community involvement.

o Exactly the same questions are asked of each
candidate.

Background Investigations

o Investigators have been screened for bias against
women and other unlawful biases.

o No investigator has participated in discriminatory
behavior in the workplace.

o Investigative staff is gender and racially
diverse.

o Investigators have been trained in:

     o Discrimination and equal employment law;

     o Philosophy of the chief executive regarding the
     types of officers to be hired;

     o Community policing philosophy of the department
     and the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to
     perform those duties;

     o Job description;
     
     o Automatic disqualifiers;

     o Types of questions that cannot be asked; and

     o Other important areas of inquiry.

o There is a detailed format for conducting
background investigations.

o Applicants are screened for gender bias and
negative attitudes toward women as law enforcement
officers.

o Applicants are screened for negative attitudes
toward female victims of domestic violence or sexual
assault.

o Applicants are screened for a history of:

     o Perpetrating spousal or child abuse;

     o Perpetrating sexual harassment;

     o Violent behavior;

     o Non-payment of spousal or child support;

     o Records of restraining orders;

     o Violence documented in divorce proceedings; and

     o 911 domestic violence-related calls to the
     residence of the applicant.

o Completed investigations are in writing.

o Completed investigations do not contain hiring
recommendations, only factual statements.

o If polygraph examinations are used in the
screening process, the examiners have been screened
for gender bias.

o The staff of polygraph examiners is gender and
racially diverse.

o Applicants are informed of the reasons they failed
the background investigation.

Psychological Examination

o The purpose of the psychological examination has
been clearly identified to the examiners.

o An emphasis of the psychological examination is to
screen out persons with a tendency to use physical
force or violence.

o An emphasis is to screen in persons with:

     o the ability to de-escalate violence;

     o good communication skills; and

     o compassion.

o The psychologists have been screened for gender
bias.

o The psychologists have been screened for their
support of women as law enforcement officers.

o The psychologists have a thorough understanding of
the job description and the policing philosophy of
the organization.

o Psychological examinations results are not scored.

o Psychologists are required to submit a written
report documenting the reasons for rejection of any
candidate.

Medical Evaluation

o Medical personnel have been screened for gender
bias and any history of improper behavior with
patients.

o Medical personnel have a thorough understanding of
the job description and the physical requirements of
the job.

o Medical personnel understand the requirements of
the Americans with Disabilities Act.

o Women are not screened out due to abortions or
recovery from forms of cancer unique to women.

o Medical personnel are required to submit a written
report documenting the reasons for rejection of any
candidate, a copy of which is provided to the
candidate.

Hiring Eligible Applicants

o The chief administrator or designee interviews all
candidates before making hiring decisions.

o Older applicants are valued for the life
experience they bring to the job.

--------------------

Chapter 6

Designing Quality Recruit Academies and
Field Training Programs

Statement of the Problem

Biased training academies and field training programs 
can result in large numbers of women recruits being washed 
out. The attrition rates for women in law enforcement academies 
are often double that of male recruits. In a report prepared by the 
Los Angeles Police Department covering the years 1990-99, women 
were twice as likely as men to wash out: 19% of the women who entered 
the police academy resigned or were terminated from the program while 
only 9% of the men resigned or were terminated.[1] Many problems 
contribute to this loss of women.

Military or Boot Camp Style of Training 

Many law enforcement academies still use the boot
camp style of training, which  emphasizes
tearing down individuals and rebuilding them to the
military model. This military model, which places
value on strict, unquestioning adherence to rules is
not only contrary to the skills desired in community
policing officers, it is a culture foreign to most
female recruits. Not only do female recruits
generally have limited familiarity with this style of
training, but experts in adult learning acknowledge
that this type of training is not effective when
trying to teach new skills to male or female adult
students. The emphasis is on training, rather than
teaching. Due to the small numbers of female
recruits, live-in  academies may place additional
burdens on women. A sense of isolation may develop
and lead to increased drop-out rates among them. In
addition, live-in academies place a serious burden on
parents with young children. Child-care problems may
be so severe that some excellent candidates may not
apply for the positions simply because of child-care
issues. 

Over Emphasis on Physical Prowess 

In many recruit academies, physical training still
stresses a force model, where size and force are
overemphasized. Physical training, which emphasizes
upper body strength rather than self-defense skills
and physical conditioning, negatively impacts women.
In addition, with the new "less than lethal"
technology available, the reliance on the use of
physical force becomes less necessary and less
desirable. The purpose of physical training should be
to build skills and confidence so that the trainee is
able to control physical confrontations when necessary. 

Firearms Training

Many female recruits have never held or fired a gun
before coming to the academy. Their unfamiliarity
with guns may generate a sense of insecurity and
uncertainty when learning to handle a firearm. They
may be reluctant to express their concerns and risk
subjecting themselves to ridicule by other recruits.
Additionally, the lack of familiarity with firearms
may create an expectation of failure on both the part
of the trainer and the female recruit. The size and
weight of firearms can present additional problems
for female recruits. Firearms training is sometimes done 
in a group, with little individualized training until failure 
is imminent. 

Sexual Harassment and Discrimination 

The boot-camp style of training for recruits, the
"tear them down - build them up" culture, uses
hazing, shunning, and humiliation to build
camaraderie. These techniques may become viewed as
accepted uses of power. It is very easy for sexual
harassment to join that acceptable list.[2] Women
recruits frequently experience sexual harassment in
the academy from both instructors and classmates.
Male recruits who act upon their negative attitudes
toward women recruits may go unchallenged by academy
instructors. Because the women are on probation and
afraid of being terminated, they usually do not
report the sexual harassment. Women may also be held
to a higher standard of performance and conduct than
male recruits, being closely scrutinized and having
to perform at a higher level to be considered
acceptable.[3] 

Field Training Issues

After completing academy training, most new officers
are assigned to a Field Training Officer (FTO) whose
job is to assist in translating the information
learned at the academy to street performance. But
some FTOs fail in their duties by subjecting female
recruits to discriminatory and harassing behavior.
This can occur for several reasons:

o Some FTOs have personal biases against women in
law enforcement. 

o Inadequate criteria for the selection of field
training officers can result in FTOs who have
marginal skills in dealing with diversity. They look
upon training female recruits as more difficult and
view it as punishment. 

o FTOs may be inadequately selected and
inadequately trained in the community policing model.
They operate in the model that stresses the use of
force to overcome resistance and compliance with
their orders. Their standard of success for a recruit
is rarely one that a female recruit can meet. 

o Female recruits may be held to a higher standard
than male recruits in areas where women are
stereotyped as automatically excelling, such as
dealing with children, writing reports, and
interacting with the community.

o Because FTOs prepare evaluations of recruits,
many of the same problems identified in the
performance evaluation section of this guide also
occur here. (See Performance Evaluation section.)
Those problems are more aggravated during probation
because female recruits are afraid to report the
harassment and discrimination they experience.

Academy Instructors and Field Training Officers

Academy and FTOs may not be adequately screened for
gender bias. The absence of female instructors
contributes to increased discrimination and
harassment of female recruits. The vast majority of
academy instructors and FTOs are male, depriving
recruits of positive female role models, and reducing
exposure of recruits to women in positions of
authority. Often when women instructors are used in
an academy setting, they are used to teach the
traditionally accepted "female job skills" and are
rarely used as defensive tactics and firearms
instructors. This further creates the impression
among all recruits that women cannot adequately
perform these functions. Lack of female FTOs
reinforces the attitude that women are not competent
law enforcement officers. 

Legal Issues 

Personnel staff and legal counsel should review
recruit and field training programs for compliance
with Federal and state laws. As a result of the
Police Standards Act in 1968, law enforcement
training standards are set by each state and the
state agency responsible for the standards often
conducts the basic recruit academies. As a result, an
individual law enforcement agency may not have the
ability to implement the changes necessary to deal
with the problems encountered by women. However, the
state agencies are responsible for ensuring that the
changes necessary to deal with the problems women
encounter in the basic academy are accomplished.
Individual agencies should insist that these changes
occur. Law enforcement agencies should accept the
responsibility for ensuring that all training given
to their officers, regardless of who conducts it, is
job-related and non-discriminatory. The individual
agency remains responsible for discriminatory actions
against their employees.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Recruit Training Academies

The boot-camp model of training should be replaced
with training that is based on adult learning
techniques. Studies have shown that adults respond
best to training that is varied in presentation such
as video, lecture, role-playing, and other methods
and that relates the training to their experience.
Experts in adult learning should be consulted and
should assist in developing training programs that
are effective. The use of role-playing should be   
emphasized to provide students with a safe
environment to practice new skills. 

--------------------------------

The Massachusetts Executive Office of Public Safety
and the Massachusetts Criminal Justice Training
Council, in collaboration with the Massachusetts
Chiefs of Police Association, the Boston Police
Department, and the Massachusetts State Police, have
developed a new curriculum, "Basic Course for
Police." This curriculum focuses on using training
methods in the academy that emphasize skills required
in community policing, including: moral decision
making, problem solving, and physical training that
emphasizes health and stress relief as opposed to
physical prowess.
Contact Information: Howard Lebowitz, Executive
Director, Massachusetts Criminal Justice Training
Council, 411 Waverly Oaks Road, Waltham, MA 02154.
Phone: 617-727-7827, www.communitypolicing.org/publications.

--------------------------

Live-in academies should be eliminated if possible.
If live-in academies are maintained, extra effort
should be taken to ensure that female recruits are
not isolated. Agencies should avoid sending a lone
woman recruit to a live-in academy due to the
likelihood that she will withdraw. A mentoring
program would be helpful to assist women through this
time. In addition, agencies should make attempts to
ensure that parents are able to spend time with their
families during the term of the live-in academy.
Other possible solutions are to make the live-in
academy optional for persons within a reasonable
commuting distance, providing on-site child care, or 
providing a housing allowance for temporary residence 
for family of recruits.

Training Committee

The agency should establish a training committee to
review and evaluate all academy coursework,
materials, and training components for relevance to
community policing and officer job skills. The
committee should also review the material for gender
and racial bias. Experts from the community as well
as female and minority officers and command staff
should be included on the committee. 

Curriculum

All officers should be trained in an atmosphere that
recognizes and encourages innovation and individual
strengths and reflects the goals of community
policing. Emphasis should be on problem solving,
communications, conflict resolution skills,
de-escalation of violent situations, cooperation with
the community, and the appropriate use of force.

Academy training must include diversity training,
addressing the issue of diversity within the agency.
As stated by John Gentile, "Unless officers respect
one another, it's difficult to expect them to respect
the multicultural community that they serve."[4]
Training should also emphasize civil rights,
eliminating gender bias and harassment, racial bias,
and bias against gays and lesbians. Recruit academy
training also must emphasize ethics in decision
making.

Selecting the Academy Director

Agencies should carefully select the person to direct
the training academy. The academy director should be
someone who has experience in designing training
programs utilizing adult learning techniques. The
academy director should have a solid understanding of
the principles of community policing and the job
description for law enforcement officers. In
addition, the director should have an understanding
of issues of diversity, discrimination, and police
culture. A civilian may be the best choice. 

Selecting Academy Instructors

The success of any training program is dependent on
trainers being carefully selected for their ability
to train and their knowledge of the subject matter.
The training staff should include women and
minorities, and care should be taken to ensure that
women trainers are used in areas other than just
those that are considered to be "female skills." One
way to identify excellent trainers is through the use
of a peer survey asking employees whom they think
would make good academy trainers and why.

Instructors must be carefully screened for any biases
they may have about women in law enforcement. They
should be screened for their ability to work with and
to accept female police officers; for any history of
perpetrating sexual harassment, gender bias, or
family abuse; and for the way in which they handle
sexual harassment cases involving officers under
their command. They should be thoroughly trained in
civil rights, discrimination, and sexual harassment
laws. Any person who has been found to participate in
discrimination, sexual harassment, or family abuse
should never be used as an instructor.

---------------------------

The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department has a
policy that a member of the training academy faculty
sits in on every class as a monitor. If there is ever
any demeaning  comment made by an instructor, the
class is immediately stopped, the students are given
a break, and a discussion is held with the instructor
about the comment. A determination is made as to
whether to allow the instructor to continue the
class. When the class is reconvened, the faculty
member informs the class that the comment was
inappropriate and that the situation has been
resolved.
Contact Information: Sgt. Patty Norris of the
Training Division, 562-946-7148.

---------------------------

Instructors should have a good understanding of how
to train adult students and should understand and be
committed to the philosophy and practices of
community policing. Instructors who are police
officers should have a proven record of delivering
the type of quality services desired by the law
enforcement agency. They should have skills as 
counselors and problems solvers. All academy staff
must be acutely aware of the hazards of discrimination 
and harassment. The workplace must be carefully 
monitored to ensure that harassment does not occur.

The students should anonymously evaluate instructors.
One method would be to ask them to list the top five
instructors and why they think each is an excellent
instructor.

Physical Fitness and Skills

The goal of the physical training in the academy
should be to increase the confidence of the students
in their ability to perform their duties without
injury. Physical fitness should be approached as a
component of a healthy lifestyle. If recruits are
given a solid foundation in developing a healthy life
style through exercise, stress reduction, and diet,
they are more likely to stay fit and therefore less
likely to be injured or disabled. Rather than
emphasizing marching and other activities that have
no relation to the job or the lives of the students,
emphasis should be placed on physical activities that
the students can continue after they leave the
academy to maintain fitness. 

Physical training for police work should include defensive 
tactics training, the use of pepper spray, batons, and other 
less-than-lethal force. The emphasis of physical training 
should be on the de-escalation of violence. The use of 
physical force should be de-emphasized. Physical training 
should give officers confidence that they can handle 
violent situations. If any recruit needs additional physical 
training, it should be done in a way that does not stigmatize 
the recruit. Use of female instructors is important in
physical training programs to provide role models for
female recruits and to reaffirm to male recruits that
women can be effective police officers. 

In addition, women recruits should not be unduly
singled out to play the suspect role when control
holds and other physical tactics are demonstrated.
Using women in this way too easily leads to hazing
and the creation of a hostile work environment.

Firearms Training

Firearms instructors should be capable of training
recruits who have no prior experience with firearms,
as well as retraining those who have been improperly
trained. Each officer, regardless of prior experience
or skill level, should receive individual instruction
to prevent stigmatizing those who lack prior
experience. Instructors should help female recruits
develop confidence to succeed in firearms training.
If additional training is required, it should be
accomplished while maintaining the recruit's sense of
dignity and accomplishment. Firearms training, as all
training, should be accomplished in a supportive 
atmosphere, free of criticism and ridicule.

A firearm, like any other tool, should be suited for
use by the operator. The size and weight of the
weapon are important considerations for selecting an
effective weapon for officers. Most gun manufacturers
produce smaller weapons that are just as effective as
larger, heavier weapons. Many weapons can also be
modified to accommodate smaller officers. Women must
be provided with firearms that allow them to be
effectively trained.

As with physical training, using female firearms
instructors provides a positive role model and shows
all recruits that women are capable of firearms
proficiency.

Sexual Harassment, Discrimination, and Hostile Work
Environment

Academy personnel should be held accountable for
maintaining a harassment-free work environment. Any
instructor found to have participated in, condoned,
or even ignored any discrimination, harassment, or
retaliation should be removed from the academy staff
and appropriately disciplined. All academy staff
should be trained in providing a hostility-free work
environment including the requirement to report
inappropriate actions of other staff members.

New hires should be informed of how seriously the
agency views illegal discrimination and harassment,
the importance of reporting any such conduct directed
toward them or one of their peers, and the avenues
they may use to make a report. To convey the
importance of the message, it is best that the Chief
or Sheriff deliver it. EEOC guidelines about sexual
harassment should be posted at the academy. Any
reports of possible discrimination or harassment
should be immediately investigated and appropriate
action taken.

Recruits who exhibit bias or retaliation against
women or any protected class or who engage in
harassment or retaliation should be terminated.

In order to assess the degree of problems that women
are currently experiencing in the recruit academies,
officers who have recently completed their
probationary periods should be surveyed. An agency
must determine if there are current instructors who
are discriminating against and/or harassing female
recruits. Surveying both male and female officers is
important, as women may still be reluctant to
complain for fear of retaliation or being seen as a
troublemaker. 

Selection of Field Training Officers (FTO)

Law enforcement agencies should regard the role of
FTO as one of teacher, guide, and mentor. Great care
should be taken to establish the job description of
the FTO to include these traits, skills, and values.
FTOs should never be selected on a strict seniority
basis. Diversity among the FTO staff and their
supervisors is important. All recruits should work
with FTOs of both genders. 

Officers with any history of perpetrating abuse in
their public or private lives should not be selected
as FTOs. Officers assigned as FTOs should be
carefully screened for their ability to work with,
accept, and support female police officers. Officers
with a prior history of sexual harassment,
discrimination, retaliation, or failure to properly
handle such incidents should not be selected as FTOs. 

CALEA states, "the selection process for FTOs is
crucial to a successful program as many of the
values, tactics, and attitudes of the FTOs are
transmitted to inexperienced officers. Initial
training as well as periodic in-service training
should be provided to FTOs to prepare them for and
keep them current with their assigned
responsibilities."[5] 

An FTO should instruct all female recruits in the
various avenues of reporting discrimination and
harassment that the recruit may experience or
observe. FTOs should never encourage a recruit to not
make such a report. FTOs should be required to report
any harassment or discrimination they observe on the
part of other FTOs.

FTOs should support and practice community policing,
understand and respect diversity, and practice moral
decision-making and ethical conduct.

Male recruits should be assigned to work with at
least one female FTO. This will expose them to a
gender-diverse environment, and reinforce the
understanding that women are valued members of the
organization, have expertise in policing, and are in
positions of authority.

Review of Field Training Programs and FTOs

The field training program should be continuously
reviewed to ensure that standards are job-related and
non-discriminatory, and that the probationary
officers are receiving proper training in appropriate
job duties and skills. 

Evaluations completed by FTOs should be routinely
examined for gender bias by both individual FTOs and
the evaluation or training system. Some of the
indicators of problems are:

o Women receive lower scores than men.

o Women are criticized or rated lower than men for
similar conduct (i.e. held to a higher standard).

o Subjective statements relating to lack of
strength, lack of aggression, or other statements
that may indicate that an FTO is not supportive of
women as police officers.

Monitoring the Progress of Recruits

Law enforcement agencies should develop methods to
monitor the progress of recruits and to monitor the
workplace environment. If recruits are having
problems meeting standards, an immediate review is
necessary to determine the reason why and to develop
an improvement program to assist the recruit. Such a
monitoring system can also act as an alert that there
may be a discrimination or harassment situation.

For example, if female recruits use more sick time
when they are working with a particular FTO or in a
particular assignment, it could be indicative of
problems with the FTO or with a hostile work
environment.

