Title  : IAIOES05 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP ON HIGH LATITUDE PROCESSES
Type   : IAI Newsletter
NSF Org: GEO
Date   : August 8, 1995
File   : iaioes05



THE INTER-AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR
GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH











 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP
ON HIGH LATITUDE PROCESSES









December 15-17, 1993
Buenos Aires, Argentina




TABLE OF CONTENTS
=46OREWORD          1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY        4

I.  BACKGROUND           9        1. Effects of Ozone Changes       9      =
=09
 2. Cryospheric Processes      10   =09

II.  THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE   13
 1. Sea Ice      2. Snow Cover                13,
15         3. Glaciology     4. Ozone Depletion               16,
17   =09
     =09
III. SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND PRIORITIES   18
 1. Ozone and UV-B Radiation      18  =09
 a. Ozone Depletion and Atmospheric Processes   19
 b. Biological Impacts of UV-B Radiation      21
 2. Present and Past Cryospheric Processes   22=09
 3. Climatology and Atmospheric Processes   26
 a. High Atmosphere Processes           27
 4. Mesospheric Processes and Global Change   30

IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS      31
 1. UV-B and Human Sciences      31
 2. Sea Ice                32
 3. Snow Cover        32
 4. Atmospheric Processes      32

V. APPROACH        34     =09
 1. Cryosphere        34    =09
 2. Glaciology        35
 3. Ozone Depletion and UV-B Radiation Effects   36 =09
 a. The IAI Role               36
 b. Data Handling and Sharing      38

VI. RELATED PROGRAMS      39    =09
=09
VII. REFERENCES        41

APPENDIX 1: IAI Initial Scientific Themes   43=09

APPENDIX 2: Acronyms       44

APPENDIX 3: Workshop Participants    45

=46OREWORD

  A symposium and workshop on High Latitude
Processes was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina on December 15-
17,  1993, convened by the Inter-American Institute For Global
Change Research (IAI), the Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa
(SECYT), and the Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global (CNCG)
of Argentina.  More than 70 scientists from eight countries in the
region met to obtain a representative of ongoing projects and to
develop a science agenda for IAI.

  The first two days consisted of 33 scientific
presentations and a conference by Dr. Rumen Bojkov from the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) on "Ozone Changes
and the Southern Cone Countries Project for Ozone and UV-B
Monitoring and Research," and a roundtable discussion on "Some
Climatic Tendencies in High and Mid-Latitudes in South America"
as a closure.

   The Inter-American Institute for Global Change
Research was created in May of 1992 to address the need for
advanced study of regionally significant issues pertaining to
global change.  The IAI is designed to evolve into a network of
research facilities throughout the Americas which will augment
research capabilities and promote education and training within
the scientific fields most important to current and future global
change research.  At this writing, 16 nations have signed the
agreement establishing the Institute, recognizing that no one
nation can adequately study the complex global environmental
mechanisms on this planet.  The signatory nations agree that a
greater understanding of these mechanisms may be achieved by
a regional and international pooling of information.

  The IAI agreement notes the importance of an
evolving scientific agenda that reflects an appropriate balance
among the biogeographical areas of scientific importance.  It
also stresses the need to address in an integral fashion the
physical, economic, and social issues relating to global change.
Seven broadly defined research topics have been identified as
priorities for special focus.  To identify the most pressing
scientific questions and socio-economic issues within those
seven priority topics, a group of  physical and social scientists
met in Silver Spring, Maryland, in the United States on March 5-6,
1992.  The resulting document, the Report of the Meeting of
Scientific Experts, provided the basis for the series of seven
workshops on scientific program development, intended to
advance the science agenda of the IAI.
=09
  The symposium and workshop on High Latitude
Processes was the second in the series of workshops. The first
IAI workshop was held in Montevideo, Uruguay, August 2-6,
1993, on the subject The Comparative Studies of Oceanic,
Coastal, and Estuarine Processes in the Temperate Zones."The
other five subjects for workshops are Tropical Ecosystems and
Biogeochemical Processes  (S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos, Brazil),
Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-tropical
Americas (Panam=E1 City, Panam=E1), ENSO and Interannual Climate
Variability  (Lima, Per=FA), The Comparative Studies of Temperate
Terrestrial Ecosystems (Durham, N.C., USA), and The Study of the
Impacts of  Climate Change on Biodiversity  (Guadalajara,
M=E9xico).

  This report on High Latitude Processes discusses
possible plans for scientific strategies and suggests the
infrastructure that might be necessary to undertake further
investigations.  It proposes improvements in regional
communications systems and identifies priorities in further
education and training.  It is only a proposed guide to action.
The next step, as stated in the science plan, is to develop an
implementation plan, a definite program for the topic.

  Sincere thanks must be extended to those who helped
in organizing the workshop and preparing the report.  Special
acknowledgment must be give to the local organizing committee
for conducting the workshop in Buenos Aires.  The committee

and its staff includes the following:  Carlos Ere=F1o, Ricardo Poy,
Elvira Gentile, and Laura Tarallo (Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval);
Eduardo Ban=FAs, Alejandro Norverto, and Danila Durando
(Secretaria de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa);  Claudio Parica, Celia
Izquierdo, and
Ana Mar=EDa Retsin (Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino) and Fernando
Requena  (Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional).  Participating
institutions, all from Argentina:  Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y
Tecnolog=EDa, Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global, Servicio de
Hidrograf=EDa Naval, Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional, Instituto
Ant=E1rtico Argentino, Coordinaci=F3n Ecol=F3gica Area Metropolitana
Sociedad del Estado (CEAMSE), Ministerio de Economia, and
Municipalidad de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires.
    =09
   Additionally, I would like to express my most sincere
thanks to Dr. Robert Corell (National Science Foundation), Dr.
Michael Hall, James Buizer, Lisa Farrow and Claudia Nierenberg
(NOAA/OGP) for their constant enthusiasm and support during the
development of this workshop. Finally, I would like to
acknowledge the commitment, dedication and enthusiasm of my
staff members, Raquel Gomes, Marcella Ohira and D=E9lia
Levandoski, without whose support in preparing this report
would have been impossible to accomplish.







 Rub=E9n Lara Lara
 IAI Executive Scientist
 =09

























EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


  For a representative sample of the scientific projects
underway in the high latitudes of the Americas, more than 70
scientists from eight countries met in Buenos Aires in a
symposium and workshop convened by IAI, the Secretar=EDa de
Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa (SECYT) and the Comisi=F3n Nacional para el
Cambio Global (CNCG) of Argentina.  Over two days they heard 33
scientific presentations, a conference by Dr. Rumen Bojkov of
the World Meteorological Organization on "Ozone Changes and
the Southern Cone Countries Project for Ozone and UV-B
Monitoring and Research," and a round table discussion on
"Some Climatic Tendencies in High and Mid-Latitudes in South
America."

  In a workshop that followed the symposium, the
scientists first discussed the importance of inserting the social
sciences into the IAI agenda, particularly to facilitate
communication between scientists studying high latitude
processes and the policy makers and general public.  They
reviewed the main international organizations currently
conducting scientific programs  related to global change in high
latitudes, such as the Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW), the World
Climate Program (WCP), and the International Geosphere and
Biosphere Program (IGBP).  Four working groups were then
formed for separate meetings on the following subjects:  (1)
Ozone and UV-B Radiation; (2) Present and Past Cryospheric
Processes; (3) Climatology and Atmospheric Processes; and (4)
IAI and other international organizations.  Following are the
principal conclusions from each working group:

Ozone and UV-B Radiation

  The group agreed that to understand ozone/UV-B
processes, the IAI should take three major factors into account:

Interdisciplinarity: Traditional boundaries of scientific disciplines
must be crossed;  atmospheric physicists must work closely
with atmospheric chemists, modelers need to interact with
instrumentation specialists, biological inputs are required.
Non-linearity: Abrupt shifts in the biological composition of
natural communities due to small increases in UV-B radiation
mean that new non-linear approaches to such events must be
made, beyond the linear models traditionally used in continuous,
incremental change.
Regionality: Because the effects of ozone depletion have already
been measured in both the North and South Hemispheres of the
Americas, research would be enhanced by the sharing of
information.

  The main discussion of Ozone and UV-B radiation was
divided into two main topics:

(1) Ozone depletion and atmospheric processes:  Opportunities
for studying these processes vary from country to country, and
IAI should take these variables into account and where possible,
attempt to remedy them.  They include variables in geographic
and modeling opportunities; intellectual resources and training
opportunities; and complementary technologies and specialist
expertise.
(2) Biological impacts of UV-B radiation: Major themes that
should be given special attention in the Americas include:

* bipolar comparisons of responses by populations, communities,
and ecosystems
* altitudinal versus latitudinal gradient comparisons
* sensitivity of high latitude terrestrial ecosystems
* bio-optical processes controlling UV-B penetration in marine and
freshwater ecosystems
* hydrodynamic forcing of UV-B effects (control of UV-B exposure
by stratification and mixing processes)
* interaction between global warming and UV-B effects, e.g.,
temperature dependence of UV-B damage-recovery processes
* UV-B impacts on biogeochemical processes, and the implications
for terrestrial and aquatic food webs
* UV-B effects on air/water exchange processes, e.g., the
biological carbon dioxide pump

   Regarding "UV-B and Human Sciences," the group agreed
that it is important to study not only the direct physical and
biological impacts of changes in UV-B, but also how such changes
indirectly affect cultural, economic, social, and political processes.
How do people adapt to and cope with the changes?  How can the
various publics be made more aware of the nature of scientific
data and methodologies, and the ways they might be applied to
decision making and adaptation?

