U.S. Department of Justice 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

A Guide to Developing,
Maintaining, and Succeeding With Your
School Resource Officer Program

Practices From 
the Field for Law 
Enforcement 
and School 
Administration 

Prepared by 

Peter Finn 
Meg Townsend 
Michael Shively 
Tom Rich 
Aby Associates Inc.


A Guide to Developing,
Maintaining, and Succeeding With Your
School Resource Officer Program

Practices From the Field for Law Enforcement 
and School Administration 

Prepared by 

Peter Finn
Meg Townsend
Michael Shively
Tom Rich

COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING SERVICES 
ABT ASSOCIATES INC.

This project was supported by Cooperative Agreement #2003-HS-WX-K041 by the U.S. 
Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing. Points of view or opinion 
contained in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the 
official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 


Table of Contents 

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 

Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 

Background to the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 
Study Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 
Limitations to the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 
Organization of the Report/Site Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 
Appendix A: How the Nine Programs Were Selected for Site Visits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 
Appendix B: The 19 National Assessment Sites and How They Were Chosen . . . . . . . . . . . 30 

Chapter 2 Recruiting SROs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 

Approaches to Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 
Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 
Neutralizing Disincentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 
Appendix: SRO Position Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 

Chapter 3 Screening SROs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 

Screening Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 
The Screening Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 
Case Study: Garner, North Carolina, Police Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 
Case Study: Sarasota County, Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 
Appendix A: SRO Oral Interview Raters Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 
Appendix B: Guidelines for Scoring Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

Chapter 4 Minimizing Turnover among SROs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 

Methods of Keeping Effective SROs on the Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 
Dealing With Mandatory Turnover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 

Chapter 5 Training SROs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 

Importance of Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 
Topics Pre-Service Training Needs to Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 
How to Apply Juvenile Law and Case Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 
Approaches to Pre-Service Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 
In-Service Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 
Case Study: Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 
Case Study: Fontana, California, Police Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 
Case Study: Palm Beach County, Florida, School District Police Department . . . . . . . . .133 
Appendix A: SRO Field Training Policies and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 
Appendix B: SRO Field Training General Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 
Appendix C: SRO Field Training and Supervisor Observation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 


Chapter 6 Supervising SROs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 

The Need for Close Supervision Despite Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 
Approaches to Effective Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 
Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164 
Case Study: Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 
Case Study: Maury County, Tennessee, Sheriff's Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 
Case Study: Palm Beach County School District Police Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 
Appendix A: SRO Performance Rating Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 
Appendix B: SRO Evaluation Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184 
Appendix C: SRO Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 
Appendix D: Statistics for One High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 
Appendix E: Statistics for Schools Countrywide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 
Appendix F: Bi-Weekly Activity Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 

Chapter 7 Identifying Sources of Program Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 

Who Pays for the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 
How to Find the Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 
Case Study: Fontana, California, Police Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 
Case Study: Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Office Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 

Chapter 8 Maintaining Program Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 

How to Motivate Law Enforcement Agencies to Maintain Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 
How to Motivate the Schools to Contribute (More) Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 
How to Motivate Public Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 
What Motivates Everybody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 
Case Study: Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 
Case Study: Sarasota County (Florida) Sheriff's Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 
Case Study: Schaumburg, Illinois, School District 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 
Case Study: Stark County, Ohio, Sheriff's Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 
Appendix A: Reported Incidents at One Junior High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 
Appendix B: Survey of Support Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 

Additional Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 


Executive Summary 
Supported by Cooperative Agreement #2003-HS-WX-K041 by the U.S. Department 
of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office), Abt 
Associates Inc. conducted a study of seven components of School Resource 
Officer (SRO) program operations that many programs have experienced difficulty 
addressing: 

 recruiting SROs, 
 screening SROs, 
 retaining SROs, 
 training SROs, 
 supervising SROs, 
 identifying sources of program funding, and 
 maintaining program funding. 

Information for the report comes principally from in-depth interviews with program 
supervisors, SROs, law enforcement administrators, school administrators, school 
board members, and local government officials conducted during site visits to 28 
well-regarded programs. Additional information, was obtained from follow-up 
telephone calls to program participants and a review of program materials. 

The report has been written for: 

 first-line SRO program supervisors; 
 police and sheriff's department administrators interested in improving their SRO 
programs; 
 school administrators with SRO programs already in their schools; and 
 law enforcement and school district personnel considering starting an SRO 
program. 


Chapter 1 Introduction 

Many SRO programs have experienced difficulty recruiting, screening, retaining, 
training, and supervising SROs. Many programs have also had problems 
maintaining funding over time. This report documents promising methods that 
selected SRO programs have used to address these potential problem areas of SRO 
program operations. The information in the report is intended to enable other SRO 
programsand jurisdictions that are thinking of starting SRO programsto benefit 
from the experiences of these selected programs by adopting or adapting 
some of their approaches to solving obstacles in these seven areas. 

The chapter summaries below present the policy recommendations from each 
chapter. However, the summaries omit the detailed examples of how specific 
programs have implemented the recommendations that the individual 
chaptersand the case studies that follow most of the chaptersprovide. As a 
result, while readers will find the executive summary a useful "road map" of how to 
address each of the seven problem areas the report focuses on, only by reading the 
chapters and case studies can readers find out about the specific steps 
well-regarded programs have actually taken for addressing these stumbling 
blocks to success. In short, the full text of the chapters lends credibility to the 
recommendations in the executive summary as well as provides the particulars about 
how to go about putting the recommendations into practice. 

Chapter 2 Recruiting SROs 

In order to recruit the best possible candidatesand have an adequate pool of 
applicants from which to choosemake sure that all eligible officers and deputies in 
the agency learn about the position and are aware not only of its attractions but also 
its drawbacks. 

Follow Three Basic Guidelines 

Information from the program studied suggests three principal guidelines for 
recruiting SROs: 

(1) Do not assign officers involuntarily to be SROs; solicit volunteers for the 
position. Program participants report that allowing officers to volunteer to 
serve as SROs results in a higher level of commitment to the program. 

SRO Program Guide 


(2) Use more than one approach for posting the assignment, such as: 

 e-mail; 
 mailboxes; 
 roll call; 
 bulletin boards; 
 open houses and trainings; and
 personal invitations.

Text Box:
The program in Garner, North 
Carolina, provides candidates who 
qualify as SROsbut were
outscored by other applicantswith 
their final screening results, as well
as an analysis of their performance 
and strategies, so they can improve 
their scores if they reapply.

(3) Provide information about the position and screening process with the 
posting, including: 

 eligibility criteria; 
 attractive features of the position; 
 the screening process; and 
 important features of the job. 

Consider Using Incentives to Attract Candidates 

To attract the most qualified candidates and to get a large enough pool of 
candidates, highlight the incentives inherent in the position, such as being able 
to: 

 have weekends and holidays off, and work only days; 
 work with kids; 
 be able to make a difference in the lives of students; 
 have some independence from close supervision; and 
 experience new and challenging work. 

Text box:
SRO Jos Cuellar with the Palm Beach 
County, Florida, School District Police
Department said, "I've always been 
interested in working with kids because 
of the opportunity to save some along 
the way. On the street, it's a revolving 
doorthe same drunks and prostitutes. 
In school, you can save a few kids."


Consider offering additional incentives, 
including: 

 take-home cruisers; 
 extra pay; and 
 improved promotional opportunities. 

Text box:
The Tucson Police Department 
found that providing a five 
percent increase in SRO base 
pay and giving SROs take-
home cruisers increased the 
program's applicant pool.

Neutralize Real and Perceived Disincentives to the Posting 

At the same time, take steps to neutralize the 
disincentives to the position that may discourage some 
officers from applying, such as:  

 having to teach (tell them you will train them to teach); 
 being seen as a "Kiddie Cop" (explain how many arrests 
SROs make, sometimes for serious offenses; reassign them to patrol duty in the 
summer); 
 being confined to a campus (explain that SROs have responsibilities outside the 
schools and, while in school, experience a tremendous amount of diverse 
stimulation); 
 working after hours (arrange for long summer breaks); and 
 isolation from the department (keep SROs involved in the agency). 

Text box:
The Maury County, 
Tennessee, Sheriff's 
Department allows 
SROs to build up "comp"
time and then take off 
July and half of August.

In summary, address disincentives in three ways: 

(1) When the disincentive reflects a misconception, spread the truth about 
the program. 

(2) When the disincentive is real but modifiable, change it. 

(3) When the disincentive is indisputable and unalterable, offset the draw
backs to the position by compensating for them and by publicizing the 
position's significant attractive features. 


Chapter 3 Screening SROs 

As with many occupations, the qualifications and the personality of the SRO are 
likely to make or break the program. As a result, many program participants 
suggest that the single most important component of an SRO program may be 
implementing an effective process for screening candidates for the position. 

Develop and Apply Formal Screening Criteria 

Begin by establishing written criteria for selecting candidates. Review and refine 
four essential characteristics and experience that SROs, program supervisors, 
and school administrators say any officer should have in order to be considered for 
the position: 

 likes kids, wants to work with kids, and is able to work with kids; 
 has the right demeanor and "people skills," including being  
 calm, 
 approachable, 
 able to put up gracefully with guff from kids, and 
 patient; 
 has experience as a patrol officer or road deputy; and 
 has above average integrity. 

Text box:
Sergeant Paul Marchand, the
program supervisor with the 
Salem, New Hampshire,
Police Department, warns that 
"SROs are a special breed; 
you have to take lot of guff. 
You need a temperament that 
doesn't get easily fired up and 
has patience." 

There are four other criteria that, if candidates cannot meet them before they are 
assigned to the schools, programs canand mustteach or instill in them shortly 
after the officers have been appointed: 

 willingness to work very hard; 
 exceptional dependability; 
 teaching ability; and 
 ability to work independently. 

Text box:
According to Sergeant 
Richard Davies, supervisor of
the Pine Bluff, Arkansas, 
program, "Applicants have to 
have an above average
attendance recordSROs 
have to be in school."


Consider giving "extra points" to candidates who are familiar with juvenile law, write 
excellent reports, have some college experience, or have ties to the local 
community (for example, went to school there). 

Implement a Thorough Screening Process 

Programs that have been able to assign SROs who function well in the position and 
remain in it happily for several years have generally used multiple screening 
procedures, such as the following: 

 require a memorandum of interest or letter and identify specific topics applicants 
must address (e.g., experience working with youth); 

 talk with current and previous supervisors about the 
applicant's suitability (is the person dependable?); 

 inform candidates candidly about the job 
requirementsand drawbacks (to weed out 
inappropriate officers); 

 examine personnel files (e.g., for disciplinary history); 

 factor in personal experience with the candidate; and 

 check for signs of enthusiasm for the position. 

Text box:
Lieutenant Greg Harrison with the 
Lenoir County, North Carolina,
Sheriff's Office, reported that 
"patrol deputies think the SRO 
assignment is 'a piece of cake' 
and are surprised when I tell
them what they will have to do in 
the schoolswhich often 
dissuades them from applying." 

Consider assembling an oral interview panel. Oral boards offer significant 
benefits over one-on-one interviews for assessing candidates, including 
examining candidates under stress, assessing their communication skills, and 
checking "body language." In using an oral interview panel, consider carefully: 

 who sits on the panel (include at least one school district representative); 

 what questions panel members will ask (e.g., is the candidate willing to work 
overtime? what strategies would he or she use for handling difficult school 
administrators?); 

 requiring candidates to respond to hypotheticalor realsituations in the 
schools that are problematic for SROs (e.g., a student says there are drugs in 
another student's lockerwhat do you do?); 

 "body language" and what it might indicate about a candidate; and 

 how to rate or score the candidate's performance. 


Involve school administrators in the screening 
process. Program participants consistently report 
that including principals and assistant principals 
the process helps match SROs properly with  

individual schools and increases acceptance of the  
program and the SROs among school personnel. 
The most common way of involving school  
administrators is through participation on oral  
interview panels. 

Text box:
Sergeant Patricia Heffner, who supervises 
in the Lakewood, Colorado, Police 
Department's program, admitted that the
police department had originally not been
keen on involving school personnel in the 
screening process but sees the value now.
"By participating, the school administrators 
are 'buying' into their SROand they have
less room to complain if it does not end up
working out." 

Implement several screening methods. Most screening approaches are not 
redundantrather, they complement one another. Individually, each one can reveal 
only certain things about a candidate; taken together, they improve the chances of 
learning as much as possible about an applicant. 

Chapter 4 Minimizing Turnover Among SROs 

Many programs have problems with turnover among SROs. Minimizing turnover is 
important because replacing an SRO makes the program less effective for 
several months and even years as the new officer learns how to do the job, comes 
to understand the school's culture and operations, and builds trust among school 
administrators, faculty, and students. 

Become familiar with the many problems that can contribute to turnovereven among 
SROs who are performing welland become knowledgeable about how to solve 
them. 

Problem: Being unsuitable as SROs from the beginning 
Solutions: Recruit, screen, train, and supervise SROs carefully. 

Problem: Conflict with school administrators 
Solution: Work with the SROand with administratorsto solve the 

problem. 

 involve school administrators in the SRO selection process 

 orient new SROs to working with principals and assistant principals 

 meet with administrators before problems develop 

 define each party's responsibilities in writing 

 if all else fails, allow SROs to transfer to another school 


Problem: Feeling isolated from the rest of the department 
Solution: Take steps to keep SROs integrated with the rest of the 
department. 

 encourage or require SROs to go back to  
patrol during the summer 

 require SROs to attend roll call at least 
periodically 

 involve SROs in departmentwide training 

 encourage SROs to take the initiative to remain in touch with other 
officers 

 single out effective SROs for department 
wide commendation 

Text box:
Program supervisors in the
Chula Vista, California, Police 
Department require SROs to 
go to the day shift patrol roll 
call every Wednesday morning
to help them stay involved with 
the department. 

Problem: Perception of the position as a dead end 
Solution: Turn the position into an asset for gaining promotion. 

Problem: Lack of excitement 
Solution: Introduce strategies to keep the job stimulating. 

 allow SROs to remainor becomemembers of other unitsfor 
example, the SWAT team 

 give SROs new, rewarding, and challenging assignments (one 
program assigned a program supervisor and an SRO to work with 
county architects to ensure student safety in the design of new 
school buildings) 

 encourage SROs to seek out interesting challenges on their own 
(e.g., conduct school safety surveys and report weaknesses to 
school administrators; start a Youth Crime Watch program) 

 send SROs for training and other forms of professional development 
Problem: Too much teaching 
Solutions: Train SROs in how to be effective teachers and, when necessary, 
encourage them to reduce the amount of time they are spending 
in the classroom. 


Problem: Burnout 
Solution: Help SROs to reduce their workload. 

 provide strategic breaks from work 
 
 give SROs preferred summer assignments 

 determine ways of lightening their workload (e.g., cover fewer after-
school events) 

Text box:
The Boone, North Carolina, 
Police Department trained two 
patrol officers as half-time
back-ups to the single SRO in 
the department. 

Problem: Losing SROs to mandatory rotation 
Solution: Make exceptions to the policy for SROs who are performing well 
and want to remain in the schools. 

Program supervisors and SROS alike report that the most effective approach to 
reducing turnover is to implement a number of complementary steps designed 
to keep the officers satisfied with the position and to provide an early warning 
of any discontent. 

Chapter 5 Training SROs 

SROs need training before and after they go into the schools. 

Provide Pre-Service Training 

While SROs can learn or hone certain skills only on the job,
training new SROs before they go on the job is essential so that SROs do not: 

 avoid certain responsibilities (e.g., teaching) and 

 perform poorly or make serious mistakes that can set back their relationships with 
students and school administrators for months. 

Identify Topics that Pre-Service Training Needs to Address 
Typically, before they go into the schools SROs need to be trained to: 

 teach; 

 mentor and counsel; 
 
 work collaboratively with school administrators; 

 manage their time; and 

 apply juvenile statutes and case law. 

Text box:
A former SRO and current 
program supervisor said, 
"They [the department] put 
the SROs in the schools 
the first year with no formal 
training, so the first year 
was not productive."

Text box:
Sergeant Richard Davies, program 
supervisor in Pine Bluff, Arkansas,
pointed out, "You can't go into class 
and look stupid, so you need to 
develop basic lesson plans to show to 
the principal so you can cover yourself 
and so you won't fumble in class." 


In addition, consider training new SROs in child development and psychology; 
handling especially difficult students; the policies, procedures, and culture of the 
schools to which they will be assigned; and the preparation of safe school plans. 

Find Ways of Providing Timely Training 

When basic SRO training courses are not available from national training 
organizations before new SROs go into the schools, explore other means of 
providing training. 

 Delay sending SROs into the schools until training is available. 

 Seek timely training from other professional organizations, such as State agencies, 
technical schools, schools of criminal justice, and State SRO associations. 

 Develop in-house training expertise. 

 Send SROs to the general instructors' school at the training 
academy or for Gang Resistance Education and Training 
(G.R.E.A.T.) certification. 

 Provide in-house orientation on SRO roles and 
responsibilities.  

Arrange for New SROs to Shadow Experienced SROs 

Require every new SRO to spend at least several days shadowing an experienced 
SRO. If there are no other SROs in the program, arrange for new SROs to shadow 
experienced SROs in another community. Consider providing formal field training by 
field training officers, using checklists of what the new SROs need to learn and formal 
written evaluations of their progress. 

Two Finalbut ImportantGuidelines 

 Implement as many pre-service training  
approaches as possible, in particular, thorough 
orientation to the program and shadowing 
experienced SROs, because the various training 
strategies are not mutually exclusive but rather 
complement one another. 

 Involve school administrators in the training. 

Text box:
The Scottsdale, Arizona, 
Police Department, 
arranged for two SROs 
to become certified 
SRO instructors so they 
can train new SROs at
almost any time.

Text box:
Because his program was brand 
new, Robert Yant, the Marshall,
Minnesota, chief of police, sent his
first SRO to Sioux Falls, South 
Dakota, to shadow that jurisdiction's 
experienced SRO. According to Jim 
Marshall, the new SRO, "The
experience was invaluable." 


Provide In-Service Training 

Provide in-service training on issues of importance to SROs and school 
administrators to: 

 upgrade their skills and knowledge; 
 demonstrate that the position is an important one that the department values; and 
 reduce department liability. 

Offer SROsor require them to take advantage of:

 regular program meetings at which supervisors or 
outside experts give presentations; 

 semi-annual and annual training updates; and 

 periodic off-site conferences and courses (often free 
or inexpensive). 

Text box:
The Maury County program in 
Tennessee sends all its SROs
every summer to the 
Tennessee School Resource 
Officers Association week-long 
conference.

Chapter 6 Supervising SROS 

Despite the misperception by a few programs that careful supervision of SROs is not 
necessary, most program supervisors recognize the need to monitor their SROs 
conscientiously. 

Exercise Careful Supervision Despite Obstacles 

Many program supervisors report that supervising SROs properly can be difficult if: 

 supervisors lack time because of other department commitments; and 

 there are long distances between schools or a large number of participating 
schools. 

Despite these barriers, find ways to adequately supervise SROs in order to: 

 obtain information from SROs and school 
administrators that may point to a possible 
problem before it develops; 

 identify signs of poor performance before school administrators have to bring it to 
the supervisor's attention; 


 show SROs that the department values their work 
and they have its support; 

 identify disaffection and burnout early to minimize 
turnover; and

 demonstrate to school administrators that the 
agency considers the program an important 
collaborative initiative. 

Even when programs assign independent, mature officers as SROs, do not assume 
they need little supervision. In addition, do not wait for school administrators to 
bring problems with SROs to the program's attention. 

Text box:
In a county in which supervisors 
trusted the SROs to be in their 
schools (and assumed 
administrators would call them if they 
were not), one SRO was regularly 
leaving school for a tryst. The 
discovery created very bad publicity 
for the department. 

Develop a Plan for Supervising SRO Performance 

Effective supervision of SROs depends on a clear understanding among program 
participants of the officers' roles and responsibilitiestypically spelled out in a 
memorandum of agreement or contract between the parties. Otherwise, 
supervisors do not know what they are supposed to be evaluating in the officers' 
behavior. In addition: 

 do not rely on the evaluation criteria used for patrol officers; instead, tailor the 
evaluation criteria to what SROs do; and 

 involve school administrators in the SROs' performance reviewthey have 
considerably more contact with the officers than do agency supervisors and, as a 
collaborative initiative, they should be involved anyway. 

Implement Several Supervisory Approaches 

Program participants suggest that no single method of supervision will be adequate; 
instead, they recommend implementing as many of the following methods as 
possible: 

 review SRO activity logs on a regular basis; 
 review SRO case or arrest reports; 
 host regular meetings with SROs as a group; 
 visit the school campus; 
 maintain telephone or radio communication; 

Text box:
After a lewd and indecent incident at 
a school in Sarasota County, Florida, 
the SRO documented in his log that 
he had submitted a report to the
school. According to the SRO, 
"When Captain [Tim] Carney [the 
supervisor] read my log, he wanted 
to know why I hadn't submitted a 
police report." 


 survey students; 
 survey teachers; and 
 formally evaluate SRO performance, preferably at least twice a year. 

Select the Supervisors Carefully 

In addition to arranging for supervisors to spend enough time monitoring the SROs 
effectively, select supervisors who are qualified to monitor SRO performance, or else 
train them in how to supervise SROs. Try to select former SROs as supervisors. 

Chapter 7 Identifying Sources of Program Funding 

At one time, many law enforcement agencies provided all or most of the funding for 
SRO programs (often through grants from the U.S. Department of Justice's Office of 
Community Oriented Policing Services). However, as Federal grants have expired 
and as agencies have experienced funding cutbacks, many agencies have 
increasingly been forced to seek alternative funding sources in order to 
maintain their programs. 

Develop a Realistic Estimate of Program Costs 

An important first decision in making or changing arrangements for funding a 
program is to get a firm grasp of how much the program actually costs. Costs can 
vary significantly depending on such considerations as SRO salary levels, fringe 
benefits, and stipends; time spent on the program by supervisors; and 
miscellaneous costs such as training, overtime pay, and equipment. 

Work With the School District to Share the Program's Costs 

Negotiateand renegotiate as neededeach party's 
share of the costs. By splitting the cost, neither side 

feels imposed on, and the cost to each party is 
considerably reduced. For example, if the school  
district pays for half of each SRO's nine months of duty 
in the schools, the law enforcement agency in effect 
gains an officer for about half price. 

Furthermore, as explained in chapter 8, "Maintaining 
Program Funding," school district administrators (who typically present a budget to 
the school board for approval) often feel the program is so beneficialand that 
cutting it back or dropping it would be so politically riskythat they are willing to find 
ways to increase their contribution. 

Text box:
Because of budget cuts to the 
agency, the Stark County, Ohio,
sheriff told the five school districts 
that he would have to recall their
SROs unless the school districts 
agreed to pay for most of the 
officers' salaries. Four of the five 
school districts came up with the 
funds. 


Be Prepared to Find New Sources of Funding 

Explore getting additional support especially from local 
government (city council, mayor, county 
commissioners). Look into obtaining funding from the 
Federal Government, businesses, charities, and 
foundations, and through fund-raising events. 

Text box:
Captain Mike Rogers of the West 
Orange Police Department asked the 
city council for additional funding for
the program. By cutting recreation
and library expenses, as well as 
public works, the council was able to 
approve the increase.

Chapter 8 Maintaining Program Funding 

Some agencies believe that, if they run a good program, its funding will never dry up. 
Certainly, having an excellent program is the firstand essentialstep in 
ensuring program survival. However, even many well-run programs have sooner 
or later experienced the threatand even the realityof cutbacks or dissolution. As a 
result, constantly take steps to ensure that your sources of funding maintain a 
strong interest in seeing the program continue. This requires doing three things: 

1. Ensure that every funding source gains something important from the 
program. 

2. Make every funding source aware of the program's activities and 
achievements. 

3. Identify possible new funding sources and court them. 

This chapter addresses the first two of these necessities for program survival; chapter 
7, "Identifying Sources of Program Funding," addresses the third requirement. 

Motivate the Law Enforcement Agency to Maintain Funding 

Document the significant benefits the program can provide law enforcement 
agencies. 

 Prove how the program reduces the burden 
on patrol officers or road deputies. 

 Compare how many 911 and non-emergency calls for service the 
schools made before the SROs went  into the schools with how many are 
made today. 

 Estimate how many hours the calls would have taken a patrol officer out of 
service compared with the time the SROs spend in the schools. 

 Show how the program has improved the image of the police among juveniles. 

Text box:
According to Sergeant Paul Marchand, the 
program supervisor in Salem, New Hampshire, 
"We pay for the program because, by assigning 
officers to the schools, we free up officers on the 
street. Before we had SROs, we were constantly 
sending patrol officers to the schools. It makes
sense from a deployment point of view to have
officers in the schools rather than send over patrol 
officers whenever there is a problem." 


 Document how the program has improved the law enforcement agency's 
relationship with the school district and why this matters. For example, it can 
improve collaboration in addressing juvenile crime and truancy. 

 Document how the program benefits the chief or sheriff politicallyfor example, 
improving a chief's chances of reappointment or sheriff's chances of reelection. 

Motivate School Districts to Contribute (More) Funding to the Program 

Support from school administrators and school board members has been 
crucial to keeping many programs afloat. But program supervisors must often 
document and explain how the program provides the 
schools with significant benefits. 

 Document how the program has increased 
safetyand the feeling of safetyin the schools. 

 Calculate how many violent incidents SROs 
have handledand prevented. 

 Work with the schools to survey students and teachers about how much safer 
they feel with an SRO in the schools.

 Document the number of incidents SROs handle that would have required calling 
the dispatcher and compare the estimated time of 
response. 

 Compare truancy rates at schools before and after SROs 
were placed in them. 

 Go the extra mile for school officials. 
 
 Agree to reasonable requests for help even if they are 
outside the contract scope of work. 

 Arrange for SROs, rather than other officers or deputies, to provide security at 
after-school events. 

 As much as possible, avoid pulling SROs out of the schools when classes are in 
session. 

 Involve school administrators in program operations, including screening 
candidates (see chapter 3, "Screening SROs") and evaluating SRO performance 
(see chapter 6, "Supervising SROs").

Text box:
According to Al Weidner, budget director for the 
Sarasota County, Florida, school board, "I
have never turned down funding for the 
program  because schools say they don't
know how they would function without it. I want 
to make sure we could not be spending the 
money on something else and getting a better 
return on our investment, but principals go out 
of their way to single out the program to me." 

Text Box:
After SROs in Stark County, Ohio, 
targeted the problem of truancy by 
counseling truant students, meeting with 
their parents or guardians, and, in some 
cases, performing home visits, 
graduation rates for all five districts 
began to improve markedly.


Motivate Public Officials 

Typically, local public officials decide on the funding for the program either directly or 
by approvingor adding tothe law enforcement agency's and school district's 
budgets. Programs have been able to secure the support of mayors, town council 
members, city managers, and other local officials by making the program too 
attractive to cutand too politically risky to dropbecause of its ability to protect 
students. Program participants report that one of the best ways to convince public 
officials of the program's effectiveness in enhancing student safety is by developing 
empirical evidence that it works. 

 Examine statistical data to prove what the program has accomplished by way of 
reducing crime in the schools, truancy, and discipline rates. 

 Conduct surveys of students, school administrators, and parents to help  
convince funding sources to continue their supportor face the community's wrath. 

 Require SROs to document their activities to show how productive they are. was 

 Promote personal experience with the programinvite school board members to 
shadow an SRO; ask the superintendent to sit in on a class taught by an SRO. 

Text box:
An evaluation of the Delaware State Police
program commissioned by the State Department 
of Education in 1998 found that schools that 
never had an SRO had a statistically significant 
increase in the number of police charges in 
1997-98 compared with 1994-95, while there 
no significant increase in schools with 
SROs. The Department of Education used the 
findings to support continued and expanded 
funding of the program by both the legislature 
and school districts. 


Chapter 1: Introduction 
Supported by the U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented 
Policing Services (COPS Office), Abt Associates Inc. conducted a study of seven 
areas in which many School Resource Officer (SRO) programs have struggled: 

 recruitment, 
 screening, 
 retention, 
 training, 
 supervision, 
 identifying sources of program funding, and 
 maintaining program funding. 

The report has been written for: 

 first-line SRO program supervisors; 

 police and sheriff's department administrators interested in improving their 
SRO programs; 

 school district administrators concerned that the SROs in their schools meet 
their goals for the program; and 

 law enforcement and school district personnel considering starting an SRO 
program. 

Background to the Report 

During site visits to 19 SRO programs as part of a National Assessment of School 
Resource Office Programs that Abt Associates Inc. completed in 2004 for the 
National Institute of Justice (NIJ), project staff learned that many SRO program 
supervisors and coordinators have experienced problemsand often continue to 
have difficultywith the seven areas of programming identified above. Reports 
prepared by the COPS Office, the National Association of School Resource Officers 
(NASRO), and the North Carolina Center for the Prevention of School Violence 
have also concluded that many SRO programs experience difficulty in one or more 
of these seven areas of program operations. 

As a result, the COPS Office awarded a cooperative agreement to Abt Associates 
to document the approaches a number of respected SRO programs have used to 
address each of these troublesome areas of program operations. The information 
in the report is intended to enable other SRO programsand jurisdictions that are 
considering starting SRO programsto benefit from the experiences of these 
selected programs by adopting, adapting, or improving on their approaches. 


Study Methodology 

We obtained information for the report from 34 programs.1 

(1) We collected data on the seven focuses of the report during site visits to 
nine SRO programs selected at the recommendation of experts and based 
on screening calls to the program coordinators (see the box "Selected 
Features of the Nine Sites" and appendix A, "How the Nine Programs Were 
Chosen"). 

(2) As part of the process of selecting the 9 sites to visit, we screened 23 
programs. The report incorporates information from 6 of the sites that did 
not make the "cut" for a site visit (see appendix A for the names of these 
sites). 

(3) We used information we had collected previously in these topic areas as 
part of the above-mentioned National Assessment of SRO Programs con 
ducted for NIJ that addressed all facets of SRO programming (see appendix 
B, "The 19 National Assessment Sites and How They Were Chosen"). 

(4) We obtained additional, in-depth information from the 19 National 
Assessment programs related to the present project's seven areas of 
interest during telephone calls with three to six program participants at each 
site. 

1The report also provides information about a few other programs based on newspaper accounts, 
conversations with SROs and SRO program supervisors at conferences, and comments on the report by 
three anonymous reviewers. 


Table: Selected Features of the Nine Sites Visited Expressly to Examine the Seven 
Study Focuses 

Table Column Headers: Location and Sponsor, Population Square Miles, Date Program Began, 
Number of Full-Time SROs,  Number of Schools Served 
Row Data: 
Delaware State Police, 600,000, 2,000, 1994, 25, 29 

Fontana California Police Department, 150,000, 38, 1994, 8, 8 

King County Washington Sheriff's Office, 1.7 million, 2,126, 1995, 9, 9 

Marshall Minnesota Police Department, 13,000, 7, 1999, 1, 3 

Maury County Tennessee Sheriff's Department, 70,000, 613, 1998, 20, 19 

Olympia Washington Police Department, 42,000, 15, 1999, 3, 17 

Palm Beach County Florida School District Police Department, 1.2 million, 2,200, 1978, 130, 165 

Salem New Hampshire Police Department, 40,000, 36, 1995, 2, 2 

Sarasota County Florida Sheriff's Office, 400,000, 580, 1980, 27, 36 


Limitations to the Study 

The report does not purport to present how the "typical" SRO program or a random 
sample of programs has addressed the seven program components. Instead, our 
goal was to include a variety of programs that appeared to have made a substantial 
commitment to addressing one or more of these problem areas so that other 
programs could benefit from their experience. There are, of course, many other 
SRO programs not included in the report that have also addressed these problem 
areas creatively and thoroughly. Resource limitations prevented us from including 
all of them in the study. 

Despite this limitation, the study includes a range of different types of SRO 
programs, including programs that: 

 serve single jurisdictions and multiple jurisdictions (e.g., two or more counties, an 
entire State); 

 serve jurisdictions with small and large populations and few and many schools; 

 serve a single school district and multiple school districts; 

 are sponsored by police departments, sheriff's offices, a State police department, 
and one or more school districts; 

 serve one or more high schools, middle schools, elementary schools, or 
combinations of grade levels; 

 involve a single SRO, several SROs, and many SROs; 

 make a single SRO responsible for a single school or for multiple schools, or 
place more than one SRO in a school; and 

 involve small, medium-sized, and large law enforcement agencies. 

Such a large variety of program models suggests the range of options program 
planners can consider in designing a new programand the variety of 
configurations that existing programs can consider adopting to enhance their 
efforts. 

In addition, because of the tremendous variety in program design options, the 
specific practices this report describes may not be feasible, effective, or needed by 
other programs with different configurations. At the most basic level, for example, a 
supervisory approach that a program with 25 SROs has found useful may be 
completely unworkable in a program with a single SRO. As a result, programs 
need to consider whether the procedures presented in this report will be 
appropriate in their jurisdictions. 


Other Sources of Information About SRO Programs 

The National Institute of Justice has recently made available on its Web site 
(www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/) three reports that Abt Associates Inc. prepared as part of the 
National Assessment of SRO Programs. 

 The National Survey of SRO Programs and Affiliated Schools summarizes the 
results of 322 responses to a mail survey of law enforcement agencies with SRO 
programs and 108 responses from affiliated schools. 

 Case Studies of 19 School Resource Officer (SRO) Programs provides in-
depth descriptions of each program's history, SROs, program activities, and 
program monitoring and evaluation efforts. 

 Comparison of Program Activities and Lessons Learned Among 19 School 
Resource Officer (SRO) Programs compares the 19 programs in terms of 
several key dimensions of program operation, with a focus on lessons learned. 
The National Association of School Resource Officers (NASRO) has prepared a 
number of reports on SRO program operations. Contact: www.nasro.org. The 
Center for the Prevention of School Violence in the North Carolina also has several 
reports on SRO programs. Contact: www.ncdjjdp.org/cpsv. 

Organization of the Report/Site Profiles 

A separate chapter addresses each of the seven program areas. Some readers 
may choose to read some chapters and not others. As a result, in order to make it 
possible to read each chapter independently we have at times repeated the same 
or similar information in more than one chapter. For the same reason, readers will 
find relevant appendix materials at the end of each chapter rather than collected at 
the end of the report. 

At the end of each chapter (with the exception of the chapters on recruiting SROs 
and identifying sources of funding), one or more case studies provide detailed 
descriptions of how selected programs have made an especially comprehensive or 
innovative effort to deal with the chapter topic. Brief summaries of these programs 
follow, along with name of the chapter or chapters where the case studies may be 
found. 


Fontana, California, Police Department (151 sworn) 
Chapter 5 Training 
Chapter 7 Funding 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1994 
8 SROs 
8 middle schools 

Community Demographics 

population: 150,000 
square miles: 38 

Background Description 

The Fontana Police Department promotes flexibility in program design and 
innovative problem solving. As a result, it assigns officers who are capable of working 
independently to solve the problems in their schools. It also believes that SRO 
performance should be based on creativity and innovation and evaluates them on 
these standards. The department's focus on innovation has brought it statewide 
and national recognition, tributes it presents to school boards and the city council to 
help maintain the program's $949,000 annual funding. 

Garner, North Carolina, Police Department (53 sworn) 
Chapter 3 Screening 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1993 
3 SROs 
1 high school, 2 middle schools 

Community Demographics 

population: 20,000 
square miles: 13.53 

Background Description 

The SRO program began when the town's high school principal and the president of 
the Parent Teacher Association approached the chief of police following a school 
shooting in a nearby city. The amount of crime in each school influences the ratio of 
time each SRO spends on law enforcement, education, and counseling. One middle 
school SRO spends only 20 percent of his time on law enforcement, while the other 
two SROs spend about 60 percent, including investigating crimes, filing petitions, 
going to court, and patrolling the campuses. All three SROs are involved in 
mentoring, including coaching sports teams. The approximate cost for the SRO 
program is $180,000 per year. 


Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department (21 sworn) 
Chapter 5 Training 
Chapter 8 Maintaining Funding 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1999 
1 SRO 
1 high school, 1 alternative school, 1 junior high school 

Community Demographics 

population: 13,000 
square miles: 6.5 

Background Description 

The school district started the program with a COPS in Schools grant as a 
relatively painless way of getting going and as a method of getting both parties 
committed to the programthe first year the police department contributed $26,000 
and the school district $14,000 to the program's $80,000 cost. The program's 
one SROwho turned down a promotion so he could remain in the position 
spends about 40 percent time each on law enforcement and mentoring and 20 
percent on teaching. 

Maury County, Tennessee, Sheriff's Department (61 sworn) 
Chapter 6 Supervision 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1998 
20 SROs 
19 high schools 

Community Demographics 

population: 70,000 
square miles: 613 

Background Description 

The Maury County Sheriff's Department began its program in 1998 with 20 SROs 
serving all 19 high schools in the county. One SRO is assigned to each school, and 
one "floats," substituting for the other SROs and providing back-up as needed. 
One-third of all sworn deputies in the department are SROs. The distribution of 
officers' activities among the components of the triad model varies considerably 
among schools depending on each school's needs. The program's annual 
budget is $800,000. 


Palm Beach County, Florida, School District Police Department 

(148 sworn): 
Chapter 5 Training 
Chapter 6 Supervision 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1978 
130 SROs in the schools 
165 schools, K-12, 1-2 SROs per school 

Community Demographics 

population: 1.2 million 
square miles: 2,200 

Background Description 

The Palm Beach County School District Police Department consists entirely of 
certified SROs, but 18 of the department's 148 sworn officers perform non-school 
related functions, including supervising the SROs. The department's $5.5 million 
budget, which also pays for the dispatch center and other activities, comes 
primarily from the school district, although the COPS Office has funded 63 SROs 
whom the school district has absorbed into the department's budget as Federal 
funding ends. 

Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Department (500 sworn) 
Chapter 6 Supervision 
Chapter 7 Identifying Sources of Program Funding 
Chapter 8 Maintaining Funding 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1980 
27 SROs 
36 schools, K-12 

Community Demographics 

population: 400,000 
square miles: 580 

Background Description 

The Sarasota County Sheriff's Office has a written contract with the school district 
to provide two SROs at each high school, one at each middle school, and one for 
every two elementary schools. At the high school level, SROs engage first in law 
enforcement, then counseling, and then teaching. At the middle school level, they 
do more counseling, less law enforcement, and some teaching. At the elementary 


level, they primarily teach and mentor. The school district administration provides the 
bureau free space and furniture in its district headquarters building. The sheriff's 
office and school district share almost equally the program's annual $2.4 million cost. 

Schaumburg, Illinois, School District 54 (140 sworn) 
Chapter 8 Maintaining Funding 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1995 
5 SROs 
5 junior high schools 

Community Demographics 

population: 75,000 
square miles: 19 

Background Description 

The Schaumburg Police Department has a written contract with School District 54 to 
provide one SRO at each of the district's five junior high schools. Until recently, the 
school district paid for three-quarters of the officers' salaries. A school principal has 
always been the program coordinator. From the start, the SROs' focus has been 
primarily on teaching and mentoring, and only secondarily on law enforcement. The 
program's budget is $200,000. 

Stark County, Ohio, Sheriff's Office (100 sworn officers) 
Chapter 8 Maintaining Funding 

SRO Program Basics 
started 1999 
5 SROs 
5 high schools 

Community Demographics 

population: 400,000 
square miles: 600 

Background Description 

The sheriff's office received COPS in Schools funding for five full-time officers 
beginning in 1999. The SROs work in five separate school districts that vary in size 
and degree of urbanization and socioeconomic development. Each school district's 
SRO and high school administrator have collaborated to tailor the program to the 
needs of their particular campus. As a result, the SROs vary in the degree to which 
they perform activities suggested by the SRO triad model. 


The following individuals from among the many persons who provided information 
for this report have said that readers may contact them by telephone or e-mail for 
advice related to starting or enhancing an SRO program. In general, chiefs and 
school district administrators will have information about funding; SROs and SRO 
supervisors will be knowledgeable about recruiting, screening, training, and 
supervising SROs; and principals will have experience screening and supervising 
SROs. 

Chief Paul T. Donovan 
Salem Police Department 
9 Veteran's Memorial Parkway 
Salem NH 03079-3388 
(603) 890-2350 
pdonovan@salempd.com 

Chief James P. Kelly 
Palm Beach School District Police Department 
Suite B-127 
3330 Forest Hill Boulevard 
West Palm Beach FL 33406 
(561) 434-8435 
Kelly@palmbeach.k12.fl.us 

Chief Robert A. Yant 
Marshall Division of Public Safety 
611 West Main Street 
Marshall MN 56258-0477 
(507) 537-7000, Ext. 200 
ryant@marshallmn.com 

Captain Tim Carney 
Commander, Youth Services Bureau 
Sarasota County Sheriff's Office 
Suite 106 
1950 Landings Boulevard 
Sarasota FL 34231-3331 
(941) 927-4190/861-5800 
tcarney@scgov.net 


Captain Terry Holderness 
Commander, Special Operations 
Fontana Police Department 
17005 Upland Avenue 
Fontana CA 92335 
(909) 350-7740 
tholderness@fontana.org 

Sergeant Richard Davies 
Training Sergeant 
Pine Bluff Police Department 
200 East 8th Avenue 
Pine Bluff Arkansas 71601 
(870) 850-2402 
rgd615@cei.net 

Jim Marshall, School Resource Officer 
Marshall Division of Public Safety 
611 West Main Street 
Marshall MN 56258-0477 
Jmarshal@marshallmn.com 

Glenn Brunet, School Resource Officer 
Terrebone Parish Sheriff's Office 
Suite 121 
Main Courthouse Annex 
7856 Main Street 
Houma LA 70360 
(985) 868-7850 (school) 
(985) 876-2500 (TPSO) 
gbeachpeople@mobiletel.com 

James Muir 
Former Assistant Superintendent of Staff Operations 
School District 54 
524 East Schaumburg Road 
Schaumburg IL 60194-3510 
(847) 885-1651 


Robyn Marinelli-Haff 
Supervisor of Student Services 
The School Board of Sarasota County 
1960 Landings Boulevard 
Sarasota FL 34231-3331 
(941) 927-4036 
Robyn_Marinelli@srqit.sarasota.k12.fl.us 

Wade Nelson 
Principal 
Jane Addams Junior High School 
700 South Springinsguth Road 
Schaumburg IL 60193 
(847) 301-2110 
WardNelson@sd54.k12.il.us 

Assistant Principal Cynthia Celander 
East Campus Learning Alternatives 
401 South Saratoga Street 
Marshall MN 56258 
(507) 537-6210 
Cynthia.Celander@marshall.k12.mn.us 


Appendix A 

How the Nine Programs Were Selected for Site Visits 

We started with an initial pool of 130 possible sites suggested by the COPS Office, 
staff of the National Association of School Resource Officers (NASRO) and Corbin 
& Associates, and State SRO Association officers. We also included in the pool 
program runners-up in the selection of sites for inclusion in the National 
Assessment of School Resource Officer Programs (see appendix B). 

From these programs, we developed a list of 23 programs that we telephoned for 
basic program information in order to screen them as possible site visit candidates. 
We selected the 23 programs for one or more of the following reasons: 

(1) One or more knowledgeable individuals recommended them. 

(2) We talked with the program coordinators and secured enough initial informa 
tion to decide they should be included in the screening. 

(3) The COPS Office suggested the programs might have comprehensive 
practices. 

(4) The programs provided diversity in terms of number of SROs, agency type, 
and geographic location and size. 

We used three criteria for deciding which 9 programs and alternatives to 
recommend to the COPS Office for site visits: 

(1) The site appeared to have made a comprehensive and determined effort to 
implement procedures in at least several of the seven topic areas. 

(2) The site had written documentation in each area in which it appeared to 
have comprehensive procedures. 

(3) The site provided diversity in terms of: 
 number of SROs, 
 when the program began, 
 geographic location, and 
 type of participating law enforcement agency (municipal, county, school 
district, State). 

The report incorporates information from the following six additional programs: 

Broken Arrow, Oklahoma 
Jefferson City, Missouri 
Lakewood, Colorado 
Scottsdale, Arizona 
Virginia Beach, Virginia 
Whittier, California. 


Appendix B 

The 19 National Assessment Sites and How They Were Selected 

Abt Associates conducted a National Assessment of School Resource Officer (SRO) 
Programs ("National Assessment") through a cooperative agreement with the 
National Institute of Justice (NIJ) supported by the Office of Community Oriented 
Policing Services (the COPS Office). 

The purpose of the National Assessment was to identify what program "models" had 
been implemented, how programs had been implemented, and what lessons they 
might have for other programs. To obtain the information, Abt Associates and three 
subcontractors visited and telephoned participants from 19 SRO programs. 

We selected the 19 programs through a rigorous screening process designed to 
include four different types of programs in terms of size of sponsoring law 
enforcement agency and how long the program had been in operation. 

The 19 Programs Included in the National Assessment 

Large Established Programs (5) 
Chula Vista, California 
Pine Bluff, Arkansas  
Schaumburg, Illinois 
Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana 
Tucson, Arizona 

Large New Programs (4) 
Albuquerque, New Mexico 
Oklahoma County, Oklahoma
Stark County, Ohio 
West Orange, New Jersey 

Small Established Programs (5) 
all in North Carolina 
Boone 
Garner 
Lenoir County 
Montgomery County 
Pasquotank County 

Small New Programs (5) 
all in Kentucky 
names not identified to preserve confidentiality 

Additional information about the National Assessment, including the process for 
selecting the sites, may be found in "National Assessment of School Resource Officer 
Programs: Final Project History," available from the National Institute of Justice Web 
site, www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/. 


Chapter 2: Recruiting SROs 
A program's first step after signing a memorandum of understanding or contract 
between the law enforcement agency and school district is to recruit candidates for 
the SRO position(s). 

Approaches to Recruitment 

Different law enforcement agencies in the study have used different approaches to 
recruiting candidates, but three principal guidelines stand out: 

(1) Do not assign officers involuntarily to be SROs; instead, solicit volunteers 
for the position. 

(2) Choose approaches for posting the assignment carefully, generally using 
more than one method. 

(3) Provide information about the position and screening process with the 
posting. 

Make the Position Voluntary 

Not all patrol officers and road deputies can be effective as SROs because programs 
have found that officers working in the schools need a number of skills and 
personality characteristics that are very different than those required for patrol duty 
(chapter 3, "Screening SROs," identifies the abilities and personality traits that SROs 
need). As a result, programs that have assigned officers to be SROs involuntarily 
have typically found that, although a few officers assigned to the position grow to 
enjoy and become good at it, most of them do a poor job because they do not have 
the ability or desire for the position. By contrast, programs report that allowing 
officers to volunteer to serve as SROs results in a higher level of commitment 
to the position. As John Morella, an SRO in West Orange, New Jersey, said, "It 
should be a volunteer positionthe officers should want to be there [in the schools]." 

Choose Posting Options Carefullyand Use More Than One Approach 

The programs studied for this report use one or more of six methods for recruiting 
candidates: 

 e-mail;
 mailboxes;
 roll call;
 bulletin boards; 
 open houses and trainings; and 
 personal invitations.


Each of these approaches has its advantages and disadvantages, but obviously 
departments should choose the methods that are most likely to reach all eligible 
officers in their particular agencies. 

E-Mail 

When officers have in-cruiser computers, sending an e-mail can reach every patrol 
officer. For example, the Delaware State Police (as it does for all new positions for 
which it is recruiting internally) e-mails a position announcement prepared by the 
SRO program's administrative sergeant to every trooper's in-car laptop computer. 
The Garner, North Carolina, Police Department also e-mails the entire department. 
However, e-mail is effective only if it is the primary method of communication within 
the department. For example, because patrol officers in one department have 
access to e-mail only at the station house, they seldom read their e-mails. As a 
result, the department relies on other methods of notifying officers when an SRO 
position opens up. 

Mailboxes 

Mailboxes are often the most effective approach in departments that distribute 
paychecks and important agency news that way. The Lakewood, Colorado, Police 
Department distributes an official hard-copy memo to supervisors and officers when 
it is seeking an SRO for a specific school assignment. 

Roll Call 

A significant benefit to announcing position openings at roll call is that current 
SROs or program supervisors can make informal brief presentations describing the 
program and then answer questions. However, departments should not rely 
exclusively on roll calls to recruit for the program. 

 There is often limited time at roll call to ask questions. In addition, according to 
one program supervisor, "During roll call, the information is buried with other 
announcements and gets lost. Furthermore, according to Sergeant William "Joe" 
Cline, a supervisor of the Chula Vista program, "Many officers will be hesitant to 
ask about the program for fear that other officers will kid them for expressing 
interest about becoming 'Kiddie Cops'there is no privacy at roll call. However, 
I'm hopeful that this sentiment will continue to diminish as everyone continues to 
recognize the huge benefits the program has proven to be for our communities 
and the kids." 

 Some officers may miss the announcement because they are sick, at training, in 
court, or on vacation at the time the opening is announced. 


Bulletin Boards 

Because many departments advertise all new positions on their internal bulletin 
boards, their personnel regularly scan everything that is posted there. As a result, 
although the Tucson, Arizona, program e-mails notices of openings, bulletin board 
postings are more effective because it is easier for officers to walk by and take a look 
at them than to get on the computer and take the time to find the job openings 
website. 

Open Houses and Trainings 

One program conducts an open house during different times of the year and arranges 
for school officials, as well as SROs, to explain to interested officers the nature of the 
SRO position and its importance to the agency, school, and local community. 
Agencies can also take advantage of times when patrol and other officers are a 
"captive audience" to promote the program. 

 Programs can arrange to have a separate block of instruction during the entry-level 
police academy training on the SRO position and its importance. 

 Agencies can set aside an hour during annual in-service training to describe the 
programincluding inviting an enthusiastic SRO to discuss why he or she finds the 
position so rewarding and to answer questions. 

 Captain Curtis Main of the Boone, North Carolina, Police Department changed the 
agency's field training officer program so that all new recruits spend 2 weeks of the 
14-week program shadowing the SRO in the high school. 

Personal Invitations to Apply 

Some programs invite specific officers or deputies who are thought to be appropriate 
for the position to apply. 

 Supervisors in the Sarasota County, Florida, program use personal relationships to 
actively recruit candidates who they think might be good SROs because the 
supervisors feel the officers have the right personality or because they know the 
officers have children at home or are involved in youth activities. 

 In Salem, New Hampshire, SRO Steve Malisos reported that "Kevin Nolan [the first 
SRO] recruited me. He said, 'Would you be interested?' I had been on patrol for 10 
years, and Kevin had a hunch that I was ready to make a change [and felt sure 
Malisos would be the right person for the job]." 


 The program supervisor in Jefferson City, Missouri, meets informally with carefully 
selected officers in hallways or luncheonettes to encourage them to apply, asking, 
"Have you ever thought about coming to our unit? If so, are you interested in 
working with our youth?" 

 In Lakewood, Colorado, Sergeant Patricia Heffner asks the SROs to suggest 
other officers who might be good for the position and then invites them to apply. 

 Captain Curtis Main reviews the daily logs maintained by trainees during the field 
training block when new recruits shadow an SRO (see above) to identify rookies 
who might be interested in and appropriate for the position in the future. 

The Whittier, California, Police Department, started its recruitment efforts for its 
program with officers who were already providing school security either by 
moonlighting as security guards or working overtime for the police department 
through a contract with the schools. Similarly, some program supervisors ask their 
Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) officers, who are already teaching in 
the schools, if they would like to apply. 

In contrast, Sergeant Jerry Thommes, the police supervisor of the Schaumburg, 
Illinois, program, deliberately does not invite particular officers to apply because he 
feels that could discourage other candidates who may feel they are at a 
disadvantage. To avoid the perception and reality of being unfair, programs 
should not rely on personal invitations as their only recruitment approach. 
While many very small departments understandably rely heavily on word of mouth 
to advertise, in addition to being unreliable the approach can result in some officers 
deciding that the selection process was unfair. 

In a variation of the personal invitation approach, some departments contact 
officers who applied for the position previously but, although qualified, were not 
selected (see the box "Keep a Pool of Qualified Candidates"). 


Keep a Pool of Qualified Candidates 

A few programs keep a list of candidates who, after screening for a previous SRO 
opening, were found to be qualified but were not selected. When positions open up 
again, program supervisors contact these officers to encourage them to reapply. 

 The Schaumburg Police Department keeps screened and eligible candidates who 
were not selected in an eligibility pool for six months. 

 Candidates for SRO positions in the Garner, North Carolina, Police Department 
who qualified but were not selected are placed on an eligibility list for the following 
year and given first choice if a position opens up. 

Some departments help rejected but qualified candidates prepare for the next cycle 
of applications. 

 The program coordinator in Lakewood asks the supervisors of candidates who are 
ineligible because they do not have sufficient experience on the force to permit the 
officers to observe an SRO in the schools so they can decide whether to reapply in 
the future and, if so, to have a better idea about how to be successful candidates. 

 For qualified applicants who were not selected, Captain Curtis Main of the Boone, 
North Carolina, Police Department organizes training on topics such as crime 
prevention. He also arranges for them to work ball games or other extracurricular 
events so they have a better feel for the job, will be more desirable candidates in 
the future, and will be better prepared, if they get the assignment, for going into the 
schools. 

 The Garner Police Department's program provides candidates who qualify as 
SROs, but were outscored by other applicants, with their final screening results, as 
well as an analysis of their performance and strategies, so they can improve their 
scores if they reapply. 


Using Multiple Approaches 

In general, except in very small departments, using more than one recruitment 
approach is most likely to ensure that all potential candidates learn about the 
opportunity to apply. For example, the Chula Vista program supervisors 
announce each opening through e-mail and hard copy in every eligible officer's 
mailbox, and they also ask patrol sergeants to read and distribute copies of the 
announcement at roll calls. The West Orange Police Department announces 
openings using mailboxes and line-ups; the Oklahoma County Sheriff's Office uses 
bulletin boards and line-ups; and the Fontana, California, Police Department relies 
on bulletin boards and e-mails. 

Provide Information With the Posting 

To reduce the number of inappropriate candidates, position announcements should: 

 provide basic eligibility criteria (see chapter 3, "Screening SROs"); 
 describe the screening process applicants will have to undergo; and 
 identify important features of the job (e.g., teaching, after-hours work). 

For example, the Garner Police Department posting lists the following requirements 
for the position: 

 two years of service; 

 no disciplinary actions in the past 12 months before applying; 

 above average score on the department's previous performance review; 

 a certain number of training points (e.g.,1 point for public speaking, 1 point for 
health and wellness activities, 3 points for community policing); and 

 one self-study research project of at least 30 hours completed. 

The Schaumburg Police Department's announcement identifies 14 responsibilities 
officers will be expected to fulfill, beginning not with law enforcement but with 
education, such as "Teach lessons in gang/violence resistance and drug and 
alcohol resistance to all Junior High students." The Chula Vista position 
announcement makes clear that applicants need to be willing to "[p]rovide gang 
awareness training to upper grades and 911 training to lower grades, as well as 
possess, among other skills: 

 ability to prioritize workload, 
 ability to interact with school officials, and 
 knowledge of mentoring principles. 


Incentives 

There are two types of incentives for becoming an SRO: those that are inherent in 
the position and those that the law enforcement agency can offer to "sweeten the 
pot." 

Publicize the Incentives Provided by the Nature of the Position 

SROs and supervisors report there are four features of being an SRO that are 
particularly attractive to some officers. 

(1) Having weekends and holidays off, and working only days. According 
to one SRO, "So many officers applied [in his department] because it is an 
opportunity to get away from rotating shifts and to get on the day shift 
permanently." In the Palm Beach School District Police Department, "A 
major incentive to recruitment is the reduced duty year SROs have 
[compared with other officers]only 202 work days," according to chief 
James Kelly. 

(2) Working with kids. Time and again, SROs report they always wanted to 
work with kids as the major reason they sought the position. 

(3) Being able to make a difference in the lives of kids by helping them to 
stay out of trouble or turn their lives around. SRO Jos Cuellar with the 
Palm Beach County, Florida, School District Police Department said, "I've 
always been interested in working with kids because of the opportunity to 
save some along the way. On the street, it's a revolving doorthe same 
drunks and prostitutes. In school, you can save a few kids. At the first 
graduation I went to as an SRO, three kids who'd I'd arrested thanked me 
for helping them out." 

(4) Being independent, free from excessively close supervision. For James 
Wilkerson, an SRO with the Palm Beach County program, "One of the 
biggest advantages of the position is not being micromanagedyou're left 
alone but not abandoned." 

Several other features of the SRO position also motivate some officers to apply for 
the position. 

(1) Receiving constant reinforcement from many administrators and 
faculty who, as one SRO supervisor said, "roll out the red carpet for the 
officers in terms of welcoming them warmly." 


(2) Experiencing new and challenging work. "Patrol officers are locked into a 
beat and radio; SROs have more flexibility and can be more creative," one 
supervisor said. 

(3) Handling cases from start to finish. According to SRO Steve Malisos in 
Salem, "Unlike a patrolman, you get to follow up on every case. When I 
heard that there were kids in the [school] building who were producing and 
selling fake New Hampshire driver licenses, I found the suspects, drew up 
search warrants for their homes, seized a computer in their houses, and 
testified in court." 

(4) Gaining opportunities for extra training. Some officers are attracted to 
the extra training SROs receive in many departmentsfor example, the 
Scottsdale, Arizona, Police Department provides training to its SROs beyond 
what a patrol officer would receive because they need to be able to conduct 
investigations from start to finish on their own. When recruiting for SRO 
positions, the department's program supervisor said he highlights the fact 
that SROs receive more training than any other assignment in the department 
because other positions are more specialized and the training, therefore, is 
more targeted. 

(5) Becoming detectives. In some departments, officers automatically become 
detectives in the agencies' juvenile bureau when they become SROs. "Some 
officers," Detective John Jameson, a former Schaumburg SRO, reported, "like 
detective status." 

(6) Gaining an advantage in getting promoted. 
 According to Jim Marshall, the only SRO in the Marshall, Minnesota, 
Police Department, "Being an SRO can be a positive for promotion because 
it shows how you can implement programs on your own and not be super 
vised every day. This is also a high visibility position with the media and 
parentsso you're on the chief's radar. I thought about all this before I 
applied for the position and felt it would help my career." 

 According to SRO Steve Malisos, "As a means of career advancement, 
some officers want to experience working in several positions in the 
department. In addition, it can help you because you have to multi-task and 
wear lots of hats. So you can show people [in the department] you have 
different abilities. You develop skills in community relations, public speaking 
with PTAs and in the classroom, giving advice to principals, and dealing with 
every crime here that you see on the streetassault, theft, drugs, alcohol." 


The Fontana, California, Program Builds a Better Mousetrap 

Fontana's program supervisor, along with several SROs, believe that the well-run 
nature of the program, the respect it is accorded in the schools and the community, 
and its multiple local and national awards for excellence are the best incentives for 
attracting candidatesan example of the clich, "build a better mousetrap and 
people will beat a path to your door." As a command staff person said, "If we do an 
excellent job and make sure people know about it, everything else [recruitment and 
funding] will take care of itself." 

Departments are likely to attract more candidates to the positions if they describe 
these benefits to becoming an SRO in their postings. For example, in order to 
attract candidates, the Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Police Department's posting of 
the position (see the appendix) notes that the position offers: 

 daytime hours; 
 weekends and holidays off; 
 bidding the patrol shift SROs want to work during the summer; 
 training opportunities; 
 working in an environment in which they are welcomed and held in high esteem; 
 working independently; 
 being proactive; and 
 investigating and following through with cases the same way a detective does. 

Consider Offering Additional Incentives 

In some departments, few officers have responded to postings. No one at all 
volunteered for the position in one small program. In another jurisdiction, the 
number of candidates declined from 18 to 4 after patrol officers saw that SROs 
were required to teach and work one-on-one with students. As a result, while not a 
common practice,2 a few of the 34 programs in the study provide additional 
incentives to attract applicants. 

(1) Take-home cruisers. In the Tucson Police Department, only SROs get to 
take their cruisers home every night. Although all deputies in the Sarasota 
County Sheriff's Office have take-home cruisers, SROs get an unmarked 
take-home car. The experience of the Scottsdale Police Department 
suggests the motivating power of offering take-home cruisers: when the 
agency stopped the practice, it noticed a decline in the number of officers 
applying for SRO vacancies. 

2Among the 658 SROs and SRO supervisors polled in the 2002 National Association of School 
Resource Officer (NASRO) School Resource Officer Survey, only 19 percent reported receiving 
additional benefits. See www.nasro.com. 


Taking their vehicles home benefits SROs in two ways: 

 SROs save time by not having to travel to the stationhouse to pick 
up and return a vehicle at the beginning and end of each day. 

 SROs save money by not having to use their personal vehicles to 
commute to work. One SRO estimated that a take-home car could 
save an officer between $3,000-$5,000 a year on gas, repairs, and 
liability insurance. 

(2) Extra pay. A number of programs provide a salary stipend for SROs. In 
Sarasota County and Schaumburg the officers receive an automatic $1,300 
and $1,600 bonus, respectively, because they become detectives. Four 
other programs offer a bonus of five percent of the SRO's base pay. 

Other programs have made use of still other incentives. 

 A consultant hired by one SRO program suggested that providing the SROs with 
mountain bikes would attract officers to the position. As a result, the program 
bought several bikes and then sent one SRO for training in how to use them so 
he could in turn train the other SROs in their proper use. 

 In Tennessee, Captain Nathan Johns, the Maury County program supervisor, 
emphasizes the "team" element of the SRO program to potential candidates. 
Many of the current SROs have been with the program since it began in 1998, 
which has helped create a bond within the group. The department deliberately 
fosters this esprit de corps by sending all the SROs each year to the annual 
Tennessee School Resource Officers conference and by hosting required weekly 
meetings for all SROs, supervisors, and the sheriff. 

Some programs provide a package of incentives. The Sarasota County Sheriff's 
Office offers candidates: 

 a stepping stone to promotion in the department since the program is one of its 
most prized assignments (the current sheriff was the agency's second SRO); 
 detective status; 
 $1,300 extra in detective pay; 
 an unmarked take-home cruiser; 
 increased opportunities for paid overtime; and 
 opportunities for extra training. 


When programs do not have enough applicants, it makes sense to offer incentives 
to avoid the alternative of assigning officers to be SROs involuntarily. The Tucson 
Police Department's program found that introducing two common incentives was 
effective in increasing its applicant pool (see the box "Tucson's Incentives Resulted 
in More Applicants"). 

Tucson's Incentives Resulted in More Applicants 

Several years ago, very few officers were applying to be SROs in the Tucson Police 
Departmentfirst established in 1962because of the stigma associated with being 
a "Kiddie Cop" and the need to learn "nonpolice" information (e.g., child 
development) and new skills (especially, teaching). When the rest of the department 
went to four 10-hour days, it became even more difficult to recruit SROs, who had to 
work five days a week. As a result, the department instituted two incentives: 

 providing a five percent increase in SRO base pay; and 
 giving SROs take-home cruisers. 

At the same time, the department extended its four 10-hours-a-day week for patrol 
officers to SROs, giving them either every Monday or Friday offa long weekend. 
According to supervisor Sergeant Steve Belda, "All three are [effective] incentives. I 
have heard it said that 'If it were not for the benefitsgolden handcuffsI'd leave 
this unit.' They have a lot to do with getting officers interested. The take-homes save 
them money having to maintain and buy gas for their personal cars. SROs also 
receive a five percent salary increase when coming into the SRO Unit." 


Neutralizing Disincentives 

Many officers are discouraged from applying to become SROs because they feel 
the position has disadvantages. Agencies can try to increase the number of 
applicants by eliminating or softening what officers feel are disincentives to 
becoming SROs. The discussion below identifies the most commonly perceived 
disincentives and methods of counteracting them. 

Teaching. Many officers feel anxiouseven terrifiedabout teaching in front 
of a class. As a result, according to Detective John Jameson, a former SRO in 
Schaumburg, "Having to manage a classroom scares people from applying." Jim 
Marshall agreed: "Some cops are afraid to teachthat's a big part of the problem 
[of officers not wanting to be SROs]." 

 Neutralize: Tell officers they will be trained to teach before they go into the 
schools, or shortly afterwards. Have an experienced SRO explain how he or she 
was nervous initially about teaching but came to be good at it and enjoy it. 

"Kiddie Cop" image. Some officers are concerned that other officersor they 
themselvessee SROs as a not doing "real" police work. 

 Neutralize: Three departments have taken steps to eliminate the "babysitter" 
myth. 

Captain Curtis Main of the Boone Police Department tells officers about the 
number of felony arrests SROs make. In addition, as noted above, Main 
arranged for every new recruit to the department to shadow the SRO in the 
high school to see how much real police work they do. 

The Lakewood Police Department periodically distributes a bulletin (see 
chapter 4, "Minimizing Turnover") designed in part to educate patrol officers to 
the serious crimes SROs address in the schools. 

A police department in Kentucky reassigns its SROs to regular patrol during the 
summer to help prevent other officers from misperceiving the SROs as "not 
real cops." 


Lack of mobility. While SROs have more independence than most patrol officers 
and considerable flexibility in how they schedule their day, the job can be 
confining. According to Captain Curtis Main, "Some officers get claustrophobic 
focusing only on a school building and parking lot." 

 Neutralize. Explain that many SROs end up leaving campus several times during 
the week to transport kids to the juvenile detention center, attend court, back up 
another SRO in an emergency, visit homes where there is a truancy problem, or 
travel to their feeder schools. Point out that, while confined to the campus, SROs 
experience a tremendous amount of varied stimulation, including counseling kids, 
coordinating with administrators, handling parents, breaking up fights, investigating 
crimes, making arrests, and participating in volunteer endeavors such as coaching. 

Hard work. Sergeant Dennis Bogdan, a program supervisor in West Orange, says 
that the hard work involvedthe demands and expectations of the jobcan be a 
disincentive. For example, "You can't just tell war stories in class; you need 
meaningful instruction with an organized lesson plan." Lieutenant Greg Harrison of 
the Lenoir County Sheriff's Office in North Carolina warns candidates that "working in 
the schools is hard workyou're not sitting in a car for eight hours like in patrol." 

 Neutralize: Agree that SROs work very hard, but point out how stimulating, varied, 
and challenging the work is dealing with all kinds of people in all kinds of situations, 
resulting in satisfaction in doing a good job on so many fronts. Explain how 
supervisors will be flexible about providing time off. For example, if SROs in 
Sarasota County need to take care of a sick child, Captain Tim Carney, who 
supervises program, lets them go home. 

Working after hours. According to Captain Curtis Main, some officers are 
discouraged from applying "because the extracurricular activities [SROs must 
participate in, such as athletic events, dances] make the days long." Captain Nathan 
Johns in Maury County said, "Particularly if they have children, the SROs' schedule 
can be a disincentive because the extracurricular activities make the schedule during 
the school year very hectic and prevent SROs from attending their own families' 
events." 

 Neutralize. Find ways of compensating SROs for their long hours. 

To allow some flexibility in SRO schedules, Maury County assigns each SRO a 
back-up SRO to cover events and activities that conflict with important personal 
commitments. 

Captain Curtis Main counters the long days by allowing officers to build up 
compensatory time and then, combined with their regular vacation, take off July 
and half of August. The chief agreed to the policy as long as the SROs would 
come into the department periodically to check for messages. 


Isolation from the department. Some potential candidates anticipateor have 
been toldthat, as SROs, they may get disconnected from the rest of the agency 
and miss the squad camaraderie and knowing what is going on in the 
department. 

 Neutralize: While SROs who go back to being beat officers during the summer 
can renew their contacts with other officers, programs have found other ways to 
reduce SROs' feelings of isolation. 

As noted above, Captain Johns in Maury County emphasizes the "team" 
element of the SRO program to potential candidates, pointing out that the unit 
has developed an internal esprit de corpsincluding weekly meetings with the 
sheriffthat helps reduce their sense of separation from the rest of the 
department. 

Program supervisors in the Chula Vista Police Department require SROs to go 
to the day shift patrol roll call every Wednesday morning. In addition, SROs 
supplement patrol on critical calls and are encouraged to work patrol shifts on 
overtime when there are shortages on patrol. 

Jim Marshall reported that "I decided to come to the office at the beginning and 
end of every day" to stay in touch with other officers. SRO Kiel Higgins in 
Albuquerque, New Mexico, works off-duty with patrol officers every Friday and 
Saturday from 9:00 p.m. to 3:00 a.m. to target parties. A few SROs stay with 
or jointhe SWAT team to keep in touch with other officers. 

The Lakewood Police Department's in-house SRO program bulletin has 
prompted discussions between the SROs and other department officers about 
at-risk youth and trends in student misconduct. 

Dead-end position. Some SROs feel the position will stall their careers because it 
involves working with kids and is isolating. In some departments, this may be the 
case. 

 Neutralize: Make sure department administrators realize why the program should 
be considered a plus for SROs seeking promotionfor example, as one police 
chief said, "More than being a representative of the chief during a traffic stop, 
these officers really make an impact on the chief's or sheriff's tenure." High 
ranking administrators should make clear that the position is a valued assignment 
in the department by bringing it up as a qualification when SROs apply for 
promotions (the grapevine will take care of making sure other officers find this 
out). 


Some Disincentives Are Unique to Specific Departments 

Programs need to find out whether features of their particular law enforcement 
agency discourage officers from applying to become SROs and then eliminate these 
features. 

 As every police officer and sheriff's deputy knows, in some departments there are 
units run by commanders whom no one gets along with. When one police 
department had to appoint officers to become SROs because no one applied, it 
discovered that the program supervisors had a reputation for being difficult to work 
for. When the department replaced the supervisors, the unit became known as a 
good place to work and received more than enough applicants for each SRO 
position. 

 In Fontana, because SROs must investigate allegations of sexual abuse and 
molestation that occur in schools, some officers who anticipate being 
uncomfortable handling these cases will not apply for openings in the program. 
One response is to explain to potential applicants how infrequently these cases 
may occur. 


Image of Sioux Falls Police Department Interoffice Memo about SRO position


Chapter 3: Screening SROs 

As with many occupations, the qualifications and the personality of the SRO 
are likely to make or break the program according to most of the program 
participants interviewed for this report. As a result, they say, the single most 
important component of an SRO program may be staffing it properly by (1) 
developing written criteria for selecting qualified officers and then (2) 
carefully screening applicants using these criteria. 

Screening Criteria 

There are two types of criteria for selecting SROs: essential criteria that all 
programs should apply to all candidates and optional criteria that some programs 
may wish to adopt. 

Apply Eight Essential Criteria to Every Candidate 

Program personnel largely agree that only officers who meet the following eight 
criteria should be selected as SROs: 

(1) likes kids, cares about and wants to work with kids, and is able to work with 
kids; 

(2) has the right demeanor and "people skills," including good 
communication skills; 

(3) has experience as a patrol officer or road deputy; 

(4) is able to work independently with little supervision; 

(5) is exceptionally dependable; 

(6) is willing to work very hard; 

(7) isor can becomean effective teacher; and 

(8) has above average integrity. 

Programs should apply these criteria to each candidate for every SRO position 
regardless of the school's grade level, size, student body, and culture, or other 
considerations. 

That said, when no one or only one or two eligible officers apply for the position (for 
example, in very small agencies), departments may not be able to require 
candidates to meet all these criteria because the applicant pool is too small. For 
example, one program supervisor said that, when there are not a lot of applicants 
for the opening, he accepts a young officer without the required patrol experience if 
the officer really wants to work with kids. 


In other cases, officers who do not meet all the criteria can still become effective 
SROs if the program trains them thoroughly before (or shortly after) they go 
on the joband then supervises them closely. The matrix below indicates the 
characteristics every SRO should have before being accepted for the position and 
those characteristics that are also necessary but which training before (or shortly 
after) going on the job, followed by close supervision, may be able to instill in them. 
However, a better approach is to improve the recruitment process, as discussed in 
the previous chapter, so that additional officers who have all these qualifications 
apply for the position. 

Criteria Applicants Must Meet Before They Are Selected as SROs Versus
Criteria They Can Meet Afterwards With Training and Supervision

Absolute Requirements 
 wants to work with kids 
 has the right demeanor and "people skills" 
 has experience as a patrol officer 
 has above average integrity 

Attitudes and Skills That Can Be Taught or Instilled 
 is able to work independently 
 is exceptionally dependable
 is willing to work very hard 
 is able to teach 

The text below discusses the rationale for applying these eight screening criteria. 

(1) Likes kids, cares about and wants to work with kids, and is able to 
work with kids 

Not surprisingly, everyone we interviewed agreed that this is the single most 
essential qualification for becoming an SRO. However, some program participants 
emphasized that wanting to work with kids is not good enoughSROs have to be 
able to work with kids. John Morella, an SRO with the West Orange, New Jersey, 
Police Department, tied the need to be able to work with kids back to one of his 
department's objectives for the program: "You have to like and care about kidsthe 
whole idea of the program is to break down barriers between cops and kids." 


Some supervisors take into consideration whether a candidate has children of his 
or her own because they consider this an indication that the person may be "child 
centered" and because parents have presumably learned how to communicate with 
kids. As Kiel Higgins, an SRO in Albuquerque, New Mexico, said, "It's a plus [in 
being an effective SRO] if you have kids of your own." 

(2) Has the right demeanor and "people skills," and good communication 
skills 

Program participants agree that SROs need three types of related personality traits 
and skills in terms of to how they interact with other people. First, SROs need the 
right demeanor, including being: 

 calm or having an even temperament (not yelling or overreacting); 

 approachable (not intimidating or aloofsee the box "SROs Have to Be 
Approachable"); 

 able to put up gracefully with kids' foolish talk and nonsense (not getting 
defensive); and 

 patient (not getting exasperated and annoyed). 

At times, having the right demeanor requires SROs to exercise a great deal of self 
restraint: 

 Cynthia Celander, an assistant principal in Marshall, Minnesota: "SROs need a 
sense of humor and should not take kids' comments personally. SROs can't 
overreact to every little thing kids say; SROs need a sense of balance." 

 Sergeant Paul Marchand, the program supervisor with the Salem, New 
Hampshire, Police Department: "SROs are a special breed; you have to take a lot 
of guff. You need a temperament that doesn't get easily fired up and has 
patience." 

SROs need to have the proper demeanor not only to accomplish their mission with 
kids but also because the officers are highly visible when they perform their jobs: 
"Demeanorthis is important," the Oklahoma County program supervisor in the 
sheriff's office, Sergeant Rochelle Thompson, said, "because SROs are constantly 
in the community's eyes in dealing with their kids." 


SROs Have to Be Approachable 

Many program participants make clear that SROs who maintain the stereotypical 
authoritarian "cop" demeanor in dealing with the public will not succeed as SROs 
unless they change their behavior.
 
 Kiel Higgins, SRO, Albuquerque, New Mexico: "A lot of cops are stern and abrupt 
and harsh; SROs need to be caring to work with kids." 

 Steve Malisos, Salem, New Hampshire, SRO: "They can't act like a copyou can't 
be Mr. Authority. The students will not open up to you, thereby jeopardizing a 
valuable information resource." 

One reason SROs need to avoid being distant or harsh with students is that the 
officers' encounters with kids are typically not one-time occurrences. SRO Derrick 
Berry with the Palm Beach County, Florida, School District Police Department said, 
"The most common problem with new SROs is that, on the road, they deal with a 
situation and leave and never see the person again. But kids come back to school 
the next day, so SROs need to talk and carry through with them on an ongoing 
basis. They have to be delicate, not blunt." 

A major complement to having the right demeanor to work with kids is the ability to 
work with school administrators. Why? 

 Most principals consider their schools to be their domain. 

 School administrators generally see their role as one of ensuring the education of 
their students and tend to regard the police officer role as one of punishment. 

 SROs work on a daily, even hourly, basis with school administrators. 

As a result, SROs need (1) tact, (2) persistence, and (3) flexibility to be able to 
work with principals and assistant principals who may be reluctant to share 
authority with anyone or simply concerned initially about sharing control with "a 
cop." 