------------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 6

1. Los Angeles Police Commission, "Police Academy and
Probationary Officer Attrition," (2000).

2. Catherine A. MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of
Working Women (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1979).

3. Elizabeth L. Shoenfelt and Max R. Mendel, "Gender
Bias in the Evaluation of Male and Female Police
Officer Performance" (paper presented at the Annual
Convention of the Southeastern Psychological
Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, March 21 1991),
8.

4. John Gentile, "Recruit and In-Service Training: The
Diversity Factor," Community Policing Exchange,
April/May 1997.

5. The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law
Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed.
(1999) 33-44.

----------------------------

Checklist for Designing Quality Recruit Academies
and Field Training Programs

Recruit Academy

o The academy director has experience in adult
learning techniques and an understanding of community
policing and the job of a law enforcement officer.

o A training committee consisting of police
personnel and community experts is utilized to
develop curricula.

o The boot camp academy model is not utilized.

o Live-in academies are not utilized unless
necessary.

o If there are live-in academies with lone female
recruits, programs are in place to prevent them from
becoming isolated.

o Training is grounded in community policing
principles.

o The majority of training provided is on topics to
support community policing principles.

o Training is provided addressing diversity in the
agency as well as in the community.

o Ethical decision making is an element of all
training provided.

o Academy training staff is diverse.

o Instructors have been carefully screened for bias
against women in law enforcement, for past family
abuse, for racial bias, and for past incidents of
discrimination, harassment, or retaliation.

o Instructors are thoroughly trained in civil rights
laws.

o Instructors are trained in how to teach adult
students.

o Instructors possess skills as counselors and
problem solvers.

o Instructors are evaluated by the students.

o Defensive tactics, the use of pepper spray, and
the use of less-than-lethal weapons are utilized over
training that relies on upper body strength and
physical force.

o Women are used as instructors for physical and
firearms training.

o Individual instruction is provided for firearms
training for all recruits.

o If necessary, firearms have been modified or
smaller weapons have been authorized to accommodate
smaller officers.

o Academy staff are required to maintain a
non-hostile work environment and required to report
all incidents of discrimination or harassment.

o Recruits who exhibit bias against women or any
other protected class will be terminated.

o Surveys are conducted to determine if
discrimination or harassment is occurring but not
being reported.

o The seriousness of discrimination and harassment
is conveyed to all newly hired personnel by the agency 
chief executive.

o All reports of bias, discrimination, and
harassment are immediately investigated.

Field Training

o FTO job descriptions emphasize the role as
teacher, guide, and mentor.

o FTO staff and supervisor positions include a
diverse group of officers.

o FTOs are screened for their ability to work with
female police officers.

o FTOs do not have any prior history of bias,
discrimination, harassment, retaliation, or family
abuse.

o FTOs are trained in their assignments and
responsibilities.

o FTOs are required to instruct their women trainees
in the avenues available to them to report bias,
discrimination, and harassment.

o FTOs are required to report any bias,
discrimination, or harassment they observe.

o FTOs are selected on the basis of their support of
community policing, their respect for diversity,
their ethical conduct, and their teaching abilities.

o Seniority is not used as a basis for selecting
FTOs.

o The field training program is continually reviewed
for gender bias and to ensure proper training.

o Evaluations by FTOs are routinely examined to
prevent bias and discrimination from occurring and to
give early warning of problems.

o Programs are in place to monitor recruit officer's
progress and the workplace environment. 

o Improvement programs are developed as soon as
problems are identified with a recruit's performance.

o A training committee consisting of law enforcement
and community experts evaluates all academy and FTO
programs.

------------------------

Chapter 7

Mentoring to Increase Retention

Statement of the Problem

Law enforcement is a unique culture in which to
work and can include many challenges and
stresses. Since women continue to be 
under-represented in law enforcement, they
face additional challenges. Most
significantly, sexual harassment and gender
discrimination continue to be key reasons
women cite for leaving law enforcement.[1, 2] In
addition, female recruits are washed out of
academy and field training at disproportionate rates.

Women often feel isolated when they join the
department and have no one to turn to for advice or
support, especially in smaller departments. They may
eventually lose hope of succeeding in the law
enforcement profession without the ability to receive
the appropriate guidance. The loss of highly
qualified women costs departments significantly in
time, training, and employee replacement. 

Legal Issues 

Question: Are women-only mentoring programs
permissible in states that have enacted 
anti-affirmative action laws?

Answer: It depends on what is meant by mentoring. For
example, mentoring programs that provide newly hired
female officers with the name of a more senior female
officer to contact if she has questions or needs
assistance are not prohibited. Moreover, voluntary
gatherings of women officers after hours to work on
job skills or to discuss work-related issues would
also not be barred under these laws. However,
employer-sponsored fitness programs offered during
work hours and open only to women would likely be
prohibited. 

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Mentoring is a tool that has been helpful in
retaining women in law enforcement. Informal
mentoring networks have long existed in law
enforcement agencies. This informal mentoring
continues to flourish as veteran officers provide
support and guidance to new officers, often taking a
special interest in helping them integrate into the
law enforcement culture, build their skills, and move
up in the ranks. Unfortunately, these mentoring
networks have not included women on a large scale.
Women would benefit greatly by developing alliances 
and networks to help one another cope with the challenges 
of working in law enforcement and fostering support 
systems that help women advance. "Mentoring benefits 
every employee--civilian and sworn, veteran and rookie, 
male and female."[3]

Create a Mentoring Program 

Mentoring programs can assist in the retention and
promotion of female employees. They can also provide
support and encouragement at each critical juncture
in a woman's law enforcement career. Mentoring
programs that begin as soon as the recruit enters the
academy and continue throughout academy and field
training are highly recommended. By pairing new hires
with veteran officers at the beginning of their
careers, problems can be identified and resolved
early and the transition into the law enforcement
culture can be made easier. Once a recruit completes
academy and field training, mentoring continues to
play an important role. Mentors serve as role models
and coaches, providing guidance and support. Mentors
can also act as liaisons, reporting to the
administration problems that the mentee may be
having. 

Often women do not feel comfortable reporting
incidents of harassment or discrimination for fear of
retaliation. Mentors can ameliorate the situation by
making sure that the mentee, as well as the agency,
follow departmental procedures for handling
complaints. 

At times, it may be desirable to utilize women from
neighboring law enforcement agencies as mentors. 

Benefits of Mentoring Programs 

Mentoring can benefit a police department in numerous
ways. Using mentoring programs, a department can
expect improved job performance of participants, an
environment of cooperation and cohesiveness, and
increased morale among female employees. In addition,
the financial benefits to the department are significant. 
Given the steep costs involved in recruiting, hiring, 
and training new officers, it is financially prudent for 
agencies to direct financial resources at programs aimed 
at retaining employees. For example, one typical medium-sized
county agency estimated that it costs $40,000 to recruit, hire, 
and train a new officer.[4] 

In addition to the expenses incurred by a department
for recruiting and training an officer, law
enforcement agencies in the U.S. have been assessed
large financial penalties for harassment and
discrimination suits. A recent study by the
International Association of Chiefs of Police found
that women have won more than one-third of the sexual
harassment lawsuits and more than one-third of the
gender discrimination lawsuits they filed against
police departments.[5] Law enforcement agencies have
collectively spent hundreds of millions of dollars to
settle these suits. Mentoring programs can reduce the
financial liability by providing female employees
with a support system that assists them in resolving
their complaints before they result in costly
lawsuits. 

No matter what form of mentoring a department chooses
to implement, the goals are always the same: to cultivate 
one-to-one partnerships that will encourage employees to 
reach their fullest potential as law enforcement professionals. 

A. Formal Mentoring Programs

A number of agencies have recognized the significant
benefits to mentoring and have created formal
mentoring programs. These programs are specifically
designed to address the needs of the department's
employees. For example, one medium-sized department
has developed a mentoring program that targets new
recruits, while another agency has implemented a 
mentoring program that focuses on the career develop-
ment of all its officers.While there are many ways to put 
together a formal mentoring program, a comprehensive 
initiative that addresses the needs of employees at each 
phase of their career is the best type of program. The 
following components should be included in a formal 
mentoring program to ensure that it benefits women. 

Establishing a Formal Mentoring Program 

The first step in establishing a formal mentoring
program is to develop a blueprint. This can be
achieved by forming a working group. This committee
is responsible for examining the needs of the
department, developing the program, and devising a
strategy for implementation. This committee should
include a diverse group of women officers from
various levels in the department, a representative of
the command staff, and a program coordinator 
(consultant or in-house human resources person). 

Applicant Mentoring

Law enforcement agencies that develop a mentoring
program for applicants may see a dramatic decrease in
the number of applicants who fall out of the hiring
process. Often, recruiters can be utilized as mentors. 
Applicants should be telephoned on a regular
basis to answer any questions that may arise about
the selection process. They should be informed of
programs designed to assist them in various phases of
the testing process. 

New Hire Mentoring 

Mentoring should begin from the first day a female
recruit is hired. All female hires should be assigned
a mentor who will act as a trusted adviser, providing
information, advice, or coaching during the new
recruit's first critical months in the agency. 

Selection of Mentors

The selection of mentors is critical. The chief
administrator should conduct a search for mentors by
requesting officers to complete a peer recommendation
survey. The selection process should send the message
that being selected as a mentor is recognition of the
employee's superior leadership and service. While it
is desirable that women mentor women, not all women
will make good mentors. All participants should have
a passion for mentoring, and an unbiased attitude
about women as police officers. If there are not
enough mentors for all new women recruits, it is
possible to assign mentors to more than one mentee.
Group mentoring can be effective. 

Training for Mentors and Mentees 

Mentors and mentees should be provided ongoing
training. An orientation for both mentors and mentees 
should be mandatory. The training should cover the 
following topics:

o Orientation on each participant's roles and
responsibilities.

o Adult learning techniques for effective
communication.

o Identification of departmental resources.

o Discrimination and sexual harassment laws and
policies.

Mentors should receive training in peer counseling
and discrimination law. They should thoroughly
understand the evaluation criteria on which the
recruit will be judged. They should have a good
understanding of the discrimination complaint
process, performance evaluation, community 
policing, and the issues frequently faced by 
women in law enforcement.

Regular Meeting Schedules

Mentors and mentees should meet on a regular basis.
Once a week during academy training and once a month 
thereafter is recommended. The administration should allow 
this to occur when officers are on duty. 

Administration Involvement and Oversight

The success of the program will heavily depend on the
level of support the administration provides to the
participants. The administration should be actively
involved in the mentoring program to ensure its
success. The chief administrator and/or command staff
should be available to meet with the mentors to
receive feedback on a regular basis. They should also
be willing to take immediate action on any problems
discussed during these meetings.

Mentor Program Coordinator

A full-time or part-time employee should oversee the
mentoring program. A departmental employee or an
outside consultant can staff this position. The
coordinator's responsibilities include:

o Developing the mentoring program with input from
various members of the department and community members.

o Organizing meetings, training, and program
activities.

o Facilitating the process and the matching of the
mentors and mentees.

o Providing ongoing counseling/communication with
participants.

o Creating an atmosphere that fosters and
encourages participation in the program.

o Conducting ongoing evaluations of the
effectiveness of the program.

Evaluation

The mentoring program will need to be evaluated
periodically to ensure that it is meeting its goals.
Once the program is underway, it will also need to be
fine-tuned and modified as necessary. A focus group
of mentors and mentees can be used to discuss what is
working for evaluation purposes. A climate survey of
mentees may also be helpful.

Post-Academy Mentoring

Mentoring should continue after recruits graduate
from the academy and begin field training. Just 
because a woman recruit successfully completes 
the academy does not mean that her mentoring needs 
are over. Mentors can act as coaches, role models, and 
advisers throughout a woman's career, especially as 
officers prepare for promotional exams and conduct 
career planning. A semi-annual meeting schedule is 
recommended.

---------------------

Fairfax County Police Department: 
Mentoring Program for Academy Recruits
Lieutenant April Kranda of the Fairfax County Police
Department in Virginia assisted in the development of
a mentoring program to address the high turnover of
new recruits during academy training. Under this
program, mentors are assigned to new hires to help
them assimilate into the department and successfully
complete academy training. Mentors meet with new 
hires prior to their first day and provide them with a 
very personal, in-depth overview of the academy and 
department. The goal is to ensure that the new hire's 
introduction to the department is a positive experience. 
The program has been extremely successful and is believed 
to have saved the department hundreds of  thousands of 
dollars by reducing the attrition rate of new officers. 
Contact Information: Commander, Personnel Resources Division, 
Fairfax County Police Department,703-246-7576.

----------------------------

Aurora Police Department: Career Enhancement
Mentoring

The Aurora Police Department hired independent
consultant Laura Harris of Advanced Coaching and
Consulting to design and implement a mentoring
program that focuses on the career development of its
officers. The program was designed with input from 
members at various ranks in the department, as well
as through focus groups and meetings with the department 
and community members. Currently in its second year,
this program is designed to meet the following
goals: (1) Enhance the abilities and skills
of department members while in their current
positions, as well as prepare them for career
advancement; (2) Increase the participation of
department members in promotional exams; (3) Increase
the participation of department members while in
special assignments; (4) Enhance the continued effectiveness
and development of the department. 
Contact Information: Laura Harris, AAC, 303-841-4846

------------------------------

B. Informal Mentoring Programs

In addition to formal mentoring programs, informal
mentoring can supplement department sponsored
programs. As women have increased their
representation in policing and have risen to command
positions, informal mentoring among women has become
more widespread. While informal mentoring is not a
substitute for a formal mentoring program, there are
many ways in which a department can foster informal
mentoring. 

Increasing Visibility of Women Role Models

High-ranking women in the department should be given
departmental and public exposure. They can be
utilized to speak informally to law enforcement and
community groups on issues such as sexual harassment
and gender discrimination as well as on the topic of
women in policing in general. In addition, the
administration should encourage high-ranking women to
make themselves available to other women in the
department by encouraging an open door policy.

Creating a Women's Advisory Group 

An excellent way to provide women with an opportunity
to get support and advice is to form a women's
advisory group. These groups can serve as advocates
of women's issues, bringing any problems to the
administration and suggesting ways the department can
change policies that may be adversely impacting
women. The creation of the advisory group also takes
the pressure off individual women to come forward
with issues. It recognizes that the agency and the profession 
are in transition from a male-dominated context to a diverse
one, and that there will be special issues the agency
and all of the employees will confront during the
process.

------------------------

Model Policy: The Houston Police Department's Women's
Issues Office

In 1994, a group of women in the Houston Police
Department formed a Women's Advisory Committee 
to take a closer look at some of the problems women 
were facing in the department. The outgrowth of their 
efforts was the creation of the agency's first Women's 
Issues Office. Staffed by a sergeant, the office serves 
as an official advocate for the department's women. 
The office acts on many levels: they are a liason on 
cases of sexual harassment or gender discrimination; 
they are a sounding board for any complaint, they help
coordinate a department-wide response to any formal
complaint; and they assist women on personal matters.
The administration has given the sergeant direct
access to an executive assistant chief, which enables
the office to act swiftly and effectively to resolve problems.
Contact Information: Lieutenant Vicki King, Houston
Police Department, 713-731-5950. 

----------------------------

Training Opportunities

One valuable way to assist women in advancing their
careers is to encourage them to attend training
conferences where they can acquire new skills.
Sending women to training conferences meets two
objectives. First, women officers learn valuable
skills that will help them on the job as well as
distinguish them when they go for a promotion.
Second, women bring these new skills back to the
department where they can be shared with colleagues.
This is a cost-effective way of raising the skill
level of the women in the department as well as the
department at large. Training opportunities should be
well publicized. 

Affinity Organizations 

One of the easiest and most cost-effective ways to
provide mentoring for employees is to encourage
officers to join affinity organizations such as the
National Center for Women & Policing, the National
Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives, the
Hispanic American Police Commanders Organization, the
Asian American Police Commanders Organization, the
International Association of Women Police and other
similar groups. These professional organizations can provide 
ongoing mentoring through their networks, conferences, 
and leadership training opportunities. In agencies without 
large numbers of women or minorities, these organizations 
can provide the critical support that may be lacking in the
department.

Administrators Act as Mentors

Mentoring begins with the top command. If the chief
administrator and the command staff act as mentors it
is very likely that mentoring will take place on all
levels. The administration should send the message
that it wants its officers to succeed. This may sound
simple but it is often overlooked. When a department
demonstrates that it cares about its employees'
contributions to the department, employees feel a
greater motivation to succeed.

Mentoring Programs for Civilian Employees

As law enforcement agencies take steps to increase
the use of civilian employees, consideration should
be given to establishing a mentoring program for
them. Mentors can be sworn or civilian employees and
should participate in the mentoring programs
described above.

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information

The following are websites that provide helpful
information on developing a mentoring program:

Mentoring-A Promising Experiment in Minnesota,
http://cyberwerks.com/dataline/agenda/mentormn.html

Police Officers for Minority and Women Mentoring
http://www.bayinsider.com/community/groups/
pomentoring/

Action Mentoring-A Workbook
http://www.adinternational.com/adipages/actment.htm

Formal or Informal Mentoring
http://www.teachermentors.com/MCenter%20Site/formal.
inf.html

The Mentoring Group-Worldwide Services
http://www.mentoringgroup.com/08_98_PG/ideas.htm

-------------------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 7

1. Williams, Julie, M.S., "Mentoring for Law
Enforcement", FBI Bulletin, March 2000, pp19-25.

2. Eric D. Poole and Mark R. Pogrebin, "Factors
Affecting the Decision to Remain in Policing: A Study
of Women Officers," Journal of Police Science and
Administration 16, no. 3 (1988): 49-55.

3. Williams, Julie, M.S., "Mentoring for Law
Enforcement", FBI Bulletin, March 2000, pp19-25.

4. April Kranda, "A Mentoring Program to Help Reduce
Employee Turnover," The Police Chief, June 1997,
51-52.

5. International Association of Chiefs of Police, "The
Future of Women in Policing: Mandates for Action,"
(International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1998)
13-15.

-------------------------

Checklist for Mentoring for Retention

o A committee consisting of a diverse group of women
officers has been established to design, monitor, and
evaluate mentoring programs.

o Mentoring programs have been implemented to assist
applicants during the selection process.

o Applicants are contacted on a regular basis during
the selection process.

o Applicants are informed of programs to assist them
in various phases of the testing process.

o Recruits are assigned mentors at the time of hire.

o Formal mentoring continues through the end of
probation.

o Mentors are selected through a formal application
process.

o Peer recommendations are solicited during the
mentor selection process.

o Formal training is provided for mentors and
mentees.

o Mentor training includes peer counseling,
discrimination law, performance evaluation criteria,
and issues faced by women in law enforcement.

o Mentors and mentees meet once a week during
academy training.

o Mentors and mentees meet once a month during field
training.

o Mentors and mentees meet while on duty.

o A command staff member meets with mentors on a
regular basis.

o A coordinator is assigned to supervise the mentor
program.

o Mentoring is also available to officers after the
probationary period.

o High-ranking women are encouraged to mentor
subordinate officers.

o A women's advisory committee is established to
advocate for women employees.

o Employees are encouraged to attend training
conferences.

o Employees are encouraged to join affinity
organizations.

o Top command/administrators actively serve as
mentors.

o Civilian employees are included in the mentoring
program.

o The mentor program is evaluated at least once a
year.