   Other topics discussed include modeling efforts
related to studies of UV-B radiation effects on organisms, and the
handling and sharing of data.

 Present and Past Cryospheric Processes

   This group made the following proposals, suggesting that
focus be made on the Southern Hemisphere:

 (1) Reconstruct the environmental and climatic history of the
cryosphere in the Antarctic and South American continents
(including the high altitudes).
 (2) Investigate the role of sea ice in the seasonal and year-to-year
variations of deep-water production.
 (3) Investigate the sea ice-atmosphere interactions.
 (4) Determine the regional, hemispheric, or global impact of the
Southern Hemisphere cryospheric processes and analyze the
degree of their synchronism with the Northern Hemisphere.
 (5) Detect which of the cryospheric processes are most important
in interacting with global climate, and at which time scale
(seasonal, yearly, and/or decadal).
 (6) Investigate the impact of human activities on the cryospheric
processes.
 (7) Intercalibrate the results obtained from different disciplines in
the two hemispheres based on a common chronology.
 (8) Improve the representation of the cryospheric processes in the
global climate models.

  The following were identified as key priority tasks:

* clarification of the discrepancy between the model-predicted
preferential warming of the high latitudes as opposed to the
dominant warming of low latitudes observed in the past several
decades;
* explanation of the causes and prediction of future behavior of
the currently observed slow-down of deep-water production in
the northern North Atlantic, especially with respect to sea ice;
* Investigation of the radiative interactions of CO2 with the high
latitude cryosphere, especially with reference to the water
vapor dependence of the greenhouse effect;
* improvement within the climate models of the representation of
the polar air outbreaks, of the summer snow melt in the Central
Arctic, and of the sea ice dissipation in the Southern Ocean; and
* Explanation of the onset of glaciations.

Climatology and Atmospheric Processes

  The following are the main lines of inquiry to be
considered:

(1) Formation of Antarctic air masses and cold outbreaks moving
over
the South American continent, sometimes reaching to southern
Brazil
and causing considerable agricultural damage.
(2) Surface and atmospheric measurements of the energy balance
components and the use of satellite data for estimating solar and
atmospheric radiation and heat fluxes involved in the energy
balance of
large areas.  This could contribute to a better understanding of
local and
regional variations related to climate change.
(3) The long-range effects of the El Ni=F1o Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
and
related regional climatological rainfall anomalies in South America
(south of Brazil, northeastern Argentina, central Chile, Altiplano,
etc.)
and associated blocking events.
(4) Climatic characterization of the UV regime.  UV radiation
episodes are probably linked to the synoptic and long waves
perturbations for which a short time prediction scheme may be
very useful for the general public and for research field work.
(5) Long-term evolution of basic atmospheric variables such as
surface
temperatures (over land and ocean) and rainfall.
(6) Data gathering should be extended to short term field studies
such
as frost, since this kind of data, although brief, includes a more
comprehensive set of variables.
(7) Paleoclimatic time series;  The climatic time series should be
extended to the distant past for a greater understanding of climate
change.
(8) Energy and particle fluxes and spectral observations in the
atmosphere and outer space.
(9) Inter-annual variation of the intensity, extent, and duration of
the
ozone hole.  It is important to have a good observational system of
the
dynamics of the stratosphere at Antarctic and neighboring
latitudes.




IAI and other International Organizations

  This group concluded that the IAI should address global
change issues relevant to the American Continent and Antarctica
while maintaining strong links with already existing international
programs and institutions.  The main objective of this group was to
identify international programs already undertaking research on
global change.  It was emphasized that the success of the IAI is
highly dependent on effective cooperation within the region, and
with the other international programs.






















I. BACKGROUND

  The areas at the high latitudes of the earth are the coldest and
most remote regions of the planet, and they play a critical part
in the complex   processes  that  structure  the  global
environment.
Understanding the causes and consequences of global
environmental
change requires scientific understanding of the physical, chemical,
and
biological characteristics of these regions.

  Perhaps more than other areas of the earth, the polar regions
are sensitive to global variations in temperature, sunlight, and
precipitation. Their responses, in turn, influence significantly the
magnitude and direction of these variations.  The earliest and most
intense responses to changes  in  carbon  dioxide  and  methane
concentrations  in  the atmosphere are expected to show up first in
these areas.  Some modelers are predicting that a rise in average
global temperature of l.5 degrees Celsius would produce a
temperature
hange of up to 6 degrees in the Arctic.

  A reduction in polar snow cover, glaciers and ice sheets due to
global warming may raise global sea levels. Northern peatlands
store 44  per cent of the world's soil carbon and arctic
permafrost contains vast amounts of methane. Climate change
will affect the release or uptake of these gases, which would
enhance or diminish their effects in the atmosphere. Ozone
depletion, first observed over Antarctica, is occurring over the
Arctic and the more temperate latitudes as well, allowing
increased levels of ultraviolet radiation to affect the biota.
These and other environmental changes brought about by
processes in the polar region have the potential for causing
significant social and economic upheaval.

Effects of Ozone Changes

  The 1985 report of observations of springtime stratospheric
ozone depletion in the Antarctic led to a concerted research effort
to
understand the causes and dynamics of ozone depletion in polar
regions.

  It has been shown that this ozone depletion is, in part, the
result of contamination of the stratosphere by human activities.
The
importance of polar stratospheric clouds and the role of chlorine
and
other chemical species controlling the chemistry and dynamics of
the
Antarctic ozone hole have been the subject of intense research.

  Recent observations of ozone depletion in the Arctic and the
excursions of the antarctic ozone hole over the southern portions
of
South America have led to increased interest in ozone depletion
studies in high latitude regions, particularly in populated areas.
The stability of stratospheric ozone is of great scientific interest
and serious public concern.

  Changes in stratospheric ozone have known impacts in two
broad areas of direct interest to human activities:
(a) atmospheric structure and climate and
(b) biosphere and human health.
 =09
 Stratospheric and tropo-stratospheric exchange processes are
close dependent on the ozone content.  Its decline in the
stratosphere and increase in the northern troposphere cause
cooling and warming respectively.  Ground-based and satellite
observations of total ozone show a recent decrease at all
latitudes, except the tropics, throughout the year.  The
downward trends of total ozone were larger by 1-2 per cent in
the 1980's than in the 1970's, and significant additional losses of
ozone are expected at middle and high latitudes as the
stratospheric abundance of chlorine and bromine are expected
to increase in the next decade.  There was evidence of
accelerated ozone decline over the northern middle latitudes
and Antarctica during 1992 and 1993.

Cryospheric Processes

 The climatic role of the cryosphere is considered important
to understand the mechanisms of global climate change.  The study
of
individual components of the cryospheric system is essential to
properly understand the system as a whole.
 The cryosphere can be loosely defined as having three
components:  glacial ice, sea ice, and snow cover.  Each of these
components has distinct interrelationships with other components
of
the system.  Depending on the spatial and temporal scales being
considered, cryospheric components can be viewed as either
indices of
climate change or as interactive participants in a complex ocean-
atmospheric-cryosphere climate system.

  Glacial ice serves as both a basis for a
  large and important class of paleoclimate
  studies and as the index for the current
  state of the climate. Ice sheets are unique
  in that they continuously preserve and
  record annual precipitation, atmospheric
  temperature, and components of the
  atmosphere. These components come from a
  variety of anthropogenic, biogenic, terrestrial,
  marine, and volcanic sources.  Under ideal
  conditions, annual variations can be detected
  over thousands of years (Fig. 1).

=46ig. 1: The Vostok ice core shows
changes in atmospheric temperature,
CO2 (Carbon dioxide), and CH4 (methane)
over the past 150,000 years, and demonstrates
a relationship between them.

 Sea ice and snow cover can be thought of as two elements of
the larger climate system which includes the oceans and
atmosphere.
Cryosphere-atmosphere-ocean interactions are difficult to monitor
and
understand because of the inherent disparity in temporal scales
among
these various elements of the climate system. Atmospheric climate
fluctuations operate on relatively short temporal time scales
(weeks to
months); snow cover is constrained by the annual cycle;  but the
oceans can contain temporal scales of several years to hundreds
of years. Thus, the importance of various interactions and
feedbacks among the components of the cryosphere-
atmosphere-ocean climate system is, to a large extent, a
function of the temporal scale being examined (Ropelewski,
1989). In short-term climate variability (months to seasons) the
atmosphere and ocean interact strongly while the cryospheric
elements of the system tend to play a more passive role. On the
multi-year temporal scale, the atmosphere tends to become
more constrained, more of a passive partner in the climate
system, with more significant interactions between the oceans
and the cryosphere.


































II. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

 The polar regions are unlike each other in several significant
ways.  The Arctic is an ice-covered ocean basin surrounded by
continents, while the Antarctic is a continent capped with a thick
ice
sheet and surrounded by waters that freeze and thaw with the
seasons. The Arctic region is inhabited by indigenous peoples and
has rich and varied terrestrial and marine ecosystems.  The
Antarctic, on the other  hand, has an exceptionally productive
marine ecosystem but no native human population and few
terrestrial organisms.

 The two regions share certain fundamental characteristics,
however. The high solar reflectivity of the snow and sea ice that
dominates the surface environment of both regions affects the
Earth's climatic system in similar ways in each hemisphere,
although the seasonal cycle of each is the reverse of the other.
The magnetic field that controls the funneling of plasma and
energetic charged particles from near-Earth into space to the
surface of the Earth at the high latitudes unites the two poles in
a single system. The formation of deep ocean water in both polar
regions is a major force in the thermohaline circulation and the
flux of carbon in the world ocean.  And while Antarctica's ozone
hole first attracted attention, depletions of ozone over the
Arctic have now been detected as well.