Closely related to being able to work well with administrators is the importance of 
functioning as a team player rather thanas SROs were used to doing on patrol 
"running the show" by themselves. As Detective John Jameson, a former SRO in 
Schaumburg, Illinois, said, "You have to be a team player. You have to be 
comfortable with school administrators and teachers and support staff. Cops 
usually deal with things on the street entirely on their own; in schools, you have to 
work with other people." 


Being a Team Player Does Not Mean Always Giving In 

Being a team player does not mean the SRO must always accede to the wishes of 
others. SROs must also be able to be firm when the need arises. As Glenn Brunet, 
an SRO in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, made clear, "The SRO needs to be kind 
but will stand his ground when he needs to." Brunet, after obtaining his supervisor's 
approval, once had to threaten to arrest a principal for interfering with a police officer 
in the performance of his duty when the administrator was physically barring Brunet 
from arresting a student. 

SROs also need to be able to deal with parents in a variety of situations. Cynthia 
Celander, assistant principal in Marshall, pointed out several types of interactions 
SROs need to be able to have with parents: 

 "Being able to communicate with parents to diffuse tense situations and present 
sensitive issues that can mortify them." (Her SRO found two students having sex 
in a car on a side street and called their parents after bringing the students to 
Celander.) 

 "Explaining how parents can cope with legal consequences of their kids' behavior, 
and knowing what programs and other resources are available to help them and 
their children." 

(3) Has experience as a patrol officer or road deputy 

Almost every program assigns as SROs only officers who have spent at least a few 
years on the road. For example, the Tucson, Arizona, Police Department requires 
SROs to have three years of continuous service with the department. This 
experience is important for a number of reasons. 

 Glenn Brunet, an SRO in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, said, "You can't assign 
rookies as SROs because the kids will test you, and SROs need answers. You 
need at least 2-3 years' experience on patrol handling calls on the street because 
. . . you get experience dealing with people in crisis." 

 According to a former Tucson program supervisor, SRO applicants need patrol 
experience in part "so that they've seen what it's like to get hassled by the public 
and be able to respond appropriately." 

 John Morella, an SRO in West Orange, added that SROs "need a few years' 
experience on the road so they understand the workings of the police department, 
because kids inquire about what it's like to be a cop or ask for advice." 


Programs should not only require SROs to have spent time in patrol but to have 
done well on patrolas Sergeant Jerry Thommes, the program supervisor in 
Schaumburg, Illinois, said, "You want SROs who were good cops. For example, 
they know how to investigate a case and write a good report." 

One program supervisor believes that correctional officers with no policing 
experience can make excellent SROs and can perform even better than 
experienced patrol officers or road deputies (see the box "A Dissenting Opinion 
About the Need for Policing Experience"). While this was a minority view and 
applies of course only to programs run by sheriff's departments that operate a jail, 
in some respects seasoned correctional officers have had important relevant 
experience that patrol officers have not gone through, including taking constant guff 
day in and day out, learning to live and communicate with the same people every 
shift, and working cooped up all day in the same building. 

(4) Is able to work independently 

While most patrol officers function largely without direct supervision and separated 
from other patrol officers, SROs are particularly isolated. In part, they are out of 
sight (literally-inside the school building) and therefore out of mind. Usually, they do 
not even appear for roll call. They are also isolated from the department inasmuch 
as their direct (if unofficial) supervisor for day-by-day activity is a principal or 
assistant principal, not the police or sheriff's department SRO supervisor. As a 
result, SROs must be capable ofand comfortable withworking alone, with 
minimal contact with the department. 

Program participants used different terminology to describe this needed trait, 
including being "proactive," "self-motivated," and a "self-starter," and "taking the 
initiative" to do what is needed. 

 Sergeant Richard Davies, former SRO, Pine Bluff, Arkansas: "[You need] 
someone who needs little supervisionnot someone who is going to pick up the 
phone all the time to ask the sergeant, 'I have a suicidal kid, should I call in 
mental health?' Of course you do." 

 Sergeant Dennis Bogdan, program supervisor, West Orange: "They need maturity 
and reliability, because they receive less supervision than patrol officers do; they 
need to be able to handle tasks on their own. They must also be self-starters. 
Supervisors can't monitor them every hour of the day." 


A Dissenting Opinion About the Need for Policing Experience 

Sergeant Rochelle Thompson, supervisor of the Oklahoma County program, argues 
that correctional officers with no police experience make better SROs than do 
seasoned patrol officers. Indeed, most SROs in the Oklahoma County program have 
had no experience on the streets but have been hired directly from the jail where 
they have been correctional officers (or, in a few cases, from the court where they 
have provided security). 

"This has worked wonders," Thompson said. "A lot of seasoned patrol officers are 
reactive to 911 and dispatch, and have been trained that way, but we want proactive 
SROs who prevent misconduct. The new cop is more open to change because he 
doesn't have the ingrained reactive mentality from the street; instead, he will bend 
more with administrators, be more flexible, and strive to understand the education 
system. In fact, when a position opens up, no road deputies apply, perhaps because 
they see it as being a 'Kiddie Cop' position." 

"Correctional officers also make better SROs than road deputies," Thompson 
continues, "because they have learned how to communicate with inmates; 
outnumbered and unarmed, they can't simply force inmates to behave. As a result, 
they have to fall back on persuasion, mediation, and 'verbal judo' rather than what 
most police officers resort to on the streets when there is troubleforce." 

During the summer and Christmas break, the former correctional officers, now new 
SROs, go on patrol with experienced road deputies to get trained. They are also 
scheduled to attend the 16-week Council of Law Enforcement and Education 
Training (CLEET) academy to become sworn officers. 

Coincidentally, Maury County Sheriff Enoch George in Tennessee voiced a similar 
perspective. Enoch said that he sees a difference in the new SROs who are coming 
off the street as patrol deputies compared with new SROs who have been 
correctional officers because "patrol officers have a more difficult time adapting to 
the school environment." 


(5) Is exceptionally dependable 

The principal aspect to being dependable is always showing up at school. One of 
the top 2 of 17 "important characteristics of an SRO" that planners of the Stark 
County, Ohio, program identified is dependabilityfor example, "not taking too 
many sick days." Other program participants confirm the importance of this trait. 

 Christopher Renouf, principal, Sarasota County, Florida: "Kids want to see that 
the SRO will be there [in school] regularly." 

 Sergeant Richard Davies: Applicants have to have "an above average attendance 
recordSROs have to be in school." 

A second aspect to "dependability" is that SROs need to follow through with 
what they say they will do, especially with kids. According to Sergeant Richard 
Davies, "SROs have to take kids' concerns seriously and follow up on them." 

(6) Is willing to work very hard 

If SROs are not working very hardeven in schools with very few crimesthey are 
not doing their job. As one supervisor said, "They have to be willing to work hard 
cops are lazy, but you have to spend time on this job." 

Because they have to work so hard, SROs need good organizational skills 
they need to be able to manage their time well. Lieutenant Chris Hagwood of the 
Garner Police Department in North Carolina pointed out that "the multiple demands 
placed on SROs from teachers, principals, and the department can be difficult for 
some officers to manage." A program administrator with the Palm Beach County 
School District Police Department said his most difficult supervisory responsibility is 
stressing time management to SROs. For example, one SRO's only weakness is 
not getting memos done on time. Because the SRO failed to submit a report on 
time, the chief was uninformed about an incident when the media questioned him. 
As a result, SROs need to be able to "multi-task", but also establish priorities for 
what they will do first, what they will leave until later, and what they will have to tell 
people they cannot get to at all. 

As a result of these competing demands, being an effective SRO requires being 
flexiblehaving the ability to "switch gears" quickly from one thing to 
another. As Christopher Renouf, an elementary school principal in Sarasota 
County, said, "Especially at the elementary level, you have to keep stopping what 
you're doing to attend to something else." 


(7) Isor can becomean effective teacher 

The Delaware State Police program requires candidates to already be certified as 
instructors in order to become an SRO. Officers who have been teaching the Gang 
Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) or Drug Abuse Resistance 
Education (D.A.R.E.) curriculum before they become SROs have a significant head 
start in becoming effective teachers. 

However, most SROs in the study began working in the schools knowing little or 
nothing about how to teach. Fortunately, some SROs report, this is a skill they can 
learn with little permanent damage to the program after they have begun working in 
the schools if not too many weeks go by before they receive training (see 
chapter 5, "Training SROs"). 

(8) Has above average integrity 

All law enforcement officers should have above average integrity. However, several 
program participants suggested that SROs have to have even higher ethical 
standards than other police officers because they are mentoring kids. 

 Christopher Renouf, elementary school principal, Sarasota County: "You have to 
walk the walkif you preach to kids, you have to role model what you preach to 
them and to parentsyou have to be a very ethical, moral person." 

 Sergeant Richard Davies, former SRO in Pine Bluff: "An SRO has to have above 
average morals because of the potential for complicated relationships with kids. 
Kids are very vulnerable to innuendo; little girls love attention. So you have to be 
on automatic pilot to make sure that nothing suggestive is said or done and that 
any advances are firmly and immediately rejected." 

Another aspect of having integrity is treating students in a consistent manner. 
Patrol officers enjoy tremendous discretion in terms of whether and how they 
sanction offenders. For example, depending on a number of factors, when a driver 
runs a red light an officer can ignore it, give a verbal reprimand, give a written 
warning, issue a citation, or arrest the person for reckless endangerment. However, 
SROs effectiveness' will be impaired if they treat students in an apparently 
inconsistent manner. As SRO Jim Marshall said, "SROs have to have the ability to 
be fair and consistent. Marshall is a small community, so I know a lot of parents. 
Some ask for favorsfor example, 'Cut my kid some slack.' But I tell them I have 
to be consistent [in how I treat the kids]." 


Additional Criteria Some Programs Use 

Several programs use additional criteria for selecting SROs (see the box "Optional 
Criteria for Selecting SROs"), the most common of which are familiarity with 
juvenile law, good report writing skills, some college experience, and ties to the 
local community. 

Finally, a few programs make a point of preferring SROs who are relatively 
youngtypically, in their twenties or early thirtiesunder the assumption that they 
and the students will be able to relate to each other better than older SROs can. 
However, SROs in their forties and even fifties were observed interacting very 
effectively with kids. Furthermore, while SROs and students who are closer in age 
may have more rapport, older SROs have developed a maturity that in many ways 
makes them superior to younger SROs in terms of their roles as enforcers of the 
law, counselors, and mentors. Sergeant Richard Davies in Pine Bluff remarked, 
"You need maturity [to be an SRO]. You can't throw a 21-year old cop into the 
schoolshe's still in the dating pool." 

In addition, older SROs have often been through the stresses and rewards of 
raising childrenand discovered first hand the best ways of handling kids. They 
also understand how children with apparently serious problem behaviors often 
"outgrow" or overcome them with proper parenting and mentoring. Finally, most 
older officers have outgrown the "John Wayne syndrome" of resorting initially to the 
use of force and getting excited about sirens and flashing lights. 

At the opposite end of the spectrum, a few programs appoint officers who are 
nearing retirement or have already retired. In most cases, programs have found 
that this is not a wise choice. On the one hand, officers who are about to retire may 
simply go through the motions of being SROs because they want a "cushy" 
position until they qualify for their pension. On the other hand, retired officers often 
lack the motivation to fulfill the strenuous responsibilitie because they often want 
the money that goes with being rehired. 


Optional Criteria for Selecting SROs 

Some programs use additional criteria for selecting SROs, but typically these criteria are 
more of a "wish list" that departments add to the essential criteria. 

Knows the law as it relates to juveniles and schools 

SROs need to have a firm grasp of their legal authority and the schools' powers in dealing 
with students, especially in such areas as search and seizure on school grounds and 
questioning students without parents present. As a result, the Scottsdale, Arizona, Police 
Department requires applicants to take a written examination on juvenile crime and 
investigations. However, many program supervisors and SROs in the study feel that 
applicants already know the law or can learn it before or just after going on the job. 

Has good report writing skills 

According to James Kelly, chief of the Palm Beach County School District Police 
Department, "Writing skills are especially important in an educational environment where 
people know what good writing is and the first thing they look at is format, writing ability, 
etc., not content. Most people see what you wrote, not who you are." In addition, 
supervisors do not want to keep asking SROs to rewrite their incident reports. 

Has some college experience 

A few programs favor candidates with at least some college experience. According to Chief 
Robert Yant in Marshall, "If you're dealing with a school environment, it's a help. In an 
educational environment dealing with school personnel who have B.A. degrees, the SRO 
needs excellent written and verbal skills. So we treated it like a 'veteran's preference' and 
offered five extra points to candidates who had a bachelor's degree." The Tucson program 
gives preference to candidates with some college education because, according to a former 
supervisor, "that means they are connected to education, and the SROs' work is prevention 
more than anything else." 

Has ties to the local community 

In some programs, the SROs were students of the principals in whose schools they are 
currently working. In others, they went to school with many of the students' parents. This 
familiarity with the school and community facilitated the officers' efforts to establish credibility 
and rapportand secure in-kind contributions to the program. 

 While administrators and teachers in a small program in Kentucky opposed having an 
armed officer in their school, their familiarity with and respect for the SROwho had 
attended the schoolhelped allay their concerns. 

 Glenn Brunet, who grew up in Terrebonne Parish, calls on friends in the local media to 
give the school positive publicity by taking and publishing photos of the cheerleaders and 
writing favorable articles about the school. 


Commit Selection Criteria to Paper 

Most of the 34 programs included in the study do not have written criteria for who 
can qualify as an SRO. Several program participants report that this is a mistake. 
Without written criteria, different people involved in deciding whom to approve as 
SROs may apply differenteven contradictorycriteria. 

In addition, candidates need to have the criteria provided to them in writing, not just 
verbally. For the program's pilot year in Schaumburg, Illinois, some candidates 
volunteered because they expected the job to be easy and liked the hours. Since 
then, fewer officers have applied for the assignment because they now know not 
only by word of mouth but also from the written selection criteria that SROs are 
required to do extensive teaching and work one-on-one with students 
responsibilities some of them do not want to assume. As a result, only four officers 
applied when one SRO's tour expired in 2002. 

The Screening Process 

Screening is an attempt to determine whether applicants for a position meet the 
criteria for successful job performance. Without careful screening, departments 
may assign inappropriate officers to the schools who may not only be 
ineffective but also, several programs reported, hamper or set back the program 
for months and even years to come. 

However, it is not always easy to determine whether applicants meet the job 
criteria. The matrix below suggests which parts of the screening process SRO 
programs can use to help determine whether candidates meet each criterion. 


Screening Approaches That Target Each Criterion 

Criterion  
(1) Likes kids, cares about and wants to 
work with kids, and is able to work 
with kids 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 memorandum or letter of interest 
 explanation of expectations of the position 
 personnel files 
 personal experience with the candidate 
 oral interview panel 

Criterion 
(2) Has the right demeanor and people 
skills, including good communication 
skills 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 memorandum or letter of interest 
 personal experience with the candidate 
 oral interview panel 
 conversation with candidate's supervisor 

Criterion 
(3) Has experience as a patrol officer or 
road deputy 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 conversation with candidate's supervisor 
 personnel records 

Criterion 
(4) Is able to work independently 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 conversation with candidate's supervisor 
 explanation of expectations for the position 
 oral interview panel 

Criterion 
(5) Is exceptionally dependable 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 conversation with candidate's supervisor 
 explanation of expectations for the position 
 personnel files (history of sick time usage) 

Criterion 
(6) Is willing to work very hard 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 memorandum or letter of interest 
 explanation of expectations for the position 
 personnel files 
 conversation with candidate's supervisor 
 oral interview panel 
 report of having shadowed an SRO to learn the nature of the work 

Criterion 
(7) Isor can becomean effective 
teacher 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 memorandum or letter of interest 
 explanation of expectations for the position 
 personnel files 
 personal experience with the candidate 
 oral interview panel 

Criterion 
(8) Has above average integrity 
Applicable Screening Approaches
 personnel files: record of citizen and internal complaints 
 explanation of expectations for the position 
 conversation with candidate's supervisor 


Use Multiple Screening Procedures 

Some programs rely on just one step to screen applicants, but most programs use 
two or more of the following approaches: 

 require a memorandum of interest; 
 talk with current and previous supervisors; 
 inform candidates of the expectations forand drawbacks tothe position; 
 examine personnel files; and 
 factor in personal experience with the candidate. 

In general, the more procedures a program implements, the more likely it will 
identify well-qualified candidates. 

Require a Memorandum of Interest 

Most programs require applicants to submit a memorandum or letter of interest 
when applying for the position. Applicants to the Tucson program must submit a 
memo of interest that addresses their: 

 interest in working with youth; 

 previous assignments or experiences that demonstrate their suitability for the 
assignment; 

 public speaking experience; 

 willingness to work flexible hours; and 

 knowledge of the SRO program. 

The Fontana, California, program requires a memo of interest that includes: 

 number of years the candidate has been in law enforcement; 
 number of years with the department; 
 any noteworthy achievements as a law enforcement officer; 
 prior work history with children; 
 volunteer work with the community; and 
 letters of recommendation from community members. 

Talk With Current and Previous Supervisors 

Most programs contact each applicant's current and sometimes previous 
supervisor. In most departments, especially smaller ones, supervisors get to know 
which officers have at least some of the characteristics needed to become an 
effective SRO. 


Inform Candidates of the Expectations forand Drawbacks tothe Position 

An SRO with the Delaware State Police program pointed out that "it is important 
that the department be clear about the job expectations when selecting SROs so 
that applicants know what they will be responsible for before they come on board." 
This includes informing them about work conditions that they may find 
objectionable, for example, he says, telling them if they will be required frequently 
to cover after-school activities. 

The following are among the other important drawbacks that programs should warn 
applicants about: 

 the need to overcome fears about standing in front of a classroom; 

 having to adjust to the personality and wishes of the school principal and 
assistant principal; 

 working harder than they ever thought they would; 

 living with the jokes and even scorn from some beat officers who consider them 
"Kiddie Cops"; and 

 being isolated from the rest of the department. 

Few programs provide all of this information. However, informing candidates 
about these potential drawbacks can help weed out inappropriate officers. 
Lieutenant Greg Harrison of Lenoir County, North Carolina, reported that "patrol 
deputies think the SRO assignment is 'a piece of cake' and are surprised when I 
tell them what they will have to do in the schools which often dissuades them from 
applying." 


Examine Personnel and Other Files 

A candidate's personnel files can tell a great deal about an officer's or deputy's 
suitability to be an SRO. 

 Sergeant Lowell Rademacher, program supervisor (now retired), Marshall: "I looked 
at whether candidates added to their mandatory training on their own. Jim 
[Marshall, the SRO] had been to other courses at his own request and it wasn't a 
one-time flash in the pan." 

 Sergeant Jerry Thommes, program supervisor, Schaumburg: "I check on whether 
they took courses in juvenile law on their own or were involved with kids on their 
own in Explorer Post or coaching, or have been a D.A.R.E. officer." 

Supervisors in most programs verify whether the candidate has had any disciplinary 
actions over a specified period of time. 

 The Jefferson City, Missouri, program guide specifies that "The officer shall not 
have any disciplinary action resulting in at least a minimum suspension during the 
previous twelve (12) months." 

 The Boone Police Department in North Carolina requires that candidates have no 
suspensions or disciplinary actions within the past two years, and no written 
reprimands within the past six months. 

Factor in Personal Experience With the Candidates 

Sometimes personal experience plays a legitimate part in an SRO's selection. A 
school board member and former classroom teacher in one site had seen one of the 
candidates teach a D.A.R.E. class that her daughter was in. "I saw ------------ work 
with kids and saw the rapport he has with them." As a result, she suggested to the 
superintendent of schools that this applicant be picked as the SRO. 

Check for Signs of Enthusiasm for the Position 

Finally, a common unstated criterion for the position is the candidate's enthusiasm for 
the job. Program personnel usually look for this trait during the individual or panel 
interview (see below). But another measure of candidates' seriousness that the 
Sarasota County program uses is whether applicants have gone to the trouble to 
shadow an SRO to gain an understanding of the position. Some candidates on their 
own also make an appointment to talk with program supervisors about the job. 
Precisely "to get a leg up on the interview process." When (now) Major Skip Rossi 
with the Sarasota County Sheriff's Office applied for the position, he made an 
appointment in advance to meet with the assistant superintendent who would be on 


his review panel. (For a dissenting view on this approach, see the Garner, North 
Carolina, case study at the end of the chapter.) 

Convene an Oral Interview Board or Panel 

A number of programs assemble a panel of individuals to interview each candidate. 
Proponents of oral boards say the panels can usually reveal more than one-on-one 
interviews because they provide an opportunity to assess the candidate's oral 
communication skills, motivation, and composure under pressure. Kathleen Weigel, 
a high school principal in Palm Beach County, also points out that "there is some 
advantage to having several people participating in the interview because they pick 
up on different things applicants say or dobody language." 

The discussion below addresses the issues involved in using an oral interview 
board. The case studies of the Garner, North Carolina, and Sarasota County, 
Florida, programs at the end of the chapter describe in detail how two programs 
make use of panels. 

Who Sits on the Board 

At a minimum, boards include one or more program first-line supervisors and 
another member of the department, such as the commander of the unit in which 
the program is housed. Because the program was new, the interview panel in 
Marshall included not only the sergeant who would become responsible for 
supervising the new SRO but also the sergeant who coordinated the SRO program 
in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. 

Including a current SRO on the board can be especially helpful if none of the other 
panelists has ever been an SRO. As an SRO with the Delaware State Police said, 
"an SRO on the board knows what it takes to do the job" and can evaluate 
candidates with this in mind. When its program was just beginning in 1988, the 
Maury County Sheriff's Department in Tennessee included an SRO from a 
neighboring county on its panel. 

A few programs expand the types of individuals who participate in the screening 
process. In Garner, officers who apply for a position are interviewed by a 
community panel that includes a parent of a child at the school. To gain community 
support for the program, Marshall Police Chief Robert Yant included a paralegal 
with the city attorney's office who was also a graduate of the citizen's academy; a 
business professor from the local state university; and a mid-manager from the 
town's largest employer. Finally, interview panels in most programs include school 
administrators (see the discussion below, "Involve School Administrators"). 


Questions Board Members Ask 

Most programs that use oral panels rely on previously prepared written questions. 
As the box "Sample Oral Panel Interview Questions" suggests, questions 
commonly focus on the following areas: 

 motivations for applying for the position; 
 understanding the role and responsibilities of an SRO; 
 an explanation of why the candidate would be effective in the position; 
 previous experience relevant to the position, including working with youngsters 
and having given verbal presentations or taught classes; 
 understanding community policing and its application in the school setting; 
 experience working with little direct supervision; 
 willingness to work overtime, including some evenings and weekends; and 
 strategies for handling difficult school administrators. 

The Schaumburg program asks a number of targeted questions about how the 
candidate would behave as an SRO, such as: 

 How do you want students to perceive you, and how will that impact their feelings 
about police officers in general? 

 In what ways do you think you can make yourself visible and available to 
students? 

 As a teacher . . . , what techniques will you use to keep students interested? 

 It is very difficult to get students to come to you; what would you do to build trust? 

 What would you say to a staff member who came to you about a discipline issue, 
not a legal issue? 

The Scottsdale, Arizona, Police Department requires candidates to give a brief 
presentation during the panel interview so members can assess the applicants' 
teaching ability. A chief of police in another department suggests that the 
presentation replicate a class for students and points out that the requirement not 
only provides a opportunity for screeners to see a candidate "in the raw" but to see 
if the applicant took the time to prepare for the presentation. 


Sample Oral Panel Interview Questions 

Marshall, Minnesota 
Job Related Skills/Work Experience 
1. Describe your education and training for this position. 
2. How has your previous experience prepared you for this position? 
Interpersonal Relations 
3. Briefly describe an incident or project where you have had to work with others and explain how 
you contributed to the success of the incident or project. 
4. As a School Resource Officer, how do you deal with High School aged people who are 
uncooperative or even argumentative? 
Communications 
5. Explain your experience in making verbal presentations to groups or individuals. 
6. You're the first police officer permanently assigned to work within the Marshall School District. 
Some people aren't comfortable with the idea of having a police officer in the schools. How 
would you try to allay those concerns? 
Information Analysis and Decision Making 
7. A teacher believes that a student has committed a theft on school grounds and directs you to 
arrest the student. What would you do? Explain why. 
8. Describe one of the more difficult work-related decisions that you have had to make and explain 
how you did it. 
Community Policing 
9. Describe Community Policing as you understand it. 
10. Explain ways that community policing could be applied in the school environment. 
Work Orientation 
11. As a School Resource Officer, you will be working with little direct supervision. Discuss your 
experience working with little direct supervision. 
12. As a School Resource Officer, your schedule will require you to work evenings and some 
weekends. Discuss your views on flexing your schedule. 

Sioux Fall, South Dakota 
1. Please discuss what you believe to be the duties and functions of the School Resource Officer. 
2. Please discuss why you believe you would be a good School Resource Officer, particularly with 
middle school aged youth, and speak briefly about what you view your strengths and 
weaknesses to be. 
3. How has your previous training, education and/or experiences prepared you for this position . . . ? 
4. As a School Resource Officer, there are a lot of demands placed on your time both on-duty and 
off . . . You will be attending parent/teacher conferences, multiple organizational meetings, 
working sporting events, dances, concerts, proms, etc. Discuss how this might negatively impact 
you and/or your family personally. 
5. As a School Resource Officer, there will be occasions where public presentations before large 
groups of people will be necessary. What experience or training have you had in the area of 
public speaking? 
6. What do you feel are the major problems confronting our youth today? 
7. Based on the previous question, what solutions might you have to offer and what direction 
should the schools, the police and the community be headed in to confront these problems that 
our youth are faced with? 
8. Describe the concept of "Community Policing" as you understand it and how it could be applied 
to the school environment. 
9. Some people (teachers, administration, parents, students) are not comfortable with the idea of 
having police officers in the schools. How would you try to ease those concerns? 
10. The principal of your school, who you have an excellent working relationship with, advises you 
that a student has committed a theft on school grounds and directs you to arrest the student. 
What action would you take? 


Several boards ask candidates how they would respond to typical but 
problematic scenarios (see the box "Sample Scenarios Oral Boards Present to 
Candidates)." The board in Palm Beach County uses "targeted selection"asking 
candidates not to suggest how they would respond to hypothetical scenarios but to 
report how they did respond to real life situationsfor example, "Tell me about a 
time when you had a serious problem with a supervisor. What action did you take, 
and what happened as a result?" 

Board members typically look beyond the candidate's answers to examine closely 
how the person behaved during the panel interview. For example, written 
instructions to board members in Marshall require panelists to assess each 
candidate's behavior in terms of: 

 Oral Communication Skills (e.g., poor articulation, easily understood), 
 Displayed Motivation (e.g., mainly looking for "day job"), 
 Composure (e.g., fidgety, very calm and collected), and 
 Appearance (e.g., underdressed, neat and well groomed). 

Sample Scenarios Some Oral Boards Present to Candidates 

John Morella, an SRO in West Orange, uses several scenarios when he serves on a 
panel, such as the following: 

 A senior female student walks into your office and says that she is pregnant with 
her 25-year-old boyfriend's baby, wants an abortion, but does not want to tell her 
parents. 

 A student comes up to you and says, "Jimmy is selling drugs out of his locker, and 
there are drugs in there right now." 

The Oklahoma County Sheriff's Department has used the following scenarios: 
 A child approaches you and tells you of a crime against them that implicates a 
school official. What is your response? 

 An assault and battery occurs in your presence, but a school official intervenes 
and tells you that they will handle the situation in house. What is your response? 

 You are contacted by a teacher who advises you that a student is making 
allegations of abuse against his or her parents. What are your responsibilities as 
the school resource officer, and what actions will you take? 
SRO Program Guide 


Oral Boards Are Not Foolproof 

A few supervisors expressed concerns about using oral boards. 

 Captain Tim Carney, who oversees the Sarasota County Sheriff's Office's program, 
warns that "some officers do poorly on the oral board but end up as good SROs 
and vice versa. One quiet candidate was overlooked twice, but the next time I 
talked in depth with his patrol supervisor, who said, 'This guy will run through a wall 
for you.' As a result, the panel accepted the officer and today principals love him 
he's a local guy and dedicated." 

 Similarly, Sergeant Roger Willey, who runs the Delaware State Police program, is 
not sure the oral board process is always effective because "some officers don't do 
well in this setting. It's similar to a promotion board, which is very nerve-wracking, 
so we may end up eliminating good candidates. To avoid this, we try to keep it 
relaxed and less stressful." 

Coming to a Decision 

Many programs use a formal scoring system for rating each candidate. For example, 
Chief Robert Yant in Marshall developed a detailed "School Resource Officer Oral 
Interview Rater's Guide" (see appendix A) for evaluating candidates' performance 
based on a 1-7 rating for each of 12 dimensions of the oral examination and a 1-4 
rating for each of 4 dimensions of observed behavior (see above), for a total of 100 
possible points. 

The case studies at the end of the chapter describe the structured scoring systems 
that the Garner Police Department and the Sarasota County Sheriff's Office use. 
Appendix B provides the complete Sarasota County Sheriff's Office scoring 
guidelines. 

Assigning New SROs to Specific Schools 

In many programs, because there is only one opening for an SRO at a given time, 
deciding which school a new SRO should be assigned to is not an issue. However, in 
some programs several new SROs must be placed among several schools. When 
there are openings available at more than one school in Sarasota County, panel 
members discuss which applicants would be best suited for each school and, in 
particular, for which grade level. In Stark County, after the panel interviews are 
complete and the SROs selected, the school superintendents represented on the 
panel discuss which candidates would be best for their schools. For example, some 
superintendents request deputies who live in their communities or have children in 
their schools because they feel these SROs will have "instant buy-in" from 
community members. 


Training Panel Members 

A few panel members reported that orienting board members to some of the 
subtleties of participating on an oral board could improve the screening process, 
especially for first-time panelists. Two sergeants in Sioux Falls attended a National 
Association of School Resource Officers (NASRO) training for program supervisors 
at which "we had the opportunity to do a 'mock' interview using as 'applicants' three 
people who were attending a NASRO basic course." 

Involve Schools in Screening Candidates 

Many programs have demonstrated the value of making sure that school 
administrators are active participants in the screening process. 

Why Involve School Administrators 

Police administrators and school administrators in programs that have involved 
school district and school-level administrators in the screening process report that 
the administrators' participation helps (1) match SROs properly with 
individual schools and (2) increase acceptance of the program and the SROs 
among school personnel. 

 In Lakewood, Colorado, Sergeant Patricia Heffner admitted that the police 
department had originally not been keen on inviting school personnel but sees 
the value now. "By participating, the school administrators are 'buying' into their 
SROand they have less room to complain if it does not end up working out." 

 The memorandum of agreement signed by each local school board and the Stark 
County Sheriff's Office calls for "joint selection" of the SROs. The sheriff offered 
the school districts a significant role because the administrators had suspicions 
about the programthey were not sure they wanted a deputy in the schools 
because they were concerned it could be a negative experience. As a result, the 
sheriff wanted to take the initiative in giving them the opportunity to participate in 
decision making related to the program rather than dictate to them. A group of 
school administrators, alongside officials from the sheriff's department, 
interviewed each of the 14 candidates who applied for the newly created 
positions. 

 Captain Curtis Main of the Boone Police Department said that school 
representatives involved in the screening process have raised issues the 
department representatives on the board did not consider. For example, they 
drew out from one candidate that he had refused to teach the D.A.R.E. curriculum 
because he did not believe in the program. 
 


Ward Nelson, a middle school principal and coordinator of the Schaumburg 
program, believes that "It is critical to involve the schools in the screening because, 
if the department sends us someone, we still worry [after several years of working 
with well-qualified SROs] whether it will be the right type of person." 

As suggested above, school administrators frequently want SROs with 
specific characteristics that they feel will make the officers most effective in 
their particular schools. 

 In collaboration with Major Rick Perez of the sheriff's office, each school 
superintendent in Stark County prepared his or her own written job description for 
the SRO for his or her schools. Perez keeps the descriptions on file in his office. 

 The Plain View School District superintendent of schools in Oklahoma County 
who served as the school representative for officer screening and selection 
interviewed between 10-20 officers for the initial five slots. With so few adult role 
models for minority students in her district, she wanted at least one African-
American or Hispanic officer placed there. She also believed it best to have one 
male and one female SRO available to her students. 

Ways of Involving School Administrators 

The most common way school administrators participate in the screening 
process is through the oral interview panel. A case study at the end of the 
chapter describes the Sarasota County's procedure for involving the school district 
in the panels' work. In a few programs, administrators also participate in developing 
the panels' screening criteria. 

A sometimes contentious issue is whether schools should have veto power 
over which candidates are chosen. In most sites, the chief or sheriff maintains 
ultimate power over which officers or deputies will be accepted into the program. A 
West Orange high school principal contends, however, that, if the SRO program 
has goals beyond police suppression, principals should hold some veto power in 
hiring decisions. After all, he points out, the principal has daily responsibility for the 
welfare of all students with whom the officer will interact. Reflecting this position, 
school district panelists in Sarasota County may veto the appointment of a 
candidate. Similarly, school administrators in King County, Washington, can reject 
an officer whom the sheriff's department recommends because, according to the 
program coordinator, "If there is bad chemistry between an SRO and school staff, 
the program is doomed. We don't want to force an SRO down anyone's throat, so if 
a school doesn't want a particular officer, we find another candidate until we get 
one everyone agrees is a good fit." Occupying a middle ground, another program 
allows individual school principals to reject candidates for their schools but not for 
the program as a whole. 


Implement Several Screening Methods 

Some programs use multiple screening methods in an attempt to select the most 
qualified candidates as SROs. For example, the Boone Police Department requires 
the following steps: 

(1) a letter of intent to apply to the captain in charge of the program; 

(2) a review of the officer's past performance review; 

(3) a psychological exam if it has been more than three years since the last 
exam; 

(4) a discussion with the officer's current supervisor; 

(5) a review of this information by a management team member; 

(6) an interview with a management team; 

(7) a discussion about the candidate between the captain and the school super 
intendent and principals; and 

(8) an interview with the captain and school representatives during which any 
issues raised by the school representatives are addressed. 

* * * 

As illustrated in the case studies below, both the Garner, North Carolina, and 
Sarasota County, Florida, programs use multiple screening procedures. 

The Garner Police Department uses a four-stage process that includes a 
physical examination, written examination, oral interview panel, and the 
applicant's score on his or her two previous department appraisal periods. 

The Sarasota County Sheriff's Office's screening approach includes a highly 
structured oral interview panel with written questions and an established 
scoring procedure. 


Case Study: Garner, North Carolina, Police Department (53 sworn) 

The experience of the Garner Police Department, with only 53 sworn officers in a 
town of 20,000, suggests that even relatively small law enforcement agencies and 
jurisdictions can develop, document in writing, and implement a thorough screening 
process. The department also takes an unusual approach that requires applicants 
and screeners to avoid any contact before the oral interview. 

The screening process in Garner begins with a memo of interest from the applicant 
and a letter of recommendation from his or her current supervisor. Applicants then 
go through a four-part screening process, each of which contributes a certain 
number of points to an applicant's score for a total of up to 325 points. As 
described below, the program gives each candidate a three-page set of instructions 
for how to prepare for each step in the screening process. 

(1) Police Officer Physical Abilities Test (possible 25 points) 

The preparation instructions given to candidates for the physical test informs them 
to start drinking at least 64 ounces of water per day two or three days before the 
test day and to warm up at least 3-5 minutes immediately before the test begins. 
Candidates earn points according to the total time it takes them to complete the 
test (based on standards established by the North Carolina Training and Standards 
Division), with final times in minutes and seconds subtracted from the maximum 
possible 25 points. For example, if the tests take them 8 minutes to complete, they 
earn 17 points (25-8). The teststhe same ones required for department 
applicantsrange from running up stairs, to catching someone upright to prevent 
injury, to subduing a person resisting arrest. 

(2) Written Exercise (possible 100 points) 

Applicants review a 2-3-minute video depicting law enforcement dilemmas and are 
given a fixed amount of time to provide a hand-written narrative "story" solving 
them. An outside education consultant grades the papers based on 11 criteria, 
including proper punctuation and vocabulary, correct spelling and grammar, 
appropriate support and elaboration of the points being made, and logical 
presentation of ideas. 


(3) Oral Interview Panel (possible 100 points) 

Instructions to candidates tell them to be prepared to answer questions on some or 
all of seven topics, ranging from juvenile arrest, detention, and investigation 
procedures, to department policy and procedures related to SRO duties, to conflict 
management. A community panel consisting of the program supervisor, SROs, the 
principal of the school to which the new SRO will be assigned, and a parent of a 
child at the school interviews each candidate. The department's public information 
officer briefs the panelists beforehand and provides them with a list of questions to 
ask and instructions for scoring responses (see the box "The Garner Police 
Department's Interview Panel Questions"). Panel members rotate asking the 
questions. 

Before a candidate appears before the panel, the program supervisor requires the 
applicant to sign a statement attesting that he or she has read the nine "Interview 
Guidelines" that explain the panel interview process, such as: 

 Panel members may NOT [emphasis in the original] elaborate, provide 
clarification for or outline examples related to any question. 

 Panel members may only repeat questions verbatim and only when asked by 
you. [emphasis in the original] 

 The same answer cannot be given for more than one question. 

 The interview is being recorded on video (to review candidate answers if 
necessary for scoring). 