-----------------------------

Chapter 8

Valuing Civilian Employees

Statement of the Problem

One of the major issues in talking about civilian
employees in a law enforcement agency is
what to call them. In this guide, we will use the
term "civilian" to describe employees of the
law enforcement agency who are not sworn
police officers. In most law enforcement agencies, a
large percentage of the civilian employees are women, 
making them a pool of potential candidates for sworn 
positions. These employees are usually assigned to
the communications center, records, crime lab, and as 
staff support to various units. Law enforcement agencies
need to be aware of employment issues facing these employees. 
For example, promotional opportunities have been frequently
limited for civilian personnel and should be expanded at every 
opportunity. Civilian personnel often do not receive the recognition 
they deserve for their work and loyalty to the organization. 

Labor Unions

Not only do civilian employees rarely belong to the
same union as sworn officers, they are usually
limited to membership in city/county/state
clerical/office worker unions that often do not
represent the interests and special problems of
civilians working in police agencies. The police
agency employees may not have enough clout or numbers
in their union to get their needs addressed
contractually. For example, civilians in police
agencies are more likely to be required to wear
uniforms in unions where there are no provisions for
uniforms. Lunch hours and shift configurations
outlined in non-police oriented contracts may not
address the special issues of employees working
non-traditional shifts, weekends, and holidays. Such
issues as pay requirements for court overtime and
provisions for safety and security on the job may not
be addressed in a manner that meets the needs of
someone coming into contact with offenders on a
regular basis.

Equal Pay for Equal Work

Civilian positions in civil service classifications
are traditionally lower paid than sworn. However, as
civilian employees move into supervisory and command
roles, a new issue emerges. In any situation where
one group of employees (predominantly women) is doing
the same work as another group of employees
(predominantly men) and women are being paid less
than the men, there is a potential problem. This is
mainly an issue at the supervisory and management levels
 in law enforcement agencies. The civilianization of many 
positions has placed civilians in positions where they are doing
substantially the same work as sworn commanders of
other units and yet they have substantially less
salary and benefits. This is true in positions such
as the director of the records, crime laboratory, 911
communications center, fiscal administration and
others. This situation needs to be examined to determine 
if adjustments in pay are required. 

Legal Issues 

Refer to above Statement of Problem and Labor Union
sections for legal issues. 

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices 

Career Path and Civilianization of Positions

To make the best use of civilian employees who are
predominantly female and to expand promotional
opportunities, the law enforcement organization
should closely examine all non-patrol functions to
determine if any of them can be civilianized. There
is a growing recognition that some jobs in law
enforcement agencies require more expertise than a
sworn employee can provide. For example, it may be
more effective to hire a civilian director of
planning and research, information technology, human
resources, or emergency communications. Agencies
should take care to appropriately establish the pay
and status attached to these positions if they are
civilianized. (In some cases, civilian directors may
be paid more than a sworn commander.)

To provide career enhancement and personal growth,
agencies should not prevent civilian employees from
moving to a different position within the agency if
they meet the requirements for the new position.
Agencies should establish job descriptions that
describe the knowledge, skills, and abilities
required for all management positions and to
encourage civilian employees to apply for these
positions.

Civilian employees provide a pool of potential
recruits for law enforcement officers and also for
consideration for special needs within the agency
where a sworn status is not required. Training
opportunities should be provided to civilian
employees to assist them in preparing for promotion
or consideration for other positions. Apprenticeship
programs may be instituted for specialty positions
such as forensics and crime prevention. 

Another method of expanding career paths for civilian
employees is to expand current job classifications.
For example, an agency may have positions called data
entry clerks that are responsible for entering case
report information into the records management
system. Agencies could create a career track of Data
Entry Clerk I, II, and III that recognizes the
increased expertise and resulting value that these
employees bring to the workplace. 

Inclusiveness

Law enforcement agencies frequently use exclusive
language when speaking to both sworn and civilian
members. From the top down, the agency should refer
to mixed groups as "members" or something other than
"officer." Memos, orders, newsletters, SOPs, unit
commendations, and other documents should be clear as
to whom they address. 

For example, when a directive is issued on procedures
for processing court overtime slips and the language
refers to "officers," the civilian employees who also
testify may be confused about whether the procedure 
applies to them. State specifically that the direction is for
"officers," "civilians," or "all members." Have a
civilian review written documents before they are
published to make certain that concerns of civilian
employees are addressed. 

Being inclusive when speaking is even more difficult
than when writing, but should be a goal for law
enforcement command and supervisory staff. Saying
things like "it's a proud day to wear a uniform" when
it's something the civilian staff should be equally
proud of can be offensive to civilian staff members
who do not wear uniforms. The chief and high-ranking
personnel should set the example for inclusion. Let
others know it's not OK to be exclusive. Inclusive
language sends a message to both civilian members and
other ranks of sworn personnel, that civilian
employees are valued and viewed as important to the
effectiveness of the organization. 

Whenever possible, civilian employees should receive
the same benefits as sworn personnel in areas such as
tuition reimbursement and retirement programs. 

Advocacy 

Until the agency fully incorporates civilian
employees and addresses the main issues 
discussed in this section, a respected, command-level
individual should be assigned the task of civilian
ombudsperson. If possible, this person should be a
high-level civilian woman since most of the civilian
employees are women. This ombudsperson should have
the authority to receive and investigate issues
brought forward by civilian employees when they are
ignored or excluded. This person would be a resource
to both the civilian employees and to the head of the
agency about issues that need to be addressed.
Ideally, the agency head will make it clear that
advocacy for civilian issues is the responsibility of
every commander and that it will be a factor in
performance evaluations and promotional decisions.

Labor Unions

It may be necessary for management of the law
enforcement agency to assist civilian employees in 
working with their labor union to address certain issues. 
One possible approach is to create "letters of understanding" 
on issues unique to the law enforcement employees to be
appended to their contracts. 

Equal Pay

In agencies where civilians have reached supervisory
and command positions, it is necessary to ensure that
pay is equalized when the civilian members are
performing duties equal to sworn members. It may be
necessary to take a closer look at traditional
civilian police employee classification systems.
Systems that worked when the division of duties was
more distinct may no longer apply. For example, it
may be desirable to change the classification of
anyone, sworn or civilian, with the responsibility of
commanding a unit to "unit commander" instead of having 
a sworn commander and a civilian director.

Equal Benefits

Whenever planning any type of benefit to be offered,
agencies should be certain to keep both sworn and
civilian employees in mind. For example, if parking
is provided for officers assigned during an event (a
presidential visit, for instance), then the same
benefit should be extended to the civilians who are
working the event. 

Training

Civilian employees need to be provided training that
enables them to perform their duties in an effective
and safe manner. Joint training with sworn members on
topics of mutual interest is particularly valuable.
This increases the amount of training available to
civilians and fosters understanding between sworn and
civilian members. However, trainers should be advised
that there are civilians in the audience and that
they should use language that acknowledges the
civilian presence. The speaker can merely refer to
"police employees" rather than "officers," and when
giving examples, give one or two civilian examples.
To help ensure that trainers follow this instruction,
agencies can add a question to the student evaluation
form that asks if the instructors directed their
course to all members of the audience. 

Civilian employees have a great deal more in common
with sworn officers than most people realize. They
are dealing with the same public as the officers. The
communication problems are the same, as are diversity
matters, and many other issues. 

Due to their areas of expertise, civilian employees
may be the best choice as academy trainers for many topics. 

Critical Incidents

Civilian employees should be included in debriefings
or counseling sessions that may be scheduled after an
officer is injured or killed, or some other major
event has occurred. Civilian employees may have been
friends of the injured officer. The people who
transcribe and type reports of these incidents are
also affected, and need to be considered when 
support is made available. There is a tendency to
bring in a whole range of support to assist the sworn
members and then completely ignore the civilians who
may be hurting just as much. If the worst happens and
there is a police funeral, make arrangements for
civilian employees to sit with their units or include
them somewhere in the service with their agency. Do
not relegate them to sitting with the general public,
or ignore them when providing transportation to the services. 

Employee Assistance 

Make certain the resources for employee assistance
are equally available to civilian employees. The on-the-job 
problems civilians encounter are likely to be very similar to those
experienced by police officers. If civilian members
have access to an employee assistance program through
their union or jurisdiction, it may not be equipped
to address their unique needs as well as the program
available to officers. 

Inclusion of Civilian Staff

The command staff of any law enforcement organization
should make an effort to include the concerns and
input of civilian employees when developing personnel
programs or policies. For example, the particular
issues of civilian women should be included in the
sexual harassment training program.

Women civilian employees are an overlooked and
under-valued resource in many law enforcement
agencies. High-level women civilian employees should
be included in routine staff meetings and on special
committees. These employees have a great deal to
offer in the way of information and experience. When
they are included they need to be employed usefully
and as part of the team, not just as note takers.
Civilian employees have ideas, perspectives,
solutions, and connections that can be extremely
valuable. Civilian employees often closely interact
with other agencies and government entities and
thereby have knowledge that officers do not have. 
Often there are facilitators in the civilian ranks--people 
in fairly low-level positions who do not have a great
deal of official power, but who know how to get
things accomplished. 

Be sure to include civilian members on advisory
committees established by the agency. Include the
civilian supervisors and managers with the
supervisory level sworn. Safety committees are an
important area for civilian representation because
there are many safety concerns for civilian members
of an agency. They may also represent the issues of
desk-bound sworn. 

Civilian employees are also frequently more aware of
the agency's need for security than are sworn
personnel. People who carry guns may worry less about
the dark corners of the parking garage, or the
insecure areas of the building at night.

Mentoring

Remember to include civilian employees in mentoring
programs. While it would be more common to have sworn
employees mentor sworn and civilian employees mentor
civilian, it is not absolutely necessary. A command
level civilian may well be the appropriate mentor for
an upcoming sworn member. 

Rewards and Recognition

While individual divisions and units may have
"Employee of the Month" programs or other forms of
recognition, the agency award program should also
include recognition for civilian accomplishments.
Adding award criteria to recognize civilian
accomplishments is a very positive move. The type of
award or change in criteria this requires may often
also create the means to recognize commanders,
detectives, and others who also may not normally be
in a position to be rewarded for exceptional service. 

Community Policing and the Civilian Employee 

If the agency is truly a community policing agency,
civilian employees should have a clearly defined role
in community policing. Most agencies that have made
the transition to community policing have long realized 
that in order to be successful, the entire agency must 
buy into the philosophy, as opposed to just having a 
community policing unit. Yet many agencies still have 
large numbers of civilian employees who have non-
existent, blurry, or ill-defined roles. In many cases, 
civilian employees are the main, or only, point-of-contact 
for many citizens. Having them trained and incorporated 
into community policing makes sense. Civilian employees
can be used for community outreach. A records division 
employee may be just the person to teach people how
to fill out mail-in police report forms at a local community 
center. 

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information

Debra Haugen, Records Manager, Portland Police
Bureau, Oregon, 503-823-0056, is an expert on issues
of civilian women in law enforcement. 

Len Golden-Price, Director of Administrative
Services, Planning Research and Development Division,
El Paso Police Department, at 915-564-7381 is also an
excellent resource on these issues.

-------------------------

Checklist for Valuing Civilian Employees

o A clear career path exists for civilian employees.

o All positions in the law enforcement agency have
been evaluated to determine which ones should be
civilianized.

o Civilian employees are paid according to their
level of responsibility commensurate with sworn
employees.

o There is an effort to use language that is
inclusive of civilian members.

o A command-level person has been assigned as the
advocate for civilian members in the agency.

o Evaluation forms are appropriate for civilian-held
jobs.

o Civilians receive equal benefits, formal and
informal, as sworn members.

o Civilian members are included in training programs
designed for sworn officers.

o Civilian members are used as trainers for some
classes attended by sworn members.

o Civilian members are included in debriefings or
counseling sessions made available after critical
incidents.

o Employee assistance programs are equally available
to civilian members.

o Civilian members are included in command staff
meetings.

o Civilian members are included as members of
employee special issue teams.

o Advisory committees include civilian members.

o Safety committees include civilian members.

o Mentoring programs are available for civilian
members.

o The agency employee assistance program offers
counseling and other services to civilian members.

o Civilian employees are included in the department
mentoring program.

o The agency-wide award and recognition program is
structured to allow opportunities for civilian
employees to be recognized for distinguished service.

o Civilian members have a clear understanding of
their role in community policing.

--------------------------------

Chapter 9

Implementing Family-Friendly Policies 

Statement of the Problem

Many law enforcement administrators are worried
about retaining qualified women officers. A study of 
why women leave policing was conducted in Canada. 
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police reported an attrition 
rate of 16% for women compared with a rate of 8.7% for 
men. Women cited family-related issues as the main
reason they left policing.[1] The issues of pregnancy and 
childcare will affect many women in law enforcement at some 
point in their careers. How an agency handles these issues
can greatly impact the recruitment of women, employee morale, 
a woman's ability to remain an active employee during her preg-
nancy, and employee retention. Employer policies that reassign 
or restrict women solely because they are pregnant, and without 
regard to whether they can perform their job in an effective and
safe manner, are not only unlawful but can create financial and 
emotional hardships on women officers. In addition, rotating shifts 
can create problems for pregnant women. As more women enter law 
enforcement it is imperative that departments have comprehensive and 
clearly defined pregnancy and childcare policies that emphasize fairness, 
flexibility, and safety.

Agencies Are Not Providing Employees With Adequate
Information 

Providing employees with clear policies is the first
step in addressing the needs of pregnant employees.
While the passage of the 1993 Family and Medical
Leave Act (FMLA) established federal minimum leave 
requirements for private, state, and local government 
employees, it does not cover the full range of issues that 
women in law enforcement face when they become pregnant. 
There is a tendency for departments to rely too heavily on
the FMLA, neglecting to provide women with the
specific policies and information on such important
issues as notification procedures, availability of
light duty assignments, paid and unpaid leave
benefits, range qualification for pregnant employees,
maternity uniforms, and other issues. 

Some Agencies Have Unlawfully 
Discriminated Against Pregnant Employees 

One of the biggest complaints from pregnant female
sworn officers is that when they notify their
department that they are pregnant, they are removed
from their position. There are sometimes no efforts
to find light duty positions for pregnant women.

Legal Issues

Discrimination on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth,
or a related medical condition is discrimination on
the basis of sex. Women affected by pregnancy,
childbirth, or related medical conditions should be
treated the same for all employment-related purposes,
including receipt of benefits, as other persons not
so affected but similar in their ability or inability
to work. For example, pregnant women should be
treated the same as a man who breaks his leg in an
off-duty accident. Employers are prohibited from
forcing a pregnant employee to take disability leave
as long as the employee is still physically fit to
work. Employers may not alter a woman's assignment
against her will based on her pregnancy if that
decision is based on stereotypes about what kind of
work pregnant women should do or on concerns about
how the public or other officers will react to a
pregnant officer. 

The FMLA provides agencies with a starting point for
developing leave policies. This law contains
provisions on such issues as employer coverage,
employee eligibility, entitlement to leave, 
maintenance of health benefits during leave, job
restoration after leave, notice and certification of
the need for FMLA leave, and protection for employees
who request or take FMLA leave. Refer to Appendix G
for Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Pregnancy. 

The FMLA provides minimum guarantees. It does not
take away other benefits provided through employer
policy or collective bargaining agreements. Moreover,
many state laws provide greater protections for
pregnant and parenting employees than the federal
FMLA. Thus, if labor contracts or state laws already
require the agency to provide more family and medical
leave than the FMLA mandates, the FMLA does not
reduce that requirement. Agencies must comply with
whichever provisions are most generous to the
employee. Correspondingly, collective bargaining
agreements may not be used to diminish workers'
rights under the FMLA. Similarly, the Pregnancy 
Discrimination Act (PDA) requires that pregnant women
and women disabled by childbirth or related medical
conditions be treated at least as well as employees
who are not pregnant but who are similar in their
ability or inability to work. The PDA does not
prohibit the provision of additional benefits to
pregnant employees. 

US Supreme Court decision in UAW v. Johnson Controls.
In this landmark sex discrimination case, the Supreme
Court ruled that employers were prohibited from
adopting fetal protection policies that exclude women
of child-bearing age from certain hazardous jobs.
This decision as well as others has established that
employers are prohibited from forcing a pregnant
employee to take disability leave as long as the
employee is still physically fit to work.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

A. Comprehensive Policies

The most important first step a department can take
is to develop a comprehensive policy regarding
pregnancy and childcare issues. A department will
want its policy to cover the following areas:

o Eligibility for and Duration of Pregnancy and
Childcare Leave

Under the FMLA, eligible employees may take 12 weeks
of unpaid leave for the birth or adoption of a child. If an 
employee elects to use accumulated paid leave benefits 
such as sick leave, vacation, or compensation time, 
departments should not count this time toward the 12 
weeks of leave, although the FMLA allows them to do so. 
Conversely, departments should not require that an employee 
exhaust all sick, vacation, holiday, and personal leave before 
they can apply for unpaid leave. Many departments will want to
consider allowing longer periods of pregnancy and childcare leave, 
and every effort should be made to permit the maximum amount of 
childcare leave. For example, the New York State Police Department 
allows employees up to 1 year of unpaid leave, which is an extension 
of the state's permitted 7 months. The availability of such leave may 
well be a factor in recruiting and retaining qualified women. The
department should structure such leave so that the taking of leave 
does not hinder performance ratings or opportunities for advancement. 
The time on unpaid leave should count in determining an officer's
seniority. To the extent leave is available for childcare purposes, 
it should be available to men on the same basis.

o Light Duty

One of the most critical components of a pregnancy
policy is inclusion of a light duty policy. Many
pregnant women in law enforcement positions will want
the option of moving to a light duty assignment at
some point in their pregnancy. Without the option of
a light duty assignment, many women may have to take
unpaid leave, creating financial and emotional hardships 
that can be avoided. Light duty assignments may include a
transfer to different duties or a modification in current duties. 
If the department provides light duty assignments for other 
employees who have non-service related temporary disabilities, 
then they are required by law to provide the same assignments 
for pregnant employees. However, a pregnant officer should not 
be forced into a light duty assignment against her will if she is 
physically able to safely perform her current assignment. If the
officer's ability to perform her assignment is at issue, consultation 
with a physician may be necessary. The best light duty policies 
are flexible; have no time limit on how long a pregnant woman 
can be assigned to light duty; leave the decision as to when to 
commence a light duty assignment with the pregnant officer and 
her physician; and stipulate that officers on light duty will continue 
to receive normal promotion and pay increases while in that status, 
and that retirement benefits will not be affected. Refer to Appendix 
H for IACP National Law Enforcement Policy Center Temporary 
Light Duty Concepts and Issues Paper.

o Range Qualification 

Both the exposure to lead poisoning and the noise
from firing weapons are harmful to the fetus. Because
of this, many departments have eliminated range qualification 
for pregnant officers until they return to work, whereupon 
they are tested. For example, the New York State Police 
Department eliminated range qualification for pregnant employees; 
they are tested once they return from maternity leave. Other 
departments such as the Portland Police Bureau are opting to 
create safeguards that allow women to continue to fulfill their 
weapons qualification while pregnant. When this is the case, 
measures must be taken to provide a safe environment for testing 
consistent with the recommendation of the officer's physician. 
Safeguards may include substituting live fire shooting for dry fire 
capability; providing lead-free ammunition; providing sound silencers 
for the pistols; using firearms simulation technology and removing the 
requirement that a pregnant woman test on the department shotgun. 
Many law enforcement agencies are utilizing firearms simulation technology 
that could be used for pregnant women. Departments should also provide 
lead-free ammunition for women who are breastfeeding. 

o Uniforms

Providing pregnant employees who wear uniforms on a
day-to-day basis with maternity uniforms is critical
to making pregnant women feel valued by their
department. The lack of a proper uniform should not
be a factor in a pregnant woman's decision to leave
her post. Providing uniforms for pregnant employees
sends a strong message to those inside and outside
the department that women law enforcement officers
can be both mothers and criminal justice
professionals. 