 Both regions have a high negative radiation budget.  Changes in
that budget will prompt major global changes in atmospheric
and oceanic circulation.  Sea ice and ice shelves promote the
formation of cold bottom water that drains toward the equator
and influences circulation patterns in oceans around the world.

Sea Ice

 The mean annual cycle of global sea ice is relatively small,
varying from a minimum of about 4% of the Earth's surface to a
maximum of 5% (Ropelewski, 1989). The annual cycle is
dominated by the Antarctic sea ice and thus minimum global sea
ice coverage in Northern Hemisphere winter, while the maximum
global coverage occurs in the Northern Hemisphere summer
through fall.

 The role of sea ice in the climate system is complex.  Sea ice
forms or melts near -1.8=B0C. It both limits the rate at which the
ocean loses energy and insulates the atmosphere from the
ocean. Ice also reflects a large percentage of the incoming solar
radiation and thus limits the rate at which the ocean gains
energy. Over and near extensive areas of sea ice the average
heat flux from the ocean to the atmosphere is dominated by
extreme fluxes through small areas of open water or "leads."

 There has been considerable interest in the temporal variability
of both Arctic and Antarctic sea ice (e.g., Lemke et al., 1980;
Sturman and Anderson, 1984; Walsh and Slater, 1981; Gloersen
and Campbell, 1988), spurred on by numerical model results
suggesting that greenhouse gas warming may be greatest at
high latitudes. Thus, some investigators have reasoned that
anthropogenic climate change might be detectable in the
behavior of sea ice in polar regions (Kukla and Gavin, 1981;
Zwally et al., 1983).  Unfortunately, the appropriate global sea
ice time series are relatively short since they are limited  to the
era  of  satellite  monitoring.  The use  of  sea  ice  for monitoring
climate  change  is  further complicated  by  the  large
interannual variability in virtually all sea ice parameters and by
subtle differences among the sea ice data sets (Fig.2).=09
British Antarctic Survey












  =09

=46ig. 2: An example of a major environmental change, perhaps due to global
warming,  is
the  disintegration  of  the  Wordie Ice  Shelf  in  Antarctica.
Snow Cover

 Snow cover is the most variable element in the cryosphere.  The
average annual cycle of snow cover varies from approximately
2.7 per cent to 31 per cent of the land area, or 0.8 per cent to
9.1 per cent of the globe (Ropelewski, 1989).  Most of this
variability occurs in the Northern Hemisphere (Walsh, 1984) but
some small, but potentially significant, variability can be seen in
South America (Dewey, 1977; and Heim, 1983).

 Recent remodeling studies (Walsh and Ross, 1988) suggest that
large variations in Eurasian snow cover can produce noticeable
feedback into the large scale atmospheric circulation at 700 mb.
Relationships between circulation patterns and snow cover
variability are not as clear over small areas such as North
America.  Related modeling studies suggest that the influence of
snow cover may be strongest during the snow melt season.  The
modeling study further suggests that the snow
cover/atmospheric circulation relationships may come indirectly
through the soil moisture.

 One would generally expect relationships between snow cover
and temperature to be more direct and easier to demonstrate
and, indeed, on the short term, these relationships have long
been documented.  On the seasonal and longer temporal scales,
however, the snow cover-temperature relationships are not so
clear.  Comparisons of snow cover and temperature anomaly
time series for Eurasia during the northern spring (March to
May) suggest an inverse relationship, while those in the summer
(June to August) and other seasons do not (Halpert and
Ropelewski, 1991).  Ambiguities are also evident through an
examination of the relationships between snow cover patterns
and temperature anomaly patterns.  Over North America, e.g. for
December 1990 to May 1991 the maximum cold season
temperature anomalies tend to fall along the southern flanks of
the snow cover anomalies but no clear pattern emerges for
Eurasia.

 On the other hand, recent modeling studies by Cohen and Rind
(1991) suggest strongly that negative feedbacks limit the impact
of snow cover anomalies.  They conclude that positive feedbacks
between above normal snow cover and below normal
temperatures are not evident on time scales greater than a
week.
 However, Eurasian snow cover has been related to subsequent
Indian monsoon rainfall (Hahn and Shukla, 1976).  The physical
mechanisms for this statistical relationship are not well
understood, but recent numerical modeling experiments suggest
that these relationships are indeed real.  No comparable
relationships have been found over the Americas.

Glaciology

 Efforts to increase the predictive capacity of climate studies
have all stressed the importance of understanding the
interactive role of ice masses and the extraordinary
environmental record they contain.  Ice core research is an
essential means of advancing knowledge of the history of the
global climate.  With joint support from the Glaciology and
Climate Dynamics programs of the U.S. National Science
=46oundation, researchers have retrieved ice cores from the Dunde
Ice Cap of western China and the Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru.
Cores are also being sought in other locations that are difficult
to work in, including the central and western Himalayas,
Pakistan, China, New Guinea, Alaska and the Canadian and Soviet
Arctic.

 An adequate understanding has not yet been reached of either
the dynamics of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and the stability of
the ice sheet under global warming conditions.  An ice core
research program in West Antarctica will obtain crucial
information on the history of the ice sheet, complementing data
on configuration, mass balance, and ice flow from the Siple
Coast Project.  Other areas of Antarctica also offer attractive
locations for deep drilling projects because low rates of snow
accumulation allow access to very old ice.  Cores collected from
these areas would assist researchers in making detailed inter-
hemispheric comparisons similar to those made using ocean
cores.

 The purpose of the Siple Coast Project was to investigate the
likelihood of change in the Ross Sea drainage section of the West
Antarctic Ice Sheet and the resulting effects on global sea level
and climate.  Participants in the project concluded that changes
in the ice sheet were currently taking place.

Ozone Depletion

  The startling discovery that ozone is decreasing steadily in the
antarctic stratosphere was made in 1983. The so-called "ozone
hole" over Antarctica continues to grow in size and duration as
years pass.  The reduction occurs seasonally and is greatest in
October when the polar stratosphere is coldest.

 Ground-based and satellite observations of total ozone show a
recent decrease at all latitudes, except the tropics, throughout
the year.  The downward trends of total ozone were larger by 1-
2 per cent in the 1980's than in the 1970's, and significant
additional losses of ozone are expected at middle and high
latitudes as the stratospheric abundance of chlorine and
bromine increase in the next decade. There was evidence of
accelerated ozone decline, over the northern middle latitudes
and Antarctica, during 1992 and 1993.

 A reduction in stratospheric ozone brings an increased flux of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation to the Earth's surface and to
ecologically significant depths in the oceans.  The mid-ultraviolet
radiation (UV-B) has been shown to be damaging to biological
systems, including humans.  Although UV-B damage to cells and
tissues has been well-documented in laboratory studies, there is
a lack of data from field studies, particularly in high latitude
regions. One research effort documented the alteration of an
Antarctic marine ecosystem during an ozone hole event.  Data
showed an increase in inhibition of photosynthesis.  This
research suggested that ozone-dependent shifts of spectral
irradiances altered phytoplankton processes, including
photoinhibition, photoprotection, photoreactivation, and
photosynthesis.











III. SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND PRIORITIES

  With their relative purity and low amounts of human habitation,
the polar regions are natural laboratories for studying global
change.  Much research has already taken place and continues,
but more is needed in a number of areas.

 To determine the major issues requiring study, the IAI workshop
divided into three main working groups:
 (1) Ozone and UV-B Radiation
(2) Present and Past Cryospheric Processes
(3) Climatology and Atmospheric Processes

 The conclusions and recommendations of each group are
presented as follows.

OZONE AND UV-B RADIATION

 The recorded increase of UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's
surface coupled with the decline in the total ozone content in
the atmosphere highlights the urgent need for establishing long
term systematic ozone and UV-B studies and monitoring.  This
need has been acknowledged by several international
organizations.  In this regard, the Americas represent a unique
longitudinal and altitudinal stretch from Antarctica to the ice
fields of the Arctic.  IAI can therefore play a key role in
improving the understanding of the ozone/UV-B global issue.

 This working group identified three major themes that it
considered central to the understanding of ozone/UV-B
processes and which it felt should be given priority attention by
IAI:

(1) INTERDISCIPLINARITY:  Understanding the process of ozone
depletion will require crossing traditional disciplinary
boundaries.  For example, atmospheric physicists need to work
closely with atmospheric chemists and modelers need to
interact with instrumentation specialists.  Similarly, the
assessment of biological impacts will require collaborative input
from a broad range of biological and biogeochemical disciplines.

(2) NON-LINEARITY:  Most natural processes including physical,
chemical, biological and behavioral responses are highly non-
linear.  New approaches will therefore be required to extend
beyond the traditional linear models.  Such non-linearities may
result in systems moving to new temporary or permanent states
via abrupt shifts rather than by continuous incremental change.
=46or example, small increases in UV-B radiation associated with
ozone depletion could cause major shifts in the biological
species composition of natural communities, resulting in
completely different ecosystem-level properties.

(3) REGIONALITY:  Two aspects of the ozone depletion problem make
it of special relevance to the Inter-American region.  First, this
region includes areas already affected by ozone depletion in
both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.  Small biological
responses have been measured in the Southern Ocean, and there
has been a variety of political responses to the continuing rise
of UV-B levels over Canada.  Secondly, because the problem is
close at hand, the Inter-American community can make a special
contribution towards research, monitoring and further
understanding of this aspect of global change.

 Early in its discussions, this working group agreed to discuss two
topics: (a) ozone depletion and atmospheric processes and (2)
biological impacts of UV-B radiation.  The separation of these
two areas of research was done only for practical reasons.  The
group agreed that the combination of results from both topics,
based on a system-level approach, will be necessary for a better
understanding of ozone and UV-B issues.  Some parts of the
discussion, such as data management and training, will apply to
both topics.