The Garner Police Department's Interview Panel Questions 

(1) Can you provide us with an example, while employed as a police officer, in 
which you worked to improve the quality of life for those in our community? 
(1) What was the situation, (2) what did you do, and (3) what was the 
outcome? (25 possible points) 

(2) Can you provide us with any life situation that illustrates your ability to resolve 
conflict effectively? (1) What was the situation, (2) what did you do, (3) what 
was the outcome? (25 points) 

(3) Can you tell us about a life situation you encountered which illustrates your 
ability to receive criticism constructively? (1) Why were you criticized? (2) 
What did you do about it? (3) What was the outcome? (25 points) 

(4) What have you done, if anything, to prepare for this assignment and 
why? (10 points) 

(5) Can you provide one example, as a police officer, that demonstrates your 
creativity in locating or providing needed resources? (15 points) 

(4) Average of Previous Two Performance Appraisal Periods (possible 100 
points) 

Prior performance evaluations constitute nearly one-third of the total points a 
candidate can score. Garner police officers are evaluated annually on a point 
scale, with 100 a perfect score. The program averages the applicant's previous 
two evaluations so that, for example, if an officer scored an 80 and a 90, he or 
should would get 85 points toward the total SRO screening score. 

The program uses the total scores to rank candidates. The chief makes the final 
selection. Candidates who earn more than 162 points and are not selected are 
placed on an eligibility list for the following year. The program provides applicants 
with their final screening results, as well as an analysis of their performance and 
strategies, so they can improve their performance in the future if they reapply. 

Applicants and Panelists in Garner Are Not Allowed to Contact Each Other 

The instructions for the screening process that the police department gives to all candidates prohibits 
them from seeking advice from anyone currently involved in the selection process, including program 
supervisors and the principal of the school with the vacancy. The department has candidates and 
panelists sign a statement confirming that the parties do not know each other. The department's 
purpose in making this requirement is to maintain the integrity and objectivity of the selection process.
 

Case Study: Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Department (500 sworn) 

While the Sarasota County Sheriff's Office SRO program does not use written criteria 
for screening SRO candidates, in other respects the program uses a comprehensive 
procedure for making sure that it selects well-qualified officers as SROs. 

Screening Criteria 

According to the contract between the sheriff's office and the school district, SRO 
applicants must volunteer for the position, preferably have at least three years of law 
enforcement experience, and have an Associate of Arts or Science degree or the 
equivalent in credit hours. A Bachelor of Arts degree is preferred. (In the 1980s, the 
program required candidates to have a B.A. degree so they could be on an equal 
footing with teachers and administrators, but the requirement was dropped because 
not enough candidates had the degree.) 

Panelists who serve on the oral board that screens candidates (see below) apply their 
own individual (and unwritten) criteria to the selection process. 

 Captain Tim Carney, the youth services bureau commander, who serves on all 
panels, looks especially for the following characteristics: 

ability to work with kids; 
personalityadaptability to the principal, ability to be diplomatic"you're working 
for two bosses"; and 
understanding the triad conceptcounseling and teaching as well as law 
enforcement. 

 A high school principal, Daniel Parrett, who has served on several panels, uses the 
following criteria: 
can get along with students"not Sergeant Rock who stays in his office or on a 
pedestal looking down on people";
someone who will participate with kids and go into classes; and 
someone who can help him "like a locker room lawyer." 

 An elementary school principal, Christopher Renouf, who has served on two panels 
looks for: 

flexibilitythe ability to switch from doing one thing to another, "especially at the 
elementary level where you have to keep stopping what you're doing to attend to 
something else"; 
integrity/honesty/trustworthiness"walking the walkif you preach to kids, you 
have to role model what you preach with them and with parentsyou have to be a 
very ethical, moral person"; and 
dependability"kids want to see that the SRO will be there regularly." 


Panel members also consider whether applicants took the initiative to 
shadow any SROs on their own. According to one of the three program 
supervisors, Detective Sergeant Tim Enos, "I check to see if applicants asked if 
they might spend a half day or day before the oral board shadowing an SRO to see 
what the job entailsif they did, this suggests a level of commitment to the 
position." On one occasion, after the last candidate had been interviewed, Enos 
reported that one applicant had taken the initiative to visit three schools to shadow 
their SROs. The candidate also came to the office to talk about the position with 
the captain. Shadowing turns out to be a useful screening method. "Some 
applicants," Enos says, "drop their application after shadowing shows them the job 
isn't for them." Enos calls the applicants' supervisors to confirm that they have a 
good record and would be effective as SROs, and reports what he learns to the 
panel. 

Screening Process 

The agreement between the sheriff's office and the school board requires the 
superintendent of schools and the sheriff's office to appoint two members 
each to a School Resource Officer Personnel Board "which shall have as its 
sole function the recruitment, interviewing and evaluation of School Resource 
Officers." As openings occur, the bureau assembles a board that includes the 
principal or assistant principal of the school with the vacancy, the superintendent of 
student services, one or more of the three program supervisors, and the youth 
services bureau commander, Captain Tim Carney. 

Before each interview, one of the sergeants provides an overview of the 
candidate's history with the department. Then the applicant comes in. One panelist 
asks the applicant the first of ten written questions (see the box "Panel Members in 
Sarasota County Ask Candidates 10 Questions") and the applicant answers; 
another panelist asks the second questionand the applicant answers that 
question; and so on until all the questions have been asked. (Occasionally, a panel 
member asks a question not on the written list, usually as a follow-up to something 
the candidate has said.) The applicant is then asked if he or she has anything else 
to contribute and leaves. Panel members take three or four minutes to rate in 
writing the candidate's answer to each question on a scale from one to four 
(appendix B provides a copy of the Evaluation & Scoring Guidelines). The entire 
process takes about 25 minutes. Then the sergeant gives a brief overview of the 
second candidate, and the process is repeated. 


Panel Members in Sarasota County Ask Candidates 10 Questions 

1. Why are you interested in a Youth Service Bureau [i.e., SRO] position? 

2. What do you think the role of a School Resource Officer is? 

3. What are you looking for in a job? 

4. The Youth Service Bureau receives many after hours and weekend assignments. Would 
you be willing to schedule your time to assist with these events?* 

5. How were you different than most of your co-workers? 

6. What words or phrase would your last supervisor use to describe you? 

7. Describe your best achievement and how you accomplished it. 
 What was the achievement? 
 How did you go about it? 
 How much effort did you put in? 
 What obstacles did you encounter? 
 How did you overcome them? 
 What was the result? 

8. Describe the biggest project that you had to see through from beginning to end 
 How did you coordinate the necessary activities? 
 How did you monitor progress? 
 What obstacles did you encounter? 
 How did you overcome them? 

9. What is your experience in regard to teaching or lecturing in front of children and adults? 

10. Please give us a brief overview of yourself and your career. 

* A few years ago, the program changed some of the questions. In the past, the board focused 
on the applicants' interest in kids, but supervisors saw the need to make sure they accepted 
only applicants who were willing to work overtime for the program. To revise the questions, the 
supervisors worked with the sheriff's office human resources department, which had recently 
improved the questions asked of people applying to be correctional officers with the 
department. 


Panel members do not vote but instead read their ratings and then discuss the 
applicants' qualifications. They usually reach a consensus on the best candidate(s). 
At the end of one board meeting, panelists concluded that some candidates: 

 were objectively more qualified than others, for example: 
they had been working with kids in some fashion even though they 
were patrol deputies, or 
they had taught school in a previous career;

 appeared more motivated and enthusiastic than the others, for example: 
they did not appear to simply want to get out of their current posting, or 
they seemed to express a genuine interest in the work of an SRO;

 had a better demeanor than the others, for example: 
they did not take for granted that they would get the position, or 
they made a strong effort to try to present themselves as highly qualified;

 answered the questions better than the others, for example: 
Question: "What do you think the role of a School Resource Officer is? 
Answer: "You have to check your macho image at the door [of the school] 
and do whatever it takes [to help the kidswhich the candidate then followed 
by giving examples of what SROs need to do for kids]." 

When there are openings available at more than one school, panel members 
discuss which applicants are best suited for which grade level. 

Both the sheriff's office and school district panelists may veto the selection 
of a candidate. According to Robyn Marinelli, the school district supervisor of 
student services who has attended almost every oral panel, "School 
representatives have veto power because otherwise the program would not work." 
There have been instances in which a principal has vetoed an SRO for his or her 
school. On one occasion a high school principal did not have a good feeling about 
an officer, but there were always other acceptable candidates competing for the 
position. 


Image of Marshall Minnesota Police Department SRO Oral Interview Rater's Guide Cover


Image of Marshall Minnesota Police Department SRO Oral Interview Rater's Guide


Image of Marshall Minnesota Police Department SRO Oral Interview Rater's Guide


Image of Marshall Minnesota Police Department SRO Oral Interview Rater's Guide


Image of Marshall Minnesota Police Department SRO Oral Interview Rater's Guide


Image of Marshall Minnesota Police Department SRO Oral Interview Rater's Guide


Chapter 4: Minimizing Turnover Among SROs 

Many SROs have remained in their positions for years-over 10 years in some sites. 
Several middle-aged SROs report they hope to stay in the schools until they retire. 

However, many programs have experienced problems with turnover. One school 
district had five different SROs in less than three years. Of course, unavoidable 
circumstances sometimes result in turnover, including promotions and retirements. In 
one site, four different SROs in four years all quit the same school because of an 
unbearably authoritarian principal. However, high turnover may also reflect officer 
"burnout" or disenchantment with the position that programs can often prevent or 
resolve. 

Methods of Keeping Effective SROs on the Job 

Minimizing turnover among SROs is important because replacing an SRO makes the 
program less effective for several months and even years as the new officer 
learns how to do the job. Sergeant Richard Davies, a former SRO in Pine Bluff, 
Arkansas, said, "The first year [as an SRO], all I did was break up fights and arrest 
students; the second, I did a lot of teaching; and the third, everything fell into place." In 
addition, school staff and students must begin the process all over again of learning to 
trust and rely on a new SRO. Coping with a newand possibly inadequately trained 
SRO may also "sour" administrators on the entire program based on that one poor 
relationship. 

The discussion below identifies common reasons program supervisors and SROs give 
for why SROs lose interest in the position followed by approaches some programs 
have implemented to address the problem. However, the most effective approach to 
retaining good SROs is to take a variety of complementary steps that, in 
combination, are much more likely to encourage qualified SROs to remain in the 
position than any single step aimed at retention can achieve. 

THE PROBLEM: The officers were misfits from the outset. Many SROs quit 
because they were poorly suited for the job from the beginning. They may not have 
understood the true nature of the job or they may have applied for the wrong 
reasonstypically, just to be able to work daytime weekday hours. 

SOLUTIONS: Recruit, screen, train, and supervise SROs carefully. 

(1) Inform officers during recruitment about the drawbacks to the position 
they may not have considered (see the box on next page and chapter 2, 
"Recruiting SROs"). 

(2) Implement thorough screening procedures to help make sure that only 
officers who are likely to succeed in the position are selected as SROs. 
Chapter 3, "Screening SROs," provides a variety of suggestions for helping 


to ensure that only officers who are likely to enjoy and be good in the posi 
tion are assigned to it. For example, the Sarasota County Sheriff's Office 
and the Delaware State Police encourage would be SROs to shadow 
existing SROs. According to Tim Enos, an SRO supervisor with the Sarasota 
County program, "some applicants drop their application after shadowing 
shows them the job isn't for them." 

Drawbacks to Being an SRO That Programs Should Explain to Candidates 

To help avoid assigning officers to the schools who are ill equipped to remain in the 
job, tell them during the screening process that they will need to: 
 serve multiple constituenciesschool administrators, faculty, students, parents, 
and the police or sheriff's departmentwith different backgrounds and 
relationships to the SRO 
 perform manyeven a majority ofduties not traditionally associated with being a 
law enforcement officer, such as monitoring the cafeteria during lunch or 
counseling troubled kids 
 live with the fact that their "beat" is reduced from a precinct or county to a school 
and its parking lot 
 overcome fears about standing in front of a classroom 
 attend after-school and (in some cases) weekend events that on occasion may 
prevent them from attending their own families' events 
 be willing to work harder than they ever thought the position would requireor 
harder than they ever worked as patrol officers 
 accept being isolated in many respects from the rest of the department 

(3) Provide timely and adequate training and supervision. Some SROs who 
apply for the position for the wrong reasons and start out as misfits can still 
be "salvaged" if the department trains them before they go into the schools 
and then supervises them carefully. Even SROs who apply for the position 
for all the "right" reasons can become disillusioned and decide to quit if they, 
too, are not adequately trained and supervised from the beginning. The lack 
of training and supervision can create stressful uncertainty about how to do 
the job, while poor performance can result in negative reactions from 
administrators, faculty, students, and parents that will discourage almost any 
SRO from continuing in the position. Chapter 5, "Training SROs," and 
chapter 6, "Supervising SROs," suggest how programs have been able to 
train and monitor SROs effectively so the officers feel confident they can do 
a good job. 


THE PROBLEM: Conflict with school administrators. There will almost inevitably 
be some initial conflicts between SROs and school administrators, but usually these 
problems get ironed out and both parties settle into a comfortable working 
relationship. However, in some cases the conflicts do not subside and even escalate. 
For example, in Stark County, Ohio, two SROs wanted to go back to regular patrol in 
part because the administrators persistently tried to deal with criminal matters by 
themselves and excluded the deputies from the process. 

SOLUTIONS: Take steps to prevent and reduce SRO-administrator disputes. 

(1) Get administrator cooperation early. As Sergeant Patricia Heffner, the 
supervisor of the Lakewood, Colorado, Police Department's SRO program 
pointed out, "including school officials in the screening process creates 
'buy in' to the individual officer . . . " as well as understanding and 
increased acceptance of the program concept. In addition, provide a formal 
orientation to the program for principals and assistant principalsall the 
SROs in one program reported that "We needed more orientation for 
administrators" because many administrators know little about what the 
program's goals are, what legal responsibilities and limitations police operate 
under, or how schools can make the best use of an officer in their schools. 
During the orientation, explain the program's benefits to principals and 
assistant principals, including: 

an immediate response to incidents requiring police intervention; 
an increase in everyone's sense of security and actual safety; 
having reduced burden for handling serious student misconduct; and 
help with preparing security assessments and emergency plans. 

(2) Train SROs to work with administrators. A few SROs report that officers 
cannot be taught how to work with administrators that is something they can 
learn only on the job. However, most SROs feel that some training in 
advance can reduce at least some of the conflict and is definitely better than 
"throwing the SROs to the wolves" with no orientation at all. Chapter 5, 
"Training SROs," describes how several programs have been able to train 
SROs before they go into the schools. One principal suggested having an 
experienced SRO and administrator team up to give a presentation to new 
SROs about how to develop an effective partnership. 


(3) Arrange for each new SRO to meet before the school year begins or 
shortly thereafter with his or her school administrators to discuss their 
mutual roles and expectations in an effort to avoid unnecessary 
frustrationsand job dissatisfaction on the part of the officerrelated to 
lack of clarity about their respective rights and responsibilities. For example, 
a number of school administrators cited SRO time away from the school as 
a cause of frustration. In some cases, the administrator was not aware of the 
SRO's competing demands, such as court appearances and covering other 
schools in a crisis. 

(4) Make sure the memorandum of agreement between the law enforcement 
agency and the school district spells out in detail the respective 
responsibilities of the SRO and the school. Without this clarity, school 
administrators and faculty may overburden the SRO or express 
frustration when the officer cannot meet their every request. To avoid 
such misunderstandings, the contract between the Sarasota County, Florida, 
Sheriff's Office and the school district, for example, states that "The SRO is 
not to be used for regularly assigned lunchroom duties, hall monitors, bus 
duties or other monitoring duties." The box "Areas of SRO and School 
Responsibility That Need Addressing" lists most of the most important areas 
of responsibility that programs need to spell out in an effort to minimize 
future conflict. To supplement its contracts with school districts, the King 
County Sheriff's Office developed an informational memo for school 
administrators and SROs specifically describing the program's goals and 
expectations, such as specifying that: 

 A typical SRO shift is an eight-hour day, Monday through Friday, 0730-1530 hours 
. . . . . The SRO will be required to obtain prior approval from a supervisor for any 
overtime where exigent circumstances do not exist . . . . 
 Beginning and ending shift times can be flexed up to four hours; anything outside 
these hours requires time and a half overtime pay. 


Areas of SRO and School Responsibility That Need Addressing 

 the role various parties will play in screening and selecting candidates for SRO positions 
(e.g., will school administrators participate in the screening process? be allowed to veto a 
candidate?) 
 providing office space and materials for SROs at the schools (e.g., computer, secure filing 
cabinets, telephone, refrigerator) 
 training that the SROs will attend before going on the job (e.g., juvenile law), soon after going 
on the job (e.g., teaching), and later on as part of in-service training (e.g., dealing with 
bullying), and who will pay for it 
 specific hours and days of the week SROs are expected to be on campus 
 occasions when SROs will be excused from being on campus (e.g., to appear in court) and 
who will excuse them 
 the notification process when an SRO cannot come to work (e.g., due to illness or family 
emergency) 
 providing a substitute officer when the regular SRO cannot be on campus 
 activities that are considered to be overtime (e.g., providing security at after-school athletic 
events), who may request and approve the overtime, who will pay for it, the officers' options for 
refusing it, and the option of providing "flex time" (e.g., SRO comes in late to work the next 
morning) 
 in instances when an officer has legal discretion, who makes the decision to arrest (or cite) or 
not arrest (or cite) a student who has broken the law, what the procedure will be for making the 
decision, and what happens if the officer and school administrator disagree (e.g., over a school 
rule violation that is also minor criminal or civil infraction, such as possession of cigarettes or 
verbal bullying) 
 under what circumstances SROs will or may handcuff students whom they arrest and allow 
other students to see the handcuffed students being escorted off campus 
 beyond what the law requires (e.g., need for a parent to be present if the student is underage), 
under what circumstances SROs may question students under both noncustodial conditions 
and pursuant to an arrest, conduct pat downs and searches, and detain individuals 
 contacting parents directly (e.g., after an arrest, to discuss an at-risk student) 
 access to confidential student records 
 transporting students (e.g., take them home to pick up forgotten medication, bring a truant 
student to school) 


Areas of SRO and School Responsibility That Need Addressing (cont.) 

 disciplining students for breaking school rules (e.g., for not adhering to the dress code, 
swearing) and the procedures to be followed 
 acting regularly, as needed, or only in an emergency as monitors or security staff (e.g., 
during lunch, class breaks, assemblies, bus arrivals and departures) 
 traffic control responsibilities 
 teaching responsibilities, required and permitted topics (e.g., drug education, bullying, gang 
involvement), and procedures for arranging to teach a class (e.g., SRO may arrange directly 
with teachers) 
 addressing truancy and, if so, the procedure (e.g., call parents? go to the student's home to 
encourage him or her to come to school?) 
 engaging only in law-related counseling or also helping students with personal problems 
 the procedure if an SRO believes a student is a danger to him or herself or to others in the 
school or community (e.g., a student expresses suicidal thoughts) 
 providing law-related counseling to school personnel (e.g., victims of domestic violence) 
 investigating possible criminal behavior on the part of school personnel (e.g., sexual 
harassment) 
 developing, revising, and implementing safe school plans (e.g., conduct a Crime Prevention 
Through Environmental Design [CPTED] survey) and critical incident response strategies 
(e.g., who can order a lock down?) 
 meetings and events, if any, SROs will be required, allowed, or forbidden to attend (e.g., PTA 
meetings, faculty meetings, school assemblies, band practice) 
 working in uniform or civilian clothes and carrying a sidearm while on campus 
 written weekly or monthly reports or logs and their distribution 
 contacts SROs may have with the media (e.g., after a critical incident, to solicit a newspaper 
article on students' using "Fatal Vision" goggles to simulate alcohol impairment) 
 engaging in fund raising and, if so, what kinds (e.g., selling pizzas or doing a car wash to 
raise money to send students to a Youth Crime Watch conference) 
 Evaluating SRO Performance by whom, how often, following what procedures, and using what 
criteria 


Program supervisors and SROs should keep these agreed-upon duties and 
responsibilities readily available to show to people who expect them to perform 
tasks that are outside their responsibility. For example, when a principal in Sarasota 
County wanted his SRO to be on campus every day from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m., a 
supervising sergeant referred the administrator to the contract, which identifies the 
hours as 7:30 a.m. to 2:30 p.m. Programs also need to recirculate the description 
of SRO responsibilities at least annually to school administrators and to each new 
principal or assistant principal. 

(5) Make sure school administrators and faculty tell SROs what a good job 
they are doing. Some SROs report they find enough job satisfaction when 
school administrators treat them as valued members of their "team." 

 According to Major Skip Rossi, now Administrative Division commander 
with the Sarasota County Sheriff's Office, "I turned down a promotion to 
corporal [which would have required him to stop being an SRO] because my 
status on campus was that of an assistant principal, and that fed my ego 
enough [for several years]." 

 According to chief James Kelly in Palm Beach County, Florida, SROs "don't 
get burned out the way some teachers do because, unlike faculty, SROs are 
in control and get rewards from seeing kids improve. Also, SROs get 
constant positive feedback from staff." 

The point is not to leave these compliments from administrators and teachers to 
chance; program coordinators need to explain to administrators and faculty about 
how important it is for them to tell their SROs how much they are appreciated. For 
example, the schools in Virginia Beach, Virginia, have SRO appreciation days and 
host an appreciation brunch each year to honor the SROs. 

(6) Allow SROs who do not get along with their school administrators to 
transfer to another school at the end of the academic year. SRO Jos 
Cuellar in Palm Beach County said that his police chief has been very fair in 
accommodating officers requesting a change to be closer to home or to work 
in a different school. However, Kelly says that he will switch SROs who dis 
like their schools only two times; "the third time," he notes, "it's the SRO's 
problem"that is, the fault lies not with the school or its administrators but 
with the officer. The Jefferson City, Missouri, program guide specifically 
allows for SROs to transfer when a vacancy occurs provided that school 
administrators, the superintendent of schools, the administrative captain, and 
the chief of police all agree. 


THE PROBLEM: Feeling isolated from the rest of the department. Confined to 
their schools all day, some SROs express frustration at having little or no contact 
any more with other department personnel, eventually coming to feel that they are 
no longer a part of the force. SRO Kiel Higgins with the Albuquerque, New Mexico, 
Police Department, said, "You can get to feel left out of the department with no 
contact with regular officers." An SRO in the West Orange, New Jersey, Police 
Department sees his irregular contact with the department as "the one negative" to 
his assignment. He regrets the loss of rapport with the troops that he maintained 
more easily around the station house. "It's in your bloodthat's why you became a 
cop. SROs have to switch gears and become someone else." In rural areas, the 
remote location of a program's participating schools can limit the SROs' interaction 
with other police personnel even further. 

SOLUTIONS: Take steps to keep SROs integrated with the rest of the 
department. 

(1) Encourage or require SROs to go back to patrol during the summer. In 
addition to preventing SROs from losing their street skills, this enables 
SROs to interact again with other patrol officers. However, if SROs have to 
spend the summer on the swing or night shift, are given rotating shifts, or 
are assigned to work weekends, they may feel that losing their highly 
desirable weekday schedule is not worth the opportunity to regain contact 
with patrol officers. Furthermore, school administrators may want the 
officers at their schools year round. 

(2) Require SROs to attend roll call at least periodically. Program supervisors 
in the Chula Vista Police Department require SROs to go to the day shift 
patrol roll call every Wednesday morning (although one police chief 
suggests periodically changing the day of the week so that students do not 
know in advance when their schools will be uncovered). In addition, on 
Fridays two SROs on a rotating basis work together in teams with regular 
patrol officers. Program supervisors in the Boone, North Carolina, Police 
Department require SROs to come to the police department at some point 
each day to check their messages to help ensure they remain a part of 
patrol. 

(3) Require SROs to participate in all departmentwide training. However, 
programs need to weigh the drawbacks of taking the SROs out of their 
schools to attend the training against the advantages of making them feel a 
part of the department, giving them the opportunity to resume contact with 
patrol officers, and offering the benefits of the training itself. 


(4) Encourage SROs to take the initiative to remain in touch with other 
officers. 

 One SRO said he decided [on his own] "to come to the office at the 
beginning and end of every day and sometimes during the day." 

 To avoid feeling left out, if something "goes down" near his school such as a 
traffic accident, SRO Kiel Higgins in Albuquerque deliberately races over to 
help handle it in part so he can interact with the sector officers. Higgins also 
works overtime with patrol officers every Friday and Saturday night to help 
them respond to calls regarding loud parties. 

 A few SROs stay with, or join, the SWAT team to keep in touch with other 
officers. One SRO reported he remains on the SWAT team in part because 
"It's an elite group with a great esprit de corps" (see below). 

(5) Explain the program to patrol officers to dispel myths associated with 
the position. The Lakewood Police Department developed an internal SRO 
program bulletin"Calls from the Halls"in part to address a communication 
breakdown that was occurring between SROs and other officers (see the 
box "Excerpts From a Lakewood Police Department . . . . Bulletin"). The 
program supervisor believes the bulletin has helped dispel some of the 
stereotypes about the SROs' work as well as prompted discussions between 
the SROs and patrol officers about at-risk youth and trends in student 
misconduct. 

(6) Single out effective SROs for public commendation. Many law 
enforcement officers complain that the only time their supervisors single 
them out is to criticize their mistakes. Some programs buck this trend by 
regularly ensuring that the entire department knows about SROs who are 
doing a good job. 

 The Lakewood program's "Calls from the Halls" bulletin not only dispels 
myths about SRO work but also helps ensure that other personnel are aware 
of the officers' success stories. 

 The Sarasota County Sheriff's Office StarTrac meetings, where commanders 
report on their units' progress and problems and top administrators ask 
follow-up questions (see the case study at the end of chapter 6, "Supervising 
SROs"), are not only an accountability tool, they also provide an opportunity 
for line officers to have their work recognized and complimented. At one 
meeting, after Captain Tim Carney, the program supervisor, read letters 
praising the work of three SROs who attended the meeting, the sheriff got up 
and walked over to shake their hands in front of every major in the agency. 


 An elementary school principal sent Frank Scialdone, chief of the Fontana, 
California, Police Department, a letter commending "on behalf of myself, the 
students and the staff" an SRO's performance at an assembly. Scialdone sent a 
copy of the letter to the SRO with the notation, "Outstanding job. Thanks for all 
you do for our kids. You are making a difference. Frank Scialdone." 

Excerpts From a Lakewood Police Department SRO Bulletin, "Calls from the Halls" 

The Lakewood Police Department distributes an occasional bulletin, "Calls from the Halls," to all 
patrol officers to: 

 inform the officers of the arrests SROs have made, 
 provide updates about the program, and 
 share important information about problem juveniles. 

Excerpts from typical bulletins follow (all of whichalthough deleted in the excerpts belowprovide 
the offending students' names, dates of birth, and home addresses, and sometimes their 
photographs). 

In December ____ ,[the SRO] made use of his computer internet education by seeking out 
information on how to build bombs . . . . Some of the information he was seeking included: 
Making plastic explosives from bleach, how to pick locks . . . . , letter bombs . . . . , napalm, 
exploding light bulbs among others. ____ has been diagnosed as bi-polar, but he refuses to take 
his medication. On ________, Agent [the SRO] had a second encounter with ____ [who had] 
violated his school contract by arguing with a teacher and subsequently punching and kicking 
lockers . . . . While escorting ____ off of school grounds, ___ was very argumentative and hostile 
to Agent _________. [The SRO] feels that ________ is the most dangerous and volatile student 
has had contact with . . . . Please use caution when dealing with ________. 

Spring time either brings out love or brawls. The kids were back in school after spring break all of 
20 minutes when the first fight broke out. There have been numerous fights and assaults ever 
since. Please don't hesitate to call Agent ____ [the SRO] with information regarding any evening 
or weekend disturbances involving ____ [name of school] students. 

Patrol responded to a reported fight in progress. They arrested _______ for 2nd degree assault 
after he struck the victim in the back several times with a bat. 

Be alert and aware of: 

___________ is a registered sex offender. _____ was 'hanging around' the kids at _____ Middle 
School after school let out. He was wearing a trench coat in 95 degree weather. . . . [T]here is 
concern he is preying upon the students. He speaks with a South African accent, although he 
states he was born and raised in Colorado. He is very short and blends in with the kids. If ______ 
is contacted on or near school grounds, or if he is with a younger teenager or child, please 
investigate, document and notify his case worker. 


(7) Create esprit within the unit. In Maury County, Tennessee, where most 
SROs have been part of the program since its inception, the department has 
worked hard to establish camaraderie among the officers by hosting weekly 
meetings with all the SROs and sending them every year to the state SRO 
association's annual conference. One of the SROs reported that he 
attributes the low turnover in his unit to "the fact that the SROs enjoy their 
work and have gotten to know each other real well, which helps increase job 
satisfaction." 

THE PROBLEM: The position is seen as a dead end job. 

SOLUTIONS: Ensure that the department values the program and the position, 
and treats it as a stepping stone for career advancement. 

(1) Several departments make clear that officers and deputies who have been 
SROs are better candidates for promotion if they continue in the position 
long enough to demonstrate their capabilities to do it well. 

 According to Captain Curtis Main, supervisor of the Boone, North 
Carolina, program, "The position can be part of one's professional 
development because it increases your qualifications and aptitudes." 

 SROs consider the program in the Broken Arrow, Oklahoma, Police 
Department to be "a good way to jump start a career" because it 
includes so many benchmarks for career advancement in the 
department, such as experience as an instructor and involvement 
with juveniles. 

(2) Many programs provide resources to the program that demonstrate how 
much they value its efforts. A sergeant from the Montgomery County 
Sheriff's Office in North Carolina believes his department's low turnover in 
part reflects his efforts to accommodate SRO requests for training and 
equipment (e.g., laptop computers), "which demonstrates that the 
department is 100 percent behind the SRO program." 

THE PROBLEM: Lack of excitement. As Major Skip Rossi with the Sarasota County 
Sheriff's Office and a former SRO said, "Being an SRO doesn't provide the same 
excitement as being on patrol." 

SOLUTIONS: Take specific steps to keep the job stimulating. 

(1) Allow SROs to remain members of other units in the departmentor 
encourage them to join one. 


 The SRO cited above who continues as a member of the SWAT team 
because it keeps him feeling "like I'm a cop" added that, if he had to 
choose between remaining an SRO and giving up the SWAT team (which 
primarily entails daylong trainings two Mondays a month-call-outs are 
rare and usually at night), he would give up being an SRO. Steve Malisos, 
an SRO in Salem, New Hampshire, is also on the SWAT team because "I 
like keeping my hand in traditional law enforcementand the schools love 
it, knowing that I am highly trained in dealing with a critical incident." Of 
course, SROs, program supervisors, and school administrators must 
balance the disadvantage of these officers not being on campus a few 
extra days of the year (even if a substitute SRO is provided) against 
getting SWAT skills in the school. 

 The Oklahoma County Sheriff's Office allows its SROs during the summer 
to attend patrol training, serve warrants, serve in the courthouse, or attend 
training as hostage negotiators or public information officers. One SRO 
was trying out for the tactical team. 

 The Scottsdale, Arizona, Police Department assigns its SROs to work with 
detectives during the summer to help clear cases and provide an 
opportunity to hone their interviewing and investigation skills. 

(2) Give SROs assignments that involve new and rewarding challenges, 
meeting interesting people, and learning new skillseven if they entail 
additional work. 

 The Palm Beach County, Salem, and Scottsdale programs require SROs to 
follow each case through from initial investigation to court appearance. 

 Chief James Kelly in Palm Beach County assigned a supervisor and an 
officer to work with the school's construction committee to help ensure that 
architectural plans for new school buildings would be consistent with 
providing a safe school environment (see the box "Giving SROs Special 
Assignments"). 


Giving SROs Special Assignments to Keep Them Motivated 

Chief James Kelly in Palm Beach County assigned Lieutenant Larry Leon, a program supervisor, 
and Don Thrasher, an SRO, to work with school building architects and the manager of new 
construction to ensure that the plans provide a safe and secure environmentfor example: 

 Is there fencing, and is it appropriate? 

 Are the security systems adequate, including magnetic card access into the 
buildings, intrusion alarms, and video cameras? 

 Is the planned reception area secure? 
Leon also serves on the committee that selects the architects for each new school building and 
participates in scoring the bidders. While another lieutenant covers for him when he goes to 
daytime meetings, he does the remaining work at home, often on his own time. 

After a captain introduced him to using CPTED (Crime Prevention Through Environmental 
Design) principles of securing school campuses, Leon became a CPTED practitioner. He has 
also completed a construction management course that was offered by a major construction 
company at no cost to the department. 

At times, Leon has changed school architectural designs on the spot. When facility architects 
balk at his suggestions, he goes to the county's director of buildings and facilities and reports 
that what he wants done "is a safety issue." The school district supports him because it wants to 
ensure student safety and to reduce its liability in the event a preventable tragedy occurs. 

(3) Encourage SROs to seek out interesting challenges on their own and 
support them when they do. 

 Dan Genest, a middle school SRO in Salem, learned how to conduct 
school safety surveys at an advanced National Association of School 
Resource Officer (NASRO) training. Based on what he learned, the next 
summer Genest surveyed every room in his school, documenting safety 
hazards such as windows that did not lock, rooms that were not clearly 
marked with a number, and lack of coverings on door windows that were 
needed if there was a lockdown. He reported his findings to school 
administrators, who fixed some of the deficiencies, including installing 
shades on all door windows. He also learned at the training how to run a 
lockdown at a school. As a result, he identified deficiencies in his school's 
lockdown procedures. For example, the procedure did not address what to 
do if there were students in the gym or cafeteria. He brought this 
information to the attention of the assistant principal, who changed the 
school's procedures. As a result, Genest not only participated in an 
interesting endeavor, he also increased his school administrators' 
appreciation for his work. 


 The SROs in the Oklahoma County Sheriff's Office perform annual security 
assessments of their schools. They have designed complete emergency 
response manuals in collaboration with school officials and other deputies, 
including diagrams of school buildings and photographs, and developed 
procedures for various types of emergencies. The SROs regularly practice 
different types of preparedness drills with students and staff. 

 An SRO in the Lenoir Sheriff's Office in North Carolina organized a Youth 
Crime Watch (YCW) program in the school. By providing student members 
with radios to use while "on patrol," the officer finds that the members 
report numerous cases of student misconduct ranging from attempts to 
skip school to arson in the bathrooms. 

(4) Send SROs for training and other forms of professional development. 

 Captain Tim Carney, supervisor of the Sarasota County program, took 30 
SROsand their familiesto an annual national NASRO conference held 
in Orlando, Florida. Carney sent six SROs to an SRO conference in Palm 
Beach County, California. 

 Programs in two Florida counties arranged for Youth Crime Watch of 
America to host a two-day conference on successful Youth Crime Watch 
programs and sent all their SROs to attend. 

THE PROBLEM: Too much teaching. According to a former SRO with the 
Sarasota County Sheriff's Office, "Teaching is a big reason for burnout because it's 
hard to teach kidsthey'll eat you up if you don't know what you're doing. Some 
officers say that, if it weren't for the teaching, they'd love being SROs. And there's a 
problem with repeating the same lecture over and over again." 

SOLUTIONS: Train officers to teach and, when necessary, arrange for them to 
reduce their teaching load. 

(1) As a former SRO said, "We could reduce the burnout from teaching if we 
trained officers in how to teach before they went on the job." Perhaps 
nothing frightens SROs more about their new assignment than getting up in 
front of a class of 25 mistrustfuleven hostilekids just looking to find flaws 
in the officer. Without training, many SROs take months, even years, to 
become effective in the classroom. Others become so discouraged they 
quit. 


(2) Allow SROs to transfer to schools that require less teaching. The 
Sarasota County program allows SROs to transfer to other schools when 
openings become available. If an SRO leaves, the remaining SROs can bid 
for the opening, which is filled on the basis of seniority. There are usually 
one or two openings every year or two. If there is an opening at the high 
school level, there are always SROs who want to transfer, in part because of 
the reduced teaching load compared with the demands at middle and, 
especially, elementary schools. 

(3) Make teaching easier. One difficult aspect of teaching is finding or 
developing curriculum materials and lesson plans. As a result, a supervising 
sergeant in Maury County started a library of teaching aids that SROs can 
use to develop their own lesson plans and handouts. The Tucson Police 
Department program houses teaching materials in its office that SROs can 
use, and its Procedures Manual distributed to all new SROs provides 
detailed curriculum outlines for teaching several topics. Sheryl Nosbish, in 
her tenth year as an SRO in Tucson, gives copies of her lesson plans and 
materials to each new SRO who shadows her. She also warns new SROs, 
"Don't overbook for teaching, don't agree to teach 5-7 classes a day." 

THE PROBLEM: Burnout. SROs can get burned out after a few years because 
the job, if done properly, can involve non-stop work, after-hours work, and intense 
work. As Major Skip Rossi with the Sarasota County Sheriff's Office said, "An 
officer who has been an SRO for eight years may want out; you can get tired. It's 
demandingyou have a lot of bosses." Irrespective of the long work hours, the 
lack of flexibility (for illness, personal appointments, childcare issues) can also 
cause burnout. 

SOLUTIONS: Find ways to lighten the SROs' schedule. 

(1) Support some flexibility in the SROs' schedules. While recognizing the 
wishes of the schools (and often the SROs' own desires) to have the officer 
always present in the schools, some programs have arranged for SROs to 
take breaks from their non-stop schedules. 

 The Maury County Sheriff's Department assigns each SRO a back-up SRO 
to help cover after-hour events and allow time off when there is a pressing 
daytime personal commitment. 

 The Boone Police Department trained a patrol officer in the department as 
an SRO to serve as a back-up to the single SRO in the department. 


 If an SRO needs a day off for personal reasons (e.g., his wife had a baby, 
her husband's father died), Captain Tim Carney in Sarasota County grants 
it. "If SROs need to run home to take care of a sick child, or a training ends 
an hour before their regular end of day, I let them go home early." 

 The Tucson program allows SROs to take a day off any time during the 
month in which their birthdays fall. If they do not take a day off, they 
receive 10 hours' extra pay for that pay period. 

 Departments can include limits in the contract or MOU with the schools on 
how many extracurricular activities the SROs will be required to attendfor 
example, mandating attendance only for popular events like home football 
games where security is of concern or limiting the number of events to one 
every other week. 

(2) As needed, give SROs extended periods of time off if they are feeling 
too stressed out. 