Some departments provide that pregnant officers
transferred to light duty may wear civilian clothing.
However, a department may elect (or be ordered by a
court) to permit the wearing of a specially designed maternity
uniform, if such a uniform is available. On this issue, the wishes 
of the employee should be given the utmost possible consideration 
if litigation is to be avoided.

o Disability Insurance and Paid Leave Benefits

Several states, including California, Hawaii, New
Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and Puerto Rico pay
partial wages during time off from work for medical
problems, including those of pregnancy. This law is
termed "temporary disability insurance." Federal law
requires that these benefits be afforded to women
disabled by pregnancy on the same basis as they are
provided for other temporary disabilities. In
addition, some agencies offer this type of insurance,
but limit its availability to those employees who
have served for a minimum number of years. Agencies
should notify employees about what kinds of
disability benefits are available and have a
designated person to assist the employee in
determining how much time she can take in a full-pay
status as well as a reduced pay status. 

B. Childcare Issues

Beyond a comprehensive policy for pregnancy and
childcare leave, each department should closely
examine the resources and programs it provides for
employees with children. Since the impact of child
rearing continues to disproportionately affect women
and their jobs, it is incumbent upon the police
department to provide as many resources and as much
flexibility as they reasonably can. Providing an
on-site or off-site childcare facility should be 
considered, as well as job sharing and part-time
schedules. These resources should be made available
to male and female employees on the same basis. 

-------------------------------

Model Policy:

The Portland, OR, Police Bureau has developed a
childcare facility at their headquarters building.
The program, called The Day Watch, is operated by a
state-certified childcare business under contract
with the Police Bureau. It offers full-time,
part-time, and drop-in childcare. It is open from 6
a.m.-6 p.m., Monday through Friday. The program has
recently been expanded to include other employees in
the Justice Center building such as corrections
officers, district attorneys, judges, and state crime
lab personnel. 
Contact Information: Assistant Chief Lynnae Berg,
Portland Police Bureau, at 503-823-0008 for details.

------------------------------

C. Flexible Work Options

As more women are entering law enforcement and more
men are taking an active part in the rearing of their
children, the demand for flexible work options is
increasing for all officers. Law enforcement
organizations that offer flexibility to their
employees on issues of shifts, part-time work, and
leave will be more attractive to potential recruits.
These strategies could bring benefits to the law
enforcement agency in the form of better retention of 
pregnant women and families with young children or
elder care responsibilities. When utilizing flexible
work options, agencies must ensure that employees who
exercise these options are not stigmatized or treated
as less serious or less worthy of promotion than
employees holding traditional, full-time positions.

-------------------------

The Sacramento Sheriff's Department has a program of
on-call reserve deputies. This program provides an
alternative to full-time service for individuals who
wish to retire or resign, but still work part-time as
deputy sheriffs. These deputies are trained and paid,
but do not receive benefits. Full-time employees may
apply to be transferred to the on-call system.
Employees with family-care issues who need to have a
very flexible work schedule have used this system.
Deputies may sign up to work certain shifts or days
of the week. They may refuse work if it does not fit
their needs. If desired, the deputy may apply to
return to full-duty status.
Contact Information: Sacramento County Sheriff's
Department, 916-874-5094.

------------------------

The Portland Oregon Police Bureau, in cooperation
with the Portland Police Association, has developed a
Part-Time Agreement for employees who wish to
job-share.
Contact Information: Assistant Chief Lynnae Berg,
Portland Police Bureau, at 503-823-0008 for details.

-------------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 9

1. Belinda Crawford Seagram and Cannie Stark-Adamec,
"Women in Canadian Urban Policing: Why Are They
Leaving?," The Police Chief, October 1992, 120-127.

---------------------------

General

o The department has a clearly written policy with
the following areas covered:

     o Eligibility: The types of leave, the
     qualifications for each, and the lengths permitted.

     o Notification and Forms: Describes any forms that
     need to be completed and to whom they are submitted
     (including forms that need to be completed while the
     employee remains on the job and any forms that need
     to be completed prior to her return from maternity
     leave).

     o Paid and Unpaid Leave Benefits: States whether the
     department requires that an employee exhaust all
     sick, vacation, holiday, and personal leave before
     they can apply for unpaid leave. Also states whether
     pregnant employees can use accumulated sick leave and
     whether paid leave counts towards the FMLA minimum of
     12 weeks of leave.

     o Disability Insurance Benefits: States under what
     circumstances temporary disability insurance benefits
     are available, explains the process, and provides
     forms needed to apply for benefits. 

     o Light Duty Assignments: States whether light duty
     assignments are available to employees, including pregnant
     employees, and how they request such an assignment.

     o Maternity Uniform: Provides information on how to
     order maternity uniforms and any uniform requirement for pregnant
     women working in enforcement assignments and light
     duty assignments.

     o Range Qualification: Describes whether the
     department requires range qualification for pregnant
     employees and, if so, describes the safety measures
     taken to protect pregnant employees. 

     o Maintenance of Benefits: States the department's
     coverage of benefits while a woman is on leave and
     describes any procedures a woman should follow to pay
     her portion of insurance, if necessary (usually an
     issue if the woman is taking unpaid leave). 

     o Job Restoration: States the department's policy
     once the woman is ready to return to work. 

Range Qualification 

o The department does not require a pregnant
employee to complete range qualification while pregnant. 

o The department does require a pregnant employee to
complete range qualification, but provides the
following safeguards:

     o The department provides lead-free ammunition for
     pregnant employees during range qualification.

     o The department provides sound silencers for the
     pistols for pregnant employees during range
     qualification.

     o The department allows the pregnant woman to be
     tested in a more protected environment, preferably
     outside.

     o The department only requires a woman to test
     proficiency with her duty weapon and not with a
     shotgun.

Light Duty 

o The department provides light duty assignments for
pregnant employees.

o A pregnant employee is not removed from her duty
assignment against her will just because she is
pregnant.

o The date of transfer to light duty is based in
part on a physician's recommendation. 

o The department places no limit on the amount of
time that a pregnant woman can be in a light duty
assignment.

o Pregnant women on light duty assignments will
continue to receive normal promotion and pay
increases and other benefits while on light duty.

o Retirement benefits are not affected by light
duty. 

Uniforms 

o The department provides pregnant employees with a
maternity uniform option.

Child Care 

o The department offers on-site or off-site child
care.

o The department has explored the possibility of
offering on-site or off-site childcare.

---------------------------

Chapter 10

Monitoring Performance Evaluations

Statement of the Problem

Performance evaluation systems are often
problematic for law enforcement agencies.
Many agencies that have adopted community-oriented 
policing have not yet updated their
performance evaluation system. Therefore,
officers may be evaluated on behaviors that differ
from the desired behaviors. As noted by
Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, (1992), "all too
often, formal evaluations over-value those who 'play
the game' by generating the numbers. Indeed,
too many performance evaluations penalize
those who innovate."[1] 

Even when performance evaluations are updated to
reflect community policing values and criteria, the
potential for evaluating male and female officers
differently may continue to exist. As explained by
Miller (1999), "traditional gender-role expectations
play a part in how men's and women's job performance
may be perceived and evaluated in many community
policing situations."[2] Miller notes that men working
with children's activities were "highly praised" for
their activities while women carrying out the same
activities were "merely accepted without fanfare."
Miller adds: "Thus it is that, given traditional
gender-role expectations, in many community policing
situations, women do not get any or enough credit and
men get too much."[3] As a result, "unfair standards
of evaluation are manifested in the assumptions made
about gender roles and about who is 'working' versus
who is 'doing what comes naturally.'"[4] 

Performance evaluations have been used as a tool to
discriminate against or harass women employees. Women
may be held to a higher standard of performance than
their male peers or be expected to generate more
activity than their peers in order to be considered
equally competent. They may receive lower grades based on
myths about women officers such as "they are not
strong enough or brave enough to do the job." 

Since performance evaluations are frequently used as
the basis for making decisions on transfers,
specialty assignments, and promotions, a fair and
unbiased performance system is absolutely essential
to a law enforcement agency.

Legal Issues 

Personnel experts and legal counsel should review
performance evaluation programs. Collective
bargaining agreements may also cover performance
evaluations in some jurisdictions.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Adequately addressing all of the issues for
developing a performance evaluation system is beyond
the scope of this document alone. Excellent
information about performance evaluations, especially
as they relate to community policing, can be found
in:

1. "Toward Development of Meaningful and Effective
Performance Evaluations" by Robert Trojanowicz
and Bonnie Bucqueroux. www.ssc.msu.edu/~cj 

2. "Evaluating Patrol Officer Performance Under
Community Policing, The Houston Experience," by 
Mary Ann Wycoff and Timothy N. Oettmeier, Ph.D. National 
Institute of Justice, February 1994. 

3. "Evaluating Police Officers," by Robert Trojanowicz.

4. "Discover the Performance in Your Employees,"
(Santa Rosa, CA) by Mary Riley.

5. "Community Policing: Training Issues," by Robert
Trojanowicz and Joanne Belknap.

This section will concentrate on performance
evaluation issues as they relate to women in law
enforcement and steps that can be taken to eliminate
the potential or actual bias that exists in
performance evaluations. 

What Should be Evaluated? 

In examining performance evaluation systems, the
agency should first determine the desired performance of all 
officers. In other words, what are we evaluating? Many 
performance evaluation systems require that employees
be graded on vague, undefined criteria such as
"command presence," "loyalty," and other very
subjective terms. Evaluations based on such attributes 
are often problematic, especially for female officers. 
They are subjectively interpreted and this permits bias, 
both conscious and unconscious, to creep in. "It is the
rare manager who is an impartial judge because most
managers have a difficult time appreciating some
differences in their staff."[5] 

Agencies should refer back to the job description and
the ideals articulated by the department administration in 
order to determine the behaviors to be evaluated. Ideally, 
the job description was developed in conjunction with the
community. The community should have input into the
process of developing the role, duties, and functions
of police officers.[6] Community input regarding how
officers should be evaluated is also desirable. 

A good performance evaluation system should measure
officers' activities that contribute to community policing. 
Ideally, the types of activities measured would change with 
the changing needs of the community. The types of activities 
measured would also change depending on the geographic 
area or the specialty field assigned. Administrators should 
closely examine the activities to be rated to make certain 
that they support the community policing mission.

How Do We Measure? 

Qualities or activities to be evaluated should be
objectively measurable to the extent possible. Activities that 
can be quantified such as the number of community meetings 
attended or the number of citizen complaints received is easy to
evaluate. More difficult is measuring qualities of an
officer such as integrity or initiative. However,
statements of desirable behavior can be developed and
the employees can be rated on those statements. An
example of such a statement is "Displays an
understanding of community policing principles."
After rating the employee on that statement, the
supervisor should be required to provide documented
examples to support the rating. Obviously,
performance evaluations should be based on behavior
as much as possible to eliminate bias and prejudice.[7] 

What is the Measurement Standard? 

The above referenced literature deals with different
types of performance evaluations that measure how
well an employee exhibits behaviors identified as
desirable, and meets goals. However, many personnel
evaluations compare employees to a standard. If such
an evaluation is used, supervisors need guidance on
understanding the measurement standard. Are they
comparing the employee they are evaluating to an
ideal employee or an "average" employee? Is a
numerical scale to be used or will the employee be
evaluated within a general category such as "exceeds
a standard?" No matter what standard is used, the
criteria should be clearly defined so that all
supervisors in the department are using the same
standard. In addition, criteria should be
behaviorally anchored. This means that the category
can be measured by observing an employee's
performance. 

Training Evaluators 

One of the most important factors in developing a
job-related, non-discriminatory evaluation system is 
the training of the evaluators. Performance evaluation 
is frequently seen as an unwanted responsibility. 
Supervisors should understand how the performance 
evaluation system fits into the entire program of community 
policing. They must be instructed in how to avoid discrimination 
in ratings. They should be given training about the standards
developed and how to measure performance. They should
understand how to document good and bad performance
and how to use the performance evaluation system as a
tool in improving performance.

Supervisors should understand that performance has to
be measured during the entire evaluation period and
not just at the time the evaluation report is
written. 

Setting Goals for Performance 

Effective performance evaluation systems set
performance goals at the beginning of the evaluation
period. Goals are either set for a unit or may be
individualized. The supervisor and employee should
work together to set goals for the next evaluation
period. The goals should be clearly defined and
agreement reached on how they will be measured.
Failure to have a clear understanding of what the
goal is and how success will be measured allows a
supervisor to introduce bias or prejudice into the
evaluation. Goals that are set should be evaluated to
determine that they are equitable. For example,
setting higher goals for women than men should not be
tolerated.

Reviewing Evaluations for Bias 

All performance evaluations should be reviewed for
bias. There are several ways bias can be spotted. 

o Compare how the supervisor rates women employees
in relation to male employees. If women employees are
receiving lower ratings, it is an indicator that the
rater may be biased. Whenever a woman receives a low
rating, carefully examine the basis for that rating
and determine if men are receiving the same ratings
for the same performance. One example would be if a
woman is given a low rating on maintenance of her
vehicle and yet men driving the same vehicle during
the same period of time are not given low ratings. 

o Closely monitor the performance evaluations of
any woman who has complained of discrimination or
harassment. The performance evaluation is frequently
used as a tool for retaliation. One way to monitor
this is to compare her evaluations in the past with
current evaluations and see if there has been a
noticeable drop in scores or an increase in
"improvement needed" areas since she made her
complaint. 

o Note the areas in which women receive low
ratings. These ratings frequently reflect the bias of
the rater; especially for such subjective
characteristics as "loyalty" (which in our opinion
should not be a factor that is rated). If a woman has
complained of bias or harassment, she will probably
receive a low score in "loyalty." Another behavior
that could result in a low "loyalty" score is when a
female officer does not choose to participate in
off-duty activities with her co-workers. This may
also be used as an example of how a woman "does not
work well in a team." Another area where women
frequently receive low ratings is the subjective
"command presence." Many men do not believe that
women in general have a "command presence"--a very
masculine description of an attribute. Such
subjective, gender-biased factors should not be
included in an evaluation system. 

o Frequently, the excuse given for low ratings of
women is a statement such as the following: "Well
that is just Sgt. Jones. He is a severe rater." Do
not buy into this argument. With proper training, all
supervisors should be using the same measurements of 
performance. And when it comes time for promotion,
the promotion panel will look at the rating and not
pay any attention to who performed the evaluation. If
Sgt. Jones is a severe rater, he should be sent for
additional training until he either learns the proper
way to evaluate or is removed from supervisory
responsibilities.

o All employees should be evaluated on their
compliance with policies about discrimination and
harassment. Their treatment of women and other
protected classes should be evaluated. In addition,
supervisors and management personnel's own
evaluations should include an assessment of their
ability to maintain an harassment-free workplace and
handle incidents of discrimination and harassment.

---------------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 10

1. "Toward the Development of Meaningful and Effective
Performance Evaluations," (Michigan State University,
1992) 12.

2. Susan L. Miller, Gender and Community Policing:
Walking the Talk (Boston: Northeastern University
Press, 1999) 220.

3. Miller, 220.

4. Miller, 220.

5. Mary Riley, "Discover the Performance in Your
Employees," Community Policing Consortium (1999) 2. 

6. Robert Trojanowicz, "Community Policing: Training
Issues," (Michigan State University, 1986) 7.

7. Robert Trojanowicz, "Evaluating Police Officers,"
(Michigan State University, 1998) 3.

---------------------------

Checklist for Monitoring Performance Evaluations

o Performance evaluation criteria are based on job
descriptions that were developed with community
input.

o Performance evaluations have been reviewed by
legal counsel and personnel experts to eliminate
areas of potential bias or discrimination.

o Evaluators receive effective training on the
performance evaluation system.

o Evaluators are trained on how to prevent bias and
discrimination in ratings.

o Performance goals and how they are to be measured
are determined at the beginning of the evaluation
period.

o Performance expectations and ratings are the same
for all officers similarly situated.

o Performance evaluation ratings are based on
observed behavior.

o Performance evaluations are based on performance
during the entire rating period.

o Every employee is evaluated on compliance with
policies about discrimination and harassment.

o Officers' activities that contribute to community
policing are evaluated.

o The performance evaluations of employees who have
filed complaints of discrimination or harassment are
carefully reviewed for possible retaliation.

o Periodic reviews of both the performance
evaluation system and individual evaluators are
conducted to identify and correct any bias. 

---------------------------

Chapter 11

Assignments and Promotion

Statement of the Problem

Assignments to specialty units are highly sought
after by many law enforcement officers. Not 
only do these assignments provide new challenges 
and duties, but they also help broaden the officers'
experience and enhance promotional opportunities. 
For those reasons, assignments can be an area where 
discrimination occurs. Women frequently relate instances 
where they have been denied transfer to prestigious units such
as narcotics, gangs, SWAT, motorcycles, canine and
horse patrol, field training officer, and instructor at the 
police academy. Women are, however, often given transfers 
to units that are more service-oriented such as juveniles,
child abuse, community relations, crime prevention, and 
domestic violence. Male officers may see these units as 
less desirable and promotional boards may not value
the experience gained.