Ozone Depletion and Atmospheric Processes

(a) Geographic Opportunities:  The distribution of land masses
within the Inter-American region facilitate the placement of
ground-based stations in an almost complete latitudinal
sequence, from north polar to south polar zones.  There are also
large altitudinal ranges that offer unique advantages for data
gathering and experimental research.  In South America there
are high altitude areas (> 4,000 m) that can be easily  accessed
and which provide clean dry air conditions.  This will facilitate
high quality data gathering of profiles (both in the higher
troposphere and stratosphere) of trace gases such as ozone,
water vapor, CH4, N2O, etc., together with UV-B radiation and
atmospheric variables.  These high quality data, together with
improved non-linear models, will contribute to the
understanding of the dynamics and structure of the
stratosphere and to improved circulation and climatological
models.

(b) Modeling Opportunities:  Several types of models should be
developed.  Conceptual system-level, or process-level models
are required to understand the interaction of non-linear
atmospheric and biological processes.  Although certain
predictive models may have little explanatory power, they may
play a major role in statistical predictions of future states.
Descriptive models are required to address specific impact
scenarios, e.g., to define the time-scales and variance of the UV-
B field relative to the time-scales of biological damage and
recovery processes.

 Considering that previous predictions of the atmospheric effects
of CFCs could not anticipate the sudden appearance of the ozone
hole, it is perhaps of great importance to recognize and
understand the role of non-linear dynamics and analyze the
possibility of complex or catastrophic responses by different
environmental systems under steady or periodic anthropogenic
perturbations.  Systems models stimulating actual laboratory
and field observations, built upon feedback, synergism,
inhibition, self-replication, chain reactions, or autocatalytic
processes should be explored as a way to focus research and
monitoring efforts in the early phases of projects, and to
provide the basis for the development of comprehensive,
predictive models at later stages.

 A broad range of modeling expertise exists throughout the
Americas.  IAI could play a role in facilitating the transfer of
model code and output.

(c) Intellectual Resources:   Both North and South America have
major centers of learning and research.  Key scientists in South
America, for example, could contribute in an important way by
critically evaluating the output of certain models and also by
evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of such models.

(d) Training Opportunities:  Education opportunities abound
throughout the two continents.  Specific research institutions
and universities can be identified that offer specialist training
and which may be prepared to offer their facilities to IAI-
sponsored students and research personnel.  IAI could further
facilitate this process by preparing an electronic catalogue of
appropriate institutions and expertise.

(e) Complementary Technologies:  Specific technological skills for
atmospheric research and UV impact analysis are located in
different parts of the Americas.  Different countries have
undertaken, or may undertake, specific research tasks that are
appropriate to their technological and resource bases as well as
their national interests.  For example, Peru has specific
expertise in radar analysis of the atmosphere that will provide a
moderate cost approach that will complement other research
and monitoring programs.

(f) Specialist Expertise:  Individuals and research groups in various
parts of the region, including throughout South America, have
specialized skills and facilities.   For example, atmospheric
chemists in Argentina are working on laboratory systems in
which fundamental contributions could be made toward
understanding the ozone degradation processes.

Biological Impacts of UV-B Radiation

 Attention was drawn to the large number of review articles
recently published or in press, and the many international
workshops conducted over the last three years which have
identified the major priorities for UV-B biological research.  IAI
should build upon this information by identifying specific
regional problems and research capabilities.  For each of the
regional atmospheric research opportunities identified above
there are equivalent biological examples.


 Major biological themes that should be given special attention in
the Americas include:
* bipolar comparisons of responses at the levels of population,
community and ecosystem;
* altitudinal versus latitudinal gradient comparisons;
* sensitivity of high latitude terrestrial ecosystems;
* bio-optical processes controlling UV-B penetration in marine and
freshwater ecosystems;
* hydrodynamic forcing of UV-B effects (control of UV-B exposure
by stratification and mixing processes;
* interaction between global warming and UV-B effects, e.g.,
temperature dependence of UV-B damage/recovery processes;
* UV-B impacts on biogeochemical processes and implications for
terrestrial and aquatic food webs; and
* UV-B effects on air/water exchange processes, e.g., the biological
carbon dioxide pump.

UV-B and Human Sciences

 The importance of UV-B on the population has to be understood
in terms of the human sciences.  Human sciences include the
social sciences (e.g., economics, sociology, political science),
behavioral sciences (e.g., psychology, physiopsychology), human
biology and medicine (including public health, preventative
medicine) and communications (education, mass media studies).
Scientific data by themselves are not enough;  they have to be
understood and used by concerned audiences (e.g., governments,
mass media, general public, education system).  Human beings
constitute the one component of the natural system that can
consciously and deliberately adapt itself and possibly take
advantage of environmental changes.

 PRESENT AND PAST CRYOSPHERIC PROCESSES

 This working group supports the conclusions and
recommendations of the Working Group on Sciences of the IAI
Workshop in Mar del Plata, Argentina, in 1992.  However, the
climatic role of the cryosphere, not properly discussed in the
document produced there, is considered important to understand
the mechanism of the global climate change.  The study of the
individual cyrospheric components of the system is essential to
properly understand the system as a whole.

 In addition to the priority scientific issues listed in the
document mentioned above, this working group proposes, with
focus on the Southern Hemisphere, undertaking the following
activities:

(1) Reconstruct the environmental and climatic history of the
cryosphere in the Antarctic and South American continents
(including the high altitudes).
(2)  Investigate the role of sea ice in the seasonal and year-to-
year variations of the deep-water production.
(3) Investigate the sea ice-atmosphere interactions, especially
with respect to winds and cloud cover.
(4) Determine the regional, hemispheric, or global impact of the
Southern Hemisphere cryospheric processes and analyze the
degree of their synchronism with the Northern Hemisphere.
(5) Detect which of the cryospheric processes are most
important in interacting with global climate, and at which time
scale (seasonal, yearly, and/or decadal).
(6) Investigate the impact of human activities on the
cryospheric processes.
(7) Intercalibrate the results obtained from the different
disciplines in the two hemispheres based on a common
chronology.
(8) Improve the representation of the cryospheric processes in
the global climate models.

 This working group also agrees with the scientific goals of
the "Initial Science Plan on Ocean-Atmosphere-Ice Interactions
in the Arctic," edited by the ARCSS OAII Group in August 1992.
The group underlines in particular the dominant importance of
the hydrologic cycle in the middle and high latitudes of both
hemispheres and its links with the oceanic thermohaline
circulations.

 The key priority tasks, critically affecting the accuracy of
climate model projections for both hemispheres, are:
--To clarify the discrepancy between the model-predicted
preferential warming of the high latitudes as opposed to the
observed dominant warming of low latitudes observed in the
last several decades.
-- To explain the causes and predict the future behavior of the
currently observed slow-down of the deep water production in
the northern North Atlantic, especially with respect to sea ice.
-- To investigate the radiative interactions of CO2 with the high
latitude cryosphere, especially with reference to the water
vapor dependence of the greenhouse effect.
--To improve in the climate models the representation of the
polar air outbreaks, of the summer snow melt in Central Arctic,
and of the sea ice dissipation in the Southern Ocean.
--To explain the onset of the glaciations.

 The current state of knowledge of the issues mentioned
above is sufficient to proceed with the proposed studies, but in
South America the data are scarce in comparison with the North.
At present, human and material resources are insufficient to
achieve the goals proposed.

 A high degree of consensus exists on the priorities status
of the research, as manifested by the large number of existing
interdisciplinary and multinational programs.

 Climate changes caused by cryospheric processes are
usually perceived by the public through extreme anomalies
reached on the short-term and medium-term time scales (i.e.,
annual to decadal), and which have the most immediate socio-
economic impact.  Intensified research of the cryosphere in
terms of such anomalies would allow improved planning and
management of natural resources.  The generated databases
should be conclusive and the results should have predictive
value.  At the same time, such databases would significantly
improve our understanding of climate systems on a global scale.

 It is the opinion of this working group that some of the
main areas to be addressed by further research are:

--Snow and ice cover, sea ice physics, and variations.
--Impact of cryosphere on sea level changes.
--Impact of explosive volcanism and of industrial aerosols on
the
    cryosphere.
--Impact of the cryosphere on the mid-latitude climates.
--Ice core studies to record climatic and atmospheric variations
(global
   and regional scales).
--Paleoclimatology (historical climatology, geochronology,
   dendrochronology, micropaleontology, geochemistry,
   Quaternary sedimentology).
--Geocryology.
--Biological, geochemical and sedimentological parameters,
indicators
   of global change.
--Glaciology (glacier variations, mass balance, ice dynamics.

 The fact that the main research areas involve different
but related disciplines, requires that each established working
group will have to specify in detail its priority tasks needed to
reach the proposed goals.  Financial support is in particularly
short supply for South American investigators.  Due to the
differences in the budgeting procedures it is recommended to
establish separate funding sources for each of the hemispheres.

 To address successfully all the above listed issues, the
investigators need to have easy access to key existing data sets
of related programs.  They also need to improve contacts with
the data banks when making available their own data and
results to the remainder of the scientific community.

 To achieve this objective the appropriate computing
facilities should be made available, capable of handling the high
data volumes generated.

 The priorities in education and training include the
establishment of a unified system of fellowships, courses at
different educational levels, and efficient exchanges of
technology and expertise.  For that purpose the IAI must
promote a vigorous educational effort, in particular in Latin
American countries (refer to p. 13 of the IC/IAI Newsletter,
Issue 1, December, 1992).