 One SRO's supervisor who suspected the officer was overworked by the 
inflection of his voice asked him, "Are you burned out?" The SRO said he 
was stressed out because of too much work and the time of year (spring 
time) "when kids become a little wild." As a result, the supervisor reduced 
the SRO's responsibilities with the Explorers Program. 

 The supervisor of the Boone Police Department, noticing that the SROs 
were burned out by the end of the school year, asked the chief to agree to 
allow them to build compensatory time during the school year so they could 
take July and half of August off. The chief agreed, as long as officers 
came to the department periodically to check their messages. 

 The Jefferson City, Missouri, program attempts to train all SROs as Drug 
Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) officers so it can rotate them in 
case they burn out. This dual qualification has helped the department to 
prevent officer burnout, one officer requested to leave D.A.R.E. for SRO 
duty. (The dual certification also makes it possible to have a trained 
substitute to step in if an SRO or D.A.R.E. officer gets sick.) 


(3) Try to give SROs preferred summer assignments so (like regular 
teachers) they have a chance to catch their breath and be ready for the 
next school year. 

 Enable SROs to work the same daytime, weekday hours during the 
summer rather than put them back on swing or night shifts, or, worse, 
rotating shifts. One of the steps the Lakewood Police Department has 
taken to promote retention is to establish a summer youth academy and 
other youthrelated activities run by the SROs so they can maintain the 
same schedule they work during the school year. 

 Work with the department to ensure summer assignments are 
acceptable to the SROs. In many cases, SROs are officers who have 
been members of the agency for many years and therefore get frustrated 
when their summer assignment is inconsistent with their tenure. For 
example, assigning SROs in Virginia Beach to beachfront duty in the 
summera disliked postingwas causing some SROs to quit. As a result, 
the program supervisor worked with patrol commanders to get SROs, who 
typically have more seniority than other patrol officers, to get the SROs the 
shift and assignments they prefer. 

(4) Encourage SROs to lighten their work load on their own. 

 Sheryl Nosbish in Tucson tells new SROs who shadow her, "Lots of people 
make demands on your time, so learn how to say 'no.' " She advises each 
new SRO to "educate administrators and teachers to what they can do and 
not dump everything on the SROfor example, little fights. You don't have 
to handle every broken law or school rule." 


Dealing With Mandatory Turnover 

In some agencies, department policies require SROs to leave the schools 
prematurely. 

Promotions. SROs who get promoted to sergeant typically have to return 
to patrol for a specified period of time. According to Daniel Parrett, a high 
school principal in Sarasota County, "SROs often last no more than four 
years in part because they have to go back to the road after getting 
promoted. That's my only complaint with the programwhy make SROs go 
back on the road after a promotion?" That happened to a few of his SROs 
who wanted to remain in the position. "One SRO was almost crying 
because he had to leave." 

Mandatory rotation. Many departments require officers in specialty 
positions to rotate out of the assignment after a fixed number of years. In 
some cases, the collective bargaining agreement requires rotation for all 
specialty assignments. The box "Should SROs Be Rotated Out of the 
Position?" presents some of the advantages and disadvantages of 
mandatory rotation. 

Several departments have reduced turnover due to promotions and mandatory 
rotation by changing the policy or allowing exceptions. 

 Speaking about a newly promoted SRO, Sergeant Tim Enos, a supervisor with the 
Sarasota County program, said, "It didn't make sense to put a 10-year SRO back on 
patrol as a sergeant for two years and then let him go back to being an SRO." As a 
result, the department relaxed the policy so that SROs can apply for promotions 
and remain in the program. 

 In 2003, Richard Casler, chief of the Schaumburg Police Department, changed his 
four-year mandatory rotation policy (see the box) to five and even six years, in part 
because the schools objected to losing good SROs. (In addition, the program would 
have lost several experienced SROs all at the same time, leaving too many schools 
simultaneously with novice SROs, all of whom the program supervisor would have 
had to monitor and support at the same time.) The department also agreed to allow 
SROs who serve five years to spend one year in another position and then return to 
the schools if there is an opening. 

 Program supervisors in Tucson decided to allow current SROs to put their names 
on a secondary list if they wish to rejoin the program for another five years, 
although new applicants who meet the qualifications are placed on a primary 
eligibility list and have first choice. As a result, when Sheryl Nosbish's time as an 
SRO was coming to an end, she was able to sign up for another tour of duty 
because there were no applicants on the primary list at the time. 


 Robert Yant, chief of the Marshall Police Department, rescinded his two-year rotation 
requirement "because the SRO turned out to be such a good fit with the schools." 

Should SROs Be Rotated Out of the Position? 

While the collective bargaining agreement in some programs requires the department to 
rotate SROs, in many law enforcement agencies it is the chief's or sheriff's choice to rotate 
them. A sheriff who sponsors a program insists on rotating SROs every three years. There is 
mandatory rotation every five years in another department because the chief wants well-
rounded officers. An SRO from the Boone Police Department agreed with his agency's 
policy of rotating officers every four or five years arguing that it is "good to bring in new 
blood because SROs can fall into a routine, so it is important to get someone who brings 
renewed enthusiasm to the position." 

Richard Casler, the Schaumburg police chief, offered three reasons he rotates SROs out of 
the position: 

 When officers who have rotated through various assignments are promoted, their 
experience with various aspects of police work makes them better supervisors. 

 Having periodic SRO openings enables him to reward patrol officers with a desirable 
posting. 

 SROs can "recycle their experience by being a great mentor for new officers" on how to 
work with youth. 
By contrast, most SROs, and most school administrators, see important benefits to allowing 
the officers to remain in the schools indefinitely as long as they are performing well. 

 A principal in Tucson said, "The whole benefit is the SRO's knowing the kids. For example, 
the SRO will know when a student who says something inappropriate is just venting or is a 
danger. The SRO knows when it is not appropriate to arrest a student because of the 
pupil's past history and should write instead a report that justifies a more lenient response 
to the incident than would be warranted if another student had committed the same 
offense." 

 Program supervisors in the Olympia, Washington, Police Department, report that, unlike 
other specialty positions (e.g., traffic), a successful SRO depends on relationships [with 
school administrators and teachers] that take time to build. 


This chapter provides no case studies because no one program included in the 
study implemented enough activities designed to minimize turnover to warrant a 
separate discussion. However, the most effective approach to reducing 
turnover is precisely to implement a number of steps that, taken together, are 
much more likely to encourage qualified SROs to remain in the position than 
any one retention strategy. 


Chapter 5: Training SROs 

SROs point out that much of what they need to know can only be learned on the job 
"trial by fire," "trial and error," "sink or swim," and "by the seat of your pants" are how 
many of them describe how they learned to be good SROs. As SRO Steve Malisos in 
Salem, New Hampshire, said, "You fall back on your training 40 percent of the time, but 
60 percent you have to rely on trial and error." However, while certain things can be 
learned or honed only on the job, SROs in the study report that training before new 
SROs go into the schools is essential. 

Importance of Training 

Many SROs, SRO supervisors, and school administrators in the study report that 
untrained SROs generally serve their schools poorly for several months and even 
years. As one former SRO and current program supervisor said, "They [the 
department] put SROs in the schools the first year with no formal training, so the first 
year was not productive." 

A number of SROs report they either did things poorly or avoided doing them at 
all until they had been trained. A high school assistant principal recalled that "the two 
SROs I had worked with in the high school did their job but did not do enough with the 
kids because they were fearful of making an error and getting into legal trouble." 
Several SROs regretted that only after receiving training in classroom management did 
they really begin to teach. 

SROs have good reason to be nervous going into schools without training 
because they can make serious mistakes related to their relationships with students, 
school administrators, and parents that at best cause short-term embarrassment and at 
worst jeopardize the entire program in the school. Glenn Brunet, an SRO in Terrebonne 
Parish, Louisiana, reported: 

I learned what to do by trial and error, playing it by earfor example, bringing 
parents in with their children to talk with me. When students began to 
challenge my authority to tell them to tuck in their shirts ("You can't make me 
do that"), to enforce my authority I filled out and turned in a discipline slip form 
not knowing whether the school administrators would honor it. But the student 
was suspended. But I could have made serious errors without the training. I 
could have been overzealous or apathetic, doing too much or not enough. 
Plus, you need training to cover you in court [if you are sued], training is policy 
in court. 

Despite its importance, few programs in the study train SROs adequately before they 
go on the jobsome provide absolutely no training while others do not make it 
available until SROs have been on the job for as long as a year or more. In addition to 
the expense, programs often fail to provide timely training because courses are often 
not available locally during the period between the selection of the new SROs and their 
first day in the schools. However, as discussed below, a number of programs have 
solved the problem of poor timing. 


Topics Pre-Service Training Needs to Address 

Program supervisors, SROs, and school administrators generally agree that pre-
service training should focus on helping SROs to: 

(1) teach; 
(2) mentor and counsel; 
(3) work collaboratively with school administrators; 
(4) manage their time; and 
(5) apply juvenile laws and case law. 

In their curriculum materials, the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (the 
COPS Office) and many private training organizations have developed detailed 
syllabuses addressing the training needs of new SROs (see the box "A Number of 
Organizations Provide Training for SROs"). As a result, the discussion below does 
not provide course training outlines. Instead, the discussion provides the rationale for 
providing training in each topic area. The text then addresses the chapter's principal 
focushow to go about arranging the training. 

How to Teach 

Along with law enforcement and mentoring, teaching is one of the three components 
of the accepted model for School Resource Officers. For some SROs and school 
administrators, teaching is the key SRO role: Ward Nelson, a middle school 
principal and program coordinator in Schaumburg, Illinois, says that "SROs need to 
know how to teach kidsbeing a good teacher is the hallmark of a good SRO." 

However, unless they have taught school, taught the Drug Abuse Resistance 
Education (D.A.R.E.) or Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T) 
curriculums, or been an instructor at the academy, SROs cannot walk into a 
classroom of kids and be an effective instructor. As Glenn Brunet in Terrebonne 
Parish said, "Teaching a group of teenagers can be intimidatingthey're just waiting 
for you to make a mistake and laugh at you. The first time a teacher asked me to run 
a class, I panicked'I'm not a teacher.' [Without any training], it took me more than 
two years to teach well." 

The benefits of teacher training can be immediate and significant: an SRO with the 
Oklahoma County Sheriff's Office explained that he wanted to teach law-related 
topics more regularly in the middle school during his second year because he had 
learned a great deal about the potential for classroom teaching at a National 
Association of School Resource Officers (NASRO) training he had just attended. He 
spoke about his plans with the middle school principal, who approved. 
In addition to needing training in classroom management, SROs also need to learn 
how to develop lesson plans. SRO Dan Genest in Salem had attended an 


instructor development class at the police academy long before he became an SRO. 
As part of the course, he had had to put together lesson plans, which "helped me 
tremendously to develop them for teaching here [at the middle school]." Sergeant 
Richard Davies, a former SRO for eight years and now program supervisor in Pine 
Bluff, Arkansas, said: 

You can't go into class and look stupid, so you need to develop basic lesson 
plans to show to the principal so you can cover yourself and so you won't 
fumble in class. SROs also need to be able to document what they say in 
class in case a student claims the officers said something inappropriate. A lot 
of cops shoot from the hip in the classroom; make them develop lesson plans 
during training and then present them. 

This is exactly what Davies did. After he became a certified NASRO instructor, he 
offered a 40-hour course during the summer of 2001 for about a dozen prospective 
SROs in the area, including a half dozen from his own police department, that included 
training the participants to develop lesson plans. 

How to Mentor and Counsel 

Mentoring or counseling is also one of the three universally accepted SRO roles. 

 According to Glenn Brunet, "Counseling is the essence of what an SRO does in the 
schools. Kids come for help, and you can't turn them away. The biggest thing is that 
kids want someone they can talk to other than counselors, who are busy with 
scheduling; kids need someone who is accessible on a casual basis." 

 According to Sergeant Rochelle Thompson, the program supervisor with the 
Oklahoma County Sheriff's Office, "An essential training focus is preparing SROs to 
counsel studentshow to do it, how deeply to get involved, and when to go 
elsewhere for help. They need to develop relationships with kids, but some students 
use the SROs to get out of class or as a crutch, or develop "crushes" on SROs, so 
SROs need training in how to avoid getting sucked into problems they can't handle 
and get help [for the students] instead." 

However, as with teaching, few people are "natural born" mentorsthey need 
guidance in how to engage in mentoring kids. Furthermore, without training, few 
officers realize in advance the central role mentoring plays in being an SRO until later. 
As a result, they are poorly prepared for the onslaught of kids who want help, the time 
needed to address their problems, and effective methods of meeting their needs. 


One SRO reported that "It was specialized training I received at a COPS Office 
sponsored training that was a key to my development of the current version of 
officers in schools that differentiates it from the previous work of D.A.R.E. or 

G.R.E.A.T. in terms of mentoring and counseling." In Marshall, Minnesota, NASRO 
training helped Jim Marshall, the SRO, to anticipate what to expect by way of kids 
coming to him with problems"The counseling component hit me hard because of 
the number of kids who wanted to talk, and I needed to be ready for that." 

How to Work Collaboratively With School Administrators 

"The biggest area in which SROs need training," according to SRO Steve Malisos 
in Salem, "is working with administrators." As Detective John Jameson, the first 
SRO in Schaumburg, said: 

You need to train SROs before they go on the job because they're dealing 
with two bossesthe police department and the school. They [school 
administrators] do things totally differently, so you need to understand the 
boundaries for what you can do in the schools. For example, the law says 
one thing but the school says nothat's too harsh. A kid is sexually 
assaulted, and the counselor wants to keep it confidential. How does an 
SRO handle this? Don't immediately go and charge and arrest the offender; 
participate as a team with school personnel. You need to know how to work 
with school administrators. 

Kiel Higgins, an SRO with the Albuquerque, New Mexico, Police Department, 
reported that the basic NASRO training course provided him for the first time with a 
clear understanding of how SROs and administrators were meant to work together. 

How to Manage Time 

As noted in chapter 3, "Screening SROs," SROs typically have multipleand often 
simultaneousdemands placed on their time from students, administrators, 
teachers, parents, police supervisors, and even patrol officers (who sometime want 
to transfer their juvenile cases to the SRO). As a result, they need training in how 
to "multi-task"but also in how to establish priorities for what they will do first and 
what they will leave until later or even ignore. 


How to Apply Juvenile Law and Case Law 

There are complex issues associated with enforcing the law in a school that 
many SROs are not initially ready to handle, including legislation and case law 
related to: 

 search and seizure involving minors in schools (e.g., responding to a school 
administrator's request to conduct a search); 

 interrogating minor students (e.g., without their parents present); 

 confidentiality related to what students tell SROs (e.g., domestic violence in the 
home); and 

 privacy issues related to student school and police records. 

Few officers before becoming SROseven if they have worked as juvenile 
detectiveshave acquired all this information. SRO Jim Marshall admitted that "I 
was nervous dealing with juveniles and schoolsthings are done differently in 
schools [than on the road]. As a patrol officer, 98 percent of your cases are adults, 
so you don't get to know much about juvenile law or the juvenile court system." 
This is why Ward Nelson, a middle school principal and program coordinator in 
Schaumburg, Illinois, stressed that training in juvenile law and dealing the juveniles 
is "incredibly important." 

SROs also need to be familiar with statutes related to juvenile crime, from status 
offenses to curfew violations. As a middle school assistant principal in Tucson, 
Arizona, said, SROs need to know the laws about juvenile behavior "because they 
will be a consultant to students and staff on legal issues." 

Other Topics 

A number of SROs, SRO supervisors, and school administrators feel that SROs 
should be trained in five other areas before taking on the position (see the box, 
"Five Other Topics Pre-Service Training Should Address"). 


Five Other Topics Pre-Service Training Should Address 

A number of SROs, program supervisors, and school administrators recommend that new SROs be trained in 
five other areas before taking on the position. 

Child Development and Psychology 

Sergeant Steve Belda, a program supervisor with the Tucson Police Department, said that SROs need "an 
understanding of kids' needs and the psychological and physiological changes kids are going through." 

Working With Kids in Schools 

Training can help SROs to "unlearn" some of the techniques they became accustomed to using on patrol duty 
that are not appropriate in dealing with studentsfor example, resorting too quickly to using handcuffs or 
treating misconduct as part of a person's criminal make-up when in a student the behavior may be an example 
of youthful ebullience, indiscretion, immaturity, or risk taking. 

Training can also help SROs anticipate how to handle the close student proximity and physical contact the 
officers are faced with in the typical school. James Wilkerson, an SRO in Palm Beach County, explained that 
"police officers are used to having 'defensible space' around them, but kids crowd around the SROs, so the 
officers need to lose their nervousness over that and get used to being around large groups of kids." 

In addition, SROs need to be on the alert for students who may develop "crushes" on them and be able to 
deflect such attention, including attempts at hugging that students may try to engage in. For example, one 
sheriff's deputy tries to "train" her kids to do a "side" hug to avoid suggestive physical contact. SROs also need 
tips on how to make sure that they do not engage in any inappropriate behavior that impressionable youngsters 
may misconstrue. 

Handling Especially Difficult Students 

SROs encounter unusually difficult students infrequently but, when they do, without training the situation may 
become serious. Dan Genest, an SRO in Salem, recounted how "a teacher could not get a kid who was acting 
up to leave her class, so she called on me. I saw the kid was mentally disturbed and I wondered, 'How come no 
one told me how to deal with mentally ill kids?' I'd had no training to deal with this situation." 

Learning School Policies and Procedures 

Former Salem superintendent of schools, Henry LaBranche, said, "It would be helpful for new SROs to spend 
time during the summer before starting in the schools to learn their schools' policies and procedures . . . . that 
is, learn how things are done in the school and what's been done in the past." SROs agree: Kiel Higgins in 
Albuquerque said, "You need to learn the school's policies and guidelineswhat its discipline policies are, 
especially with special education kids." 

Preparing Safe School Plans 

School administrators want and need expert help in making sure that an effective crisis prevention and 
management system is in place in their schools and that their campuses are as environmentally secure as 
possible. For example, a middle school principal in Tucson said he wants an SRO who "is able to assess 
deficiencies in lockdown procedures during dry runs, such as identifying locks that need to be fixed." Other 
training for SROs can focus on student and terrorist threat assessments. Agencies can also train SROs in what 
is known as CPTEDCrime Prevention Through Environmental Designa standardized approach to identifying 
ways of altering aspects of the physical environment that represent safety threats. 

Law enforcement agencies can consider opening up these and other school safety and security trainings to all 
officers or deputies in the agency so that they, too, can benefit from the information as well as increase their 
understanding of the SROs' responsibilities. 

Finally, programs may wish to consider providing training in other areas addressed in COPS in School trainings, 
including: 

 community policing in the schools (e.g., the SRO as a community liaison and problem solver), 
 youth culture and diversity (e.g., the challenge of school bullying), and 
 promoting mental health in schools, including intervening with at-risk students (e.g., detecting early signs of 
trouble). 


Approaches to Pre-Service Training 

The programs in the study use as many as four different approachesoften in 
combinationto providing pre-service training: 

(1) formal classroom training; 
(2) shadowing experienced SROs; 
(3) formal field training; and 
(4) written materials and guidelines. 

Provide Formal Classroom Training 

Many programs send their SROs to the 40-hour basic SRO training course offered by 
national organizations such as NASRO and Corbin & Associates, or to the 3-day 
COPS Office trainings (required of all COPS in Schools grantees). However, these 
organizations and agencies may not offer training during the interval between when 
officers have been selected as SROs and when they go into the schoolstypically, 
during the summeror may not offer the training within an acceptable driving 
distance of the law enforcement agency. Nevertheless, some programs have solved 
these timing and travel barriers. 

Delay Sending New SROs Into the Schools 

Robert Yant, chief of the Marshall Police Department, delayed posting Jim Marshall, 
the new SRO, in the schools until the fall after he could arrange for the officer to 
attend a NASRO training. However, some SROs feel there are advantages to 
providing training shortly after new SROs have been on the job because it allows 
officers to bring some experience, concerns, and questions to the training. 

 Jim Marshall spent the last two weeks of the school year in the schools before he 
was sent for training with NASRO that summer. "I found this short-term immersion 
useful because it helped focus my attention on what I needed to get out of the 
training." 

 According to an SRO with the Maury County, Tennessee, Sheriff's Department, 
"attending basic training after school started was more beneficial [than attending 
before he began work in the school], because it would not have made sense to me 
if I had not been working in the school for a little while." 

Seek Timely Training From Other Professional Organizations 

Some programs are able to find other organizations that offer courses at the 
time the program needs it. For example, for pre-service training, before new SROs 
go into the schools and, for in-service training, during the summer (see the box "A 
Number of Organizations Provide Training for SROs"). 


A Number of Organizations Provide Training for SROs 

NASRO and Corbin & Associates, two national organizations that are devoted exclusively to training and 
professional development of SROs, may be contacted at www.nasro.org and 
www.copsite.com/corbin/main.html, respectively. 

Other organizations also provide SRO training. The list below represents a few of these other sources of 
training based on an incomplete Internet search.* 

 Other national training organizations 
 The Youth for Justice National Coordinated Law-Related Education Program, supported by the U.S. 
Department of Justice Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), hosts 
seminars for SROs. Contact: www.youthforjustice.org. 
 RJK & Associates, Inc., provides teaching, training, and consultation in the area of SRO performance 
and evaluation, including basic and advanced SRO training. Contact: www.rjkassoc.com. 

 State agencies 
 The North Carolina Justice Academy, a division of the North Carolina Department of Justice, provides 
a 40-hour course for new SROs throughout the State. Contact: www.jus.state.nc.us/NCJA. 
 The Wyoming Law Enforcement Academy has provided basic SRO training. Contact: 
www.WLEAcademy.com. 
 The Florida Crime Prevention Training Institute, through the State Attorney General's Office, provides 
public education and training programs for SROs. Contact: www.nal.usda.gov/pavnet/cj/cjflorid.htm 
 Some state Commissions on Peace Officer Standards and Training (POSTs), such as those in 
California and Idaho, provide training, sometimes using training vendors such as NASRO and Corbin 
& Associates. The New Hampshire Police Standards and Training Council uses Primex, a public entity 
risk pool organized and operating as a trust on behalf of over 500 member governmental entities. 
Contact: www.nhprimex.com/tc/school_resources_officer_training.htm. 

 Post-secondary schools 
 Fox Valley Technical College in Appleton, Wisconsin, with COPS Office funding and in conjunction 
with OJJPD, provides training in its School Resource Officer Leadership Program. Contact: 
www.foxvalley.tec.wi.us. 
 The Division of Public Safety at Walters State University, a community college in Morristown, 
Tennessee, provides basic and intermediate SRO training. Contact: www.ws.edu. 
 At least two Regional Community Policing Institutes, one housed at Michigan State University, and 
one a partnership between the University of Illinois, Illinois State Police, and Illinois Violence 
Prevention Authority and Center, both supported by the COPS Office, provide 5-day schools for 
SROs. Contact: www.cj.msu.edu/~outreach/rcpi/train.html and www.online.uillinois.edu/oakley/ 
presentations/RICP_Links.html. 

 State SRO associations. Some State associations of School Resource Officers provide SRO training, such 
as those in Colorado (CASRO), Florida (FASRO), Kansas (KASRO), Washington (WASRO), and Alberta, 
Canada. 

* The inclusion of these organizations here does not imply anything about the quality of their training 
programs, which have not been evaluated for this report. In addition, the list is not the result of an exhaustive 
search for organizations that provide SRO training but rather an incomplete search designed to illustrate the 
variety of organizations that provide training that may be timely, inexpensive, and near-by. 
SRO Program Guide 


Develop In-House Training Expertise 

A few departments have solved the timing problem (and saved in travel expenses 
and registration fees) by arranging for one of their own SROs to become 
certified as an SRO trainer. 

 In Pine Bluff, Sergeant Richard Davies took the initiative to take a course offered 
by Corbin & Associates to become a certified SRO trainer. He then offered a 40hour 
course himself during the summer of 2001 for about a dozen officers in the 
area, including a half dozen from his own police department, who volunteered to 
attend because they were considering applying at some point to become SROs. 

 In West Orange, New Jersey, John Morella, having completed basic, advanced, 
law review, and management courses given by NASRO, provides support and 
direction to newer SROs and coordinates regional NASRO classes for them. As a 
result, new SROs gain some familiarity with NASRO guidelines, methods, and 
processes for balancing the law enforcement role with the counseling and 
teaching functions before they have spent much time in the schools. 

 The Scottsdale, Arizona, Police Department's program has two certified NASRO 
instructors in house, which allows it to train new SROs at almost any time. 

Train SROs in How to Teach 

The Scottsdale Police Department in Arizona and the Virginia Beach Police 
Department in Virginia send their SROs to the state police academy to become 
certified instructors. The Tucson Police Department's SRO Procedures Manual 
requires new SROs who have not already been to general instructors school to 
arrange with the training academy to attend the next available course. 

The West Orange and Albuquerque Police Departments arrange for new middle 
school SROs to receive G.R.E.A.T. training before going into the schools. According 
to principal and program coordinator Ward Nelson in Schaumburg, "G.R.E.A.T. 
training helps improve the cops' ability to teach, develop lesson plans, and manage 
kids." 


Provide In-House Orientation 

Some programs provide their own orientation to the program as a supplement to 
formal outside training or as a substitute when a basic SRO course is not available 
before officers or deputies go into the schools. For example, the Delaware State Police 
provides a two-day orientation for all SROs before they start work in the schools that 
covers: 

 school offense reporting requirements; 
 investigations on school premises; 
 arrest procedures with juveniles; 
 adult versus juvenile enforcement, warrants, and summons procedures; 
 crises management; 
 counseling; 
 establishing partnerships with schools; and 
 information from the Delaware Departments of Education and Social Service. 

Arrange for New SROs to Shadow Experienced SROs 

Several programs make provision for new SROs to "shadow" one or more 
experienced SROs before going on the job. Some programs require shadowing as a 
supplement to classroom learning. However, "If basic training can't be provided before 
starting in the school," an SRO in Maury County, Tennessee, points out, "having the 
opportunity to work with existing SROs in a field training officer situation is beneficial." 

Typically, programs require a new SRO to follow an experienced SRO around one or 
more schools for one or two weeks to "learn the ropes" by seeing how skilled SROs 
perform the job. SROs in the study report that this approach makes it possible for new 
SROs to gain indispensable real-world, on-the-job knowledge of the position that 
formal training typically cannot provide. In addition, when a new SRO shadows 
Sheryl Nosbish in Tucson, Arizona, she makes sure to tell the officer who the important 
people are to get to know, including not just school administrators but also civilian hall 
monitors, janitorial staff, special education teachers, the president of the local PTA, and 
the beat officers who work the precinct in which the school is located. 

Because his program was brand new, Robert Yant, the Marshall chief of police, sent 
Jim Marshall, his first SRO, to Sioux Falls, South Dakota, to shadow that jurisdiction's 
experienced SRO. According to Marshall, "The experience was invaluable and helped 
me create a successful program in my city" (see the case study at the end of the 
chapter). 


Arrange for New SROs to Observe More Than One Experienced SRO 
There are advantages to having new SROs observe more than one experienced SRO on 
the job. 

 New SROs can observe how SROs with different talents perform the job. 

 New SROs can learn how school climate, student bodies, school administrator 
expectations and leadership styles, and other factors that can vary widely from school to 
school can influence how experienced SROs approach the position regardless of an 
SRO's talents. Three new SROs in Oklahoma County spent one week at each of three 
different campuses shadowing different SROs to see how things were done differently 
based on each school's needs and culture. For example, there was a great deal of parent 
involvement in one school, while another school had significant gang activity. 

 The Sarasota County (see the case study) and Maury County programs arrange for new 
SROs to observe experienced SROs in schools with different grade levels to learn how to 
adjust their behavior to deal with students at different age levels. 

After new SROs have shadowed him, Glenn Brunet in Terrebonne Parish shadows 
them for two days at their schools to make sure they are performing appropriately. 
Similarly, the Delaware State Police and Jefferson City programs assign an 
experienced SRO to spend portions of several days over a 2-4 week period at each 
SRO's school to show the officer what to do and answer questions. 

Consider Providing Formal Field Training 

Unlike the informal shadowing exercises described above, three of the programs in 
the study have formal field training officer (FTO) programs that are 
documented in writing and include official evaluations of the field training's 
effectiveness. 

 The Boone Police Department in North Carolina has a structured 12-week FTO 
program that is similar to traditional law enforcement agency FTO programs for 
new recruits fresh out of the academy. The FTO, who is the departing SRO or 
another experienced SRO, and the new SRO document their activities through 
daily written observation reports, followed by meetings every other week involving 
the FTO, patrol supervisor, and SRO trainee. 

 The Sarasota County program's FTO coordinator assigns each new SRO to 
shadow two or three SROs, who are designated as Field Training Officers, to get 
different perspectives on performing the job. The FTOs make sure the new SRO 
is familiar with legislation and case law related to police officers and students. At 
least one FTO observes and critiques the new SRO teach a class during the field 
training period or as soon as possible thereafter. Before the end of the field 


training period, the FTO coordinator has a final review meeting with the FTOs to 
discuss the new SRO's progress. If satisfactory, the coordinator recommends to 
the captain in charge of the program that the officer begin "solo" duties (see 
appendix A). 

The Palm Beach County School District Police Department's comprehensive FTO 
program is documented in the case study at the end of the chapter. 

Whether a program has a formal FTO program or informal shadowing arrangement, 
supervisors need to pick carefully the experienced SROs who will supervise the 
training. If the established SROs whom the new SROs shadow are not doing their 
jobs properly or give poor guidance, the experience will at best be inadequate and 
at worst be harmful. Furthermore, it is important to remember that shadowing is 
an essential supplement, not a substitute, for formal pre-service training. 

Distribute Written Program Guidelines 

The Tucson program gives all new SROs a 37-page SRO Procedures Manual; 
SROs must sign and submit to their supervisor a sheet documenting that they have 
read and are familiar with the procedures. The manual addresses a wide range of 
SRO roles and responsibilities, such as: 

 dress code (SROs may choose not to be in uniform except for the first and last 
two weeks of the school year); 

 hours (based on each school's needs); 

 the G.R.E.A.T. program (SROs, once trained, are responsible for teaching the 
course); 

 pertinent statutes; 

 guidelines for getting started as an SRO; and 

 curriculum outlines for teaching. 


Promote Peer Learning 

Many programs encourage new SROs to continue to contact experienced SROs to 
answer questions during their first several months on the job. Many new SROs do 
so on their own initiative. Detective John Jameson, a former SRO in Schaumburg, 
used to get a call a week from other SROs. 

A relatively new SRO called me for advice about how to handle a student 
who reported that another student had a pocket knife in school. The new 
SRO had already searched the student and found the knifeand cigarettes. 
The assistant principal wanted the student arrested for weapons possession, 
but the SRO had pointed out that it was not illegal in Illinois to have a pocket 
knife. The SRO was unsure whether he could charge the student with some 
other offense. Jameson said to ticket the student for possession of 
cigarettes and charge him with disorderly conduct on the grounds that, 
because other students knew of the knife, the student's carrying it in school 
had created a disruption. 

Programs can promote peer learning in two other ways. One way is by holding 
monthly or quarterly meetings of all SROs, which provides officers with an 
opportunity to talk informally about how they are addressing common problems. 
Sending SROs to training programs can achieve the same result: after attending 
basic NASRO training, Kiel Higgins in Albuquerque reported that "meeting and 
talking with officers from other SRO programs outside of class about how to handle 
problems was as important as the curriculum itself." 

Generally, the more training a program can provide SROs before they step 
foot in the schools (or shortly thereafter), the better. As described in the case 
study at the end of this chapter, the Palm Beach County School District Police 
Department's training for new SROs is especially multifaceted and thorough. While 
few other departments may be able to implement all of this department's training 
components, they can consider adopting selected elements. 


In-Service Training 

Although programs should address the topic areas identified above in pre-service 
training, if they have not done so it is never too late to address them as part of in-
service training. In addition, even if SROs were trained in the essential topics 
before they went into the schools, programs should periodically provide 
refresher in-service classes since SROs (like everyone else) may forget some of 
what they learned (e.g., investigation techniques, juvenile procedural law) or there 
may be new developments to share with them (e.g., case law, drug trends). In-
service training also offers yet another opportunity for SROs to share advice on 
how they have mastered problems. 

SRO programs can offer at least three types of in-service training: 

 regular in-house staff meetings at which experts give presentations; 

 semi-annual and annual training updates provided by the agency; and 

 periodic conferences and courses provided by outside organizations or 
associations. 

Hold Regular Meetings 

Each of the three supervising sergeants in the Tucson program conducts periodic 
trainings for the 6-8 SROs under his supervision, typically to explain a new 
technology, vendor, or new or complex law or court ruling. For example, in one 
meeting a superior court judge talked about when State statute makes a disruption 
a felony as opposed to a misdemeanor. Sarasota County Sheriff's Office personnel 
have provided in-service training for SROs addressing drug recognition, juvenile 
case law updates, the local teen court, and programs in the community for driving 
while impaired (DUI) offenders. An active shooter/rapid response training used 
scenarios related to schools, such as dealing with armed intruders on campus. At 
its regular SRO staff meetings, the Virginia Beach, Virginia, Police Department's 
program has hosted: 

 school personnel to talk about special needs populations; 
 CrimeSolvers to talk about setting up tip lines in the schools; 
 the department's gang unit to discuss trends among local gangs; and 
 representatives from the health community to talk about drug awareness. 


Provide Formal In-House Training 

Some programs provide annual or semi-annual training for SROs offered in-house 
either by department personnel, outside experts, or both. 

 The Delaware State Police offers 16 hours of in-service training for SROs each 
summer that addresses topics such as conflict resolution, physical security 
assessments, establishing crises plans, drug awareness education, early warning 
signs of drug abuse, and de-escalating confrontations with kids. 

 Program supervisors in Chula Vista, California, redistribute updates of SRO roles 
and responsibilities every six months at a 6:30 a.m. unit meeting as a means of 
reinforcing what the officers are supposed to be doing and updating them on any 
new procedures or changes in procedures. For example, some high school 
principals were summoning SROs to deal with truant students who were on 
campusbut, if the youth are in school, they are not an SRO responsibility. As a 
result, the program supervisors incorporated a policy covering this situation in the 
written SRO roles and responsibilities and reviewed the policy at the next 
semi-annual meeting. 

 The Palm Beach County School District Police Department provides extensive 
in-service training each summer (see the case study at the end of the chapter). 

Send SROs to Conferences and Courses 

A number of programs arrange for SROs to attend advanced SRO training offered 
by independent training organizations. The Maury County program sends all its 
SROs every summer to the Tennessee School Resource Officers Association 
week-long conference. Topics have included school safety, school violence, gangs, 
interviewing skills, natural disasters and terrorism planning, legal issues, bullying, 
child abuse, and basic drug identification. In 2004, Albuquerque SROs attended a 
40-hour crisis intervention training geared toward adolescents, with actors from a 
local theatre group role playing scenarios with the SROs. The Oklahoma County 
program offers its SROs an especially wide range of training (see the box "The 
Oklahoma County Program Provides Multiple Training Opportunities"). 


The Oklahoma County Program Provides Multiple Training Opportunities 

A superintendent of schools in Oklahoma County requests that the SROs in her district attend annual 
conferences, such as the Governor's safe schools summit, at which they receive updated information 
and have opportunities to network with other SROs. Both SROs attended in 2002. The program 
supervisor has also arranged for SROs to attend a variety of other trainings, including: 

 a week long Defy Camp run by the State Attorney General's office every summer where participants 
act as advisors to troubled kids to learn ways of breaking down barriers between themselves and 
young people and to learn how to mentor them 

 the annual Oklahoma Gang Investigators Association Conference 

 training by the sheriff's office's tactical team on conducting building searches and using other 
tactical techniques 

 a one-day field sobriety testing class for use in the schools 

 a 40-hour crisis intervention training course 

 an 8-hour Basic Emergency Public Information Officer training (so that SROs know how to handle 
the media if there is an emergency at the school) 

 an all-day domestic violence seminar 

 an all-day bullying class 

 a child abuse and neglect seminar 

 drug seminars on club drugs and other illicit drugs used by juveniles so the SROs can use the 
information as part of in-service training for teachers 

Program supervisors in several states, including Alabama, California, Florida, 
Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, and Texas, periodically offer statewide 
and even regional one-day school safety and security conferences, attended 
principally by SROs, school security staff, and school administrators that address 
regional as well as national trends in school safety and security issuesfor 
example, gang prevalence and threat assessments. Programs in states without 
regional conferences can arrange to offer them at low cost by using local trainers, 
obtaining donated food, asking schools to contribute in-kind duplicating services, 
and charging at modest $10 participation fee. For example, a school district police 
department in Maryland set up a regional school safety conference for surrounding 
States that attracted 200 participants the first year and 400 the second yearabout 
half of them SROs. 

Agencies with COPS in Schools grants from the COPS Office are required to send 
grant-funded officers (and one school administrator per grant) to COPS in School 
trainings. As a result, all 64 grant-funded SROs in the Palm Beach County School 
District Police Department have benefited from the three-day trainings at no cost to 
the department. 


Consider Timing and Costs 

Because school administrators do not like to "lose" their SROs for even a single 
day, several programs are careful to provide in-service training only when 
schools are not in session. In the past, one program pulled its SROs out of their 
schools two or three times a month for training. After the principals objected, the 
police department agreed to remove the officers only once a month for just one or 
two days and never to pull out both SROs at each high school on the same day. 
The Sarasota County program holds in-service training on the six days every year 
when teachers have professional days and students do not come to school. 

Many police and sheriff's departments pay SRO training registration fees out of 
their training budgets. Some school districts pay for part or all of the training costs. 
A superintendent of a Stark County School District pays for his SRO to attend the 
annual NASRO conference, one year contributing $1,200 for registration and travel 
expenses. 

Programs have found creative ways to eliminate or reduce training costs. 

 Free courses are often available. Jim Marshall has attended courses on children 
with special needs offered for free by the Minnesota Department of Education. 
School administrators in Fontana, California, permit SROs to sit in on the training 
the school district provides for faculty and administrators when the subject matter 
is pertinent to the officers. 