Two main areas are of concern regarding promotion of
women in law enforcement. The first area of concern
is that the promotional process and promotional
criteria may be biased against women. The second is
that women may not apply for promotion. 

Promotion Systems Can be Biased Against Women 
in Many Ways: 

o The use of seniority and prior military
experience as desirable factors may put women at a
disadvantage. 

o The use of promotability ratings or performance
evaluations, which may be gender-biased, results in
the promotional process being biased. (See Monitoring
Performance Evaluations.) 

o The consideration of prior assignments is a
double-edged sword for women. In some agencies women
may not be given the opportunity to acquire a good
foundation in patrol experience, instead being moved
quickly to traditional female role assignments. In
other agencies, women are denied assignment to
coveted positions. Many of these coveted assignments
are to units that have remained traditional male
assignments such as motorcycle, swat, street crime
and gang units, field training officer, and academy
instructor. Keeping women in patrol and denying them
other assignments or moving them too quickly out of
patrol limits their experience and can adversely
impact their ability to be promoted. 

o Specialist assignments do not necessarily provide
the desired background and training for future
promotion. For example, in some law enforcement
agencies, women are assigned to positions considered
to be more like social work or to positions for which
women are very well suited such as juveniles, crime
prevention, domestic violence, or sexual assault.
While all of these positions are important, they are
seldom viewed by the male officers as desirable or as
"real police work." And by filling these jobs with
women officers, the law enforcement organization
loses the opportunity to assist male officers in
expanding their skills in these areas. The experience
women gain from these types of specialist positions
is often not valued by an oral interview panel, or
given as much weight as experience in gang units or
SWAT teams. 

o Another problem is encountered in the selection
for officers to temporarily fill positions in higher
classes, for example, as an acting sergeant during
the regular sergeant's vacation, or to receive
assignments as a field-training officer or as an
instructor in the academy. Often women are not given
these opportunities. Reasons given may include a
larger senior officers pool; the candidate has not
acted in the capacity before; or the candidate has
not received certain training. Being denied
appropriate assignments and out of class work
negatively impacts promotional opportunities. 

o The promotional process may also disproportionately 
screen out women. The use of oral interviewers who are 
members of the agency can build in bias. Internal interviewers, 
no matter how well intentioned, may tend to favor their friends. 
They may also tend to exaggerate negative information they
have heard about candidates. While use of internal
interviewers can adversely impact all candidates, it
may be especially biased against women and minority
candidates. Even the use of interviewers and raters
from outside the agency can adversely impact women if
the raters are not carefully screened for bias and
adequately trained. 

o Progress in promoting women to the higher ranks
has been slow. While women currently comprise 14.3%
of sworn law enforcement personnel, they comprise
only 5.6% of the top command positions.[1] This may be
due to promotions to higher ranks being more
subjective than those to lower ranks. It may also be
that the lack of access to appropriate training,
varied assignments, and mentoring becomes more
evident at higher ranks. 

Another major area of concern is that in many law
enforcement agencies, women do not apply for
promotion. Women give various reasons for not seeking
promotion. Some women do not seek promotion because
they know that they will have to continually prove
their capability should they win a promotion. Many
agencies lack a supportive climate to encourage women
to aspire to promotions. While most newly promoted
individuals face that issue, women continue to face a
greater challenge than men to prove they can
supervise and lead. Another issue for women is that
many are the primary family caregivers and face the
additional burden of child care issues. A promotion
often means a change of shift and days off, which may
have a negative impact on the family. Women also look
at the fairness of the promotional system. Of course,
some women choose not to seek promotions because they
are happy with their current positions. The real
problem is when qualified people with the desire to
be promoted choose not to apply because they perceive
the goal as being unattainable. 

Furthermore, if it appears that the system is biased
and that few women are promoted, they may choose not
to compete. 

Legal Issues

Personnel and legal counsel should review promotional
examination processes. Federal and state Equal
Employment Opportunity laws and regulations, civil or
selective service rules, and union contracts need to
be reviewed when designing or changing the promotion
process.

Also see the "Removing Obstacles in the Selection
Process" section for a discussion of biased testing.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

To encourage women to seek promotion, agencies should
actively recruit and promote women through
promotional processes that are fair and unbiased, and
ensure that the agency has family-friendly programs
in place. The 1998 IACP survey, "The Future of Women
in Policing: Mandates for Action,"[2] shows that in
departments that actively recruit women, women police
officers appear more likely to seek promotion. 

To begin to address and resolve promotional issues
relating to gender, a review of the entire current
promotional process needs to be undertaken in order
to identify where women are eliminated or rated lower
than men. (See the "Removing Obstacles in the
Selection Process" section for a description of how
to identify obstacles in the process.)

Confidence of Women in the Fairness of the
Promotional System

The first question that needs to be addressed is "Are
women applying for promotional exams and positions?"
If not, "Why not?" The best way to determine this is
to survey women who are eligible for promotion. An
independent consultant should conduct the survey. The
results of the survey may highlight areas that need
to be improved. Small group discussions, focus
groups, and other similar methods of gaining input
may be utilized to identify issues that need to be
addressed.

Preparing Women for the Promotion Process

A crucial factor in whether an applicant is
successful in the promotion process is the breadth of
experience the applicant possesses from serving in
various assignments within the law enforcement
organization. As discussed previously, women need to
gain experience in units that are highly valued by
the raters in the promotion process. Experience in
units such as SWAT, street crimes, gangs,
motorcycles, homicide, narcotics, vice, and as a
field training officer is often considered by
promotion panels to be better than experience in
domestic violence, sexual assault, child abuse,
juveniles and crime prevention. The law enforcement
administrator should make sure that women are
receiving these highly desired positions equally with
men and should also ensure that the promotion process
values experience in the service-oriented types of
units. In addition, women having mentors to guide
them during their career is important. (See
"Mentoring for Retention" section.)

To make certain that assignments are awarded fairly,
the head of the organization should develop an
objective, written assignment plan with criteria for
obtaining specialized positions within the
organization. This plan should be discussed with
managers, and published and evaluated on a regular
basis. Assignment patterns by race and gender should
then be monitored closely.

Examining the Promotion Process

Each section of the examination process needs to be
reviewed to determine if there are areas where women
fail or score lower than men. If such areas become
apparent, analysis is necessary to determine the
reason this is occurring. (See the "Removing
Obstacles in the Selection Process" section for a
description of how to identify obstacles in the
process.)

Job Description

To ensure a quality promotional system, a job
description for each promotional position should be
developed. All the issues identified in the earlier
job description section relate to promotional
positions. Again, the knowledge, skills, and
abilities required to successfully perform the duties
of the rank or classification should reflect values
of community policing, such as encouraging innovation
in subordinates as well as enforcing adherence to
rules. The development of the job description should
involve community, managerial, and subordinate input
to ensure that the job description adequately covers
all aspects of the position.

Developing a Promotion Process 

Once the job description is developed, the next step
is to determine the testing process to be utilized.
Remember that not only must the criteria for a
position be valid, i.e. job-related, but the test
content must be valid as well, i.e., it actually
measures the job-related criteria. To develop a valid
test for a position, it is necessary to remove, as
much as possible, the opportunity for subjective
judgments and bias. Testing procedures should be
job-related and non-discriminatory. If there is
evidence of adverse impact, the agency must minimize
the adverse impact to the extent possible. 

Using Assessment Centers

As early as 1977, experts in the field of promotion
selection called for the use of assessment centers by
police agencies.[3] They recognized that the
subjective nature of the promotability ratings and
the oral interview were problematic and potentially
discriminatory. Assessment centers provide a means to
observe candidates in more realistic job tasks.
Candidates can be observed in a variety of settings
that closely resemble the activities they will be
performing in the promotional position. Again,
assessors used should be from the community and be
professionals who have been adequately screened and
trained. Law enforcement organizations should hire
consultants with expertise in designing and
implementing assessment centers.

Traditional Promotion Systems

Many agencies do not use assessment centers, but use
a traditional combination of written examinations and
structured oral interviews to assess candidates for
promotion. If this process is used, safeguards need
to be instituted to guard against gender bias. If a
written examination is to be used, publish a reading
list several months in advance of the examination.
This gives all potential applicants the opportunity
to prepare for the test. In addition, some agencies
further reduce bias by using blind exercises so that
the individuals or panel scoring the exercise do not
know the author of the written exercise. Agencies
should consider using the written examination on a
pass/fail basis in order to reduce adverse impact. If
a structured oral interview is to be used, the
interviewers should be drawn from outside the agency.
Interview panels should be made up of members of the
community and police personnel from other
jurisdictions, should include women and minorities,
and must be prescreened to eliminate individuals who
are gender-biased. Such an interview panel needs
adequate training in proper interview techniques and
questions. As much as possible, the interviews need
to be structured for consistency in rating. (See the
"Removing Obstacles in the Selection Process" section
for further information.)

Promotablity Ratings

Some law enforcement organizations solicit input from
current supervisors to assess the candidate's
potential for promotion. The candidate is rated on a
scale or provided some other scoring that is used in
determining the final placement on the promotional
list. Promotability ratings and subjective
evaluations should not be used in determining who is
promoted. Such processes are subject to bias and may
be used as a method of retaliation. Utilize objective
criteria that will help in selecting from among the
qualified candidates. Criteria such as level of
education, involvement in the community, special
training received, and other desirable
accomplishments should be considered in making
promotion decisions. Clear, objective criteria should
be established as desirable for promotion. The
criteria should be posted and supplied to each
employee so that they have adequate time to prepare
themselves for promotion. Agencies may want to
consider establishing a diverse committee of
employees and community members to establish this
criteria.

Seniority

Seniority should not be used to enhance a candidate's
score. There is no documented basis to show that
greater seniority contributes to better job
performance. If seniority is used at all, it should
only be used to set a minimum qualification for
taking the promotional exam. The minimum
qualifications necessary to apply for promotion to
the position should be identified and published.
These minimum qualifications typically involve
educational requirements and a minimum number of
years of service at a lower rank. The qualifications
necessary to enter the promotional process should be
as broad as possible to include a large number of
people. 

Creating a Climate of Support for Women 

Law enforcement administrators must take steps to
assure that the promotional process is fair. Then
they should take steps to communicate to women
employees that the organization truly wants to
promote women. As stated previously, the first step
is to actively and successfully recruit women
officers. Aggressive recruitment of women is visible
proof that the organization values women employees.
Additionally, in some agencies the Chief, the
Sheriff, or other command staff contact women
individually to encourage them to take promotional
examinations. Some organizations have mentoring
systems to encourage women to compete for promotion.
Some senior level women make it their personal goal
to seek out, mentor, and support women for promotion.
However it is done, there should be an advocacy for
the promotion of women within each agency.

Promoting the "First Woman"

Success is not just measured by the actual promotion
of women. Serious issues may need to be addressed
when a woman is to be promoted, especially if she
will be the first woman to be promoted to that
rank/position. First women face many additional
challenges. They are usually placed under enormous
scrutiny as to their ability to do the job. Sometimes
the promotion is of interest to the media and the
community, which can cause jealousy or resentment
among peers. Within the agency there may be
resentment that a woman was "given a man's job," and
that may cause added pressure from personnel who want
her to fail. Administrators should be aware of these
pressures and provide support and mentoring to these
women. 

Assignments When Promoted

When promoting women, the agency should not
automatically assign them to the positions that have
historically been viewed as "women's jobs," such as
records, communications, data processing, juveniles,
etc. Gender should never be an issue in assignment.
Such assignments are often justified because of the
strengths of women in those job skills. However, it
is important to develop new skills and strengths in
all personnel. If possible, develop a probationary
promotional training and assignment plan, which every
person who is promoted to the new rank must complete.
In this way, everyone is given the same training and
assignments and therefore the same opportunity to
succeed in their new position. If that is not
possible, then extra care should be taken to ensure
that assignments are gender neutral. This sends the
message that the woman is just as competent and
valued and that the administration supports the
promotion of women. 

Monitoring and Evaluating the Promotion Process 

Semi-annual reports should be prepared that show
assignments and promotions by race and gender. Top
commanders should meet with the agency head to review
these reports and develop plans to remedy any areas
of imbalance.

--------------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 11

1. National Center for Women & Policing, "Equality
Denied: The Status of Women in Policing," (Los
Angeles: National Center for Women & Policing, 1999),
1-20.

2. International Association of Chiefs of Police, "The
Future of Women in Policing: Mandates for Action,"
(International Association of Chiefs of Police,
1998).

3. George P. Tielsch and Paul M. Whisenand, The
Assessment Center Approach in the Selection of Police
Personnel (Santa Cruz: Davis Publishing Co. Inc.,
1977).

--------------------------------

Checklist for Assignments and Promotion

o Women have equal opportunity for assignment to
patrol, coveted assignments such as FTO, training
instructor, gang units, and out of class assignments.

o Women are applying for promotion examinations at
the same rate that men are applying for promotion
examinations. 

o If women are not applying for promotional
opportunities, a survey is conducted to determine the
reasons.

o Current promotional examinations have been
reviewed for gender bias.

o Job descriptions for promotional positions have
been reviewed and updated and reflect the knowledge,
skills, and abilities of the positions.

o Job related, non-discriminatory testing procedures
are in place.

o Interviewers and raters include community members
and professionals from other agencies. 

o Interviewers/raters have been screened for bias
and adequately trained. 

o Interview or rating panels are gender and racially
diverse. (Women police, not just women community
members, should be included on such panels.)

o Assessment centers are used to allow the
observation of candidates in realistic job tasks.

o Promotability ratings and subjective performance
evaluations are not used in promotional examinations.

o Seniority points are not used in the testing
process.

o Minimum qualifications to take promotional
examinations are as broad as possible.

o Advocacy for the promotion of women exists and is
communicated within the agency.

o Post-promotional support is in place for the first
women promoted into ranks and assignments.

o Promotional assignments are gender neutral. 

o Women have equal opportunity for assignment to
patrol, coveted assignments such as FTO, training
instructor, gang units, and out of class assignments.

o Women are applying for promotion examinations at
the same rate that men are applying for promotion
examinations. 

o If women are not applying for promotional
opportunities, a survey is conducted to determine the
reasons.

o Current promotional examinations have been
reviewed for gender bias.

o Job descriptions for promotional positions have
been reviewed and updated and reflect the knowledge,
skills, and abilities of the positions.

o Job related, non-discriminatory testing procedures
are in place.

o Interviewers and raters include community members
and professionals from other agencies. 

o Interviewers/raters have been screened for bias
and adequately trained. 

o Interview or rating panels are gender and racially
diverse. (Women police, not just women community
members, should be included on such panels.)

o Assessment centers are used to allow the
observation of candidates in realistic job tasks.

o Promotability ratings and subjective performance
evaluations are not used in promotional examinations.

o Seniority points are not used in the testing
process.

o Minimum qualifications to take promotional
examinations are as broad as possible.

o Advocacy for the promotion of women exists and is
communicated within the agency.

o Post-promotional support is in place for the first
women promoted into ranks and assignments.

o Promotional assignments are gender neutral. 

o The promotion and assignment process is monitored
and evaluated semi-annually. 

------------------------

Chapter 12

Preventing Sexual and Gender Harassment,
Discrimination, and Retaliation

Statement of the Problem

Sexual harassment is prevalent in most law
enforcement agencies. Over the years,
various studies have been conducted to determine the
extent to which women officers are subjected
to sexual/gender harassment. The studies found that 
anywhere from 60-70% of women officers experienced 
sexual/gender harassment. A 1985 study conducted by 
the Police Foundation found that 67% of female officers 
were victims of sexual harassment and another survey of 
female officers in a medium-sized-department showed that 
68% reported having been sexually harassed by a member 
of their agency.[1] Interestingly, only about 4-6% ever
reported the harassment. This lack of reporting is directly 
attributable to the code of silence in law enforcement agencies and the
severe retaliation that occurs when women do report misconduct.

Captain George V. Robinson of the Ocala, Florida,
Police Department conducted a more recent study of
over 1,200 women in law enforcement in Florida and
found that 61% said they had been sexually harassed
in the workplace. In fact, 40% of them indicated that
sexually oriented materials or sexually oriented
jokes are a daily occurrence. Unfortunately, many of
those responding said they believe it is their plight
to endure otherwise unacceptable working conditions
if they want to maintain a career in law enforcement.
[2] A similar study conducted in a large municipal
police department in a southeastern state revealed
that 68% of the respondents reported being sexually
harassed on the job.[3] Sexual and gender harassment
are two of the top reasons women most often give for
leaving their law enforcement careers. Not only does this illegal
behavior result in low retention rates for women
employees, but it is frequently the cause of severe,
debilitating stress. 

Law enforcement agencies are frequently sued for
sexual harassment. For example, in 1991 a California
city had to pay $3.1 million to two women officers
who were sexually harassed by co-workers. In 1996, a
woman police sergeant was awarded $1.2 million in a
case against male officers who first harassed her and
then caused her to be terminated.[4]  

Problems with preventing and appropriately handling
sexual harassment usually occur in the following
areas: 

Policy

Nearly all law enforcement agencies have a sexual
harassment policy. This policy usually consists of
language developed by the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission to describe prohibited
workplace harassment. Even though these policies may
be legally adequate, they are frequently not comprehensive 
enough to give guidance to employees on what is expected 
of their behavior in the workplace. In addition, most policies 
fail to recognize that harassment is frequently very subtle. 
For example, sexually explicit comments are stopped but 
demeaning comments about women are tolerated. In 
many agencies, discriminatory behavior persists despite 
an official policy against it, because the written policy is 
inadequate, unpublicized, and unenforced.

Training

A study of women in Florida law enforcement revealed
that over 50% of them said their agencies provided no
formal training on sexual harassment.[5] Many times,
even when agencies do provide training about sexual
harassment, it is conducted by someone with a legal
background who emphasizes the prohibitions and
penalties against engaging in sexual harassment. This
type of training frequently results in officers becoming 
angry with their female co-workers instead
of understanding the dynamics of sexual harassment
and making a commitment to exhibit proper behavior in
the workplace. 

Reporting

When women do report sexual harassment, the systems
in law enforcement agencies seldom work to quickly
and appropriately resolve their complaints, often
resulting in litigation. Many organizations assign
the investigation of sexual harassment complaints to
internal affairs personnel, without adequately or
appropriately training those employees about how to
conduct sexual harassment investigations.