 Although modeling is not seen as a distinct element of the
above listed scientific research, it will occur naturally as part of
all the studies, and it will play a vital and synthesizing function
in several IAI programs.  The feedbacks among snow, ice, albedo,
clouds, aerosols and radiation are inherently tied to the
atmospheric temperature, and heat and mass transport, so that
the modeling studies ultimately involve global domains.

 Interactions related to changing concentrations of trace
gases, aerosols, and haze in the polar atmosphere are likely to
involve sources and sinks over land and the oceans on global
scale.

 Given the fact that the study of the cryosphere is of a
multidisciplinary and systemic nature, it is essential to
immediately incorporate the new observations and analytical
results into the global scale modeling framework, and in that
way improve the representation of the cryospheric processes in
the coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models.
Modeling efforts should be planned carefully, initiated early, and
coordinated with the other working groups throughout the IAI
program.

CLIMATOLOGY AND ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES

 The World Climate Research Program launched in 1979
receives support from a number of international organizations
because of its focus on environmental problems on the global
scale.  It occurs to this working group, however, that IAI offers
the possibility of focusing on smaller scales, both regional and
local.  The necessity ofclimate variation studies in these smaller
scales is due to the required higher resolution for planning
ameliorating strategies and measures to alleviate the impact of
expected environmental changes.

 Although the earth's atmosphere, on the annual mean,
exhibits a good deal of symmetry around the equator forced by
solar radiation, there are subtle but important differences
between both hemispheres.  The most evident one is the
different ocean-continent distribution, the consequences of
which extend at least up into the mesosphere (100 km) through
the vertical propagation of gravity waves.  Among the most
important interhemispheric contrasts is the springtime ozone
depletion, with an austral intensity that largely exceeds its
northern counterpart.

 The southern atmosphere at high latitudes hosts several
important processes, some of which are unique because of the
particular features of the underlying surface.  In the first place,
the geographical position of a large and elevated continent that
extends fairly symmetrically around the pole surrounded by the
only oceanic current able to circle the earth, contrasts with a
northern polar ocean with two large land masses reaching very
high latitudes.  But in the extratropical, relatively narrow part of
the American continent up to 55=B0S, the Andean wall represents a
significant barrier to the west wind circulation.  This may be
considered a natural unique "experimental chamber" on the
globe for large scale atmosphere-topography interaction.

  This asymmetry is associated with important
atmospheric differences like a meridional temperature gradient,
twice as large as in the Northern Hemisphere, giving rise to a
more rapid zonal atmospheric circulation over which longer
waves with more vertical axes (quasi-barotropic waves) are
superimposed;  a single large storm track south of the Australian
continent contrasts with its northern counterpart where two
strong tracks and a third weaker one have been detected.  In
the stratosphere the contrast is even more evident, especially in
the winter and spring dynamics when the polar vortex stability
contributes to a drastic ozone destruction.  All this adds to the
interest of studying the southern circulation in the frame of an
interhemispherical comparative study.

 In the detection problem of climatic change one is faced
with small and slow changes of atmospheric variables within
noisy background.  Therefore sensitive indicators are most
desirable.  In this context, changes in the mesosphere can be
used.

Atmospheric Processes

 Particles flux coming from the sun interacts with the
upper atmosphere and troposphere variations in their structure
and composition.  It is possible to find processes at altitudes
higher than the middle atmosphere that may have a direct
impact on the biosphere.  These kinds of phenomena might be
large enough to be detected in temperature and pressure
observations.  Therefore, it is desirable to study cosmic radiation
and geomagnetic activity that may complement the present
knowledge on the sun-space-earth system and its interaction
with the atmosphere.

 Main lines to be considered are as follows:

--Formation of antarctic air masses and cold outbreaks moving
over the South American continent and sometimes reaching up to
southern Brazil with considerable agricultural damage.
=46ormation and lifetime are determined mainly by the surface
energy balance over the Antarctic continent and surrounding
seas.  Frequency and extent of these cold outbreaks must be
assessed not only for their own sake but also as a determining
factor in long-term temperature variations.

--One of the most important tasks for an adequate description
of the relation between atmosphere and the earth's surface is
the knowledge of the radiation balance at the surface.  This
balance dominates the energy budget of ice sheets, snow
surface and the Antarctic Ocean.  In high latitudes (Antarctic)
and high mountains exists a lack of reliable surface-based
climatology and atmospheric studies,and particular difficulties
attending the interpretation of remote sensing data over snow
and ice surfaces.  Surface and atmospheric measurements of the
energy  balance components and the use of satellite data for
estimating solar and atmospheric radiation and heat fluxes
involved in the energy balance of large areas could contribute to
a better understanding of local and regional variations related
to climate change.

--El Ni=F1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) teleconnections and related
regional climatological rainfall anomalies in South America (S of
Brazil and NE Argentina, Central Chile, Altiplano, etc.) and
associated blocking events.  They have profound impact on the
occurrence of drought and floods and on agriculture and
fisheries.

--A climatic characterization of the UV regime seems to be in
order to provide biologists with a basic input to their impact
studies.  UV radiation episodes probably linked to the synoptic
and long wave perturbations for which a short time prediction
scheme may be useful for general public and some kind of
research field work.

--Atmospheric physical processes related to climatic change.
=46or instance, lower atmosphere vertical structure associated
with a rainfall positive trend in Buenos Aires and nearby areas
producing floods or negative trends in semi-arid central Chile
that may generate aridification.

--Long-term evolution of basic atmospheric variables as surface
temperatures (over land and ocean) and rainfall (but others also,
such as cloudiness).  There is an urgent need for long and
trustful time series of surface and free-air variables.  Of
primary importance is the homogeneity of climatological data
because nearly all the instrumental South American records in
use in the large scale programs show breaks in the Forties or
=46ifties of the present century, when the stations were moved to
airports without simultaneous observations.  But there are some
homogenous records to which the scientific community of the
continent has no easy access.  The problem in exchanging this
type of information (series of means for certain periods or data
in extenso), as well as corresponding problems in establishing a
future IAI data base should be an item of high priority.  This kind
of data will directly serve the objectives of  global climate
change issues and socioeconomic consequences of climate.  Data
gathering should be extended to short term field studies, as in
=46ROST, since this kind of data, although brief, includes a more
comprehensive set of variables.

--Paleoclimatic time series:  The extension of climatic time
series to the distant past should be estimulated.  The austral
cone of South America is the only non-polar continent extending
into southern high latitudes.  Its richness of glacial features, as
periglacial lakes and moraines, and forests with longlife species,
host abundant evidence of past climates.

-- A good understanding of the interannual variation of the
intensity, extent, and duration of the ozone hole needs a good
description of the wind systems at high latitudes and at
stratospheric altitudes.  The breakdown of the vortex into higher
order modes is responsible for the transport of depleted regions,
originally at Antarctic latitudes, into lower latitudes which
include the southern tip of the American continent.  It is
important, therefore, to have a good observational system of
the dynamics of the stratosphere at Antarctic and neighboring
latitudes.  Available observational techniques include
rawinsondes, satellite remote sensing, and radar wind profilers.

 Radar wind profilers have proven to be an effective
technique for the observation of winds at tropospheric and
lower stratospheric altitudes.  They offer high temporal
resolution and the unique possibility of measuring the very small
vertical component of the wind.  A network of wind profilers
along the American longitude at high latitudes would provide
valuable information about the dynamics of the lower
stratosphere and its relation with the formation anddestruction
of the ozone hole, and the transport of depleted regions at
lower latitudes.

Mesospheric Processes and Global Change

 Although it is difficult to find processes at altitudes
higher than the ozonosphere that may have a direct impact on
the biosphere, the reverse is not true.  In fact, the destruction
of ozone by human-related activities is a good example.  It is
physically plausible that human activities could affect the state
of the atmosphere at even higher altitudes.  One topic to be
addressed is the possibility that processes responsible for the
change of global ozone, CO2, and other trace gases may change
the temperature of the mesopause.

 One phenomenon has already been identified--the
formation of noctilucent clouds (NLC) and polar mesospheric
clouds (PMC) at the coldest region on earth: the polar
mesopause.  These clouds, being produced by a condensation
process, are very sensitive to both spatial and temporal
variations in temperature.  Their possible relevance to global
change comes from the observation that these clouds, as
spectacular and beautiful as they are, have not been reported
earlier than the Industrial Revolution.  More recently, a very
conspicuous phenomenon related to their existence has been
observed, namely the detection by radars of very strong echoes
from the same altitude and regions.  The literature refers to
them as Polar Mesospheric Summer Echoes (PMSE), and intensive
observational and theoretical efforts are directed toward their
understanding.  The sensitivity of NLC, PMC, and PMSE to
mesopause temperature can be an indicator of global change,
and might be explored.  Efforts to observe them at comparable
southern latitudes have been unsuccessful.  If existing, they are
at least three order of magnitude weaker than their northern
counterparts.  Small temperature differences may be the cause.





IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 Although general issues and priorities to be pursued in a
science agenda for high latitude processes were discussed in the
previous section, some specific research questions were raised
at the workshop.  They are listed as follows, according to their
respective categories.

UV-B and Human Sciences

 It is important to study not only the direct physical and
biological impacts of changes in UV-B, but also how such changes
indirectly effect cultural, economic, social and political
processes, how people adapt to and cope with the changes, and
how the various publics can be made more aware of the nature
of scientific data, scientific methodologies, and the application
of these to decision making and adaptation.  Thus, research
questions should include the following:

* What are the short and long-term implications of increased
exposure to UV-B on human health (skin cancers, cataracts,
weakened immune system response)?
* What are the potential impacts on human systems of possible
increasing blindness on domesticated and wild animals?
* What are the potential impacts of changes in UV-B dosages on
the tourism industry?
* What are the processes involved and the potential consequences
of decision-making under uncertainty?
* What are the effects of increased UV-B exposure on certain
medications such as antibiotics?
* What is the risk perception throughout the region in relation to
ozone/UV-B processes?
* What is the impact of a society's perception of global change on
its individual and collective actions?