 The Lenoir County program in North Carolina often sends only one of its three 
SROs to in-service training conferences but requires the officer to bring back 
materials to use in training the other two SROs. 

 After reviewing its schedule of trainings and learning that none were going to be 
held in the near future in Tennessee, Captain Nathan Johns in Maury County 
hosted a NASRO training in nearby Columbia, which saved the program travel 
and per diem expenses as well as entitling it to one free registration (worth $425) 
for every 10 SROs who registered. 

Include School Administrators in the Training 

Because of the importance of getting along with school administrators, the COPS 
Office requires agencies awarded a COPS in Schools grant to send at least one 
school administrator per grant from a partnering school district along with the SROs 
supported by the grant to one of its three-day training conferences. Several 
program coordinators and school administrators agree with the COPS Office that it 
is extremely valuable to train principals and assistant principals along with 
SROs as a team. 


When the SRO program first began in Schaumburg, some faculty and school board 
members were concerned that "uneducated" SROs would be running down the 
corridors "kicking butt." In part to correct this misperception, the school district paid 
forand the school board requiredthat all school administrators attend a 40-hour 
NASRO basic SRO training course. According to a school administrator who 
attended, "Since these trainings are attended primarily by SROs, the administrators 
had a tremendous opportunity to hear about the program from the officers' 
perspectives and to gain information on a number of strategies from different 
jurisdictions for solving program-related problems." 

Even the program supervisor in a site in which the SROs engage predominantly in 
law enforcement activities recommended joint SRO training with school 
administrators, because "the biggest thing about being an SRO is not the criminal 
side but being able to work with assistant principals." 

Joint training for SROs and school administrators should focus especially on: 

 cultural differences between law enforcement agencies and school systems; 
 supervision of the SROs; and 
 decisions about what the SROs will and will not do. 

* * * 
Three case studies illustrate a number of ways in which programs can provide 
thorough, timely, and often inexpensive or free pre-service and in-service training for 
SROs. 

 The experience of the Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department suggests how a 
single SRO in a small law enforcement agency (21 sworn) in a small community 
(13,000) can receive comprehensive training before and after going into the 
schools. 

 Dissatisfied with the training provided by an outside training organization, the 
Fontana Police Department developed its own in-house training course that, at no 
cost to the agency, provides training to new SROs before they go into the schools. 
When the department cannot send all its SROs for in-service training, it requires 
those who attend to provide the training for those who could not. 

 Because the department consists entirely of SROs and is operated by a school 
district, few other programs are likely to be able to implement every component of 
the Palm Beach County School District Police Department's comprehensive training 
program. However, other programs can replicate selected features of the training, 
such as arranging for new SROs to shadow different experienced SROs and finding 
trainers from other law enforcement agencies to teach in-service classes for free in 
exchange for the department's having provided these agencies with free courses. 


Case Study: Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department (21 sworn) 

The experience of Marshall, with a population of only 13,000 and only one SRO, 
suggests how other small communities and programs can provide training 
that is timely, inexpensive, and thorough. 

Pre-Service Training 

Chief Robert Yant was able to provide both NASRO training and shadowing for the 
new SRO, Jim Marshall, before the officer began working in the schools. Although 
the Marshall Police Department was awarded its COPS in Schools grant in the 
middle of a school year, Yant delayed posting the SRO in the schoolsand 
drawing down funds from the grantuntil the fall when he could arrange for the 
SRO to attend a NASRO training in Kansas City. While the chief initiated the 
delay in part because he needed time to hire a replacement for the SRO, he also 
wanted to avoid sending an untrained officer into the schools. 

Jim Marshall, the new SRO, reported that "The most beneficial aspects of the 
NASRO training were the legal and case law modules." The NASRO training also 
helped him to anticipate what to expect by way of kids' coming to him with 
problems. 

After Marshall spent two weeks in the local schools at the end of the 1999-2000 
school year, Yant arranged for him to shadow three SROs in Sioux Falls, 
South Dakota, a 90-minutes drive away. Yant picked that program because he had 
come to know the program supervisor after having recruited him to serve on the 
department's oral screening panel that selected Marshall as the initial SRO. 

Jim Marshall observed two high school SROs and one junior high school SRO in 
Sioux Falls. He asked the officers questions about procedures, such as search and 
seizure, and how to handle various situations, such as kids who were out of control 
or fighting. He found out what topics they taught in the classroom and, based on 
their answers, developed his own curriculum to teach in the schools. 


For Marshall, the shadowing was the most important part of his pre-service training: 

It showed me what I'd be doing-being in the hallways with kids and not just 
hanging out in the office doing nothing. I saw how they mingle with kids and 
build rapport. I saw how I could use free time to develop programs, prepare 
presentations, and talk with kids. If you're not doing anything, administrators 
will catch on. The opportunity to view them [the Sioux Falls SROs] in action 
was something the NASRO training could not provide. 

Marshall reported that he also benefited from observing different SROs: "One was 
more outgoing and good at building relationships with kids, one was more talented 
at teaching, and one was skillful in working with school administratorshe fit right 
in." As a result, Marshall was able to see how he could attempt to combine the best 
features of all three SROs into his own approach to working in the schools. 

In-Service Training 

As a very small department with a limited training budget, the Marshall Police 
Department does not arrange for any specialized in-service training for its SRO. As 
a result, Jim Marshall on his own looks for training opportunities in mailings 
he receives and from tips from school administrators. The two or three times a year 
when he discovers a course or class that would be helpful, his supervisor agrees to 
pay the registration fee. The courses Marshall has attended in this manner have 
addressed: 

 children with special needs; 
 bullying; 
 dealing with mentally ill people; 
 case law related to guns, drugs, and violence in the school setting; and 
 family and community violence prevention. 

Marshall manages to attend some free courses, as well. For example, the 
Minnesota Department of Education offers courses on children with special needs 
at no cost to participants. Although typically offered for school personnel, Marshall 
attends them if he feels they will help him as an SRO. 


Case Study: Fontana, California, Police Department (151 sworn) 

By developing its own in-house training course coupled with having new SROs 
shadow experienced SROs, the Fontana Police Department has been able to 
ensure that all new SROs are trained before they go into the schools. 

Pre-Service Training 

When the SRO program began, the department arranged for its new officers to 
receive basic training from an outside organization. However, once the department 
became experienced with SRO work, it became dissatisfied with the vendor's 
training, largely because only one individual taught all 40 hours of the course. 
Officers who had attended the training reported that they would have preferred that 
several speakers, each selected for his or her specialized knowledge and field 
experience, give discrete sections of the overall course. They felt this was 
important both to avoid "listening fatigue" and, more importantly, because no single 
person, in their judgment, could have the expertise or provide the credibility of field 
experience in the wide range of topics included in the training. 

This impression was confirmed by the first two SROs funded through Cops in 
Schools grants who attended the COPS Office conference for grantees. Over the 
conference's three days, no single trainer covered more than two or three hours of 
the course. Training modules addressing such areas as creating a common vision 
among school and law enforcement staff, solving problems, teaching class, and 
understanding legal issues involving children in a public school were each covered 
by a different specialist. As a result, the department developed its own 40-hour 
basic SRO training program that addresses a wide range of topics (see the box 
"Sample Topics That Fontana's In-House Training Addresses"). SROs, program 
supervisors, prosecutors, judges, and principals, assistant principals, the 
superintendent of schools, and a school board member teach different sections of 
the course. The training includes field trips to schools to observe teaching and 
become familiar with school environments and personnel. 

Because the department arranged to have the course certified for one time by the 
California Commission on Peace Officers Standards and Training (POST), it was 
able to offer the training statewide for a fee of $175 per registrant. While the 
department did not develop the course as a commercial enterprise, and the initial 
goal of developing its own curriculum was to train its own SROs, offering the 
training to other SRO programs in the State generated a small amount of income 
(see chapter 7, "Identifying Sources of Program Funding"), whereas sending new 
SROs for training by the previous provider had cost the program money in travel 
expenses and registration fees. 


Sample Topics That Fontana's In-House Training Addresses 

Introduction 
- Overview of the SRO Program
- Defining the Role of an SRO

Mentoring
- Formal/Informal
- Purpose and Benefits of Mentoring

Bullying
- What Causes Bullying
- School Shootings

Basic Teaching Skills
- Preparing a Lesson Plan
- Presentation
- Proper Use of Visual Aids
- Team Teaching

Relationship Building With Administrators 

Introduction to Gangs 
 
Crime Prevention Approaches 
 
Criminal Law 
- Penal Code 
- Education Code 
- City Codes 
- Report Writing 
 
Child Abuse/Molestation 
- Reporting Laws 
- Child Abuse Investigations 
- Diagnostic Indicators 
 
Drug and Alcohol Recognition 
 

As with many of the program's other activities designed to publicize its 
effectiveness and services, program administrators believe that developing and 
marketing their own SRO training course contributes to raising the program's profile 
with funding sources, thereby helping to ensure its survival (see the Fontana case 
study at the end of chapter 8, "Maintaining Program Funding"). 

The department supplements the formal training for new SROs with time spent 
shadowing an experienced SRO. Each new SRO shadows an experienced SRO 
for a week at the school the "rookie" will be assigned to. The supervisor also 
arranges as needed for new SROs to observe experienced SROs teach class and 
provide security at after-school events (e.g., dances). The program supervisor 
debriefs with the experienced SRO and the school principal to ensure that the new 
SRO is ready to perform properly on his or her own. 

In-Service Training 

In addition to 40 hours of basic training before going into the schools, new SROs 
receive in-service training throughout the year. If only a few officers attend a 
training, they are obligated to train the rest of the SROs on the topic. In addition to 
legal updates, in-service training has addressed the following topics: 

 Dealing with Angry Kids: an eight-hour course addressing juvenile anger. 

 Drop-Out Prevention: a three-day class focusing on recognizing signs of youth 
prone to dropping out of school and on meeting the needs of at-risk youth. 

 Sexual Assault Investigation: a 40-hour course on investigating sexual assault 
and abuse concentrating on school-age children. 


 No Bullying Program: an eight-hour overview of bullying and its effects on
children.

 Teen and Child Substance Abuse: an eight-hour course devoted to recognizing
signs of addiction, intervention techniques, and counseling options for troubled
teens.

Case Study: Palm Beach County, Florida, School District Police 
Department (148 sworn) 

The Palm Beach County School District Police Department has an especially intense 
and creative pre-service and in-service training program for its SROs. However, 
because the department consists entirely of SROs and is operated by a school district, 
few other programs are likely to have the resources, time, or authority to implement 
every component of its training program. Nonetheless, other programs can replicate 
selected features of the Palm Beach County training program. 

Pre-Service Training 

For their first two weeks, new SROs attend all-day classes focusing in particular on 
report writing skills. Lieutenant Vanessa Snow, the department's administrative 
lieutenant, who supervises the FTO program, then assigns each new recruit to a group 
of 3 of the current 16 FTOs, each of whom is an active SRO at a different grade level 
school (see the box "The Programs Screens and Trains FTOs Carefully"). For the next 
six weeks, the new SRO rotates among the three FTOs, shadowing them, and 
then returns to spend a final week with the initial FTO. The FTOs themselves 
asked the chief to institute the procedure of returning for a final week's supervision by 
the initial FTO because the first FTO would be in a good position to assess the level of 
change in the recruit after the FTO training period had ended. 

FTOs must make every effort to cover the entire list of topics in their FTO 
manual. Each FTO signs off on the topics he or she has covered on the list and 
passes the checklist on to the next FTO who will be training the SRO. The checklist 
includes a column for "Instructed/Explained" and another for "Performed/Tested." 
However, not all FTOs get through the entire checklist because of lack of time and 
opportunityfor example, there may not have been an arrest for which the new SRO 
had to write a report. 

At some point, SROs in training observe at least one of their FTOs teach a class and 
then team teach with an FTO. James Wilkerson, an FTO, requires his new SROs to 
develop a classroom presentation on a topic (e.g., kids hitting each other), helps them 
decide what to say, and then observes the officers teach the class. After the class, 
Wilkerson gives guidance on how to improve their teaching techniquesfor example, 
to tell kids who ask questions that get off the subject, "let me come back to that later if 


FTOs make sure that over the course of the training the recruits move from the street 
mentality of "cuffing and stuffing" in response to criminal behavior to what Lieutenant 
Vanessa Snow calls "the proactive mentality needed in the schools to prevent 
misconduct and not be just an enforcer but also a teacher and counselora 
paradigm shift." 

The Program Screens and Trains FTOs Carefully 

The department thoroughly screens SROs who apply to become FTOs. Applicants must meet specific 
written criteria (see appendix B), including: 

 a work history that indicates above-average initiative and self-motivation; 
 no formal disciplinary actions for two years prior to application and appointment; 
 a two year commitment to the position; 
 positive recommendations by present and prior supervisors; and 
 the demonstrated ability to write clear, complete, and timely reports. 

Instructor-certified candidates are preferred. 

In addition to meeting these criteria, to be eligible SROs must: 
 no longer be on probation, 
 be recommended by their supervisor, and 
 obtain on their own initiative an FTO certificate from a recognized training institute. 

FTOs receive two hours of overtime pay each day they supervise a recruit and can parlay the skill in 
a career ladder progression leading to a four percent pay raise at the end of four years if they meet 
several other criteria. Four of the first six SROs who became FTOs when the field officer training 
program was instituted in 1998 were still FTOs in 2005. 

FTOs make sure that over the course of the training the recruits move from the street
mentality of "cuffing and stuffing" in response to criminal behavior to what Lieutenant
Vanessa Snow calls "the proactive mentality needed in the schools to prevent
misconduct and not be just an enforcer but also a teacher and counselora
paradigm shift." 

One SRO supervisor points out that the FTO program also helps new SROs 
understand how to deal with school administrators"you need to get the 
principal to trust you. Recruits observe FTOs interact with administrators and learn 
that you have to humble yourself with principals and assistant principals. On the 
streets, cops make their own decisions (sergeants are usually too busy to help out or 
confer), but here [in the schools] it has to be more of a team decision." 

At the end of each day of supervision or at the beginning of the following day, the 
FTO faxes Lieutenant Snow a report of his or her observations. Snow reviews 
the report for deficiencies or areas of excellencefor example, ability to 
communicate with difficult people, crisis management, or report writing. "There is a 
learning curve," Snow says, "with recruits typically improving over time." For example, 
some recruits are used to writing short incident reports in their previous jobs, but in 
this position "more is betterthey need to be very thorough in their reports," Snow 
says. The reports are initially based on real incidents that the FTO handles and 
eventually incidents that the recruit handles under the FTO's supervision. 


Appendix C provides the SRO performance-based evaluation form that FTOs fill in at 
the end of every day (supervisors complete the same form every month for the next 
16 months while the new SROs are still on probation, and then annually). The 
evaluation covers 12 areas, ranging from appearance, to report writing, to 
interpersonal effectiveness with peers, administrators, students, and the community. 
Supervisors use a rating scale of 1 (not acceptable), 2 (development needed), 3-5 
(acceptable), and 6-7 (superior). As illustrated in the box "Sample Guidelines for 
Completing the Performance Based Evaluation," there is an 11-page set of detailed 
guidelines that FTOs and supervisors follow in filling out the evaluation form. 

Shortly before the end of the field training period, chief James Kelly meets with the 
FTOs as a group for two hours to discuss officer by officer how each new SRO 
has done, his or her strengths and weaknesses, and the need for any further 
trainingfor example, to improve an officer's report writing skills or ability to build 
relationships with kids. In the latter instance, Kelly has sent new SROs back to an 
FTO who encourages the recruit to engage more with kids and observes and 
documents the improvement. Kelly also asks the FTOs for their "gut" feelings about 
the recruits because these feelings, too, he says, are important to assessing the new 
SRO's capabilities. When one FTO reports a recruit is "excellent" and another says 
the same recruit is only "good," the chief makes them explain their positions to reach 
consensus or account for the different perceptions. 

Sample Guidelines for Completing 
the Palm Beach FTO Performance-Based Evaluation 

Appearance 
- UnacceptableDirty shoes and wrinkled uniform. Uniform fits poorly or is 
improperly worn . . . . 
- AcceptableUniform neat and clean, fits and is worn properly . . . . Shoes are 
shined. 
- SuperiorUniform neat, clean and properly pressed. Leather is shined and 
shoes are spit-shined. Displays command presence. 

Report Writing 
- UnacceptableIs unaware that a report or form needs to be completed/does 
not know what reports or forms to utilize. 
- AcceptableIs aware of commonly used forms/reports and understands their 
funtion . . . . Completes with reasonable accuracy and thoroughness . . . . 
- SuperiorConsistently makes accurate form selection and completes them 
with out assistance . . . . 

Interpersonal Skills 
- UnacceptableUnable to properly establish communication lines with other . . . . Participates 
in conduct that has the potential to/or places the department in a negative light . . . . 
- AcceptableActively works at establishing positive relationships with others . . . . 
- SuperiorEstablishes excellent rapport with others . . . . Displays mastery in 
the resolution of conflicts. 


During these discussions, Kelly develops a sense of which school to assign each 
new SRO to. He meets with the captains during the summer, when the SROs and 
principals make any requests they may have for transfers and when new schools 
come on line, and assigns each recruit to a school. He then meets with the 
supervisors and discusses each recruit with them, visits each principal alone, and 
then introduces the recruit to the principal along with the new SRO's supervising 
lieutenant so they can spell out their mutual expectations. 

No recruit has failed to pass the field training program because of the careful 
screening to become a member of the department and because the FTOs work to 
make the SROs succeed. 

After Kelly has assigned new SROs to their schools and to a supervisor, the 
officers remain on probation for another 16 months. During this period, supervisors 
complete a monthly evaluation using the same "daily" report that the FTOs 
completed. After the total 18 months of probation, SROs are evaluated annually. 

In-Service Training 

To avoid pulling SROs out of the schools when classes are in session, the 
program provides 120 hours of in-service training during the summer. Inhouse 
department staff provide about half the instruction, with personnel from other 
law enforcement agencies providing the rest. 

Each February, Lieutenant Snow starts to line up courses and training sites for the 
following summer. The box "In-Service Training Classes" identifies some of the 
training classes she has arranged. 

Contracted trainers from other law enforcement agencies have taught classes on 
religious terrorism and biometrics (thumb scans, retinal scanning) at no cost to the 
department in exchange for the department's having provided them with courses in, 
for example, crisis response training, or by having allowed their officers to attend 
recertification courses that Palm Beach County School District SROs attend. The 
department has even donated uniforms to less fortunate law enforcement agencies. 
These kinds of relationships are enhanced because the department operates in a 
county with over 37 municipal law enforcement agencies with which it has mutual 
aid agreements and with which SROs sometimes have to interact. 


In-Service Training Classes 

Course                                                Instructor(s)                       Hours 
Juvenile Sex Offenders/Predators . . . . . . . . . .  Sheriff's Office . . . . . . . . . . 2 
Violence and Gangs in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . In-House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 
Child Abuse/Neglect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheriff's Office . . . . . . . . . . 4 
Department of Juvenile Justice Update . . . . . . . . State Attorney's Office. . . . . . . 2 
Aerosol Drug Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  In-House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 
"Designer" Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration 5 
Cultural Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Outside consultant . . . . . . . . . 10 
Drug Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheriff's Office . . . . . . . . . . 20 
Characteristics of Exceptional Students . . . . . . . School District Personnel. . . . . . 8 
Crisis Plan Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . .  In-House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 
Language Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . County School District . . . . . . . 5 
                                                      Department of Multicultural Education 
First Responder Investigation of Missing, 
Runaway, and Abducted Children . . . . . . . . . . .  County Sheriff's Office. . . . . . . 5 
Domestic Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . County Sheriff's Office . . . . . .  5 

Trust funds pay for some of the training, and community colleges and institutes 
receive State money to sponsor other classes that SROs attend. Still other courses 
are offered for free with the only expense to the department being supplies or a 
hotel and meals for the trainer. As a result, while the department has a training 
budget, it rarely has to use it. 

During the summer, the department sends about 20 SROs for annual training with 
the Florida Association of School Resource Officers (FASRO) if their schools agree 
to pay the registration fee or if the officers are willing to pay out of pocket. SROs 
who attend are excused from the in-house summer training that they would 
otherwise be participating in that week. The department pays for supervisors to 
attend the training. 


Image of Appendix A: Sarasota, Florida Sheriff's Office SRO Field Training 
Policies and Procedures 


Image of Appendix A: Sarasota, Florida Sheriff's Office SRO Field Training 
Policies and Procedures 


Appendix B: Palm Beach, Florida County School Police Department SRO Field Training
Procedure 


Appendix B: Palm Beach, Florida County School Police Department SRO Field Training
Procedure  


Appendix C: Palm Beach Florida County School Police Department SRO Field Training
and Supervisor Observation Report


Chapter 6: Supervising SROs 

While the focus of this chapter is on how to supervise SROs, a few supervisors 
contacted for this study indicated that they do not need to spend much, if any, time 
monitoring their SROs. 

 Some supervisors believe that they have placed experienced, self-motivated 
officers in the position who can work entirely on their own. One supervisor said, 
"There is little need to monitor the SROs closely because most of them have 
been in the department for 12-14 years and because we've had a long history of 
police involvement in the schools." Another supervisor felt that if he needed to 
spend a lot of time supervising the SROs, then "I've placed the wrong officers for 
the position." 

 Other supervisors believe that supervision is not needed because, as one said, 
"Principals monitor them and tell me if there is a problem. For example, a 
principal called me to report that an SRO was constantly late for things. I spoke to 
the SRO and he shaped up." 

 Another supervisor reported that SROs appreciate "the freedom of not having a 
supervisor breathing down their necks." 

 Some program participants in small sites feel that informal conversations between 
the police chief or sheriff and the school superintendent or principal provide 
adequate supervision. 

The Need for Close Supervision Despite Obstacles 

Despite these perceptions that close supervision is not necessary, most program 
supervisors in the study recognize the need to monitor their SROs' behavior 
carefully. However, they also report that there are often serious obstacles to 
supervising them properly. 

Be Realistic About the Obstacles to Adequate Supervision 

The most common explanation for not exercising adequate supervision is lack of 
time, typically because supervisors have other important responsibilities. In many 
cases, the department gives these other responsibilities a higher priority than it 
gives the SRO program. For example, there are supervisors who also command 
their department's uniformed services division, detective or juvenile bureau, or 
community services division; who are the department's assistant public information 
officer or grant manager; or who continue to investigate juvenile cases as juvenile 
detective sergeants. 


The long distances between schools or large numbers of schools in some 
jurisdictions hamper some supervisors: 

 One supervisor in the Albuquerque, New Mexico, Police Department oversees 15 
schools spread out over the entire city. 

 The Oklahoma County Sheriff's Office program supervisor is responsible for 12 
SROs in a county of 776 square miles. 

Some supervisors, since they lack understanding of what SROs are supposed to 
do, are said to take a "hands-off" approach because they would find it awkward 
or embarrassing to monitor them. 

Become Aware of the Multiple Purposes Supervision Serves 
Despite these obstacles, finding ways of supervising SROs adequately is important 
to: 

 assist new SROs in making the transition from patrol officer to school-based 
resource officer; 

 identify signs of poor SRO performance before school administrators have to 
bring it to the supervisors' attentionschool administrators should not have to 
report problems with SROs that program supervisors could have caught if they 
had been conscientiously monitoring the officers' behavior in the first place; 

 make sure SROs realize that their department considers their work to be 
important; 

 make SROs feel they have support from department leadership when 
prioritizing their workload, working through problems with school administrators, 
or handling challenging situations in the schools; 

 ensure reasonable consistency in program implementation with programs that 
have officers in multiple schools or more than one program supervisor; and 

 demonstrate to school administrators that the agency considers the program 
an important collaborative initiative. 

Even when programs assign independent, mature officers as SROs, supervisors 
cannot assume that the officers need little supervision (see the box "Even Well 
Qualified, Experienced SROs Need Supervision"). 


Supervisors cannot rely on administrators to always report problems because 
some school principals and assistant principals may be too busy or may be 
reluctant to involve the supervisor and, as a result, allow the problem go 
unaddressed or let it fester until it explodes. One police chief with experience 
with numerous school administrators reported: 

In my experience, I have found that many principals will accept mediocrity 
instead of saying something negative about their SRO. In fact, school 
administrators exist in a culture where they often "don't want to get anybody in 
trouble." Therefore, they will not criticize an SRO's performance to the SRO 
supervisor. 

An example of the importance of not assuming principals will take the initiative to 
report dissatisfaction with their SROs occurred when a high school principal who was 
contacted by the SRO supervisor only at the end of the school year expressed 
concern that his SRO had been making better connections with the athletes than with 
other students and needed to reach out to the other kids. While the following year the 
SRO made a concerted effort to contact kids from other walks in life and fixed the 
problem after the supervisor talked with him, an entire school year should not have 
passed before the problem was corrected. 

As a result, some supervisors make it a point to ferret out problems early. 

 Tim Carney, when he became the captain in charge of the Sarasota County SRO 
program in Florida, required supervisors to be more visible on campus where they 
could supervise SROs and meet frequently with principals to identify problems with 
officers early rather than getting "blindsided" by the news of problems at the end of 
each year during the principals' annual evaluation of the SROs. 

 The sergeant in charge of the Lakewood, Colorado, SRO program decided the best 
way to ensure she was aware of any problems between officers and school 
administrators was to host a roundtable discussion each semester with all SROs 
and school administrators so she could look for both verbal and non-verbal clues to 
any problems. 

 The sergeant in charge of the Fontana, California, program conducts performance 
reviews with each SRO every three months so he can identify and address 
problems more quickly than if the review occurred only at the end of the school 
year. 

A largely "hands-off" approach to supervision also results in school administrators 
alone directing the activities of the SROs assigned to their schools. The law 
enforcement agency needs to ensure that the SROs are addressing its goals, 
as well. 


Even Well Qualified, Experienced SROs Need Supervision 

While some program supervisors believe that their SROs require little or no supervision, 
a number of programs have found to their embarrassment that this is not true. 

 Because SROs deal constantly with parents and engage in after-school activities with 
kids, they frequently make decisions that must withstand public scrutiny. As a result, 
supervisors need to make sure the officers are not exposing the department to any 
possible negative public relations. 

 According to one supervisor, "You need to monitor people, because all young people 
do their own thingespecially when they're given a lot of autonomy." 

 Another program supervisor noted that not all law enforcement officers want to work as 
hard as the SRO position requires. 
 A school principal reported that, "One SRO was a bit lazyhe was not visible 
enough, spending too much time in his office. So I talked with the SRO first 
and then brought in the supervisorwho was unaware of the problemto rein 
force my concern. The SRO corrected the problem." 
 A police chief decided the department needed to play a more active role in 
supervising the position after it was discovered that an SRO was taking 
advantage of the lack of supervision to shirk his responsibilities. 

 Even the most conscientious SROs (or teachers or tug boat captains or assembly line 
workers) may become lax over time if left unsupervised. Illustrating this, one program 
supervisor has begun periodic "field inspections" to check on the SROs' appearance 
and equipment because he had found that "they were starting to look a little sloppy 
wearing jeans and sneakers" (although the SROs were not required to wear uniforms). 

 In a county in which supervisors trusted the SROs to be in their schools (and assumed 
administrators would call them if the were not), one SRO was regularly leaving school 
for a tryst. The discovery created very bad publicity for the department. 

 As discussed in chapter 4, "Minimizing Turnover Among SROs," some highly effective 
SROs get burned out or become dissatisfied with the position but keep their 
unhappiness to themselves. Programs need to do their best not to lose these SROs by 
keeping in regular touch and staying alert to any signs of frustration with the 
assignment that can be addressed before it is too late. 


Finally, as Sergeant Lowell Rademacher, the (now retired) program supervisor in 
Marshall, Minnesota, pointed out, "The level of supervision depends on the nature 
of the individual SROsome need a lot, some little." But all require at least a basic 
leveland sometimes more than they and their supervisors think. 

Approaches to Effective Supervision 

While it is important to establish formal procedures for supervising SROs, 
departments must first be clear about what activities they expect their SROs to 
undertake. 

Identify the SRO Responsibilities That Supervisors Need to Monitor 

Several supervisors and SROs report that, without formal documentation of the 
officers' specific roles and responsibilities, supervisors will have a difficult time 
monitoring them because the SROs are likely to be unclear about what is expected 
of them and supervisors will be uncertain about what they should be looking for. To 
help prevent this problem, the contract between the Sarasota County Sheriff's 
Office and School District includes a five-page description of the SROs' 
responsibilities at each grade level that supervisors use to monitor and assess the 
officers' performance. The box "Detailed, Written SRO Responsibilities" provides 
examples of how two other programs have facilitated supervision by preparing 
detailed written descriptions of the SROs' responsibilities that supervisors use as 
guidelines for making sure the officers are doing what they are supposed to be 
doing-and not doing what they should not be doing. 

Detailed, Written SRO Responsibilities Make Effective Supervision Possible 

The Jefferson City, Missouri, program's memorandum of agreement with the school district stipulates 
that the SROs: 

 Will be in the hallways during all class changes and lunch periods. 
 Will not act as a school disciplinarian. 
 Will not conduct locker checks without probable cause. 
 Will not leave the school facility without prior notification of the School Administrator and/or the 
School Resource Officer Supervisor. 
 Will not transport a sick or injured child for medical assistance. 

The Schaumburg, Illinois, program's School Resource Officer Operations Manual includes a detailed 
list of SRO responsibilities, such as: 

 Teach lessons in gang/violence resistance and gang/alcohol resistance to all students. 
 Interact with students as a positive role model during lunch and study hall periods. 
 Establish a working relationship with behaviorally at risk students. 
 Work with parents on runaway problems. 

Implement Multiple Supervision Approaches 

There is a variety of approaches SRO programs can use to supervise SROs: 

 require and review SRO activity logs; 
 review case or arrest reports; 
 host regular meetings with SROs as a group; 
 visit the school campus; 
 maintain telephone or radio communication; 
 survey students; 
 survey teachers; and 
 formally evaluate SRO performance. 

Several supervisors and SROs report that the most effective supervision occurs 
when programs use two or more approaches to monitoring the officers' 
performance. The programs in Sarasota County and Palm Beach County, Florida, 
and Maury County, Tennessee, described in the case studies at the end of this 
chapter, all use multiple approaches to supervising their SROs, including several of 
the following methods. 

Require and Review SRO Logs 

The most common method programs use to supervise SROs is to require weekly 
or monthly activity logs. Most programs require the SROs to include not only 
activity counts but also narrative detailbecause, as the program supervisor in 
Boone, North Carolina, reported, "Having narrative helps me identify subtle issues 
in the schools that might not be obvious if I just received activity counts." One 
sheriff's office requires SROs to get teachers' signatures on the officers' logs to 
verify that the officers have actually taught the classes listed in their logs. The box 
"Sample Activities Tracked in SRO Logs" summarizes the types of activities most 
departments require SROs to track. 

Sample Activities Tracked in SRO Logs 
The following are some of the most common activities program supervisors require 
their SROs to track. 
 complaints 
 referrals to other agencies 
 completed reports 
 meetings 
 arrests 
 classroom lectures/presentations 
 weapons confiscated 
 after-school events 
 investigations 
 parent and child counseling sessions 


The Lenoir County Sheriff's Office in North Carolina and the Delaware State Police 
use an incident tracking software program called School COP developed with funding 
from the National Institute of Justice. Distributed at COPS in School trainings funded 
by the COPS Office. The software with instructions and a sample database are 
available for free at www.schoolcopsoftware.com. Chapter 8, "Maintaining Program 
Funding," provides additional information about the software in the section on 
"Documentation of Program Activity." 

While just having to fill out the logs may serve to keep some SROs on their toes, 
supervisors need to review the logs conscientiously to follow up on any apparent 
problems they reveal (see the box "Following Up on Concerns Raised by SRO 
Logs"). 

In many cases, supervisors distribute the SROs' reports to school administrators and, 
in some cases, city or county commissioners, who may use the information to 
conduct their own program oversight. 

 In Illinois, the Schaumburg School District assistant superintendent of schools 
reports he reads the SROs' monthly reports not only to monitor the officers' 
activities but also "because board members may call me on an incident at a school 
and ask for more information about it. For example, when drugs were detected at a 
junior high school, there was a rumor that they were being distributed at a soccer 
field. I knew this wasn't truejust one kid was involved and he was arrested 
because of what I read in the SRO's monthly report." 

 The Marshall Police Department program supervisor submits the SROs' monthly 
reports to the chief who forwards them to the city council. 

 A representative from the Maury County School District in Tennessee reviews 
SROs' weekly logs to track their activities and the types of problems officers are 
addressing. He also uses the information to keep the county commissioners 
informed about the program's activities. 

Review Case or Arrest Reports 

In most programs, supervisors review SROs' case records and arrest reports for 
accuracy, completeness, readability, and the need for follow up. Of course, all police 
agencies require supervisors to review officers' arrest reports, but they do it with 
varying degrees of thoroughness and follow up. Because arrests of students can 
result in parental confrontations and telephone calls to local officials, supervisors 
need to be especially conscientious about reviewing their SROs' reports. 


Following Up on Concerns Raised in SRO Logs 

Diligent supervisors follow up on "red flags" or missing information in SROs' logs. 

 When a Sarasota County program supervisor informed the unit commander he had 
noticed that an SRO had not reported having taught any classes during the 
previous six weeks, the commander told the supervisor to tell the SRO to get into 
the classroom more. 

 When a supervisor in Maury County saw from an SRO's logs that the officer was 
not teaching many classes but had high arrest numbers, he explained to the SRO 
that he was being too reactive and needed to do things like increase the number of 
violence prevention classes rather than make so many arrests. 

 The Boone Police Department supervisor could tell from an SRO's logs that the 
officer was being too counselor-oriented and trying to solve student problems on 
his own instead of referring students to appropriate local resources for help. 
Meet Regularly With SROs as a Group 

Many supervisors hold regular meetings with SROs in order to: 

 provide supervisors an opportunity to share department and programmatic 
information; 

 provide SROs an opportunity to meet with peers to discuss common issues and 
trends; 

 assure that the SROs are visiting the department on a regular basis; and 

 generate a "team" feeling and esprit de corps among the SROs. 

These meetings also afford an opportunity for supervisors to "read between 
the lines" of what SROs say to identify problems the officers may be having. 

In addition, simply by gathering the SROs together and encouraging them to "vent," 
supervisors may learn of issues that the officers themselves will not volunteer to 
discuss. 

In a few programs, school administrators participate in the meetings, which, many 
supervisors report, provides not only a greater opportunity to have problems with 
the SROs or the program raised but also a chance to solve them on the spot. The 
meetings also give supervisors the opportunity to address any confusion school 
staff may have related to appropriate SRO activities and department procedure. 


 The Lakewood Police Department's roundtable meetings held once or twice a 
semester to discuss problems and trends in the schools include not only the 
program supervisor and the SROs but also school administrators. Sergeant 
Patricia Heffner, the program supervisor, reports that "the roundtables give me an 
opportunity to identify issues I might have missed during individual discussions 
with SROs and school administrators." 

 In another site, an advisory committee consisting of parents, a teacher, a 
community group member, and a school board member, as well as the SROs, the 
chief deputy, and school administrators, meets monthly to share information about 
the program's operation. 

Visit Schools 

Supervisors in many programs visit their SROs' schools to talk with the officers, 
school administrators, or both, and to observe how the SROs interact with 
students. Most supervisors are limited to visiting only once a year because of their 
other responsibilities or because of the large number of participating schools or 
long distances between them. Nevertheless, some supervisors manage to visit 
more often. 

 Sergeant Rochelle Thompson, the program supervisor with the Oklahoma County 
Sheriff's Office, visits one to three different schools each week. 

 Captain Tim Carney in Sarasota County expects each supervisor to visit 
unannounced each high school and middle school to which his SROs are 
assigned at least once a week and each elementary school at least every other 
week. 

 Lieutenant Chris Hagwood, supervisor of the Garner, North Carolina, Police 
Department program, tries to observe the three SROs at their schools once a 
month, including observing them teach. 

 The Boone Police Department supervisor drives by the high school most 
mornings so the principal knows he is accessible and available to discuss any 
issues or suggested improvements. 

Visiting schools not only provides an opportunity to monitor the SROs' activities, it 
also demonstrates to school administrators how important the police or 
sheriff's department considers the program to be. 

Some supervisors in smaller departments do not place much emphasis on visits 
because they say they are confident that, because of their close relationships with 


school administrators, principals and assistant principals will contact them quickly if 
there is a problem with the SROs. However, as explained above, this confidence 
can be misplaced (see the box above, "Even Well Qualified, Experienced SROs 
Need Supervision"). 

In some cases, supervisors plan their visits to observe SROs give 
presentations, teach classes, or supervise extracurricular events. 

 Supervisors in the Chula Vista, California, program observe the elementary 
school level SROs teach at least once a year, showing up at random and sitting 
in the back of the class. Sergeant William (Joe) Cline, one of the supervisors, 
believes "This is just sound supervision. As a supervisor, [by observing the SROs 
teach] you can better assess the skills and abilities of your staff for their yearly 
evaluations and for continuous feedback, praise, and, when necessary, 
development." 

 In addition to observing SROs teach, Tucson, Arizona, Police Department 
supervisors go to selected after-school or weekend events that SROs run or play 
a prominent role in. 

Of course, most supervisors visit the schools immediately whenever there is a 
major problem that requires a ranking officer's attention. 

Maintain Telephone or Radio Communication 

Program supervisors in one program rely heavily on telephoning SROs to keep 
tabs on what they are doing and anticipate any problems. Many other departments 
issue cell phones or pagers to their SROs to help maintain contact between officers 
and program supervisors. 

Dispatchers Track SRO Activities in One Program 
In a small site in Kentucky, the SRO calls in his activities to the law enforcement 
dispatch center. When a new activity starts, he radios in and the dispatcher records 
the precise time and activity category (e.g., "going on patrol now;" "responding to call 
to investigate possible drug use;" "going to teach driver ed now"). Of course, patrol 
officers and road deputies in all agencies radio their dispatchers when they initiate an 
activity and have "cleared" a scene. However, the dispatch system in this community 
calculates time spent on each activity and can aggregate time spent on various 
activities on a weekly or any other basis. 