Investigating 

Internal affairs functions and procedures often
preclude fair treatment of sexual harassment victims
in a number of ways. First, internal affairs use of
"misconduct" as the primary determination of
personnel wrongdoing is inadequate and inappropriate
in considering complaints of sexual harassment.
Internal affairs investigators are rarely trained to 
understand the dynamics of sexual harassment,
pertinent laws, or appropriate investigative
techniques. The standards of proof for internal
affairs complaints are much higher than those
required by sexual harassment law, and they are often
inappropriately applied to complaints of sexual
harassment. Second, the preponderance of male
investigators in most internal affairs divisions acts
as a chilling factor for females wishing to file a
sexual harassment complaint. Third, many internal affairs
divisions have failed to document sexual harassment
complaints altogether because they have been absorbed
into officer "misconduct" investigations. Consequently, 
the agency has no record of sexual harassment complaints, 
investigations, findings, or their resolution. Fourth, there have 
been many serious breaches of confidentiality where internal
affairs investigators have handled sexual harassment
complaints. Overall, in many law enforcement agencies, 
there is a perception that it is neither safe nor effective to 
report sexual harassment through the internal affairs process, 
either because it will not be taken seriously, or worse, because
investigators themselves will retaliate against the complainant.

Retaliation 

Retaliation for filing sexual harassment complaints
can be severe, leading to even more damages to the
complainant. Most organizations do not have adequate
retaliation prevention systems in place. Making a complaint 
about sexual harassment is often a "career killer" for women 
in policing. 

Legal Issues

The legal definition of sexual harassment based on
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act is as follows.

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual
favors, and other verbal, physical or visual conduct
of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when

(1) submission to such conduct is made either
explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an
individual's employment,

(2) submission to or rejection of such conduct by an
individual is used as the basis for employment decisions 
affecting such individual, or

(3) such conduct has the purpose or effect of
unreasonably interfering with an individual's work
performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or
offensive working environment.[6] 

Exposure to liability exists not only for the conduct
of employees, but in the treatment of inmates,
persons in custody or under supervision, and others
having reason to interact with criminal justice
personnel.[7] 

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies advises: "Agencies need to have strong
policies and directives that prohibit such conduct;
immediate and thorough investigation of any
allegation of unlawful harassment; effective and
appropriate disciplinary action in any case where
allegations of harassment can be substantiated; and
efforts to make agency employees aware of their
responsibilities and the legal issues involved."[8] 

Developing a Comprehensive Sexual Harassment Policy 

A comprehensive sexual harassment policy will contain
at least the following information:

o A statement that the organization supports the
right of every employee to be free of sexual harassment 
in the workplace. Harassment based on gender, race, 
sexual orientation, age, disability or other "difference"
is unacceptable.

o A statement that offenders will be held
accountable for acts of sexual harassment and
disciplined appropriately.

o A statement that supervisors and managers are
responsible for maintaining a harassment-free workplace 
and that they will be held accountable for stopping and 
appropriately reporting any harassment. This should include a
statement that appropriate disciplinary action will be taken
against supervisors and managers who fail to enforce
the policy.

o A statement that acts of retaliation against
members who complain about sexual harassment are
separate violations of anti-discrimination law which
shall be considered as additional acts of misconduct,
and investigated and disciplined accordingly. 

o An explanation of the laws prohibiting sexual
harassment.

o A definition and examples of harassing behaviors
that can be easily comprehended. 

o Formal procedures to resolve complaints of
harassment.

o A process to encourage early intervention and
resolution of hostile work environment complaints,
such as ombudsperson programs.

o An assurance that complaints will be kept
confidential to the extent possible.

o A description of the level of discipline that may
be imposed for violations of the policy.

o The process for reporting complaints, with an
emphasis on multiple places for filing complaints
such as: 

     o any Department supervisor;

     o any command officer;

     o a designated women's coordinator;

     o the law enforcement agency's human relations
     division;

     o the commission that oversees the law enforcement
     agency;

     o the human relations division of the political
     entity involved;

     o the state labor division responsible for
     enforcing discrimination laws;

     o the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunities
     Commission.

o Timelines for investigating and resolving
complaints of sexual harassment.

o A statement that complainants shall be notified
of their rights, statutes of limitation for filing
civil complaints, and referrals to administrative
agencies.

o The names and telephone numbers of persons to
contact if the employee has questions about the
policy.

Publicizing the Policy 

Employers should prominently post and widely
distribute the anti-harassment policy so that all
employees, applicants, and other persons in direct
contact with the agency (members of the public,
contractors, vendors, etc.) are aware of the
prohibition on harassment and the procedures for
complaining about it. A zero-tolerance statement from
the head of the organization should accompany the
policy.

Each employee should be given a copy of the policy
and should sign a statement that they have been given
the policy and have read it and are familiar with its
contents. This statement can be used later if officers 
accused of violating the policy claim to have not known that
their behavior was illegal. In addition, the policy
should be mailed to the homes of all employees on at
least an annual basis. Another option is to have the
employee read and sign for the policy every year
during the performance evaluation process. 

Designing an Effective Training Program

Training programs are only effective if learning
actually takes place. The blame-based training
programs that concentrate on legal issues and
penalties are counterproductive to understanding the
dynamics of sexual harassment. The best training
programs educate people about the dynamics of sexual
harassment, why it happens, what effect it has on the
victim, and how to handle situations in the workplace. 
Good training also addresses perceptions, behavior, and 
attitudes about differences based on gender and sexual 
orientation. Training must also address the legal ramifications 
and liability issues of failing to take steps to prevent sexual 
harassment. 

Sexual harassment takes place in a culture in which
abuse of power based on difference is tolerated. In
these environments, other forms of discrimination
such as discrimination based on sexual orientation,
race, ethnicity, and other forms of difference may
also be tolerated. Effective challenges to attitudes that
underlie such behaviors require an interactive
training approach, which requires careful
collaborative design.

Sexual harassment and gender-bias training addresses
some of the most fundamental attitudes, perceptions,
and misperceptions with which people operate in the
workplace. Adequate time and resources must be
allocated to training on these issues or the agency
will waste its resources and fail to adequately
address the problem.

A single, isolated training session on sexual
harassment will not change attitudes and behavior.
Agency personnel, particularly command and
supervisory staff who are responsible for receiving 
complaints of sexual harassment should be exposed 
to training on this issue in a range of professional contexts.
Interactive training exercises are particularly
effective and require adequate time for continuing
training. 

All members of the department should receive sexual
harassment training. This includes the command staff
and civilian employees. Additional training should be
provided to supervisors and managers on how to
maintain a harassment-free workplace and on how to
respond if harassment occurs. There should also be
annual refresher training. Additional periodic
training for supervisors and managers should be
required. This training should give supervisors and
managers an update on recent cases and re-emphasize
their responsibility to maintain a harassment-free
workplace.

Experts in gender discrimination training who are
familiar with effective adult education training
methods such as video, case studies, and role-playing
should play central roles in designing and conducting
the training. Having a teaching team consisting of
experts from the community and law enforcement
command staff is ideal. 

The head of the agency should open all sexual
harassment training classes, emphasizing his/her
commitment to a harassment-free workplace. Agency
leadership must make it clear to personnel that
harassment is unprofessional and unacceptable
behavior that will not be tolerated, and that the
agency will enforce real sanctions against such
behavior. If the agency head cannot personally
appear at all classes, a videotape should be made and
played at the beginning of every class. A high-ranking 
member of the organization should be present at every 
training class to enforce the department's commitment to 
a zero-tolerance policy on discrimination or harassment.

Sometimes it is desirable to provide remedial
training to persons who have been found to violate
the policy on sexual harassment. One method is to
schedule a private training session with the offender
and an attorney experienced in employment
discrimination law. The purpose is to have the
attorney explain the personal ramifications of
further violations of the policy and to discuss what
types of behavior are prohibited. This makes a
serious impression on the offender and provides
excellent documentation of the agency's efforts to
correct the problem.

Elements of a Good Training Curriculum 

An effective sexual harassment training program will
include the following topics:

o What is sexual harassment - an overall discussion
of how sexual harassment affects employees in the
workplace with emphasis that it will not be tolerated
in this workplace.

o What sexual harassment is not - a discussion
about the misconceptions of sexual harassment. For 
example, sexual harassment is not about mutually 
desired relationships.

o Legal definition.

     o Quid pro quo.

     o Hostile environment.

     o Reasonable woman standard.

o What kinds of behavior constitute sexual
harassment - specific examples. 

o Sexual harassment law - discussion of cases that
help to illustrate the issues.

o Federal and state laws.

o Policy of the organization about sexual
harassment.

o Why sexual harassment occurs - a discussion of
the issues of power and control.

o Recognizing sexual harassment in the workplace.

o Measures an employee can take to stop sexual
harassment

     o Informal measures.

     o Formal measures.

o Supervisors' responsibilities - case law.

o Things a supervisor should not do.

     o For example, a supervisor should not participate
     in or tolerate any inappropriate behavior.

o Things a supervisor should do.

     o For example, a supervisor should immediately
     stop any harassing behavior.

o Preventing retaliation.

o Complaint and investigation process of the
organization.

o Employee rights, how to file complaints, and
statutes of limitations with EEOC and the state labor
department. 

Developing a Complaint and Investigation Process

Several important issues should be addressed in
developing an adequate complaint and investigation
process.

o Where to file complaints 

Victims must be given choices about where to file
their complaints. This is especially true in a law
enforcement agency because of the nature of the rank
structure. A victim of sexual harassment should not
be expected to report her complaints through the
chain of command. Someone in the chain of command,
especially her direct supervisor, may be the
harasser. Therefore, the complaint process must
provide several avenues available for the victim.

o Hotline 

Agencies should consider establishing a harassment
hotline to receive complaints and answer questions
regarding harassment.

o Focus Groups 

The law enforcement organization should hold
periodic focus groups with employees potentially
subject to harassment. Another method of gaining
input is to conduct anonymous climate surveys of employees.

o Employee Groups 

The law enforcement administrator should encourage
employee organizations such as labor unions, and
women police and minority police associations to help
identify problems in the system and to encourage employees
to report incidents of harassment.

o Ombudsperson Programs

Some organizations are implementing ombudsperson
programs as a confidential, alternative means to encourage the 
resolution of workplace issues both informally and at an early
stage. An ombudsperson may provide guidance that will
permit both employees to address issues on their own
or to utilize the ombudsperson as a mediator to
address workplace conflicts. The ombudsperson should
be required to submit periodic reports about
workplace issues that have been brought to their
attention and offer suggestions for improving the
policies and procedures of the organization.
Experience with such programs has shown that
significant workplace issues that do not surface
through formal reporting mechanisms do surface and
are resolved through ombudsperson programs. The U.S.
Department of Justice, the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons have
all implemented ombudsperson programs.

Discrimination Investigation Unit 

The most effective mechanism for investigating and
resolving complaints of discrimination and harassment
in a law enforcement agency is a special
discrimination investigation unit. Ideally, this unit
should be located within the personnel division.
Experts in personnel usually have a thorough
understanding of discrimination/harassment issues and
are equipped to do a better job of investigating
these issues than investigators in internal affairs
or other units. Allegations of discrimination and
harassment are frequently emotionally charged and
often have political implications. Personnel can act
as the neutral fact-finders. 

If your agency cannot create a separate
discrimination investigation unit, there are various
other configurations for assigning harassment
investigations:

o Assign and thoroughly train investigators within
the internal affairs unit. Investigators in internal
affairs units are accustomed to investigating
employee misconduct. However, they must be thoroughly 
trained in discrimination and harassment law, and they must
understand the dynamics of sexual harassment and why
women are reluctant to report this behavior.
Discrimination and sexual harassment complaints
should be clearly differentiated from other officer
misconduct, appropriately classified, and tracked
separately. 

o Assign and thoroughly train investigators within
the detective division. Detectives assigned to sex
crimes or child abuse may make good investigators for
sexual harassment issues. However, they must be thoroughly
trained in sexual harassment law. 

o Assign and thoroughly train a woman's coordinator
in the chief's office. This person must be trained in
discrimination and sexual harassment law. She also
must be given the necessary resources to conduct the
investigations, including a private office removed
from the chief's office. 

o Hire an outside, neutral investigator with
expertise in discrimination investigations. If an
outside investigator is used, a legal advisor should
be consulted about restrictions placed by state and
federal laws.

Regardless of what unit is responsible for sexual
harassment investigations, the agency must develop
uniform standards for investigating and documenting
all harassment and discrimination complaints. 

**Note: A word about the size of an agency and the
method of investigating sexual harassment complaints:
We recommend that large organizations establish a
separate unit to investigate discrimination and
harassment complaints. 

Discrimination Units in Large Organizations Should
be:

o Separate from the internal affairs division with
the authority to investigate sworn and civilian
personnel complaints of sexual harassment and all
other forms of discrimination based on sex, race,
national origin, age, sexual orientation, disability,
or other protected status. 

o Located off-site from any law enforcement
facility to provide maximum confidentiality for
complainants and accused members of the department.

o Headed by a commanding officer of the same rank
as the commanding officer of the internal affairs
division.

o Directly responsible to the chief administrator
of the organization.

o Staffed with civilian experts in the areas of
sexual harassment and employment law investigations.

o Provided with ongoing training by community
experts on issues of employment discrimination 
based on gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, 
disability, and age.

o Have legal advisors with expertise in employment
discrimination law.

o Coordinate with related agency divisions and
selected personnel, especially internal affairs,
training, equal employment opportunity, behavioral
sciences divisions, and the women's coordinator.

Investigation Guidelines 

Guidelines should be established for investigating
sexual harassment complaints. 

These guidelines should cover issues such as:

o Confidentiality - who is informed about the
complaint? How much information is given to the
supervisor of the victim/accused? The amount of
information give to the complainant should be
maximized as much as possible. 

o Timelines for conducting the complaint-these are
important. All sexual harassment complaints should be
given priority and completed within a very short time
period such as 30 days.

o Strong anti-retaliation measures to be
implemented-these should be mandatory.

o Notification of the victim as to the results of
the investigation.

o Procedures for notifying complainants of their
rights, relevant statutes of limitations for taking
legal action, and resources available to them in the
department, and in the community.

o Uniform standards for documenting all
discrimination/harassment investigations.

o Procedures to ensure that all investigations are
conducted in a manner that is fair and impartial.

Screening Discrimination Investigators 

Persons to be assigned as discrimination
investigators should be carefully selected. They
should be screened for potential bias against women
as law enforcement officers. A panel of experts in an
oral interview procedure may do this screening or a
qualified psychologist may do it. Any person who has
participated in any discriminatory or harassing
behavior should not be selected as an investigator. 
Investigative staff should be gender and racially
diverse. 

Agencies may use external investigators who are
highly experienced in conducting discrimination
investigations. If external investigators are used,
the legal staff should review the provisions in the
Federal Trade Commission Fair Credit Reporting Act.
See www.ftc.gov. 

Training Discrimination Investigators 

Once the investigators have been selected, qualified
experts should provide training about discrimination
law and equal employment opportunity. In addition,
special training should be provided about how to
interview victims of sexual harassment, including
sexual assault. Investigators should be given
training on how to overcome the code of silence 
in law enforcement investigations.

The code of silence is the unwritten understanding
among law enforcement officers that it is not
permissible to reveal unfavorable information about
another officer in any internal investigation,
especially in discrimination cases and use of
unnecessary force cases. The code is enforced by many
tactics from shunning to failing to provide cover on
emergency calls. In order to overcome the code of
silence, the agency must have meaningful policies
requiring officers to report misconduct and imposing
discipline if they fail to report or accurately
provide information during an investigation.

Disciplining Offenders

When an investigation has determined that sexual
harassment or discrimination has occurred, appropriate 
actions should be taken in a timely manner. For first-time 
offenders on minor issues, re-training is probably appropriate. 
For repeat offenders or serious misconduct, more severe 
discipline is called for, including termination. Persons found 
to have violated policies on discrimination and harassment should 
not be rewarded with highly desirable job assignments, promotions, 
officer of the year awards, and other similar benefits. The head of 
the law enforcement agency must be consistent when enforcing a
zero-tolerance policy.

Preventing Retaliation

The reason women most often give for not reporting
sexual harassment and discrimination is their fear of
retaliation from co-workers and the administration.
Juries frequently side with the plaintiff in
discrimination cases if she can show that there was
retaliation for reporting and that the administration did 
nothing to prevent or stop it.

There are many things that administrators can do to
prevent retaliation. Employers should clearly state
in the sexual harassment/discrimination policy that
any act of retaliation will be treated as a separate
offense. The most common types of retaliation
experienced by women in law enforcement 
agencies are:

o Shunning/ostracizing - no one will talk to her,
or she is prevented from receiving information
important to the performance of her job or important
to her personal safety.

o Stalking/harassing incidents - obscene telephone
calls, telephone calls where the caller says nothing,
hang-up calls at all hours of the day and night,
threatening or harassing letters or notes, damage to
her automobile, articles left on her desk or in her
work area that are intended to intimidate or harass.

o Becoming the subject of rumors of sexual activity
or other demeaning information.

o Being held to a higher standard of performance -
her evaluation reports become more critical and she
is held to a different standard than others.

o Harassing internal affairs complaints are filed
against her by members of the organization or by 
citizens who have been enlisted to help the harasser.

o Denial of training opportunities.

o Denial of transfer to specialty jobs.

o Denial of promotion.

o Failure to provide back-up in emergency
situations. This is the ultimate form of retaliation.
When it becomes apparent that she will not receive
backup in a timely manner, the woman often leaves the
organization because she is in fear for her life.

When a woman makes a report of discrimination, at the
very least the following interim measures should be
taken:

o Determine if the complainant feels safe remaining
in the current assignment. This is crucial in
policing because retaliation may take the form of
failure to provide assistance in emergency
situations.

o If the complainant does not feel safe in the
current assignment, the organization should take
steps to ensure her safety. Some options are:

     o Remove the alleged harasser from the workplace.
     In cases of allegations of serious harassment, some
     organizations may transfer the accused or place the
     accused person on administrative leave pending the
     outcome of the investigation. This action should be
     carefully considered. Labor contracts and personnel
     policies should be taken into consideration.
     Additionally, by removing the alleged harasser, 
     employees may assume that a determination of
     culpability has already been made. This could
     seriously damage the reputation of an innocent
     person.

     o Remove the complainant from the workplace.
     Sometimes the complainant will ask to be transferred
     or put on leave pending the results of the
     investigation. If this occurs, it is advisable to
     grant that request if possible. Agencies should not
     just automatically remove the complainant from her
     workplace. Being with her peers for support may be
     very important to her. Having her life disrupted by
     being transferred may increase the damage to her and her
     career. 

     o Remove both persons from the workplace. Some
     organizations have a policy to transfer both of the
     involved parties pending the results of the
     investigation. This approach raises all of the issues
     in the above two options.

o The immediate supervisor of the complainant and
the accused person should be immediately informed of 
the allegations and be held responsible for ensuring that no 
retaliation occurs in the workplace. The complainant should be
contacted on a regular basis to make sure that no
retaliation is occurring. 

o The accused should be informed of the charges and
directed that he is not to take any type of
retaliatory action against the complainant. He should
also be ordered not to discuss the issue with anyone
in the organization other than investigative
personnel assigned to the case.

o The complainant should be directed not to discuss
the issues with anyone in the organization other than the 
investigative personnel assigned to the case.

o The investigation process should be thoroughly
explained to the complainant and the accused. The
complainant should be advised of her rights to file a
complaint with the state and federal civil rights
agencies. She should also be informed of the statute
of limitations for filing her complaint.