Sea Ice

* To what extent do high frequency changes in the sea ice,
resulting from short-term fluctuations or even weather, feed
back into monthly, seasonal and multi-seasonal mean
atmospheric circulation patterns?
* Do slow changes in the configuration (orientation, annual cycle)
of sea ice extent change standing long wave atmospheric
circulation patterns in the regions?
* Do slow changes in the thickness of sea ice affect standing long
oceanic circulation patterns and the corresponding biota in the
regions?
* What are the inter-relationships among interannual atmospheric
variability, sea ice (extent and thickness), and ocean circulation?
* Are there relationships between Antarctic sea ice and ENSO?

Snow Cover

* An ambiguous relationship among snow cover, atmospheric
temperature, and atmospheric circulation marks current
observational and modeling studies.  Clearly this issue needs to
be examined in the regional context and on several temporal
scales.  What are the relationships between snow cover and the
atmosphere on weekly, monthly, seasonal, and multi-seasonal
temporal scales?
* Dewey and Heim (1983) find that in the Southern Hemisphere,
Andean snow cover is the only area that shows significant
interannual variability.  What are the sources of that variability?
The sources need to be examined in the context of large-scale
circulation anomalies including ENSO.
* Snow cover is extremely difficult to monitor.  The longest
Northern Hemisphere snow cover time series comes (November
1966 to the present) from the interpretation of visible satellite
imagery.  With the advent of new satellite microwave
technology, it is not clear that these analyses will continue into
the future.  Can they be related to the new generation of snow
cover observations?

Atmospheric Processes

* What are the ultimate chemical and physical processes that lead
to ozone depletion?
* What are the effects of increased temperature and radiation on
atmospheric chemistry processes?
* What effect does ENSO have on high latitude climate?
* What are the effects of Arctic air pollution?
* What effect does climate change have on air-sea exchanges?































V. APPROACH

 To address the issues raised by the working groups at the
IAI workshop and the research questions there posed, a regional
network of researchers at institutions and study sites is needed
to gather data, exchange data, and synthesize efforts.  The
following approaches were suggested, per category, as a means
of advancing the scientific agenda on high latitude processes.

Cryosphere

 The relationships among the ocean circulation, sea ice,
and atmospheric circulation at different temporal scales need to
be examined in greater detail.  Foremost among the
requirements to perform this research is the necessity to obtain
and maintain sufficient observations in each of these climate
spheres.  Much of the remotely sensed portion of this data base
can be built with existing and planned observational satellite
systems.  Ironically, basic surface observations are much more
sparse and more difficult to obtain.  The setting of
observational, data, and data base requirements for sea ice,
ocean circulation, and atmospheric circulation and their
subsequent implementation is a necessary first step in
developing a successful high latitude research program.

 Variability in Northern Hemisphere sea ice may be most
important in its interactions with the ocean currents and
regional atmospheric circulation patterns in the Davis Strait.
This is an area of complex interactions that could provide
important indices of global change and interannual variability as
well as being an important fishery.  Empirical and modeling
studies are needed, which include data from each component of
the system.

 In the Northern Hemisphere the maximum sea ice extent
is limited by the physical boundaries provided by the continents.
On the other hand, in the Southern Hemisphere sea ice has no
such physical constraints.  Thus the maximum Southern
Hemisphere sea ice extent is determined by complex
interactions among the ocean-cryosphere-atmosphere system.
The interplay between these three components of the climate
system needs to be studied through a series of well-designed
and performed observational and modeling studies.  For
instance, how do these three modulate each other's mean annual
cycle?  How do the high latitude oceans relate to ENSO?  How do
sea ice variations relate to ENSO?

 North American snow cover needs to be studied in
relation to variability in the global circulation system.  Its
impact and interactions on the radiation balance, hydrologic
cycle, and biosphere on temporal scales ranging from weeks
through years need to be examined in a systematic way.

 It does not seem likely that Southern Hemisphere snow
cover will have a large impact on the global scale.  In South
America, however, snow occurs at both high and low latitudes
and snow cover variations may provide valuable indices of
climate variability.

Glaciology

 Snow and ice, the main elements of high latitude
environmental systems, play an active role in the control of the
global climate.  The documentation of the unique climatic
indicators found in polar and temperate ice is critical to an
understanding of globally coupled environmental systems.
Human modification of climate may cause major changes in
global ice volume and sea level.  A clear reconstruction of
climatic history is essential for testing theories that predict
future climate change.

 A global set of high-resolution ice cores is essential for
establishing linkages between hemispheres and between high
and low latitudes in order to determine the synchroneity of
specific climatic events and the nature and geographical extent
of environmental perturbations.  Ice cores can be used to study
issues of current social and economic concerns, such as the
atmospheric impact of anthropogenic emissions or the effects of
ENSO patterns.  A global array of ice cores would also provide
significant data for the development of global circulation models
and for testing of these models.

Ozone Depletion and UV-B Radiation Effects

 An understanding of the response of living systems to UV-
B is required to forecast effects resulting from potential
increases in radiation from UV-B reaching the earth.  Research
efforts should include both the creation of a UV-B monitoring
network and increased research to assess the effects on
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine communities.

 IAI could play the following roles:

(1) Provision of funding for multinational collaborative
programs, particularly if these cannot be funded through other
agencies.
(2) Leveraging research funds.
(3) Advocating specific research themes, funding priorities and
strategies for long-term ecological research.
(4) Promoting public awareness of recent scientific findings nd
controversies, by the production of fact sheets, for example.
(5) Facilitating the standardization, transfer, and management
of relevant data.
(6) Promoting educational opportunities, particularly for South
American research personnel.
(7) Compilation and maintenance of an electronic catalogue of
expertise and facilities.
(8) Identification of specific research sites within the Americas
of high regional and/or global significance. The criteria for
selection might include:
 * potential sensitivity to global change;
 * comparability with existing research sites;
 * potential to fill major gaps; and
 * existing research facilities and personnel.

 The working group on ozone depletion and ultraviolet-B
radiation discussed the possibility of identifying key ecosystems
and sites in the Americas with the possibility of
comparing/contrasting North-South systems in their response to
increased UV-B radiation.  The group proposed the use of simple
models to help in identifying key processes in these systems.
Examples of key processes in ecosystems are food web
interactions (i.e. prey-predator relationships), physical forcing
of biological processes (i.e. advection in coastal environments),
etc.  Modeling the effects of UV-B radiation on biological
systems should incorporate responses at different
organizational levels, from molecules to ecosystems.  This, in
turn, will require the modeling of UV-B biological effects at time
and spatial scales from seconds to years and from millimeters to
kilometers.

 The understanding of long term effects of the UV-B
radiation at the ecosystem level will require consideration of
feedback processes in addition to the direct effects of UV-B
radiation on organisms.  For example, it has been shown that UV-
B radiation increases the availability of iron to marine
phytoplankton.  In environments where this micronutrient might
be limiting processes, i.e. primary production in open Antarctic
waters, such an effect could diminish or counteract UV-B
damage at the population level.  On the other hand other
changes, such as community structure could still be affected.

 In summary, several steps could be taken in order to
implement modeling efforts in our understanding/contrasting of
North-South ecosystems under UV-B stress.

(1) Identification of ecosystems in the Americas, which have
regional importance and might be expected to be exposed to
enhanced UV-B radiation.  Efforts should be made to try to
concentrate on "simple" systems.  Permafrost might be one to
consider, in particular because of its sensitivity to increased
ambient temperature.

(2) Establishment of monitoring sites in both hemispheres,
following the pattern of environmental observation, like the one
carried out by the World Meteorological Organization.

(3) Use of simple models, to identify key relationships in the
ecosystems.

(4) Creating scenarios of effects of increased UV-B radiation on
these interactions, looking for non-linear effects.

 The proposed modeling should complement other types of
modeling already underway and of the utmost importance to
biologists.  These models are now being produced or studied in
other parts of the world.  IAI should play an active role in
encouraging exchange of biological information and modeling
efforts both among Inter-American scientists and between them
and researchers outside the region.  Some of the most relevant
of these would be:

(1) Short and long-term prediction of UV-B radiation at a site,
given ozone levels and meteorologic conditions.  These models
are of short-term and long-term prediction;

(2) Modification of UV-B transmission by physical and biological
factors close to the earth's surface, such as the forest canopy in
terrestrial ecosystems and the water column in aquatic
environments;

(3) Modification of UV-B transmission through interfaces, i.e.
ocean-interface.

Data Handling and Sharing

 Since the International Geophysical Year, all governments
accepted the policy that all ozone data should be made available
to all countries and individual scientists, free of charge, through
WMO World Ozone Data Center operated by AES in Toronto.  This is
done on a monthly basis.  Starting in 1994 this policy will include
UV-B data.  The timely (monthly exchange) of observational data
is thus a prerequisite for any scientific study and assessment.
IAI should address, as a priority, the contentious issue of how
data can be shared most effectively between contributing
partners.

 Aspects to be considered should include:

* ownership and publication rights to the data.
* quality control of the data.
* timely reporting of data sets.
* cautionary methodological commentaries.