Survey Students 

The supervisor of the Jefferson City, Missouri, program conducts surveys of 
randomly selected 7th, 9th, and 12th grade students on perceptions of safety and 
opinions of the SRO, asking such questions as, "Does the SRO help you feel better 
about the police?" "Does your SRO attend extracurricular events?" "Are you able to 
talk easily with your SRO?" When the data showed that several students did not 
know who or where one SRO was, the supervisor instructed the officer to be in 
front of the school when the buses arrived and to walk through the cafeteria at 
lunch. 

Survey Teachers 

The Lenoir County Sheriff's Office administers a formal survey twice a year to 
teachers asking about the faculty's: 

 perceptions of their own safety and safety of the school; 

 knowledge and interactions with their school's SRO; and 

 opinions of the officers' performance in such areas as visibility, rapport with 
students, communication skills, and impact on the school environment. 

The program supervisor uses the information to improve the program. For example, 
when several teachers reported that the SROs were not in the school enough, the 
supervisor tried to reduce the number of times the officers were pulled from the 
schools to attend court. 

Formally Evaluate SRO Performance 

Several programs report that developing a strong performance evaluation system 
for SROs is important to: 

 be able to identify areas in which SROs need to improve; 

 learn how to increase the effectiveness of the program as a whole; 

 hold the department accountable for the program's performance; 

 provide a method of securing school administrators' comments on the program 
and on individual SROs' strengths and weaknesses; and 

 secure information that can be used to market and sustain the program. 

In many cases, departments evaluate SROs using the same criteria they use for 
assessing patrol officer performance. However, several supervisors in the study 
reported that the information they obtain from this type of assessment makes it 
difficult to identify how the SROs' performance might be improved, while some 
SROs report that the questions are unsatisfying to them because the assessment 
fails to consider the unique activities they perform in the schools. As a result, many 


departments included in the study use one of two approaches to monitoring the 
specific behavior SROs engage in: 

 Include additional performance measures in the standard performance 
evaluation that make it more applicable to SROs. For example, the Garner 
Police Department uses a performance appraisal software to score patrol officers 
in five areas but includes two additional areas for SROsteaching and 
counseling. For each of the two SRO-specific areas, the software identifies a 
number of specific focuses to help assess each officer's strength and 
weaknesses. For example, teaching includes: 

a) Comes to presentations well prepared. 

b) Organizes information in a logical and pedagogic manner. 

c) Meets the needs of the audience (faculties or students). 

d) Stimulates public interest and attention. 

e) Motivates learners to take action when needed. 

f) Leaves room for questions and discussions. 

By retaining the measures for patrol officers but including measures tailored to the 
SROs' work, departments and SROs are able to maintain some consistency in their 
performance reviews as the officers make the transition from street work to school 
work and back. 

 Develop and use only performance measures that are specific to the SRO 
position, such as classroom teaching, relating to students, and working well with 
school administrators. According to Jim Aquilo, Administrative Assistant to the 
Superintendent in Plain Local School District in Stark County, Ohio, school 
administrators developed their own SRO assessment measures to make sure the 
measures addressed the school district's needs in having an SRO in the schools 
(see appendix A). The Sarasota County program has also developed 
performance measures tailored to the unique work SROs perform (see the case 
study at the end of the chapter). Furthermore, the program's evaluation procedure 
provides for the supervisor and SRO to develop a written plan and a mutually 
agreed-upon 30-, 60-, or 90-day deadline by which the officer will remedy any 
problems. Five law enforcement agencies, with assistance from the COPS Office, 
have developed specific outcome goals for SROs and identified ways of 
measuring how well the officers have achieved each goal (see the box "SRO 
Performance Measures That Five Law Enforcement Agencies Developed"). 

Involve School Administrators in Assessing SRO Performance 

Many programs have found it extremely helpful to involve school administrators in 
helping to assess their SROs' performance. 


Why Involve School Administrators 

Programs offer a number of compelling reasons for bringing principals and 
assistant principals into the assessment process. 

 Principals and assistant principals can usually assess SROs' performance in 
ways that program supervisors cannot because school administrators have 
vastly more contact with SROs. In effect, because of their daily contact with the 
SROs, they are the police agency's on-site "eyes and ears." 

 Principals and assistant principals have a much better grasp than the law 
enforcement agency can ever have of the problems in their schools that the 
SROs can help address. For example, one school district asked its SRO to 
expand the topics included in his elementary school lesson plans after teachers 
and students requested that the officer cover other important issues besides 
gangs. 

 Insofar as SRO programs represent collaboration between law enforcement and 
the schools, it is only logical that there should be collaboration in terms of 
supervision. In addition, including school administrators in the supervision of 
SROs conveys the message that they are valuable partners in the joint initiative. 

 Supervisors who do not have the authority to replace SROs, or are uncertain 
about whether they will be supported if they ask their superiors for permission to 
remove an SRO, can use administrator evaluations to buttress their case. A 
principal turned in a written evaluation to the supervisor in one program 
documenting that the SRO was performing poorly and liked being an SRO only 
because of the weekday, daytime hours. The supervisor already knew about the 
problem but had been unable to remove the officer until he had the school 
administrator's negative evaluation. 

Indeed, most good SROs want their school administrators to provide supervisors 
with their opinions of the officers' performance. Because school administrators in 
one school district do not evaluate their SROs, one SRO went out of his way to ask 
his assistant principal at the end of the school year to provide a written evaluation 
of him. "When my yearly evaluation [by the sheriff's office ] comes up, I want a 
record of what I have done and how well I did it, and how the administrator feels 
about my work." 



SRO Performance Measures That Five Law Enforcement Agencies Developed* 

With funding from the COPS Office, Circle Solutions, Inc, a professional services firm in the 
Washington, D.C., area, piloted an outcome-oriented SRO performance evaluation process 
with five law enforcement agencies in six schools. For each SRO for the coming year, a 
group of SROs, their supervisors, and program "consumers"students, faculty, staff, and 
parentsidentified three to six goals specific to the crime and disorder problems in the 
officer's school. The consumer group designed measures to determine whether the 
SRO achieved the goals and helped collect the data. Throughout the school year, SROs 
implemented activities designed to achieve the goals and tracked their activities. At the end 
of the year, the consumer group reconvened to assess how well the SROs had achieved 
their goals. The purpose of these efforts was to integrate the findings into the SROs' 
performance evaluation and to use the findings to adjust the activities the SROs would 
implement during the following school year. 

The matrix below identifies some of the goals and measures the group developed. The full 
project report, as well as a guide for replicating the SRO performance evaluation process, is 
available from www.copsinschools.org. 

Outcome Goal 
Reduce fights or bullying on campus 
Measures of Achievement 
 Incident reports for fights 
 Discipline referrals for fighting or 
attempting to fight 
 Suspensions for assaults, fighting, or 
threats 
 Police crime reports on assaults and 
battery 

Outcome Goal 
Reduce gang activity on school grounds 
Measures of Achievement
 Student survey on threats, victimization, 
and knowledge of anti-bullying strategies 
 Student survey on the prevalence of 
gang behaviors 
 Parent survey regarding their knowledge 
of gang signs and behavior 
 School staff survey regarding knowledge 
of gang signs and behaviors, and 
prevalence of gang behaviors

Outcome Goal 
Improve trust and relationships between SRO and students 
Measures of Achievement
 Student survey regarding familiarity with 
SROs and comfort level approaching 
them 

Outcome Goal 
Reduce the incidence of drug violations by students in school 
Measures of Achievement
 Incident reports of use or sales 
 Arrest reports 
 Student referrals for alcohol or drug use 

Outcome Goal 
Reduce neighborhood offenses (e.g., 
criminal mischief, robbery) by students 
during school hours 
Measures of Achievement 
 Calls for service 
 Crime reports 

* Information provided by Circle Solutions, Inc., McLean, Virginia: (703) 821-8955. 


Areas of SRO Performance That Programs Can Ask School Administrators to 
Review 

Typically, programs provide school administrators with a specific set of questions to 
answer in assessing SRO performance. Appendixes B and C present the 
assessment forms that the Olympia, Washington, and Pine Bluffs, Arkansas, police 
departments distribute to school administrators. The box "Sample Performance 
Areas and Measures That School Administrators Can Use to Assess SRO 
Performance" lists some of the areas of SRO performance that programs frequently 
ask school administrators to assess and some of the ways administrators can 
evaluate the officers' performance in each area of performance. 

Sample Performance Areas and Measures That School Administrators Can Use 
to Assess SRO Performance 

Performance Area 
- Professionalism
Sample Assessment Criteria 
- Demeanor 
- Appearance 
- Punctuality 
- Discretion 

Performance Area 
- Communication Skills 
Sample Assessment Criteria 
- Speaking ability 
- Ability to verbalize effectively 
- Listening skills 

Performance Area
- Knowledge of Job and Duties 
Sample Assessment Criteria 
- Knowledge of laws and arrest powers 
- Knowledge of reporting responsibilities 

Performance Area
- Job Performance 
Sample Assessment Criteria 
- Classroom management skills 
- Teaching skills 
- Participation in extracurricular activities 
- Productivity 
- Handling noncriminal incidents 
- Conflict resolution 

Performance Area
- Community Relations 
Sample Assessment Criteria
- Accessibility to students 
- Relationship with parents 
- Relationship with teachers 

Performance Area
- Crisis Intervention 
Sample Assessment Criteria
- Crises and safety planning 
- Handling criminal incidents 
- Impact on the school environment 


Rating Schemes 

After the program has identified the information it will solicit from school 
administrators, it needs to consider how performance will be measured. The box 
"Examples of Methods School Administrators Use to Rate SRO Performance" 
suggests a variety of different rating schemes. Most departments ask 
administrators to rate officer performance in specific areas using a 3-, 4-, or 5-point 
scale, which provides degrees of agreement or disagreement with each 
performance measure. 

Most programs ask school administrators to answer a few open-ended questions 
regarding the SROs' strengths and weaknesses, suggest areas for improvement, or 
explain the choice of a low rating Supervisors can use such supporting information 
during performance reviews to reinforce their recommendations to the SROs for 
why and how they need to improve. 

Examples of Methods School Administrators Use to Rate SRO Performance 

Performance Area
- Organizational skills (e.g., scheduling, 
flow of material, dependability) 
Rating Scheme 
- Scale of 1 to 5 (5 highest, 1 lowest) 

Performance Area
- Desire to have this particular SRO Officer 
return to your school next year (as a 
guideline, a rating of "3" indicates that 
you would be content with any SRO 
Officer, including this one; a "5" means 
you absolutely want him/her to return, 
specifically; a "1" would indicate that 
another officer should be assigned to 
your school) 
Rating Scheme
- Scale of 1 to 5 (5 highest, 1 lowest) 

Performance Area
- Provides security in and around building, 
particularly at student arrival and 
departure times 
Rating Scheme
- 1= meets standard of school district; 2 = 
sometimes meets the standard; 3 = 
needs improvement 

Performance Area
- Assists in mediating disputes in a nonviolent 
manner 
Rating Scheme
- 1= meets standard of school district; 2 = 
sometimes meets the standard; 3 = 
needs improvement 

Performance Area
- Judgment-ability to accurately assess 
situations and act accordingly 
Rating Scheme
- 4-point scale (poor, fair, good, excellent) 

Performance Area
- Professionalism-presents a good image 
with appearance and actions 
Rating Scheme
- 4-point scale (poor, fair, good, excellent) 

Performance Area
- Effectiveness as a teacher 
a. Control of classroom c. Preparation 
b. Content of classes d. Interest in students 
Rating Scheme
- 5-point scale (strongly agree, agree, 
don't know, disagree, strongly disagree) 

Performance Area
- Officer's presence contributes to an 
increased perception of safety 
Rating Scheme
- 5-point scale (strongly agree, agree, 
don't know, disagree, strongly disagree) 


Approaches to Involving Schools in Evaluating the SROs and the SRO Program 

The program coordinator should collaborate with appropriate school administrators 
in determining what would, on the one hand, provide the least burdensome way 
principals and assistant principals can provide their assessments yet, on the 
other hand, furnish the program with the most useful information about its 
SROs. In some programs, school administrators have developed their own forms. 

 The Stark County Sheriff's Office encourages administrators from each of its five 
partner school districts to review the performance of its SROs at least annually. 
Two of the school districts developed specific reporting forms for this purpose. 
Jim Aquillo, Plain Local School District Assistant Administrator to the 
Superintendent in charge of security, together with a school superintendent in a 
near-by school district, developed an evaluation form. They based the form on 
examples the SROs had brought back from National Association of School 
Resource Officer (NASRO) conferences but revised them to reflect their two 
SROs' unique job descriptions. They made sure that the evaluation measures 
were related to what the SROs were in fact supposed to be doing (see appendix 
A). Twice a year, Aquillo sends the form to all 11 principals in his school district, 
summarizes the results he gets back, and submits them to the Stark County 
Sheriff's Office SRO program supervisor. 

A few programs add interesting innovations to their approaches to involving school 
administrators in the assessment process. 

 In addition to formally requesting annual evaluations from teachers and 
administrators, when Sergeant Rochelle Thompson, the program supervisor in 
Oklahoma County, visits different schools each week, she takes six copies of an 
evaluation form to hand out randomly to teachers, coaches, and administrators 
she happens to run into in the corridors to verify that the SROs are making 
themselves visible in the schools. 

 The Tucson Police Department's annual review of each SRO includes written 
comments from the municipal court's prosecuting attorneys-for example, 
assessing the officer's ability to testify effectively and the thoroughness and 
accuracy of his or her written reports and investigative skills. Program supervisors 
telephone the attorneys for their verbal evaluations. 

 The captain in charge of the Sarasota County program makes the program's 
three first-line supervisors responsible for getting written evaluations returned by 
at least three administrators for each SROfor example, a principal, assistant 
principal, and teacher. 


In addition to addressing in-person with school administrators and SROs any 
problems or issues their evaluations raise, supervisors should review the 
assessments to note and address any areas where administrators' expectations of 
the SROs' performance may be inconsistent with the supervisors' understanding of 
the officers' job duties. 

Supervisors 

Supervisors need to devote adequate time and care to monitoring the SROs' 
activities to be able to reliably assess the officers' performance. Programs also 
stress that it is essential either to select supervisors who are already qualified to 
supervise SROs or else train them in how to supervise SROs. 

Establish a Realistic Ratio of Supervisors to SROs 

There is no established standard for an effective ratio of supervisors to SROs. Most 
of the programs in the study have only one supervisor, even when the program has 
several SROs. For example the Oklahoma County program supervisor monitors 12 
SROs, while the King County, Washington, supervisor is responsible for 10 full-time 
SROs and 25 part-time SROs. Some supervisors may not be able to monitor such 
a large number of SROs properly. As a result, when the Pinellas County, Florida, 
School District Police Department saw the need for increased supervision of its 
SROs, it negotiated with the school district to give up one-and-one-half of its SROs 
in return for funding an additional supervisor. 

A number of other programs have more than one supervisor, typically two or more 
sergeants working under a higher ranking officer who frequently has other 
responsibilities in addition to running the SRO program (see the box "Sample 
Ratios of Supervisors to SROs"). 

Select Supervisors Carefully for the Position 

Most departments have no formal procedures for selecting supervisors for the SRO 
program beyond what is required by the labor-management agreement or agency 
policies and procedures. As one supervisor said, "There is no rhyme or reason in 
the selection process" in his agency. In small police departments and sheriff's 
agencies, chiefs or sheriffs typically identify one of their few ranking officers to 
supervise the SROor supervise the SRO themselves. In many larger agencies, 
the supervisor assumes the responsibility by virtue of having been promoted to 
supervisor of the unit in which the SRO program is housedfor example, the 
juvenile bureau or community relations division. 


Sample Ratios of Supervisors to SROs 
 Virginia Beach: An administrative captain and 4 sergeants supervise 30 SROs. 
 Albuquerque: 2 sergeants supervise the 20-person SRO/G.R.E.A.T. unit, each 
responsible for 15 schools (10 middle schools, 5 high schools). 
 Chula Vista: 2 sergeants and 2 field agents supervise the program's 18 SROs. 
Each sergeant handles officers at 49 different schools. 
 Tucson: Each of 3 sergeants supervises 8 SROs. 
 Palm Beach County: Each of 13 lieutenants (the department has no sergeants) 
supervises about 10 SROs. 
 Sarasota County: 3 sergeants and 1 captain supervise 27 SROs (see the case 
study at the end of the chapter). 

However, departments that have developed formal, detailed procedures for 
screening candidates for SRO supervisor positions report the process results in 
the selection of qualified individuals who can best ensure that the program is 
properly monitored. 

 Tucson: The Human Resources Division opens up the application process at the 
request of Rick Hovden, a lieutenant in the bureau in which the SRO program is 
housed. Interested sergeants send memorandums of interest to the Human 
Resources Division, which forwards them to Hovden. The lieutenant rates 
applicants based on what is written in the memo, the person's qualifications, a 
review of personnel files, and other considerations. He then interviews each 
applicant or, if there are several applicants and he so chooses, he convenes an 
interview panel. 

 Chula Vista: The supervisor is a four-year assignment. After the position has 
been announced, applicants go before an oral board, which chooses the person. 

 Palm Beach: Candidates must past a written test, role play scenarios in front of
an interview panel of supervisors from other law enforcement agencies, be
interviewed by a panel of department captains, and be appointed, after an
interview, by the chief (see the case study at the end of the chapter).


A few programs require applicants to have been SROs. Of course, this is not 
feasible when a program is just beginning or the current SROs do not want or are 
not suitable for the position. However, when it is an option, the experience can be 
invaluable for effective program monitoring. An SRO in one police department 
complained that his program supervisors are "not familiar with the program and 
may not understand why an SRO handled a situation in a particular way, because 
there are differences in how the same problem may be handled in the school 
versus on the street." Sergeant Richard Davies, a former SRO in Pine Bluff, 
Arkansas, reported that his supervisor once wrote him up because, after a few 
years, the SRO's arrests were down. "The upper echelon, using a departmentwide 
evaluation measure that rates officers on number of arrests, did not understand 
that I had finally brought the school under control to where I did not need to make 
so many arrests." The higher-ups told Davies' immediate supervisor (who did 
understand that the measure did not apply to SROs) to "counsel" Davies. 
Reflecting these problems, the Maury County Sheriff's Department eventually 
added experience as an SRO as a selection criterion because, according to 
Captain Nathan Johns, "Supervisors need to be able to relate to the issues brought 
up at the weekly meetings because they had once been in those shoes." 

Train Supervisors 

Few of the programs in the study train program supervisors in how to monitor 
SROs. (The 2002 NASRO School Resource Officer Surveycontact 
Resourcer@aol.com or call 888-31-NASROalso found that "school-based law 
enforcement supervisors are not specially trained in the supervision of school-
based officers.") Some supervisors, however, have had related experience or 
training that improves their suitability to monitor the SROs' performance. For 
example, Sergeant Jerry Thommes, the current police department SRO supervisor 
in Schaumburg, was the school liaison officer at the local high school where, unlike 
most liaisons, he taught 20 class periods a semester. He had also attended a 40hour 
NASRO training, becoming certified as an SRO. 

Even when supervisors have been SROs themselves, training can give them 
guidance in effective methods of assessing SRO performance and providing 
constructive criticism. After all, patrol officers or road deputies who are promoted 
to sergeanteven though they have been on patrol for yearsgo to sergeant's 
training school before they are thrown out on the streets supervising a group of 
officers or deputies. Reflecting this perspective, new supervisors in Palm Beach 
County do ride-alongs with experienced supervisors before taking on the new 
position (see the case study below). 


As Sergeant Jerry Thommes did, supervisors with no personal experience as 
SROs can attend one of the basic SRO courses offered by several organizations 
(see chapter 5, "Training SROs") to learn what SROs should be doingand not 
doingfor purposes of assessing their performance. At least two organizations also 
offer specialized training for SRO supervisors: 

 NASRO offers a 24-hour SRO Management Symposium designed to provide 
managers with "information, skills and strategies to develop, coordinate, and 
maintain a successful SRO program in their school community"see 
www.nasro.org/course_management.asp. 

 Corbin & Associates, Inc., offers a 24-hour Supervision and Management of 
School-Based Law Enforcement Programs that covers the SRO position "from the 
selection interview, through performance reviews, to the removal of problem 
officers"see www.srotraining.com/description.html. The sergeant who 
supervises the Lakewood SRO program attended this course. 

* * * * * 

The case studies that follow illustrate how three programs have gone about 
providing timely and thorough training for their SROs. 

 In addition to requiring SROs to complete activity logs, the program operated by 
the Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Office formally evaluates SROs twice a 
year with mandatory school administrator participation. The agency's StarTrac 
meetings, a departmentwide accountability tool patterned after New York City's 
Compstat sessions, provide an opportunity for the program to explain its activities 
and successes and a chance for the sheriff and majors to ask pointed questions 
about what the program is doing and how it can improveand publicly commend 
high quality performance. 

 The Maury County, Tennessee, Sheriff's Department requires SROs to complete 
an activity log every other week that provides 29 pieces of information. Program 
supervisors compare the information in the logs over time and across schools, 
and submit the reports to the county board of education and the county 
commission. The department holds a mandatory weekly meeting for all SROs and 
SRO supervisors which the sheriff often attends that enables SROs and 
supervisors to identify and resolve any problems. All candidates for supervisor 
must have experience as SROs. 


 The Palm Beach County School District Police Department's process for selecting 
and training front-line supervisors is especially thorough. Candidates must be 
recommended by their supervisors; pass a written test on State and county law 
and the department's own general orders; role play scenarios in front of an 
interview panel of supervisors from other law enforcement agencies; and be 
interviewed and scored by a panel of department captains. Applicants who pass 
are sent to a police academy for 40 hours of management training and, when a 
supervisory position opens up, spend four days doing ride-alongs with 
experienced supervisors. 

Case Study: Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Department (500 sworn) 

Three sergeants devote full-time to supervising 27 SROs. A captain who 
commands the Youth Services Bureau, Tim Carney, spends full-time overseeing the 
entire program. Carney was an SRO himself for eight years. 

Openings for supervisor are posted agencywide, and Carney either selects 
someone on his own or convenes a panel of officers, including existing SRO 
supervisors, to interview the candidates. Having been an SRO weighs heavily in 
favor of the applicantas a result, most supervisors have been SROs. 

As described below, the program relies on several methods of supervising SROs: 

 SRO activity logs; 
 StarTrac meetings; 
 visits to schools to talk with administrators and observe SROs teach; 
 formal twice-yearly evaluations of SRO performance; and 
 formal participation by school administrators. 

SRO Activity Logs 

Supervisors make use of SRO logs to help monitor the officers' activities. 

 An SRO's log indicated that he had not taught any classes during the previous six 
weeks. While the supervisor told the captain that the SRO was doing a lot of 
coaching "and the kids love him," and the other SRO at the school was doing 
considerable teaching, Captain Tim Carney still told the supervisor to tell the SRO 
to get into the classroom more. 

 After a lewd and indecent incident at a school, the SRO documented in his log 
that he had submitted a school report. According to the SRO, "When Captain 
Carney read my log, he wanted to know why I hadn't submitted a police report. I 
told him that the victim's parents wanted the problem handled administratively, 
and I had documented that." 


 Another SRO said, "We have to teach certain classes for certain grade levels, 
and the log now shows the status of all the classeshow far we are along in 
teaching each course for each grade level. That way, supervisors can warn you, 
for example, that the school year is coming to an end and you haven't started or 
completed a particular course you're responsible for teaching every year. My 
supervisor once pointed out to me that I hadn't completed one of my teaching 
assignments. I explained that the 3rd and 4th grade teachers were tied up every 
class teaching for the FCAT [Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test] given in 
March, so they would not let me in their classrooms until after the test. But this 
shows that the supervisors are tracking the SROs' progress through our reports." 

SROs submit their logs to the program secretary a few days before each StarTrac 
meeting (see below); supervisors screen them for errors or unusual entries and 
then review the statistics together before presenting them at StarTrac. 

StarTrac Meetings 

The sheriff's office has adopted a variation on the New York City Compstat system, 
called StarTrac, involving a meeting every six weeks of top command staff (sheriff, 
majors) to review each bureau's activities (e.g., special operations, day shift 
operations) during the preceding month-and-a-half and to follow up on issues 
raised at the previous meeting. A number of other ranking officers attend as 
observers. Bureau commanders give PowerPoint presentations describing their 
units' activities. The sheriff and majors ask questions, criticize failures and discuss 
remedies, and praise good performance. 

The Youth Services Bureauconsisting entirely of the SRO program 
presents an update on the SRO program at each meeting. The box "A StarTrac 
Meeting Discussion About the SRO Program" illustrates how the procedure helps to 
hold SROsand their supervisorsaccountable for their activities and time. "There 
is so much more accountability with StarTrac," one SRO said. "You need to be able 
to account for your numbers [on your logs]." 

Visits to Schools 

The previous commander had wanted the supervisors to remain in the office to be 
available in case an emergency occurred that they would need to address on short 
notice. The new captain, Tim Carney, wanted supervisors to be more visible on 
campus where they could supervise the SROs and meet frequently with 
principals to identify problems with the SROs early rather than getting 
"blindsided" by the news of problems at the end of each year during the principals' 
annual evaluation of the SROs. In addition, with the advent of cell phones, the 
supervisors, even if they were at a school could be contacted and respond 
immediately in the event of a crisis. 


A StarTrac Meeting Discussion About the SRO Program 

Captain Tim Carney, commander of the Youth Services Bureau, presents a 30minute 
report and then answers questions about the SRO program, including reading 
letters of commendation for three SROs. Carney displays charts of crime statistics 
for the schools countywide and then for each school in the district. Each chart (see 
the examples in appendixes D and E) shows: 

 statistics for the current reporting period (i.e., previous six weeks), the previous 
reporting period, and the differences between the two; and 
 current and previous year-to-date statistics, and the differences between the two. 
Another matrix identifies the specific meetings the SROs have attended (e.g., 
Kiwanis, Boy Scouts), the dates, and the names of the SROs who attended. 

A major asks a series of questions: 
 "What were the circumstances surrounding the bomb threat?" 
 "It looks like three of your SROs were stuck with the really tough assignment of 
chaperoning Grad Night. How did that go?" 
 "Why has [the crime of] battery gone down so much in the schools compared with 
the previous reporting period?" 
Carney: "Kids get squirrelly this time of year and get suspended, plus the 
bullying curriculum." 
 "Why have disturbances gone down?" 
Carney: "Spring break reduces the number because school is not in session." 
 Sheriff: "Do kids calm down because they're afraid of not graduating?" 
Carney: "Yes." 
 Major: "Look into why disturbances are down to make sure there aren't problems 
that aren't going unrecorded." 
Carney: "We will check into that." 

The sheriff congratulates an SRO who recovered a valuable piccolo that had been 
stolen. After a description of how the SROs handled a bomb scare, a major says, 
"Good job." 

Sergeant Tim Enos, one of the three supervising sergeants, then gives a 
presentation on prom/graduation alcohol prevention activities. The sheriff says, "very 
goodyou're doing a good job. It's a whole community effort. Excellent." 


Carney's goal is for each supervisor to visitunannouncedeach high school and 
middle school to which his SROs are assigned at least once a week and each 
elementary school at least every other week. This can be difficult at times because 
the schools are so spread out. However, one school principal reported that "Carney 
has the supervisors come out [to the schools] a lot to talk with the principals and 
assistant principals. The principals are often in the rotunda area at the beginning of 
the day, and the supervisors can easily ask how things are going." 

Carney requires that supervisors observe their SROs teach at least once each year 
to be able to evaluate them in this area on the annual assessment form. While 
observing a new SRO teach, Sergeant Tim Enos noticed that the deputy allowed a 
student to crack jokes to other nearby students during the class until the SRO 
eventually told him to be quiet or leave the class. After the class, Enos suggested 
that the SRO walk around the class and "spend time near the class 'clown'don't 
stand next to the good kids." 

Formal Evaluations of SRO Performance 

Supervisors complete semi-annual and annual reviews of each SRO. For both 
reviews, supervisors give a performance management rating of "exceeds 
standard," "meets standard," or "fails." 

Following the department's procedure in its General Orders for all personnel, if an 
SRO gets a less than satisfactory rating on an item, the supervisor can give the 
officer 30, 60, or 90 days to bring the work up to a satisfactory level. 

 A supervisor gave an SRO who got an unsatisfactory rating on "coming to work 
on time" 30 days to come on time every day. The supervisor then went to the 
school periodically over the next two months and checked with the school 
principal to make sure the SRO arrived on time. If the SRO had failed to improve 
his performance, he would have received additional counseling from the 
supervisor, then a written reprimand, then termination from the program. 

 A patrol officer once wrote a reprimand on an SRO he saw swear at a student 
and "get in his face." The SRO supervisor gave the officer 60 days in which to 
have no complaints filed against him for profanity; counseled him on the need to 
behave in a professional manner; and explained why swearing was not 
acceptable. Because the SRO admitted to having "lost it" and sworn at the 
student, and apologized for his behavior, the supervisor recommended to Captain 
Tim Carney that the officer not lose a day's pay, and the captain agreed. 


Involving the Schools in Evaluating the SROs 

At the end of each school year, supervisors give school administrators an SRO 
Evaluation Form on which to record their assessments of their SROs. The form 
provides the opportunity to rate the officers as poor, fair, good, and excellent in 20 
different areas, such as "Availability" and "Amount of Classroom Participation" (see 
the box "School Administrator Criteria for Rating SRO Performance"). The form 
also provides space for a written description of the officer's strengths, suggestions 
for improvement, and additional comments. 

Program supervisors must receive evaluations by at least three 
administrators for each SROfor example, a principal, assistant principal, and 
teacher. If the forms are not returned, Sergeant Tim Enos reminds the 
administrators to complete them. Supervisors total the ratings for an overall score 
and discuss it with the SROs. 

The previous year, in his evaluation and year-end discussion with the SRO, an 
elementary school principal noted the need for the officer to get more comfortable 
with younger kids and relate to them"Little kids are afraid of cops," the principal 
observed. The SRO needed to get into the lower grade classrooms, have a 
targeted program for them, and establish rapport with their teachers. The principal 
reported that the following year the SRO had improved considerably in this area. 
"Last year's evaluation meeting was very beneficial in producing this change." The 
principal also commented that teachers in effect give feedback on the SRO's 
teaching because "for them to give up a class a week to the SRO in this age of 
teacher accountability suggests that the SRO must be good." 

Robyn Marinelli, the school district's supervisor of student services, 
periodically attends the captain's regular meetings with the SROs. "One big 
problem [that she brought up at these meetings] is that high school principals forget 
the SROs don't work for the school district. For example, the administrators want 
the SROs available for evening activities but can't make them come, so they call 
me and I call Captain Carney." 

Marinelli and Carney also review each school at the end of the year but, because 
they talk regularly throughout the year, there are rarely any surprises in June. 


School Administrator Criteria for Rating SRO Performance 

Judgment: Ability to accurately assess situations and act accordingly. 

Dependability: Can be counted on to perform assigned duties with little supervision. 

Availability: Is accessible when needed and makes self visible on campus. 

Handling of Non-Criminal Incidents: Handles miscellaneous incidents 
appropriately. 

Conflict Resolution: (Students, Staff, Parents) Able to deescalate conflict situations. 

Teamwork/Relationship with Faculty: Has established a rapport with, and is 
considered a part of, the administrative team. 

Amount of Classroom Participation: Promotes SRO presentations, good 
classroom resource. 

Involvement in School-Related Activities: (active in clubs, conferences, athletics, 
programs, etc.) Is active during and after school. 

"Going the Extra Mile": Goes beyond what is expected. 

Finally, the school district conducts an annual survey of students, parents, and 
teachers on school climate, including fear of crime. However, because usually 8090 
percent of respondents report feeling safe, Marinelli has never raised the survey 
results with Carney. 

Case Study: Maury County, Tennessee, Sheriff's Department (61 sworn) 

A captain spends about 20 percent of his time supervising the administration of the 
Maury County program, while two sergeants (who are also SROs) provide day-today 
supervision for nine SROs each. The department had tried having one 
lieutenant supervise the whole program but found that one person could not 
supervise 20 officers across the county's 612 square miles. 

The sergeants are responsible for answering questions from their SROs, dealing
with serious incidents at the schools, visiting the schools, and conducting SRO
performance reviews. While all sergeants in the department are promoted through
the civil service process, the department added a requirement that
candidates for SRO supervisor have experience as SROs to increase their
competence. 

Supervisors monitor the SROs through: 

 bi-weekly activity logs; 
 weekly meetings; and 
 annual evaluations that include participation by school administrators. 


SRO Logs 

The program monitors the day-to-day activities of SROs using detailed, 
comprehensive bi-weekly activity reports prepared by each officer. The 29 pieces of 
information called for in each report range from the number of offense reports 
completed, to the number of gang-related incidents investigated, to the number of 
advisory sessions held with students, parents, and teachers (see appendix F). 

Supervising sergeants and the captain review the reports, making comparisons 
over time and across schools. The supervisors use the reports to identify potential 
problems. For example, when the number of assaults in a school increased and the 
number of hours the SRO was spending teaching decreased, a sergeant 
suggested the SRO spend more time teaching conflict resolution in an effort to 
decrease the level of violence in the school. 

The department submits the reports to the county board of education and the 
county commission to document how SROs are spending their time. A county 
commissioner said, "The reports help the commission understand how productive 
the SROs really are and also demonstrate that SROs are not just dealing with 
students but also with the public." 

Weekly Meetings 

Every Wednesday for an hour the department holds a mandatory meeting at 
headquarters for all SROs and SRO supervisors that the sheriff also often attends. 
The primary purpose of the meeting is to bring all staff together to share 
information and discuss department and program-specific issues. The department 
also uses the meetings to provide brief presentations regarding recent trends or to 
invite a local service provider, such as the fire department, to discuss safety 
presentations that could be made at the schools at the SROs' request. The 
meetings serve an important supervisory function because they give SROs the 
opportunity to ask supervisors questionsand vice versaand have in-
person discussions about problems or trends. 

Performance Reviews 

The sergeants review the SROs' performance twice a year, once informally and 
once formally (using a generic county government form used with all department 
deputies). During both reviews, sergeants meet with school administrators to 
discuss any problem areas and request that the administrators complete an SRO 
Development Report. This report asks administrators to rate the SROs on a 1-3 
scale in 10 areas and to provide written comments as needed (see the box "Areas 
in Which School Administrators Rate SRO Performance"). 


Sample Evaluation Areas on Which School Administrators Rate SRO Performance 

Attendance: Presents on job assignment when required; attends extracurricular 
activities 

Human relations skills: Tactful with staff, children and the public 

Personal appearance: Cleanliness and neatness of uniform 

Knowledge of responsibilities: Understands and keeps current on laws, 
administrative orders, policies, procedures, rules, and regulations 

Practical judgment: Capacity to handle self in routine and complicated situations, 
independent functioning 

Problem-solving: Completes tasks without specific instruction and supervision 

Instructional: Actively instructs safety, law related, or drug education classes 

Advisor: Makes self available to meet with students, staff, and parents 

Law enforcement: Takes appropriate action when necessary 

Team-oriented: Motivates self to be a part of the overall school environment 

Case Study: Palm Beach County, Florida, School District Police 
Department (149 Sworn) 

Because the program must cover a 40-by-50 square mile area, the Palm Beach 
School District Police Department divides the county into geographic zones for 
supervision purposes, with one lieutenant each (the department has no sergeants) 
assigned to supervise 8-12 SROs and 10-15 schools in a single zone. A single 
lieutenant supervises most of the elementary school SROs regardless of zone. 

Supervision 

Supervisors monitor SROs in a number of ways, using: 

 weekly activity logs; 
 reviews of arrest reports; 
 visits to schools; 
 annual evaluations; and 
 assessments from school administrators. 

SRO Logs 

Members of the department have to turn in to their supervisors a daily log of where 
they have been and why. SROs log in their time and place as they change 
activities and travel. SROs fax or drop off the logs on Mondays. According to one 
SRO, "My lieutenant has never questioned my logs, but having to fill them in 
makes sure SROs are where they're supposed to be." 


Review of Arrest Reports 

SROs submit all their arrest reports to their lieutenants, who may provide 
comments such as, "This was not well written," "You didn't provide enough 
evidence to sustain probable cause for this arrest," or "Maybe in the future you 
don't want to make an arrest again in this situation." Supervisors make SROs fix 
inadequate reports and, if necessary, require them take a course on report writing 
at a community college. 

According to one supervisor, some new SROs were writing sub par reports and 
were reluctant to improve their writing, but he has been able to get them to write 
better reports. After one SRO had reread an old report he had written, he thanked 
the lieutenant because he saw the dramatic improvement between the earlier 
report and in his most recent reports. 

Visits to Schools 

Supervisors visit schools regularly. Some talk only with the SROs, but most visit 
school administrators while at the school. One administrator reported that he sees 
supervisors coming by frequently to check up on the SROs in his school. 

Annual Evaluation 

Each supervising lieutenant completes an annual evaluation for each SRO under 
his or her supervision (see appendix C in chapter 5, "Training SROs"this is the 
same form that FTOs fill in daily and supervising lieutenants complete for 16 
months while new SROs are still on probation). The evaluation covers 12 areas, 
ranging from appearance, to report writing, to interpersonal effectiveness with 
peers, administrators, students, and the community. Supervisors use a 7-point 
rating scale with 1 "not acceptable," 2 "development needed," 3-5 "acceptable," 
and 6-7 "superior." As illustrated in the box "Sample Guidelines for Completing 
Performance-Based Evaluation," there is an 11-page set of detailed guidelines that 
FTOs and supervisors follow in filling in the evaluation form. The supervisor shares 
his or her evaluation with the SRO, and both sign it before it goes up the chain of 
command. 