The investigation should be conducted as quickly as
possible, ensuring a thorough examination of the
issues.

The complainant and the accused should be informed of
the outcome of the investigation. The agency should
thoroughly review the requirements of the state and
federal privacy acts to determine what information
can be disclosed.

Any appropriate discipline or remedial training
should be swiftly imposed and completed.

There should be a routine follow-up interview of the
complainant within 30-60 days to determine if she has
experienced any retaliation as a result of filing the
complaint.

Monitoring of Harassment Prevention Programs 

Once all of the above components are in place, the
agency should set up a system to monitor and evaluate
the program. Some possible steps to take are:

o Create a standing committee of high-level
managers responsible for monitoring to ensure that
harassment is effectively prevented throughout the
organization. This committee should also be
responsible for recommending--directly to the
agency head--anti-harassment policies, training
initiatives, and other steps needed to ensure
effective prevention. The committee should have a
large representation of women and minority members.

o The investigative unit should be directed to
collect, compile, and evaluate data about all
incidents of harassment, including names of
harassers, location and behaviors, time to
investigate, results of the investigation, discipline
or remedy imposed, and time to effectively remedy the
harassment.

o The organization may consider using anonymous
surveys, focus groups, exit interviews, and other
similar means to assess the effectiveness of the
programs.

o Supervisors and managers should be continuously
monitoring the workplace to ensure that a hostile
work environment does not exist. Any posting of
pornography, sexually explicit materials, cartoons,
jokes, or other items that demean or ridicule persons
in protected classes should be immediately removed
and investigated.

o Organizations may want to hire outside experts to
conduct formal written assessments of the
organization and make recommendations for eradicating
harassment.

Holding Managers and Supervisors Accountable 

The single most important step that a law enforcement
executive can take to prevent or stop harassment in
the workplace is to hold managers and supervisors
strictly accountable for activities occurring in their work 
units. First-line supervisors are especially important to 
the success of any anti-discrimination effort. Administrators 
may want to consider taking the following actions:

o Immediate, meaningful and appropriate discipline
should be imposed on any supervisor or manager who
fails to take reasonable care to identify and stop
harassment.

o Publicly announced rewards for managers and
supervisors who take proactive measures to prevent
harassment.

o Procedures that require managers and supervisors
to forward to the standing committee information about 
each allegation of harassing behavior, and steps they took to 
handle it.

o Any violation of the harassment policy should be
documented in the performance evaluation of the
harasser and the supervisor and used as a basis to
deny promotion or pay raises if possible.

o Command staff should be held responsible for
inspecting the workplace on a regular basis to make
certain that it is not hostile.

Exit Interviews

Because of the tremendous peer pressure placed on
women not to report sexual harassment, some women
resign rather than go through the stress of an
investigation and the resulting retaliation. One way
to determine if this is occurring in your organization is 
to conduct exit interviews with all sworn and civilian 
employees. These interviews should be conducted 
at the time the person turns in their resignation and 
followed with a mail survey at least 6-9 months after 
the person has left. Sometimes employees will be reluctant 
to talk about their real reasons for leaving because they need 
a positive employment reference from their current employer.

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, 
Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information

Refer to Appendix I for a copy of the Sexual
Harassment/Discrimination policy from the Portland,
Oregon, Police Bureau.

A website resource that may be helpful to police
agencies reviewing sexual harassment policies:

AELE Law Enforcement Legal Center
http:/www.aele.org/index.html

The National Center for Women & Policing offers
classes on sexual harassment prevention for law
enforcement agencies. Contact NCWP at 
323-651-2532 for more information.

-------------------------

Resource:

The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department is in the
process of implementing an Office of Independent
Review, staffed by civil rights experts who will be
responsible for supervising the investigation of
allegations of discrimination and for overseeing
other types of internal investigations, such as
complaints about the use of excessive force. 
Contact Information: Sheriff Lee Baca, 323-526-5005.

---------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 12

1. Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting,
Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers:
Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October
1998, 42-53.

2. George V. Robinson, "Sexual Harassment in Florida
Law Enforcement: Panacea or Pandora's Box," (Ocala
Police Department).

3. David Nichols, "The Brotherhood: Sexual Harassment
in Police Agencies," WomenPolice, Summer, 1995.

4. Donna Milgram, "Preventing Sexual Harassment:
Integration of Women into Male-Dominated
Occupations," (National Institute for Women In
Trades, Technology & Science, 1999), 31.

5. George V. Robinson, "Sexual Harassment in Florida
Law Enforcement: Panacea or Pandora's Box," (Ocala
Police Department).

6. Sexual Harassment Guidelines [www.eeoc.gov] (Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission).

7. Rubin, Paula N, "Civil Rights and Criminal Justice:
Primer on Sexual Harassment", October, 1995, NCJRS.

8. Committee on Accreditation for Law Enforcement
Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law
Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed.
(1999) 26.1.

---------------------

Checklist for Preventing Sexual and Gender 
Harassment, Discrimination, and Retaliation

o The agency has a written sexual harassment policy.
The policy includes:

     o A statement that the organization supports the
      right of every employee to be free of sexual
      harassment in the workplace. Harassment based on
      gender, race, sexual orientation, age, disability, or other 
      difference is unacceptable.

     o A statement that offenders will be held
     accountable for acts of sexual harassment and
     disciplined appropriately.

     o A statement that supervisors and managers are
     responsible for maintaining a harassment-free workplace 
     and that they will be held accountable for stopping and 
     appropriately reporting any harassment.

     o A statement that acts of retaliation against
      members who complain about sexual harassment 
      are separate violations of anti-discrimination law which 
      shall be considered as additional acts of misconduct, and 
      investigated and disciplined accordingly. 

     o An explanation of the laws prohibiting sexual
     harassment.

     o A definition and examples of harassing behaviors
      that can be easily comprehended. 

     o Formal and informal procedures to resolve
     complaints of harassment.

     o An assurance that complaints will be kept
     confidential to the extent possible.

     o A description of the level of discipline that may
     be imposed for violations of the policy.

     o The process for reporting complaints, with an
     emphasis on multiple places for filing.

     o Timelines for investigating and resolving
     complaints of sexual harassment.

     o A statement that complainants shall be notified of
     their rights, statutes of limitation for filing civil
     complaints, and referrals to administrative agencies.

     o The names and telephone numbers of persons to
     contact if the employee has questions about the
     policy.

o The policy, accompanied by a zero-tolerance
statement, is prominently posted in all agency
facilities.

o Every employee has been given a copy of the
policy.

o The policy is mailed to the home of every employee
annually.

o Sexual harassment training has been provided to
all employees. The training includes:

     o An overall discussion of how sexual harassment
     affects employees in the workplace with emphasis that
     it will not be tolerated. 

     o A discussion about the misconceptions of sexual
     harassment. For example, sexual harassment is not
     about mutually desired relationships.

     o Legal definition of sexual harassment.

     o Explanation of the reasonable woman standard.

     o Specific examples of the types of behaviors that
     may be offensive.

     o Discussion of cases and scenarios that help to
      illustrate the issues.

     o Pertinent state and federal laws.

     o Policy of the organization about sexual
     harassment.

     o Why sexual harassment occurs - a discussion of the
     issues of power and control.

     o Recognizing sexual harassment in the workplace.

     o Formal and informal measures an employee can take
     to stop sexual harassment.

     o Supervisors' responsibilities.

                    o Preventing retaliation.

     o Complaint and investigation processes of the
     organization.

     o Employee rights, how to file complaints, and
     statutes of limitations with the EEOC and state labor
     department. 

o Training is designed and conducted by experts in
gender discrimination and adult education.

o The agency head emphasizes a zero-tolerance policy
at all training sessions.

o There are multiple places where victims can file
complaints, both internally and externally.

o There is a harassment hotline for employees.

o Focus groups are held about sexual harassment to
assess the working environment.

o Labor unions as well as women police and minority
police organizations are involved in the efforts to
eliminate sexual harassment.

o Ombudsperson programs are provided as an option to
formal complaints.

o A discrimination investigation system is in place.
It is:

     o Separate from the internal affairs division;
     
     o Located off-site from the law enforcement
      facility;

     o Headed by a commanding officer of equivalent rank
      to the head of internal affairs;

     o Directly responsible to the chief administrator of
      the agency;

     o Staffed with civilian experts in gender
     discrimination;

     o Provided with on going training; and

     o Provided with legal advice.

o Guidelines for sexual harassment investigations
have been established that cover the following issues:

     o Confidentiality;

     o Timelines for conducting complaints;

     o Anti-retaliation measures;

     o Notification to the victim and accused of the 
     outcome of the investigation;

     o Notification to victims about their rights to file
     complaints and the statute of limitations;

     o Uniform standards for documenting the
     investigation; and

     o Oversight to ensure impartial investigations.

o Persons selected as investigators have been
screened for gender bias.

o Investigative staff is gender and racially
diverse.

o Investigators have been trained by discrimination
law experts.

o Retaliation prevention programs are established.
They include:

     o Determining if the complainant feels safe in the
     workplace;

     o Removing the harasser if necessary;

     o Moving the complainant if requested; and

     o Informing the immediate supervisors of the
     complaint and holding them responsible for preventing
     retaliation.

o Accused is informed of the charges and warned not
to take retaliatory action against the complainant.

o Complainant is contacted on a regular basis.

o Complainant and accused are directed not to
discuss the case with other employees.

o Investigation process is thoroughly explained to
complainant and accused.

o Complainant is advised of her right to file
charges with the state and federal agencies, and the
statute of limitations for doing so.

o Investigations are completed within 30 days.

o Complainant and accused are informed of the
results of the investigation.

o Appropriate discipline and training is swiftly
imposed.

o Behavior is documented in performance evaluations
of the harasser and the supervisor if appropriate.

o Complainant is contacted at 30 and 60 days after
closure to be certain that no retaliation is
occurring.

o A committee is established to monitor sexual
harassment prevention efforts.

o The committee includes command level staff and
women and minorities.

o Quarterly reports are prepared by the
investigative unit to report cases and outcomes by
race and gender, type of behavior, location, etc.

o Anonymous surveys are conducted with all employees
to assess the working climate.

o Focus groups are utilized for feedback on the
effectiveness of prevention programs.

o Outside experts are utilized to assess the
effectiveness of the prevention programs.

o First-line supervisors and managers are held
strictly accountable for sexual harassment occurring
in their work units.

o Immediate and appropriate discipline is imposed on
supervisors and managers who fail to take reasonable
care to prevent sexual harassment.

o Supervisors and managers are publicly rewarded for
taking proactive measures to prevent harassment and
retaliation.

o Supervisors and managers are required to document
and report any harassing behavior and the actions
they took.

o Exit interviews are conducted with employees who
resign.

o Command level women conduct the exit interviews.

o Follow-up exit interviews are conducted after 6
months.

----------------------------

Chapter 13

Ensuring Impartial Internal Investigation and
Discipline Systems

Statement of the Problem

Most law enforcement agencies have a system for
receiving and investigating complaints of officer misconduct. 
Larger agencies have separate units with a staff of investigators
and smaller agencies assign investigations to supervisors. An 
effective and fair internal investigation system is crucial to maintaining 
the credibility and responsiveness of law enforcement. Unfortunately, 
the very systems that are established to investigate officer misconduct 
have the potential to be misused as a tool to harass or retaliate against 
employees. Being the subject of an internal investigation can have a 
very serious effect on an officer's career, affecting transfers, promotions, 
and other benefits. The process of the investigation often causes stress
to all involved parties, especially if the investigation is drawn out over a 
long period of time. The outcome may result in discipline and, even if 
there is no actual discipline, the fact of the investigation may remain on 
the officer's record for a period of time, possibly affecting transfers,
promotions, and the officer's reputation. 

Women officers have reported that when they file complaints of 
discrimination or harassment, they subsequently become targets 
of internal investigations based on complaints that are often anonymous 
and false. In addition, minor errors in performance that would
normally be ignored or handled by an immediate supervisor are written up 
as complaints and sent forward for investigation. In a survey of minority
and women officers on the Los Angeles Police Department, 42% reported 
that positive incidents of their performance were not reported while negative
incidents of their performance were reported more often than that of white 
males.[1] Officers who report excessive force used by other officers or 
who present information against other officers during internal investigations 
or disciplinary proceedings may also be subjected to anonymous false com-
plaints, closely scrutinized, or held to a higher standard of performance. 
A national survey revealed  that the code of silence that keeps officers 
from reporting abuses continues with two-thirds of the officers reporting 
that those who "blow the whistle" on bad conduct receive a cold shoulder 
from their peers.[2] 

The discipline process may be used in a
discriminatory manner. In lawsuits and surveys,
female and minority officers have reported that they
are disciplined more harshly than white male
officers. A study of gender bias in evaluating
recruits showed that "for precisely the same actions,
police departments were significantly more likely to
terminate female trainees than male trainees."[3] As a
consequence of discriminatory or retaliatory
practices that create a hostile work environment,
women may choose to leave the law enforcement career
field. 

When increasing diversity in law enforcement
agencies, administrators must take care to build in
safeguards to ensure an equitable discipline system
that cannot be used as a tool of harassment.
Identifying the areas where women are treated
differently is the first step in correcting and
improving the work environment.

Legal Issues

Legal counsel must carefully review any changes to
the internal investigation or discipline process.
Labor contracts, civil service rules, and federal,
state and local laws, often regulate the discipline
process. In addition, Congress is considering changes
to provisions in the Fair Credit Reporting Act that
will affect employee investigations and the use of
outside investigators if credit information is used.
Legal staff should review the provisions in the
Federal Trade Commission Fair Credit Reporting Act.
See www.ftc.gov. Refer to Appendix J for a letter
from the Federal Trade Commission describing some of
the issues Congress is facing with this Act.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Complaint Investigation Policy 

Law enforcement agencies should have written
guidelines that clearly spell out the process for
reporting and investigating allegations of
misconduct. Investigations must be conducted in a
fair and impartial manner. Safeguards must be built
into the investigation process to prevent retaliation
against persons who report misconduct. The policy
should include these provisions:

o Anonymous complaints from citizens should be
accepted verbally by the person receiving the
complaint and then put into writing with as much
verbatim material as possible.

o Statement of the circumstances under which
anonymous complaints will be accepted, especially 
anonymous complaints originating within the agency.

o Description of the types of complaints that
should be forwarded to the internal investigations
unit and those that may be handled by immediate
supervisors. The agency must decide whether or not
they want supervisors to handle "minor" 
complaints. The supervisors may be too involved
with the issue to be objective. Even being aware 
that complaints have been filed may cause supervisors 
to scrutinize the person unfairly. 

o All discrimination and harassment complaints
should be handled by one investigative unit separate
from, but working in close cooperation with, the
internal affairs unit. In small agencies, one
individual should be designated and specially trained
to handle these complaints. 

o System for classifying complaints according to
allegation. This will assist in monitoring the system.

o Timelines for completing investigations.

o Process for conducting investigations.

o Rights of the accused employee.

o Confidentiality - who is informed about the
complaint and how much information is given.

o Requirement that employees cooperate in the
investigative process and that withholding information 
will not be tolerated.

o Safeguards to ensure that the system is not used
as a means of retaliation:

     o Under what circumstances the parties to the
      investigation will be temporarily re-assigned;

     o Responsibilities of supervisors and command staff
      to monitor and prevent retaliation;

     o Policy on obtaining restraining orders if
      necessary; and

     o Warnings to all parties not to discuss the case.

o Procedures to ensure that all investigations are
conducted in a manner that is fair and impartial:

     o Assignment of cases to investigators who are not
      personal friends of any party; and

     o Periodic review of cases by supervisors to ensure
      that investigation is being properly conducted and in
      a timely manner.

o Notification to the complainant and accused about
the outcome of the investigation. (Be sure to obtain
legal advice about how much information can be
released.)

o Uniform standards for documenting investigations.

o Classification of the findings of the investigation. 
Most agencies use a classification system of "sustained" 
(the incident did occur and was against department policy), 
"not sustained" (there is not enough information to determine 
whether or not the incident occurred), "unfounded" 
(the incident did not occur), or "exonerated" 
(it occurred but was within policy).

o Requirement for producing monthly and annual
reports on investigations conducted.

Selection of Investigators 

Persons to be assigned as internal investigators
should be carefully selected. They should be screened
for potential bias against women as law enforcement
officers. Any person who has participated in any
discriminatory or harassing behavior should not be
selected as an investigator. Investigative staff
should be gender and racially diverse. 

Sometimes it is desirable to use external
investigators who are highly experienced in 
conducting employee investigations. Once
investigators are selected, the agency should have
them sign a confidentiality agreement stating that
they will not discuss investigations with any persons
other than the parties to the complaints, witnesses,
and the investigator's immediate supervisor.

Training Investigators 

Once investigators have been selected, qualified
experts should provide training about labor law,
discrimination law, equal employment opportunity,
investigative techniques, and interviewing skills.
Investigators should be given training on how to
overcome the code of silence in law enforcement
investigations.

Anonymous Complaints

The issue of anonymous complaints is a very difficult
one for administrators. Employees and members of the
public must be encouraged to report misconduct--
especially serious misconduct such as excessive force
and corruption. However, anonymous complaints hinder
the investigation process by making the complainant
unavailable for questioning. Whenever an employee has
made a complaint of discrimination or harassment or
has reported serious misconduct of another employee,
the agency must be alert to the possibility of false internal 
affairs complaints being filed in retaliation against the reporting
employee. Usually, these harassing complaints are made 
anonymously and contain allegations of misconduct that will be 
difficult to prove. The intent of filing the complaint is to harass and 
place the employee under stress and extreme scrutiny. 

In one case in a west coast city, several women
officers testified at a city council subcommittee
hearing about discrimination and harassment in the
police department. Shortly after the testimony
occurred, an anonymous complaint was filed against
all of the women accusing them of sexual activities
with unnamed officers. Instead of recognizing this as
a tool of harassment, the law enforcement agency
opened an internal investigation into the allegations. 
The investigation dragged on for years, with no resolution, 
but the damage to the reputation of the women was irreparable. 
No attempt was made to identify the senders of the anonymous 
complaint.[4] It is clear that the use of anonymous complaints 
can be a serious form of retaliation.

The policy on anonymous complaints should state that
an investigation will be continued only when there is
a reasonable basis to believe that serious misconduct
has occurred. Anonymous complaints should be
expeditiously investigated and brought to a
conclusion within a 7-day period. 