VI. RELATED PROGRAMS

 Because it is widely recognized that global change
research must be done in an interdisciplinary and international
approach, a separate working group was formed at the
workshop to identify international programs already in
operation.  The IAI will address global change issues relevant to
the Americas and Antarctica, but it plans to do so through strong
links with already existing international programs and
institutions.

 Issues especially relevant to the American continents will
be emphasized in the international programs identified.  Close
links with those international institutions must be forged at the
scientific level, through cooperation and co-participation.  The
working group recognizes the difficulty of a small number of
scientists attempting to address all issues of global change in
their region.

 It is difficult to provide a complete list of all programs
relevant to IAI interests, as some programs are broad in scope
without particular focus on the American continents. The
following list includes those considered important to the IAI
scientific agenda:
--Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW)
--World Climate Research Program (WCRP)

 Within the above programs, the following projects are
identified:
--World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE)
--Antarctic Ice Thickness Monitoring Project (AITMP)
--Stratospheric Processes and their role in Climate (SPARC)
--Antarctic Ice Drifting Buoy Project (AIDBP)
--Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX)

 The other major international program recognized is:
--International Geosphere and Biosphere Program (IGBP)

 Within IGBP, the following projects are identified:
--Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS)
--Part Global Changes (PAGES)
--International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC)

 Other programs identified are:
--Global Change in Antarctica (GLOCHANT)
--International Research Institute for Climate Prediction (IRICP)
--International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP)
--Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment
(GIPME)
--Global Paleoclimates (GLOPALS)
--Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics (GLOBEC)
--Human Dimension Program (HDP)

 Several international organizations that IAI should
cooperate with closely are:
--International Council of Scientific Union (ICSU)
--Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)
--Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (SCOR)
--Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE)
--World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
--International Ocean Committee (IOC)
--United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
--Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
--International Union of Geophysical Science (IUGS)
--International Arctic Science Committee (IASC)

 The group recognizes the importance of integrating social
science studies with particular emphasis on the impact of global
change on societies.  It recognizes also the need within the
American continents for better integration of the vast network
of data collection platforms.  This must be done with strong links
to GAW or other monitoring programs.  The success of the IAI
program is highly dependent on an effective international
cooperation within the region and with international programs.


























VII. REFERENCES


Cohen, J., and D. Rind, 1991:  The Effect of Snow Cover on
Climate.  J. of Clim., 4, 689-706.

Dewey, K.F., and R. Heim, Jr., 1983:  Satellite Observations of
Variations in Southern Hemisphere Snow Cover.  NOAA Tech.
Report NESDIS 1, 20 pp.

Dewey, K. F.,  1977:  Daily Maximum and Minimum Temperature
=46orecasts and the Influence on Snow Cover.  Mon., Wea. Rev.,
105, 1594-97.

Gloersen P., and W. J. Campbell, 1988:  Variations in the Arctic,
Antarctic, and Global Sea Ice Covers During 1989-1987 As
Observed with the Nimbus 7 Scanning Multichannel Microwave
Radiometer. Jour. of Geoph. Res., 93, 10,666-10674.

Hahn, D. G., and J. Shukla, 1976:  An Apparent Relationship
Between Snow Cover and Indian Monsoon Rainfall.  J. Atmos. Sci.,
33,2461-62.

Halpert M. S. and C. F. Ropelewski, 1991:   Climate Assessment, A
Decadal Review 1981-1990.  U. S. Govt. Printing Office.  200pp.

Kukla, G., and J. Gavin , 1981: Summer Ice and Carbon Dioxide,
Science, 214, 497-503.

Lemke, P., E. W. Trinkl and K. Hasselmann, 1980: Summer Ice and
Carbon Dioxide.  Science, 214, 497-503.

Ropelewski C. F. 1989:  Monitoring Large-Scale Cryosphere-
Atmosphere Interactions.  Adv. in Space Res. 9, No. 7,213-218.

Sturman, A. P. and M. R. Anderson, 1984:  A Comparison of
Antarctic Sea Data Sets and Inferred Trends in Ice Area.  Jour. of
Clim. and Appl. Met, 24,275-280.

Walsh J. E. and J . E. Slater, 1981:  Monthly and Seasonal
Variability in the Ocean-Ice-Atmosphere Systems of the North
Pacific and the North Atlantic, Jour. of Geoph. Res. 86,7425-
7445.

Walsh, J. E, 1984:  Snow Cover and Atmospheric Variability.
American Scientist, 72, 50-57.

Walsh, J. E.,  and B. Ross, 1988:  Sensitivity of 30-Day Dynamical
=46orecasts to Continental Snow Cover.  Journal of Climate, 1,39-
754.

Zwally, H. J., C. L. Parkinson and J. C. Comiso, 1983a:  Variability
of Antarctic Sea Ice and Changes in Carbon Dioxide, Science, 220,
1005-1012.



APPENDIX 1

IAI INITIAL SCIENTIFIC THEMES


* The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems;

* High Latitude Processes;

* Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-tropical
Americas;

* Tropical Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Cycles;

* ENSO and Interannual Climate Variability;

* The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems;

* The Study of the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity.









APPENDIX 2

ACRONYMS


IAI  Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research

UV  Ultraviolet

UV-B   Mid Ultraviolet Radiation

CFCs  Chlorofluorocarbons

ARCSS  Arctic Climate System Study

OAII   Office of Administration II

IC/IAI Implementation Committee/Inter-American Institute
for   Global Change Research

PMC Pacific Marine Center

NLC     Noctilucent Clouds

PMSE  Polar Mesospheric Summer Echoes

PMC      Pacific Marine Center

ENSO   El Ni=F1o/Southern Oscillation and Interannual Climate   Variability

GAW     Global Atmospheric Watch










APPENDIX 3

WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Salvador Alaimo=09
Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de Mayo 658,  Buenos Aires 1002
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 312 4481=09
=46ax (54 1) 311 3968  =09

Eduardo Ban=FAs=09
Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global=09
Av. C=F3rdoba 831, Piso 1, Buenos Aires 1054
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 312 1482=09
=46ax (54 1) 312 1482  =09

Elvira Gentile=09
IAI Newsletter=09
Av. Montes de Oca 2124, Buenos Aires  1271
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 217 576=09
=46ax (54 1) 303 2299=09
70501.2436@compuserve.com =09

Eduardo Rodriguez=09
SIHN Departamento Oceanograf=EDa =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09
=46ax (54 1) 217 797  =09

Demetrio Boltovoskoy=09
UBA-CONICET=09
Departamento Cs. Biolog=EDa=09
=46acultad de Ciencias Exatas y Nac.- UBA, Buenos Aires 1428
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 781 5020=09
=46ax (541) 790 9591=09
postmaster@plankt.edu.ar =09

Jos=E9 Hoffman=09
Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 312 4481
=46ax (541) 312 3968  =09

Mar=EDa del Carmen Vera=09
INGEIS - CONICET Pb. INGEIS=09
Ciudad Universitaria 1170, Buenos Aires
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 783 3021=09
=46ax (54 1) 783 3024=09
marta@antar.org.ar =09

Claudio Parica=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248,  Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 1689=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Pedro Svarka=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 1689=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Rodolfo del Valle=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 1689=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Sandra Mar=EDa Vivequin=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 0199=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Irene Schloss=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 0199=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Viviana Alder=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248,  Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 0071=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Marta Barbanto=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 0071=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Nora Graciela Guida=09
INGEIS-Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Pb. INGEIS, Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1170
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 783 3021=09
=46ax (541) 783 3024  =09

Roberto Argentino Vallverdu=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 0199=09
=46ax (541) 812 2319  =09

Susan Diaz=09
CADIC-CONICET=09
Ruta 3 y M. arg. CADIC CC92-9410, Ushuaia
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 901) 30526=09
=46ax (54 901) 30644  =09

Dario Trombotto=09
CENPAT=09
Boulevard Brown 3000, 9120 Pto  Madryn
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 09) 65 51 024=09
=46ax (54 09) 65 71 543  =09

Agustin Colussi=09
CONICET=09
=46unes 3350, Mar del Plata  7600
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 023) 45525=09
=46ax (54 023) 40887  =09

Alberto Aristarain=09
IAA-CONICET=09
lab. de Estratigraf=EDa Glaciar=09
CRICYTCC 330 Mendoza
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 061) 24 1029=09
=46ax (54 061) 380370  =09



Arturo Amos=09
PROGEBA=09
Calle Horacio Cruz=09
s/n B Capitue 1m 5.2 Ruta=09
Exequiel Bustalio Apart 47, Banlocke 8400
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 0944) 42056=09
=46ax. (54 0944) 42056  =09

Salvador Puliafrto=09
Universidad de Mendoza=09
Av. Boulogne Sar Mer 465, Mendoza 5500
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 61) 39 2939=09
=46ax (54 61) 31 1100  =09

Luis Vicente Orce=09
CIBHOM-CONICET=09
Senrano 669, Buenos Aires
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 798 2365=09
=46ax (541) 798 7165  =09

Gustavo R. Talamoni=09
Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de mayo 658,  Buenos Aires 1002
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 311 7476=09
=46ax (541) 311 3968  =09

Silvia E. Nu=F1ez=09
Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 312 4481/89
=46ax (541) 312 3968  =09


M=F3nica B. Marino=09
Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de mayo 658,  Buenos Aires 1002
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 312 4481/89=09
=46ax (541) 311 3968  =09

Mario J. Garcia=09
Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de mayo 685, Buenos Aires 1002
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 312 4481/89=09
=46ax (541) 312 3968  =09

Horacio Ciappessoni=09
Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de mayo 658,  Buenos Aires 1002 =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 312 4481/89=09
=46ax (541) 311 3968  =09

Virginia M. Silbergleit=09
CONICET=09
Pab. II Depto. Ciencias Geol=F3gicas=09
Ciudad Universitaria. 1428; Buenos Aires
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 781 8215=09
=46ax (541) 788 3439  =09