Preventing Retaliation 

Employers must clearly state that any use of the
internal investigation and discipline system for
harassment or retaliation will be treated as a
serious offense. While employees must be encouraged
or even required to report serious misconduct on the
part of another employee, they must also clearly
understand that any misuse of the system will be
grounds for discipline. Complaints filed against employees 
who report the serious misconduct of another employee
should always be viewed as a possible retaliatory
action, and the motive of the complainant should be
examined.

Discriminatory Referrals

As mentioned earlier, one technique of discriminating
against women and minorities is to send reports of
their minor infractions to the internal investigation
unit while not sending reports of similar conduct by
white males. For example, a woman officer who misses
a court appearance is written up and the report sent
to internal affairs. However, men who miss court
appearances are counseled and nothing is put in
writing. This difference in reporting will build a
file of complaints against the woman and potentially
prevent her from receiving specialty assignments or
promotions. This is considered disparate treatment
and could become the basis for a discrimination
lawsuit. 

Once clear guidelines are established for the types
of complaints that should be sent to internal
affairs, supervisors who violate that policy can be
counseled or disciplined as appropriate. Whenever
receiving a complaint from a supervisor about
misconduct by a subordinate who is a member of a
protected class, the investigator should inquire if
other subordinates have committed similar misconduct.
For example, when investigating a complaint that a
woman missed a court appearance, the investigator
should ask if any men in the unit have missed a court
appearance within the past year and if they were
written up for the misconduct.

One command level person, or a committee of command
level employees should routinely review the completed
report on all complaints originating within the organization. 
The purpose is to determine if employees are being treated 
equally both in having misconduct reported and in the discipline 
imposed. 

Documenting Investigations 

The law enforcement agency should develop a standard
format for internal affairs investigation reports.
All investigations must be documented in writing. If
tape recordings are utilized in the investigation
process, the agency must develop guidelines for their
retention or destruction. Command staff should review
internal investigation reports to ensure that they
are complete and that the investigation was properly
conducted.

Investigators should not make the final determination
of the violation to be charged. They may recommend
the violations to be charged, but a command-level
officer should make the final determination.
Investigators should never make recommendations about
discipline. The investigative report should be a
recital of the facts. 

Breaking the Code of Silence 

The code of silence is the unwritten understanding
among some law enforcement officers that it is not
permissible to reveal unfavorable information about
another officer in internal investigations,
especially in cases of discrimination and use of
excessive force. The code is enforced using many
tactics, from shunning to failing to provide cover on
emergency calls. The code of silence is a major
obstacle to conducting complete investigations.
Officers do not want to give information that may
cause harm to another officer. This results in the
inability of the investigator to obtain adequate
information. Signs that the code of silence is in
operation are:

o Officers "can't remember" details of events when
the details would show misconduct or violation of 
department policy.

o Officers "didn't see" a particular act that they
were in a position to see.

o Officers "didn't hear" a particular statement
made in their presence.

To overcome the code of silence, the agency must have
meaningful policies requiring officers to report misconduct 
and provide information to internal affairs investigators, as well as
imposing discipline if they fail to report or accurately provide 
information during an investigation. Some agencies use 
polygraphs when there is a question about an officer's 
truthfulness with statements that they "didn't see," "didn't hear," 
or "can't remember." Not only does this often resolve the 
immediate issue, but it also sends a strong message to the entire
department about the administration's willingness to use every tool 
available to determine the truth about serious misconduct. 

The policy about cooperating with investigations must
be enforced and disciplinary action taken as needed.
Officers who report misconduct must be protected from
retaliation and rewarded for living up to the
agency's standards. Officers who "can't remember,"
"didn't see" or "didn't hear" things they were in a
position to observe are probably not good 
candidates for investigative or specialty positions.
Even if they are being completely honest, these
positions require candidates whose perceptual
abilities and long-term memory are superior. In fact,
if the facts of a case demonstrate a complete failure
to satisfactorily perform duties, it should raise the questions 
of whether the employee should be sent for professional
evaluation, removed from specialty investigative
positions, demoted, or separated from the agency on 
fitness grounds.

Officers who do not cooperate in investigations
should not be given consideration for promotions.
Breaking the code of silence is not easy, but is an
issue that all law enforcement administrators must
face.

Refer to Appendix K for the policy on professional
responsibility from the Sacramento Sheriff's
Department, which is a good example of the
requirement for officers to report misconduct and
cooperate in investigations.

Investigation Timelines

The investigation should be conducted as quickly as
possible, ensuring a thorough examination of the issues. 
Some agencies establish due dates for investigations at the time 
they are assigned. Investigations should be conducted promptly
and not be allowed to drag on for months. In a whistleblower or 
discrimination case, the fact that the investigation took a long time 
to complete may be used in court as evidence of retaliation on the 
part of the agency. One method to help keep investigations
moving is for the agency head or designee to have a regular briefing 
on significant cases. This review will help ensure that all relevant 
issues are being investigated, address any problems encountered, 
and help adjust the scope of the investigation. 

Notification of Investigation Results

The complainant and the accused should be informed of
the outcome of the investigation as soon as possible.
The agency should thoroughly review the requirements
of state and federal privacy acts to determine what
information can be disclosed. The complainant should
be given as much information as possible.

Remedial Action

Any appropriate discipline or remedial training
should be swiftly imposed and completed. 
If a hearing process is utilized for determining the
level of discipline, the board should be diverse. The
agency should include on the board a human resource
person who has expertise in discrimination law. This is 
also an opportunity for the agency to include community 
representatives on discipline boards.

Follow-up 

There should be a routine follow-up interview of any
employee who has filed a complaint within 30-60 days
to determine if any retaliation was experienced as a
result of filing the complaint.

Data Collection and Reporting

The investigative unit should be directed to collect,
compile, and report data about all complaints, including 
name of complainant, name of accused, supervisors' names, 
location and behaviors, time to investigate, results of the
investigation, and discipline or remedy imposed. Once this 
data has been gathered, it should be examined to determine
potential bias trends, equatability of outcomes, investigator 
performance, and other important issues. The following are 
some possible reports that could be produced from this data:

o Compilation of types of complaints received by
category (such as excessive force, sexual harassment,
and others) to identify potential training needs or
policy revision.

o Analysis of officers named in the complaints to
identify problems and provide appropriate training or 
other intervention.

o Analysis of complaints by unit. This could
identify geographic areas or specialty units that are
receiving high numbers of complaints.

o Complaints by supervisor name. This could
identify a supervisor who is tolerating a high level
of misconduct.

o Average length of time to investigate complaints.

o Equatability of discipline by type of complaint.
This should also be examined by gender to ensure that
women are not receiving more harsh discipline for the
same types of offenses.

There are many ways that this data can be analyzed to
provide information to management on areas for
improved training, policy revision, or intensified
supervision.

Exit Interviews 

Because of the tremendous peer pressure placed on
officers who cooperate with internal investigations,
some employees quit rather than go through the stress
of the resulting retaliation. One way to determine if
this is occurring is to conduct exit interviews with
all sworn and civilian employees who leave the
organization. These interviews should be conducted at
the time the person turns in their resignation and
followed with a mail survey at least 6-9 months after
the person has left. Sometimes employees will be
reluctant to talk about their real reasons for
leaving because they need a positive employment
reference from their current employer.

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact
Persons, and Other Useful Information

---------------------

Fairfax County Police Department, VA, has developed a
Procedural Manual for the Conduct of Administrative
Investigations that is provided to all internal
affairs investigators and all supervisors. This guide
discusses investigative strategy, witness interviews,
statements, evidence, and other related topics. 
Contact Information: Commander, Internal Affairs
Bureau, Fairfax County Police Department, 703-246-2918. 

-------------------------

o Refer to Appendix K for the policy on
professional responsibility from the Sacramento
Sheriff's Department, which is a good example of the
requirement for officers to report misconduct and
cooperate in investigations.

o Refer to Appendix L for the policy on internal
investigations from the Gainesville Police
Department, which covers many of the issues
recommended in this section.

--------------------------------

Endnotes for Chapter 13

1. Martin Reiser, EdD., "Results of Survey of
Perceptions of Minority and Female Officers," (Los
Angeles: Los Angeles Police Department, Behavior
Science Services Section, 1987), 34.

2. National Institute of Justice, "Police Attitudes
Toward Abuse of Authority: Findings from a National
Study," www.ncjrs.org/ledocs.htm#181312.

3. Elizabeth L. Shoenfelt and Max R. Mendel, "Gender
Bias in the Evaluation of Male and Female Police
Officer Performance" (paper presented at the Annual
Convention of the Southeastern Psychological
Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, March 21 1991),
8.

4. The source of this information is based on events
witnessed by the staff of the National Center for
Women & Policing. Details have been omitted to
protect the identity of the women officers who
testified about discrimination.

---------------------------------

Checklist for Ensuring Impartial Internal Investigation
and Discipline Systems

o A complaint investigation policy has been written
and includes:

     o A requirement that all complaints originating
      within the agency must be in writing.

     o A description of the type of complaints that must
      be forwarded to internal investigations and those
      that may be handled by the supervisor.

     o Policy on accepting and investigating anonymous
     complaints.

     o System for classifying complaints by type.

     o Timelines for completing investigations.

     o Impartial process for conducting investigations.

     o Rights of the accused employee.

     o Confidentiality provisions.

     o Requirement to cooperate with the investigation.

     o Safeguards against retaliation.

     o Notification to complainant and accused about the
     outcome of the investigation.

     o Uniform standards for documenting investigations.

     o System for classifying the outcomes of the
     investigations.

     o Requirement to produce monthly and annual
     statistical reports.

o Investigators are screened for bias.

o Investigators are trained in labor law,
discrimination law, investigative techniques, and
interviewing skills.

o Anonymous complaints filed against employees who
have reported or testified about misconduct of other
employees are closely examined to prevent
retaliation.

o Complaints from supervisors against members of
protected classes alleging minor misconduct are closely reviewed 
for possible discrimination.

o Supervisors who use the internal investigation
system as a method to discriminate against women and
minorities are disciplined.

o Review of the disposition of all complaints is
conducted by command level personnel to insure
uniformity.

o Timelines for conducting investigations are
established and followed.

o A standard format has been developed for
documenting investigations.

o Investigators do not make recommendations on the
final determination of the case or on the level of
discipline.

o The policy requiring employees to cooperate in
internal investigations is strictly enforced.

o Officers who uphold the code of silence are
disciplined and are not awarded specialty positions
or promoted.

o Retaliation prevention measures have been
developed and implemented.

o Results of investigations are communicated to the
complainant and the accused.

o Remedial action is swiftly taken.

o Routine checks are made of employees who have
reported misconduct on the part of other employees to
make certain that no retaliation has occurred.

o Monthly and annual statistical reports of
investigations and discipline are prepared.

o Exit interviews are conducted with all employees
at the time of separation and at some later date.

---------------------------

Chapter 14

Developing Effective Awards and Recognition Programs

Statement of the Problem

Many law enforcement agencies use award programs
to motivate their employees. In addition, some agencies 
use promotions and special assignments as rewards for 
excellent performance. Managers understand that by 
rewarding a certain type of behavior, they are setting a
standard for other employees. Traditionally, recognition 
is given only for heroism or for solving a major criminal case. 
Some agencies give awards for successful, innovative programs. 
Very few agencies give awards or recognition to employees whose 
work reflects the principles of community policing. And
fewer yet give recognition for maintaining a workplace free 
of harassment and discrimination, for mentoring women and 
minorities, or for increasing the diversity of the workforce.

In addition, women officers report that they are
often not considered for awards for performing the 
type of acts that would be recognized and rewarded if 
done by a male officer. For example, a woman apprehends 
a robber leaving a bank. She receives no rewards or accolades 
and yet a male officer making the same type of arrest is highly
praised for his work.

If law enforcement agencies continue to put the
emphasis on heroism and criminal case closure, and
yet fail to recognize efforts to improve the workplace 
and service to the public, employees will
remain in the traditional law enforcement mode. 

Legal Issues

When promotions or special assignments are involved,
there may be statutory or labor union rules that
apply.

Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices

Law enforcement agencies can use the issue of awards
and recognition as an opportunity to gain employee
and community input. A diverse committee should be
established to:

o Develop criteria for formal awards. The types of
behavior that are desired should be identified and
described. For example, in addition to awards for
heroism and major cases, some awards that may be
established are:

     o mentoring.

     o increasing diversity.

     o supporting a diverse workplace.

     o community/police partnerships.

     o innovations in law enforcement.

o Publish the criteria and ask employees and
citizen groups to nominate possible award recipients.

o Select award recipients.

o Secure impressive looking awards, not just a
paper certificate.

o Hold an annual ceremony to present the awards. 
It could be held at city/county hall, at the state
legislature, at a community center, or other
community gathering place.

o Establish a location in the law enforcement or
government facility where the names and photographs
of award winners will be permanently displayed.

Law enforcement administrators should be aware that
many of their actions send messages to the employees
about what is valued in the organization. The
following are examples of opportunities to recognize
employees who are supporting community policing and 
diversity in the workplace.

Assignment

Assignment to units can be a method of sending a
powerful message. Employees who have exemplified
support for the agency's goals should be considered
for assignment to highly desirable positions. Some of
these positions may be the public information officer, 
field training officers, gang units, SWAT teams, homicide 
units, and other similar units. In addition, the assignment to 
units such as domestic violence, child abuse, recruiting, and 
other service-related units should be emphasized as a
reward for excellence. Some of the ways to emphasize
the importance of these units is by giving the
managers authority to select the best officers and by
providing quality furniture, physical space, and
resources to the unit.

Training 

Training opportunities are highly desired by
employees. While training must be provided to all
employees on a routine basis, selection for personnel
to attend special training programs, conferences, and seminars 
should be based upon several factors including: needs of the 
agency; assignment; developing subordinates for promotion;
and as a reward for supporting community policing and
diversity.

Promotion 

The choice of persons to be promoted sends a very
strong message about desired behavior. Each agency
must, of course, make promotion decisions based on
civil service regulations, labor agreements, and
other statutory parameters. Employees who have
demonstrated an understanding of and support for the
concepts of community policing, including the 
importance of cultural diversity, should be favorably
considered for promotion. When promotions are made a
ceremony should be held where the head of the law
enforcement agency articulates the reasons for
promoting the selected persons, emphasizing their
commitment to community policing and diversity.

Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact
Persons, and Other Useful Information

o Refer to Appendix M for the awards policy from
the Port St. Lucie Police Department.

------------------------

Checklist for Developing Effective Awards and Recognition Programs

o An awards committee has been established,
including a diverse group of community members, and
employee representatives.

o Types of awards to be given and criteria for
receiving the awards have been developed and
published.

o Employees and community representatives have been
asked for recommendations for award recipients.

o Awardees receive a plaque or some other
substantial reward, not just a certificate.

o An annual ceremony is held in a recognized place
of importance to present awards.

o The names and photographs of award recipients are
prominently displayed.

o Assignment to specialty positions is used as a
method of recognizing employees who support community
policing and diversity.

o The persons selected to attend training,
conferences, and seminars are recognized as
supporting community policing and diversity.

o Persons who are selected for promotion are
supportive of community policing and diversity.

o The promotion ceremony is used as an opportunity
to reinforce the agency's goals of promoting
community policing and diversity.

-----------------------------

Areas for Future Research

Throughout this Self Assessment Guide, we have made
every effort to incorporate up-to-date knowledge
pertaining to the various topics, on the basis of
current social scientific research. However, in the
process of reviewing the relevant literature, we were
discouraged by the relative paucity of information
available. Although some topics have received limited
empirical attention (such as the comparative
performance of male and female officer), much of this
research is outdated and fails to reflect many of the
fundamental changes in modern policing. Other topics
have not been researched at all, or have been the
focus of very few and/or flawed studies. Clearly,
there is an urgent need for systematic investigation
of all the issues outlined in this Self Assessment
Guide, but some areas of critical concern include:

o Excessive Force by Gender 

Although recent research funded by the National
Institute of Justice and others has expanded our
understanding of use of force, there is still little
known about excessive force and the complex role that
officer gender plays in these incidents. For example,
how does gender interact with other characteristics
to determine the decision-making and behavior of
officers? Research currently demonstrates that male
and female officers use force similarly in the course
of routine duties, but women are less likely to
engage in force that is excessive and/or deadly. As
revealed in a recent study by the National Center for
Women & Policing and the Feminist Majority
Foundation, this results in substantially less
financial liability to departments with female
officers. However, it raises important questions for
future research about how and why female officers
employ force differently than their male
counterparts.

o Citizen Complaints About Officer Misconduct 

To date, research has not systematically
investigated the role of gender in officer misconduct
and citizen complaints. Although the fewer/smaller
payouts for female officers would seem to suggest
that women are less likely to be involved in police
misconduct, this possibility needs to be explored in
future large-scale research.

o Abuse of Authority 

Similarly, there currently exists no research
examining the question of gender in police abuse of
authority. Given the documentation of differences in
related areas of police performance, it is reasonable
to export similar divergence in the likelihood that
male and female officers will abuse their
professional authority. However, the issue remains
for future research, with important implications for
departments nationwide.

o Recruitment and Retention of Women 

Given the longstanding call to recruit and retain
more women officers, it is rather surprising that
virtually no social scientific inquiry has been
conducted to reveal the most effective means for
doing so. An outstanding exception is seen in the
recent work by Colonel Deborah Campbell of the New
York State Police. However, much further research is
needed to reveal why women are attracted to policing,
what barriers currently exist for their recruitment
and retention, and how best to overcome these
barriers and facilitate successful professional
socialization.

o Discrimination and Harassment of Women Officers 

A great deal of research exists documenting the
discrimination and harassment of women in other
professions, yet there is surprisingly little that
examines their unique aspects in the law enforcement
context. For example, what are the specific forms of
discrimination and harassment experienced by women
officers, and how does this differ across the various
types of agencies? What is the impact of these
experiences on a range of personal and professional
outcomes? How can departments best prevent these
behaviors, and how can they identify and address them
when they do occur?

o Domestic Violence in Police Families 

While a small amount of research has attempted to
document the prevalence and impact of the problem,
serious flaws in design, measurement, and
interpretation limit this work. Future study is
needed to better understand this phenomenon and to
investigate the potential link between violent
behavior at home and on the job. For example, are the
police officers who use violence in their families
the same individuals who use excessive force on the
streets? Are they the same officers who sexually
harass or otherwise discriminate against their female
colleagues? If so, what are the most effective
strategies for identification and intervention with
these individuals?

These and other research questions have the potential
to generate much needed insight into the experiences
of men and women in contemporary law enforcement. The
National Center for Women & Policing is currently
pursuing funding and research partnerships to
undertake some of this work, but we encourage others
in the field to actively engage these important
issues. Only then will we understand the complex
reality faced by women officers, and be able to
design effective interventions for their recruitment,
retention, and fair treatment. 

------------------------------

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-------------------------------

Reader Comments

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5. Please list below information about any promising
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-------------------------------

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