Adriana Elsa Fern=E1ndez=09
Depto. Ciencias de la Atm=F3sfera -UBA=09
Pabell=F3n II Piso 2-Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428=09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 782 6528=09
=46ax (541) 788 3572=09
fernandez@cina.uba:ar =09


Mar=EDa Luz Duarte=09
Depto. Ciencias de la Atm=F3sfera-UBA=09
Pabell=F3n II Pisa 2 Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428=09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 788 3572=09
=46ax (541) 688 3572  =09

Vicente Barros=09
Depto. Ciencias de la Atm=F3sfera-UBA=09
Pabell=F3n II Piso 2 Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428=09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 782 6528=09
=46ax (541) 782 0620  =09

Rosa Compagnocci
Depto. Ciencias. de la Atm=F3sfera UBA=09
Pabell=F3n II Piso 2 Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 782 6528=09
=46ax (541) 782 0620  =09

Wolfgang Volkheimer=09
IANIGLA/CRICYT Mendoza=09
Calle Bajada del Cerro S/N, Mendoza 5500
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 061) 241 029=09
=46ax (54 061) 380 370  =09

Carlos L. Ballare=09
IFEVA-Depto. Ecol. Gac Agronom=EDa=09
Av. San Mart=EDn 4453, Buenos Aires 1417=09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 501 4692=09
=46ax (541) 501 4692  =09

Ana L. Scopel=09
IFEVA - Faculdad de Agronom=EDa UBA=09
Av. San Mart=EDn 4453, Buenos Aires 1417
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 522 0903=09
=46ax (541) 501 4692  =09

=46abian G=F3mez=09
Sec. de Rec. Nat y Amb. Humano=09
San Mart=EDn 459 Piso 4, Buenos Aires 1004
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 322 3536=09
=46ax (541) 325 7679  =09

Ricardo Poy=09
Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval=09
Av. Montes de Oca 2124,  Buenos Aires 1271
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 217 797=09
=46ax (541) 303 2299  =09

Requena Fernando=09
Servico Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09
25 de mayo 658,  Buenos Aires 1002
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 312 4481
=46ax (541) 311 3968  =09

C=E9lia Izquierdo=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248,  Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 1689=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09

Ana Mar=EDa Retsin=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248,  Buenos Aires 1010
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 812 1689=09
=46ax (541) 812 2039  =09
Laura Tarallo=09
IAI Newsletter
Av. Montes de Oca 2124,  Buenos Aires 1271
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 217 576=09
=46ax (541) 303 2299  =09

Paulo Artaxo=09
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09
Instituto de F=EDsica=09
Caixa Postal 20516-CEP 0452-990=09
S=E3o Paulo, SP 01498-970=09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 11) 818 7016=09
=46ax (55 11) 814 0503=09
artaxo@uspif.if.usp.br=09

Volker Kirchhoff=09
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)=09
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758=09
P.O. Box 515=09
12201-970 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos, SP=09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 123) 229 887=09
=46ax (55 123) 218 743=09

Peter Suedfeld=09
University of British Columbia=09
Department of Psychology=09
2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC  VGT 124
CANADA=09
Tel. (604) 822 5713=09
=46ax (604) 822 6923=09
Peter_suedfeld@mtsa.ubc.ca =09




Warwick F. Vincent
Centre D'=C9tudes Nordiques Universit=E9 Laval=09
=46acult=E9 des Sciences et de Genie=09
Biology Department Universit=E9 Laval Sainte-Fey=09
Quebec - G1K 7P4=09
CANADA=09
Tel. (418) 656 5644=09
=46ax (418) 656 2043=09
3602vwar@sml.ulaval.ca =09

Richard Denis Robarts=09
National Hydrology Research Institute=09
11 Innovation Boulevard=09
Saskatoon, Sasketchewan, S7N 3HS=09
CANADA=09
Tel. (306) 975 6047=09
=46ax (306) 975 5143=09
Robarts@nbrisv.nhrc.sk.doe.ca      =09

Enrique Cordaro C=E1rdenas=09
Universidad de Chile =09
=46acultad de Ciencias y F=EDsicas=09
Mat. Dto. F=EDsica=09
Av. Blando Escalada 2008, Santiago=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 671 7367
=46ax (56 2) 671 2799=09
ecordaro@uchcevna.ceo.uchile.cl=09

Victor Marin Briame=09
Universidad de Chile=09
Depto. Ciencias Biol=F3gicas =09
Casilla 1004 - Santiago=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 271 2978=09
=46ax (56 2) 635 3951=09
vmarin@abello.seci.uchile.cl =09

Mario Palest=EDni Quiroz=09
Universidad de Chile=09
Av. Salvador 486, CC 16038-9, Santiago=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 274 1560=09
=46ax (56 2) 274 1628  =09

Benjamin Rosenbluth=09
Universidad de Chile=09
Av. Blanco Facalada, 2085 Santiago
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 696 8790

Humberto Fuenzalida=09
Comit=E9 Nacional IGBP=09
Dept. de Geof=EDsica, Universidad de Chile=09
Casilla 2777, Av. Blanco Encalata 2008, Santiago =09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 696 8790=09
=46ax (56 2) 696 8686=09
hfuenzal@Uchcevm.Cec.Uchile.Cl =09

Sergio Cabrera=09
Universidad de Chile=09
=46acultad De Ciencias M=E9dicas Norte=09
Departamento de Biolog=EDa=09
Av. Independencia 1023-C 70061, Correo 7, Santiago=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 737 6560 =09
=46ax (56 2) 737 3158=09

Leonardo G=F3nima=09
Instituto Geogr=E1fico Agustin Codazzi=09
A.A. 6721 y 53754 Cra 30 No. 48-51 Edificio. No. 4=09
Santaf=E9 de Bogot=E1=09
COLOMBIA=09
Tel. (57 1) 269 4811=09
=46ax (57 1) 268 0004    =09
Ronald F. Woodman Pollit=09
Instituto Geof=EDsico del Per=FA =09
Apartado 13-0207, Lima 13=09
PERU=09
Tel. (51 14) 942 454=09
=46ax (51 14) 792 155=09
rop@roj.org.pe  =09

Carlos Eduardo Ere=F1o=09
Agregado Naval a la Embajada Argentina=09
Av. Pardo y Aliaga,  Piso 12=09
San Isidro, Lima =09
PERU=09
Tel. (541) 217 576=09
=46ax (541) 303 2299=09

Rumen Bokov=09
World Meteorological Organization=09
P.O. Box 2300, Geneva 2 =09
SWITZERLAND=09
Tel. (41 22) 730 8455=09
=46ax (41 22) 740 0984=09
bojkovr@aestor.dots.doe.ca

Gabriel Pisciottano
IMFLA Fl Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ingenier=EDa=09
J. Herrera y Reissig 565, Montevideo 11300
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09
=46ax (59 82) 715 446=09
cliol@imfial.edu.ay=09

Bernab=E9 Gadea Echeverr=EDa=09
IONOANTARU / IAU=09
Director del Programa=09
Javier Barrios Amorin 1488=09
Buenos Aires 150, Montevideo 1100=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 960 788=09
=46ax (59 82) 962 967
iporras@cariari.ucr.cr.accctropic@nicarao.apc.org =09

Rub=E9n Caffera=09
=46acultad de Ciencias=09
J.B. Amorin 1488, Montevideo
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 484 242=09
=46ax (59 82) 409 973=09
caffera@fcien.edu.ay =09

Guillermo Berri=09
IRICP Applications and Training Pilot Project=09
IRICP House-Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory=09
Columbia University PoBox 1000/Rt 9W/IRICP House (GHB)=09
Palisades, N.Y. 10964-8000=09
USA=09
Tel. (914) 365 8765=09
=46ax (914) 365 8764=09
berri@exigente.ldgo.columbia.edu =09

Maria Vernet=09
Scripps Institution of Oceanography=09
Marine Research Division, 0218=09
La Jolla, California 92093-0218 =09
USA=09
Tel. (619) 534 5322=09
=46ax (619) 534 2997=09
m.vernet/omnet; mvernet@ucsd.edu=09

Rub=E9n Lara =09
IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09
c/o NOAA/OGP
1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09
Silver Spring, MD 20910
USA
Tel. (301) 589 5747=09
=46ax (301) 589 5711=09
lara@ogp.noaa.gov =09

Raquel S. Gomes
IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09
c/o NOAA/OGP
1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09
Silver Spring, MD 20910
USA
Tel. (301) 589 5747=09
=46ax (301) 589 5711=09

Lisa Farrow=09
NOAA/OGP=09
1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1225=09
Silver Spring, MD 20910 =09
USA=09
Tel. (301) 427 2089=09
=46ax (301) 427 2073=09
farrow@ogp.noaa.gov =09

Carina Lange=09
SCRIPPS Institute of Oceanography=09
9500 Gilman Drive Mailstop 0215=09
La Jolla, CA  92093-0215=09
USA=09
Tel. (619) 534 4605=09
=46ax (619) 534 0784=09
clange@UCSD.edu  =09

Jorge E. Carrasco
Byrd Polar Research Center=09
Ohio State University - 108 Scott Hall=09
1090 Camack Road Columbus, OH  43210-1002=09
USA=09
Tel. (614) 292 4697=09
=46ax (614) 292 1079=09
jcarras@magnus.acs.ohio.st.edu =09
George Kukla=09
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory =09
Columbia University=09
Palisades, New York  10964-8000 =09
USA=09
Tel. (914) 365 8421=09
=46ax (914) 365 8154=09
elienw@lamont.ldgo.columbia.edu =09