A Day in the Life of an SRO Supervisor in the Palm Beach School District 
Police Department 

Lieutenant Rob Woods supervises 10 SROs in 7 schools, plus their elementary 
feeder schools. Woods typically starts work between 7:00-7:30 a.m. by going to the 
high school, the busiest of his schools, to meet with the two SROs there to review 
any problems they may be experiencing, such as a gang-related problem or a 
shooting on a beach the night before that may spill over into the school. He also 
reviews any upcoming events to make sure there will be enough officers scheduled 
to cover them and to set up a plan to supervise the officers. 

At 9:00 a.m., Woods goes to the next school, picking one that has had recent 
problems. Later in the day, he meets with the principals at the elementary schools on 
their needs and concernsfor example, a number of vehicle burglaries in one 
school, parents demanding things at another school, and parents wanting more 
police involvement at a third school. Sometimes, elementary principals call him with 
a problem, and he assigns an SRO to handle it.* Elementary school principals are 
told to call dispatch or him if they need help so that the SROs cannot claim, "I never 
got called"an effort at holding the SROs accountable. Woods gets to about six 
schools on a typical day, driving 60-70 miles a day. 

While at each school, Woods reviews the SROs' arrest reports to check their 
accuracy (e.g., application of the correct statute) and comprehensiveness ("some 
cops try to use shortcuts in reports, so I sometimes have to ask them to expand on 
them"). He reviews the reports at the schools with the SROs so he can give the 
officers immediate comments. 

Wood's day officially ends at about 4:00 p.m. But at home he finishes paperwork that 
he usually does not have time to take care of during the day, ranging from 
nominating SROs for awards to memos to the captain on his exam schedule. 

Woods also goes to after-school events, sometimes staying all evening or day (on 
weekends) at a single event or moving from event to event. In the case of a game 
involving two long-time rivals, he supervised 30 SROs handling 10,000 kids, making 
sure the SROs were appropriately assigned and looking out for potential danger. 
Woods coordinates with administrators or teachers assigned to the events, with 
access to the administrators' home phone numbers in case something happens.
 
*Because of geographic considerations, Woods is the only lieutenant responsible for the elementary schools in 
his geographic area along with the area's middle and high school SROs. Another lieutenant is responsible for the 
SROs in all the other elementary schools throughout the county. 


Involvement of School Administrators 

Supervisors meet with each school's principal at the end of each school year for an 
assessment of their SRO's performance that year. However, according to Kathleen 
Weigel, a high school principal, "While the lieutenant sits with me at the end of 
every year to evaluate my SRO, there is usually nothing new to say because 
the supervisor is at the school two or three times a week and, if there are 
issues, we talk about them at that time. So there are no surprises when the 
annual evaluation comes." 

Sample Guidelines for Completing Performance-Based Evaluation 

Appearance 
UnacceptableDirty shoes and wrinkled uniform. Uniform fits poorly or is 
improperly worn . . . . . 
AcceptableUniform neat and clean, fits and is worn properly . . . . Shoes are 
shined. 
SuperiorUniform neat, clean and properly pressed. Leather is shined and shoes 
are spit-shined. Displays command presence. 

Report Writing 
UnacceptableIs unaware that a report or form needs to be completed/does not 
know what reports or forms to utilize. 
AcceptableIs aware of commonly used forms/reports and understands their 
function . . . . Completes with reasonable accuracy and thoroughness . . . . 
SuperiorConsistently makes accurate form selection and completes them without 
assistance . . . . 

Interpersonal Skills 
UnacceptableUnable to properly establish communication lines with other 
[individuals whom the SRO has to work] . . . . Participates in conduct that has the 
potential to/or places the department in a negative light . . . . 
AcceptableActively works at establishing positive relationships . . . . 
SuperiorEstablishes excellent rapport with others . . . . Displays mastery in the 
resolution of conflicts. 


Supervisor Selection and Training 

As noted above, all supervisors are lieutenantsthe department has no sergeants. 
Because lieutenants must come up through the ranks, all are former SROs with the 
department; about half have been FTOs in the department. Lieutenants have to 
have been in the department for at least two years and have earned 30 additional 
education credits. 

Incentives to become a supervisor include unmarked take-home cruisers and a five 
percent pay raise. However, supervisors are on a 12-month schedule, because 
they have to cover summer schools, all of which are served by one or two 
department SROs. 

To become eligible as a supervisor, an SRO has to: 

(1) be recommended by his or her supervisor (typically, a captain); 

(2) pass a written test on State and county law, the department's general orders 
and policies and procedures, and exercising leadership (the chief gives the 
applicant a reading list to study for the 100 multiple choice and true/false 
questions developed by a training consultant he hired to do the screening to 
keep himself out of the testing process); 

(3) role play scenarios in front of an interview panel of supervisors from other 
law enforcement agencies (see below); and 

(4) be interviewed and scored by a panel of department captains (the chief 
observes but does not score the applicant). 

The department contracts with a professional assessment center to assemble 
the oral panel consisting of ranking officers from other nearby law 
enforcement agencies. Candidates respond from beginning to end to four 
scenarios. Scenarios have included: 

 counseling a problem SRO, 
 giving a presentation to parents, 
 dealing with a disgruntled SRO, 
 managing a shooting scene, and 
 responding during a town hall meeting that erupts into a fight. 

Applicants simulate the entire problem-solving exercise from planning to paperwork 
to final presentation. Panel members score applicants on a rating of 1-25 on each 
scenario. 


Each of the four steps is a pass/fail test. When a position opens up, the chief 
interviews all the candidates and selects one to fill the opening. The newly 
appointed supervisor does a ride-along with experienced lieutenants for four 
days before assuming his or her new responsibilities and attends 40 hours of 
management training.  


Image of Appendix A: Plain Local School District, Strak County Ohio,
SRO Performance Rating Guidelines


Image of Appendix A: Plain Local School District, Strak County Ohio,
SRO Performance Rating Guidelines


Image of Appendix A: Plain Local School District, Strak County Ohio,
SRO Performance Rating Guidelines


Image of Appendix B: Olympia, Washington Police Department SRO Evaluation Form


Image of Appendix B: Olympia, Washington Police Department SRO Evaluation Form


Image of Appendix C: Pine Bluff Arkansas Police Department SRO Evaluation Form


Image of Appendix C: Pine Bluff Arkansas Police Department SRO Evaluation Form


Image of Appendix D: Sarasota, Florida Sheriff's Office StarTrac Crime Statistics
for One High School


Image of Appendix D: Sarasota, Florida Sheriff's Office StarTrac Crime Statistics
for One High School


Image of Appendix F: Maury County, Tennessee Sheriff's Department SRO Bi-Weekly 
Activity Report


Chapter 7: Identifying Sources of Program Funding 

Most programs are funded from two or more sources, making the responsibility for 
program support more equitable and less burdensome than if one entity alone had 
to pay the entire cost. This chapter discusses the shared funding arrangements of 
several of the programs in the study and then describes innovative funding 
approaches several programs have discovered. The following chapter, "Maintaining 
Program Funding," discusses how programs have gone about motivating potential 
funding sources to contribute moneyor to maintain or increase the amount of 
money they were already contributing to the program. 

Who Pays for the Program 

Whether program costs are shared among two or more entities does not appear to 
depend on how much the program costs. Some of the least expensive programs 
have been funded from multiple sources, while some costly programs have only a 
single funding source. 

Develop a Realistic Estimate of Program Costs 

Whether a single entity pays the entire program's costs or the expenses are shared 
among different groups, agencies need to get a good grasp on how much their 
programs actually cost. This is not as simple as it sounds. Obviously, program 
costs vary according to the number of SROs in the program. However, other 
factors make it difficult to calculate program costs or to compare costs 
among programs. 

 Starting salaries, as well as average salaries, for police officers and sheriff's 
deputies vary widely among jurisdictions. Fringe benefits also vary significantly. 
Taken together, these differences can result in one program's costs being double 
those of another program even with a similar number of SROs. 

 SRO salaries also vary among programs depending on the officers' length of 
employment with the department: SROs who have been with the agency for 
many years have higher salaries than do new recruits. Furthermore, in some 
programs the SRO position is considered a specialty assignment that requires a 
salary increment, or the agency voluntarily provides SROs with a salary stipend 
(see the discussion of "Providing Incentives" in chapter 2, "Recruiting SROs"). 
When combined with differences in salaries and fringe benefits, the cost per SRO 
may be under $45,000 or over $100,000. 

 Program costs also vary among sites depending on whether the salaries of 
supervisory and support staff are included in the budget. Some supervisors 
devote only a small percentage of their time to the program, but others spend full 
time on it. A program's purported budget may not take account of the proportion 
of these supervisors' salaries that reflects the time they spend on the program. 


 Training, overtime pay, equipment, and other miscellaneous costs are not 
calculated in determining some programs' total costs. Some of these expenses 
also represent one-time costs that need to be "amortized" over several years-for 
example, cruisers. 

As a result of these considerations, the program's budget in Terrebone Parish, 
Louisiana, is $280,000 for 9 SROs, but in Fontana, California, the budget is over 
$969,000 for only 8 SROs. Similarly, program costs in Pasquotank County, North 
Carolina, are $175,000 for 4 SROs but almost $4,000 more ($178,834) in Boone, 
North Carolina, for only 3 SROs. The box "Costs, Sources of Funding, and 
Personnel for Selected Programs" presents the budgets of selected programs 
included in the study to further illustrate the difficulty predictingand comparing 
program costs. 

Explore Options for Sharing Program Costs 

In some jurisdictions, a single source provides the program's entire funding. 
However, increasingly funding sourceswhether law enforcement agencies 
or school districtsthat were previously providing all the money have been 
insisting that other groups share the costs (see chapter 8, "Maintaining 
Program Funding"). In fact, as illustrated in the box below, funding arrangements 
among the programs studied are a patchwork quilt of different configurations. 

Most commonly, program costs are shared between the law enforcement agency 
and the school district. However, while it may appear that a police agency or school 
district is contributing some or all a program's funding, the money may in fact 
come from one or more other sources. For example, the law enforcement 
agency's or school district's contribution may represent a supplement provided by 
the county or municipality to augment the agency's standard operating budget. 

 The Boone, North Carolina, Police Department is reimbursed for its single SRO 
by the school district, which, in turn, receives the money from the State. 

 In Virginia Beach, Virginia, the city council adds the cost of the 30 SROs' salaries 
and equipment to the police department's annual budget to support the program. 

In some communities, several school districts contribute money to the program 
because, when the law enforcement agency's jurisdiction includes more than one 
school district, SROs serve the schools in these multiple school districts. 

The Delaware State Police and the King County, Washington, Sheriff's Office, 
provide SROs to interested school districts or local governments through somewhat 
different cost-sharing arrangements as described in the box "Samples of Cost 
Sharing Arrangements." 
 


Costs, Sources of Funding, and Personnel for Selected Programs 

Program Sponsor 
- Terrebone Parish, Louisiana, Sheriff's Office 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $280,000 
Funding Source(s) 
- Sheriff's Office: $80,000 
- School District: $200,000 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 9 SROs

Program Sponsor 
- Tucson, Arizona, Police Department 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $2,141,050 
Funding Source(s) 
- Police Department: $2,000,000 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 23 SROs, 3 supervisors, 1 secretary 

Program Sponsor 
- Stark County, Ohio, Sheriff's Office 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $200,000 
Funding Source(s) 
- Federal Government: $200,000 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 5 SROs 

Program Sponsor 
- Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Office 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $2,413,426 
Funding Source(s) 
- Sheriff's Office: $1,239,713 
- School District: $1,173, 713 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 27 SROs, 3 supervisors, 1 office manager, 2 SROs

Program Sponsor 
- Salem, New Hampshire, Police Department 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $100,000 
Funding Source(s) 
- Police Department: $100,000 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 

Program Sponsor 
- Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $80,000
Funding Source(s) 
- Federal Government: $40,000 
- Police Department: 26,000 
- School District: $14,000 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 1 SRO 

Program Sponsor 
- Fontana, California, Police Department
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $949,600 
Funding Source(s) 
- Federal Government: $252,000 
- Police Department: $507,200 
- School District: $190,400 
- Private Sources: $20,000 (provided over a period of several years)
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 8 SROs 

Program Sponsor 
- Lakewood, Colorado, Police Department 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $694,982
Funding Source(s) 
- Police Department: $694,982
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 7 SROs, 1 sergeant, 1 secretary 

Program Sponsor 
- Pasquotank, North Carolina, Sheriff's Office 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $175,000
Funding Source(s) 
- Sheriff's Office: $78,000 
- School District: $97,000 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 4 SROs 

Program Sponsor 
- Boone, North Carolina, Police Department 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $46,927 
Funding Source(s) 
- School District: $46,927
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 1 SRO 

Program Sponsor 
- Delaware State Police 
Total Annual Cost in Recent Years 
- $2 million 
Funding Source(s) 
- State Police: $1 million 
- School Districts: $1 million 
Funded Full-Time Personnel 
- 25 SROs


Samples of Cost Sharing Arrangements 

Two law enforcement agencies charge school districts or local governments a fee for each 
SRO the programs provide. The fee established by the Delaware State Police covers only 
half the cost of the service, while in most cases the fee the King County, Washington, 
Sheriff's Office charges covers the entire cost of the service. 

Delaware State Police Program 

The Delaware State Police serves all counties in the State. Interested school districts submit 
a formal request for a specific number of SROs, agreeing to pay the salary of a newly hired 
state trooper$48,724for each SRO requested. 

The school district must specify how it intends to pay for the SROs. If it plans to use grant 
funding, it must specify the length of the grant and any requirement that the SRO be retained 
after grant funding ends. The State Police reviews this information carefully to ensure that it 
will not be responsible for paying the officer's full salary after the grant has ended. 

If the funding sources are sound, the department then considers its current and authorized 
strength levelsthat is, the number of sworn officers employed versus the number of 
positions authorized by the State legislatureto determine whether it has enough vacancies 
to meet the school district's request. If not, the department asks the legislature to authorize 
additional positions in the State Police budget to support the request. 

The department must also request additional funds from the State legislature before it can 
meet a school district's request for an SRO or another SRO, because the agency places a 
seasonedand relatively expensiveofficer with at least five years' experience in the school 
as the SRO but is reimbursed by the school district for the entry-level salary of the new 
recruit the department uses to replace the SRO. As a result, the police department 
contributes the approximately $40,000 difference between the two salaries, including the new 
SRO's training and equipment costs. The State Police estimates that, as a result, it pays for 
half each new SRO's actual total costs. 

King County, Washington, Sheriff's Office Program 

No SRO program funding comes from the King County Sheriff's Office general budget. While 
in the past Federal funds have been a major source of program support, the program 
currently receives no Federal funding either. Instead, each interested incorporated city within 
the county, in partnership with its school district, pays the sheriff's office $121,641 for each 
full-time SRO the jurisdiction wants to "hire." The annual fee includes the cost of the SRO's 
salary ($57,730) and fringe benefits ($20,477), anticipated overtime ($4,524), vehicle and 
operating costs ($8,331), department administrative charges ($8,602), precinct support staff 
($2,855), and other expenses. The program requires unincorporated areas to reimburse the 
sheriff's office only about one-third of the total cost of each SRO with the understanding that 
the department will assign the officer to regular patrol or other duties during the summer 
months. 


A few law enforcement agencies pay the entire cost of the program by choice 
because they believe they might lose complete control of its operations if the 
school district contributed some of the costs. 

 When one SRO program began, the deputy chief of the police department did not 
ask the school district to contribute to the program. He maintained this stance 
even after the department's budget was cut by over $1 million and he had to 
return the SROs to patrol, because he did not want to give up control over the 
officers to the schools"they would dictate when the SROs should make arrests." 

 The SRO supervisor and an assistant chief in another jurisdiction rejected the 
idea of asking the school district to contribute funding to the program because 
"We lose control. They will call and ask you to do things that you can't then refuse 
to do." Even when its COPS in Schools grants expired, the police department 
picked up the entire cost of the program. 

While another law enforcement agency bills each participating school district 
monthly for 75 percent of the cost of each SRO, the agency deliberately pays 25 
percent of the officer's cost itself to be able to have some control over the officers. 
For example, the program supervisor feels he has the right to reassign the officers 
to patrol on days when school is called off because of snow storms, in-service 
faculty training, or other reasons. 

When law enforcement agencies and school districts share program costs, the two 
entities negotiate each party's share, with some costs sometimes paid for by still 
other sources. 

 In Terrebone Parish, the school district pays half the salaries of five SROs and 
the entire salaries of four SROs. The sheriff's office pays the other half of the five 
SROs' salaries. Since in 2001 an SRO's annual salary was about $30,000, the 
school district's contribution was about $200,000 and the sheriff's department's 
contribution about $80,000. 

 In Chula Vista, California, the police department and secondary school district 
split the cost of 12 of the current 18 SROs and one field agent, with each entity in 
2004 contributing $545,912. The elementary school district pays 40 percent of the 
cost of the remaining 6 SROs and one field agent$300,671while the police 
department pays the remaining 60 percent$439,916. The program costs are 
supplemented by a $246,410 COPS in Schools grant. 

 The Fontana program's eight SROs are supported by a combination of police 
department ($507,000), school district ($190,400), and Federal funds ($252,000). 
Some of the positions are paid for entirely by the police department, others are 
split between the police department and two school districts, and one is funded 


entirely by a third school district. Throughout the program's history, several SRO 
positions have been funded with COPS in Schools grants. The program has 
secured private sector contributions of over $20,000 (see the case study at the 
end of the chapter). 

 Schools in some jurisdictions do not share in the program costs at all. The 
Garner, North Carolina, Police Department has three SROs. Each year, the town 
supports the full cost of one SRO's salary and equipment, with the State 
reimbursing the town for approximately 75 percent of his salary and equipment 
costs ($37,838) and the county reimbursing approximately 25 percent of his 
salary and equipment ($18,919). The town of Garner pays the entire cost of the 
other two SROs ($121,477). 

In several programs, because both parties recognize that the SROs will not be 
working at the schools year-round, the school district covers their salaries only for 
the months that school is in session. For example, in Schaumberg, Illinois, the 
school district used to pay only three-quarters of the SROs' salaries because the 
SROs return to their regular juvenile officer duties during the summer. 

The ostensible sharing of program costs between a law enforcement agency and a 
school district may be misleading because the school district is reimbursing only 
salaries, but the actual cost of the program to the department includes equipment 
and training. In other cases, as in Delaware, the school district reimburses the 
department the cost of an officer's base or entry-level salary but, because the 
SROs are seasonedand, therefore, higher-paidofficers, the department ends 
up paying the balance. 

Some school districts pay part or all of the SROs' overtime. 

 In Terrebone Parish, because school sports have to pay for themselves through 
fund raising, some of these funds are used to pay the SROs' overtime to 
supervise these events. For non-sport related assignments, the school district 
uses its activity fund to pay SROs $11 an hour overtime. 

 In Palm Beach County, Florida, if a school function or sports event charges an 
admission fee, the school has to pay for the SROs' overtime. 

In a few cases, jurisdictions have built a mechanism into their memorandums of 
agreement or contracts for automatic modifications of each contributor's share of 
program costs (see the box "The Scottsdale Police Department's Automatic Cost 
Shifting"). In Marshall, Minnesota, as the COPS in Schools grant decreased each 
year from 75 percent to 60 percent to 55 percent of the program's costs, the school 
district's and city's share increased correspondingly from 8 to 14 percent for the 
school district and from 17 to 30 percent for the city. 


The Scottsdale Police Department's Automatic Cost Shifting

The 14 Scottsdale, Arizona, Police Department SROs provide services to two different 
school districts. The department established an Intergovernmental Agreement with one 
school district to cooperatively cover the costs for 10 SROs and another agreement with the 
second school district to cooperatively cover the costs for 3 SROs. 

Both agreements include graduated payment plans that over time increase the school 
districts' share of the SROs' salaries, based on an average officer's salary. For example, one 
of the agreements began with the school district reimbursing 60 percent of an SRO's base 
salary; by 2003, the district was expected to cover 70 percent of the cost; and the goal is for 
the district to pay for 80 percent of the cost by 2006. 
 

When not provided for in the initial memorandum of understanding or contract, 
shifting costs is typically an arduous, drawn-out, and sometimes acrimonious 
undertaking. For example, while for the most part ultimately successful, programs 
in Stark County and Schaumburg experienced severe difficulties agreeing on the 
proportion of program funding each involved entity would contribute (see the case 
studies at the end of chapter 8, "Maintaining Program Funding"). 

How to Find the Money 

COPS in Schools grants have been the sole or partial funding source for more than 
6,567 SROs. However, when the three-year grants end, the law enforcement 
agency either has to pick up the cost of the program or ask local school districts or 
government agencies to pay for a share, or a larger share, of the expense. In 
addition, when many law enforcement agenciesand their participating school 
districtsincluded in the study suffered severe budgets cutbacks in the early 
2000s, they triedoften successfullyto find additional funds from their own 
budgets, tap into nontraditional sources of funding, or shift some of the costs to 
their partnering agencies and to local government. The discussion below, 
summarized in the box "Finding Innovative Ways to Help Pay for the Program," 
identifies the creative ways these programs have been able to find money. 


Finding Innovative Ways to Help Pay for the Program 

Law Enforcement Agencies 
 explore nontraditional Federal 
sources of funding* 
 cut back and transfer funds 
from D.A.R.E. 
 secure business contributions 
 apply for foundation grants 
 solicit funds from charities 
and fraternal organizations 
 host fundraisers 
 find free or low-cost sources 
of training (see chapter 5) 
 certify an SRO as a trainer 
(see chapter 5) 
 train other agencies' SROs for 
a fee 

School Districts and Schools 
 use athletic event fees 
 increase fees for parking lot 
passes or extracurricular 
activities 
 host fund raisers 
 reallocate 1% from other 
budget line itemse.g., 
technology, supplies, sports, 
capital expenditures 
 apply for foundation grants 
 solicit funds from charities 
and fraternal organizations

Local Governments 
 reallocate 1% from other 
budget line itemse.g., 
recreation, highway 
department, libraries, public 
works 
 merge two departments (e.g., 
public works and highways) 
into one to save money 
 cut back on hiring plans 
 apply for foundation grants 
 solicit funds from charities 
and fraternal organizations 

* As explained in the text, programs have obtained money from the U.S. Department of Education's Safe and Drug-Free Schools 
Program and the U.S. Department of Justice's Byrne Formula Grant Program and Juvenile Accountability Incentive Block Grants. 

See If the School District Can Contribute Additional Funding 

Much of this chapter has already illustrated how law enforcement agencies have been 
able to arrange for local school districts to provide funding or increase their funding for 
the program. Below are two additional examples: 

 Although the Marshall Police Department began funding the SRO program using a 
COPS in Schools grant, Robert Yant, the chief of police, told the school district when 
he applied for the grant that he expected it to pick up more of the cost when the 
grant ran out. While the share of the cost the school district contributed during the 
three-year grant period ($1,637, $5,384, and $6,511) was small, Yant "wanted school 
buy-in and to get it used to contributing to the cost." Before the grant expired, he 
asked the school district to increase its share of the cost to 50 percent after it ran 
out. According to Yant, "the program would have been dropped [if the school district 
had not agreed]. It's partly a philosophical issueif the school district doesn't feel it's 
important enough to pay, then it's not important enough for the police department to 
fund it." The school district agreed to pay half the costs. 

 The Stark County Sheriff's Office had been experiencing budget cutbacks since 
2002, resulting in the layoff of 60 correctional officers and road deputies that year. 
While they were all called back in 2003, only 40 returned. As a result, the sheriff told 
the participating school districts that he would have to recall the SROs unless the 
school districts agreed to pay for most of the officers' salaries. Four of the five school 
districts came up with the funds (see the case study at the end of chapter 8, 
"Maintaining Program Funding"). 


Some school districts, after the local law enforcement agency pulled out its SROs 
from the schools because of budget cutbacks, have on their own requested the 
officers be returnedand found a way to pay for them. The superintendent of 
schools in one community said, "When the grant ran out, we tried to go it on the 
cheapwithout an SRObut in three weeks all heck broke loose. So we cut each 
school line item budget by 1-2 percentfootball and basketball, classroom supplies, 
technologyto come up with the $30,000 to pay for the officer to come back." A 
high school in King County found some of the money needed to retain its SRO by 
adding a surcharge to the fees it charges for parking lot passes. The school district 
executive director provided the additional money from its parking lot supervisor fund 
since "the SRO does some lot supervision." 

Sometimes Adequately Funded Programs Seek Additional Money to Expand 

Some programs have secured additional funding from other sources to increase their 
number of SROs, not because of budget cutbacks. In Terrebone Parish, the sheriff's 
department initially paid for the SROs. However, the sheriff eventually told the 
superintendent of schools that he needed help financing the program if it was to expand, and 
the superintendent requested additional money from the school board. The board 
unanimously approved the funds. As a result, the school district pays half the salaries for five 
SROs and the entire salaries for four SROs. 

See If Local Government Can Provide (or Increase) Support 

Some local governments have increased their funding for their programsor 
provided funding for the first time. 

 Captain Mike Rogers of the West Orange Police Department asked the city 
council for increased funding for the program, recognizing that the town had to cut 
recreation and library expenses, as well as public works, to support increases to 
the police department's budget. Despite these sacrifices, the council approved the 
increase in funding. 

 All 30 of the Virginia Beach Police Department SRO positions started out as grant-
funded positions. At the conclusion of the grants, the police chief and school 
superintendent made a presentation to the city council to pick up the funding. 
Because the program had become so popular, council members agreed to pay for 
the entire program. 


Examine Possible Funding From Federal Government Sources 

The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (the COPS Office), part of 
the U.S. Department of Justice, has provided three-year grants to over 3,000 law 
enforcement agencies to cover entry-level salaries for SROs. The so-called COPS 
in Schools grant program provides up to $125,000 per SRO. Agencies must commit 
to continuing the grant-funded SROs for a fourth year without COPS Office funding. 
Information about the grant program may be found at: www.cops.usdoj.gov. 

A 2002 National Association of School Resource Officers (NASRO) survey 
(available at Resourcer@aol.com or 888-31-NASRO) found that "Almost two-thirds 
(65%) of SROs were unaware that U.S. Department of Education Safe and Drug-
Free Schools Program funds can be used to pay for SRO training . . . ." Under 
Title IV of the Safe and Drug Free Schools Act formula grants (Public Law 107110), 
each school district receives a sum of money based on student enrollment 
and other factors. The act expressly allows school districts to spend up to 40 
percent of their Title IV money to train and hire school security personnel 
(see www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/intro/progsum/sum_pg9.html). 

Three programs in the present study have obtained Safe and Drug-Free Schools 
grants for their SRO programs. 

 The Virginia Beach Police Department receives a $10,000 reimbursement from 
the school district through its Safe and Drug-Free Schools grant to cover the time 
SROs spend teaching either of two safety coursesAggressors, Victims, and 
Bystanders, or Options, Choices, and Consequences. 

 The Maury County, Tennessee, Sheriff's Department covers some of its training 
costs using school district Safe and Drug-Free Schools grant funds. 

 Several school districts in King County, Washington, use Title IV funds to 
reimburse the Sheriff's Office for providing SROs to their schools (see the box 
above, "Two Programs Have Established Cost Sharing Arrangements"). 

The Edward Byrne Memorial State and Local Law Enforcement Assistance 
Program (Byrne Formula Grant Program), funded by the Bureau of Justice 
Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice, provides funding to States and units of 
local government to support personnel, equipment, training, technical assistance, 
and information systems to improve the criminal justice response to violent and 
serious crimes. Maury County funded 75 percent of two SRO's salaries for three 
years with Byrne grants. See www.ojp.usdoj.gov or call (800) 421-6770. 


The Tucson, Arizona, Police Department has made use of $1,802,757 in Juvenile 
Accountability Incentive Block Grants from U.S. Department of Justice's Office 
of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to establish and maintain 
accountability and prevention programs, and to provide overtime for SROs to 
participate in activities that involve interacting with students after hours. See 
www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org or call (800) 638-8736. 

Be Creative in Seeking Funding Sources 

Several programs have obtained funds from businesses, charities, and foundations, 
and by hosting fund-raising events. 

 A January 6, 2004, Lansing State Journal article, "Mason [Michigan] schools 
regain resource officer," written by Trout Sally, reported that when a COPS in 
School grant ran out in the middle of the 2003-2004 school year, city officials 
agreed to pay $23,000 of the SRO's $35,000 cost if the school district paid 
$12,000about one-third the cost. Because the school district reported it did not 
have the money, a former president of the Kiwanis Club of Mason initiated a 
Kiwanis fundraiser to find the money so the officer could finish out the school 
year. The club raised $4,500, mostly from local businesses, which was 
supplemented by a United Way contribution of $3,500 and a contribution from the 
American Legion. 

 After the Columbine tragedy, Jim Marshall, the SRO in Marshall, Minnesota, 
asked his supervisor to host an active shooter course for him and the patrol 
officers. Because paying for the course would have been too expensive, Marshall 
suggested the supervisor talk with someone at the alternative school who, he 
knew, had grant money for violence prevention in the schools. The supervisor 
met with the person, who agreed to contribute $2,500 for a trainer to come to 
Marshall to offer the course; the police department had to contribute only $500. 

 The Maury County Sheriff's Department has raised funds through a nonprofit 
entity the department created in 1999 called the Fraternal Order of Police Club. 
The club hosted a rodeo to raise money for the SRO and Drug Abuse Resistance 
Education (D.A.R.E.) programs to pay for training and to purchase educational 
materials, pencils for students, and other materials the programs needed. 

 The Fontana Police Department developed its own in-house basic SRO training 
course (see the case study at the end of chapter 5, "Training SROs"), arranged 
for the California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training to certify 
it, and then offered the training to other law enforcement agencies, charging a 
$175 registration fee per participating SRO. After deducting expenses, the 
department made almost $2,000 on the class. It used the money to buy new 
equipment for a program its SROs conduct in the elementary schools. 


Some Agencies Have Cut D.A.R.E. to Protect Their SRO Programs 

A few law enforcement agencies in the study, when forced to make cuts, have put their Drug Abuse 
Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) officers back on patrol in order to retain their SROs in the schools. 

 When four officers left the Marshall Police Department (one went to the National Guard, two resigned, and 
one retired), school administrators and police department commanders agreed to return the D.A.R.E 
officer to patrol duty rather than reassign the SRO. Command staff did not want to lose the SRO because, 
before he took up his position, patrol officers were constantly being called to the schools to handle 
problems. 

 After the 9/11 tragedy, the Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Police Department lost nearly 10 percent of its sworn 
officers to the military. As a result, department divisions that lost officers sought to make up for their 
reductions in personnel by asking the chief to transfer personnel from elsewhere in the department to their 
divisions. In response, the police chief abandoned the D.A.R.E. program, transferring its officers to the 
depleted divisions in order avoid having to cut back the SRO program. 

 To be able to continue its SRO program, the Lakewood, Colorado, Police Department, dropped its 
D.A.R.E. program, using the funding to support its SROs. 

Some programs have been especially creative in providing their SROs with free 
training. 

 In Palm Beach County, the school district's police department arranged for trainers 
from other law enforcement agencies to teach its SROs classes on religious 
terrorism and biometrics (thumb scans, retinal scanning) at no cost to the 
department in exchange for the department's having provided their departments with 
training in such areas as crisis response and by allowing their officers to attend 
recertification courses along with the Palm Beach County SROs. 

 Sergeant Richard Davies, a former SRO in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, on his own 
initiative and expense took a course with Corbin & Associates to become certified as 
an SRO trainer. Davies then developed a 40-hour training syllabus, which he taught 
during the summer to officers who might apply for any SRO positions that might 
open up the following school year. In the long run, this approach saved the agency 
money by avoiding the registration fees and travel expenses involved in sending 
SROs out of town to be trained by professional organizations. 

* * * 

The case studies below describe how the Fontana, California, and Saratoga County, 
Florida, programs have been especially diligent and innovative in securing funding. 

 The Fontana program makes use of various cost-sharing arrangements with the 
schools and has secured funding from multiple sources, including from the private 
sector. 

 The Saratoga County program has obtained money from foundations and 
community groups, by sponsoring its own fund-raising events, and from in-kind 
contributions. 


Case Study: Fontana, California, Police Department (151 sworn) 

In addition to tapping multiple funding sources, the Fontana Police Department 
arranges different funding formulas with different school districts. 

The Program Developed Different Cost Sharing Arrangements 

A combination of police department, school district, and grant funds support eight 
SROs. The police department funds some of the positions fully, while the costs of other 
SROs are split between the department and two school districts. A third school district 
provides all the funds for another SRO. Throughout most of the program's history, at 
least one SRO position has been funded through COPS in Schools grants. The 
department also signed memorandums of agreement with the school districts 
guaranteeing the required fourth year of local funding for the federally funded 
positions before submitting the grant applications. 

Because the department's jurisdiction is not contiguous with school district boundaries, 
it offered to place SROs in all of the middle schools that children who live in the 
department's jurisdiction might attend, proposing to split the funding of the officer's 
salary with the school districts. The city (through the police department) offers to pay 
the same percentage as the percentage of the school population that lives in the city of 
Fontana. 

Program Funding Increased to Support Eight SROs 

Starting with a single SRO in 1994, the police department has managed to obtain 
additional funding to the point where by 2004 the program had eight SROs. 

(1) The SRO program began in 1994 with a grant from the COPS Office for a 
single SROnot, however, a COPS in Schools grant but a grant for 
increasing community policing in Fontana. Under the grant, the police 
department assigned an SRO to extend community policing into schools. In 
1997, the city assumed the costs of the program after the COPS Office grant 
expired. 

(2) In 2000, the city received funding from a COPS in Schools grant to fund two 
additional positions. The needed local matching funds for the grant 
program were shared by the Fontana Unified School District and the city of 
Fontana. In addition, the city and the school district signed a contract to 
share the cost of funding both positions fully for at least one additional year 
after the grant was over. As a result, these positions have been supported 
with city and school district funds since the grant expired in 2003. 

(3) In 2002, the police department received a second COPS in Schools grant 
for a fourth SRO to work in a new middle school built in the city of Fontana 


but served by the Etiwanda School District. The police department provided 
the local match. 

(4) An additional SRO was funded under an agreement with the Colton Unified 
School District to place an SRO in a middle school outside Fontana. The 
police department pays 55 percent of the cost of the officer, because that is 
the percentage of students in the school who live in the city, while the Colton 
School District pays the other 45 percent, representing the students who live 
in the unincorporated areas outside the city. 

(5) The Fontana Unified School District Police Department fully funds a sixth 
full-time officer who is assigned to work in one of the middle schools. 

(6) In 2002, the police department funded two more positions, bringing the 
total to eight full time SROs. 

Private Funding Supports Several Program Initiatives 

The department has secured and continues to seek funding from national and local 
businesses for special SRO events and activities such as DRY2K (a multimedia 
alcohol prevention program) and Dream Builders (a mentoring program designed to 
link at-risk students with professionals in the community). In addition to benefiting from 
the relatively small but still helpful financial support, program supervisors capitalize on 
the donations in other ways. 

 Program supervisors view these business contributions that support innovative SRO 
activities as another way to increase the officers' motivation to develop creative 
solutions to school problems. 

 Program supervisors use the recognition for the program provided by the corporate 
awards to further bolster their case for the program's excellence. 

 In turn, the supervisors parlay the program's national reputation for innovation and 
distinction into helping to maintain funding from the city and the school 
districts. 

The program uses corporate contributions to pay for the cost of programs, and for 
materials related to programs, but not for SRO salaries. For example, about $15,000 
has been donated over the years to duplicate and buy equipment for the DRY2K 
program and train other agencies to implement the program. Major donors include 
Microsoft, Toyota Motor Sports, and the Auto Club. Fontana SROs have taught the 
program in all three high schools within the Fontana Unified School District. 
Corporations also support the Dream Builders program. Local businesses 
contribute about $5,000 per year to pay for field trips and other expenses (excluding 
SRO salaries) related to the initiative. 


Case Study: Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Office Program 

The Sarasota County program's annual budget of more than $2,400,000 is split almost 
equally between the sheriff's office and the school district. Nevertheless, despite 
relatively guaranteed funding (see the Sarasota County case study at the end of 
chapter 8, "Maintaining Program Funding"), the program leaves no stone unturned in 
attempting to secure additional funding. 

Even though the school district contributes roughly half the program's costs, the 
program still asked the school board to contribute an additional $10,000 in 2004 for 
SRO registration fees for training and the associated out-of-state per diem and travel 
expenses. In addition to providing the funds, the school board agreed to split the 
$3,015 cost of maintaining a dog for the program. 

While each high school and middle school SRO in Sarasota County had an office in 
his or her school equipped with a computer, elementary school SROs did not have 
officesand therefore did not have computers. As a result, the program asked for 
and receiveda grant from the Gulf Coast Community Foundation of Venice, 
the largest community foundation in Florida, for $11,000 to purchase seven 
laptop computers with extended warrantees. 

Networking sometimes results in funding leads. While attending a meeting of the 
Association of Communities, Sheriff William Balkwill was told by a community group 
that it wanted to donate money for the benefit of kids in the county. When he returned 
to his office, Balkwill passed on the information to Tim Carney, the captain in charge of 
the SRO program. Carney contacted the group, which ended up making a $1,000 
contribution to the program. As word about the donation spread, the Elks decided it 
would raise money for the program; not to be outdone, the Moose held a dance to 
raise money. 

The sheriff's office itself has held fundraising events to raise money for the program. 
When he was an SRO, Captain Tim Carney held several golf tournaments, each of 
which raised about $5,000 for the Youth Services Division, which houses the SRO and 

D.A.R.E. programs (elementary school SROs are dually trained as D.A.R.E. officers). 
In 2003, as the division commander, Carney organized a golf tournament that 
raised $13,000, which he used to pay the SROs' travel expenses to attend a 
NASRO training in Orlando, Florida. 

The program has secured in-kind space from the school district worth tens of 
thousands of dollars. The superintendent of schools and sheriff decided together to 
house the SRO program in the building owned by the school district and used for its 
headquarters. Because space is tight in the sheriff's office building, the department 
would have had to rent space and furniture to house the program. However, the 
school district donated space to the program for free, including a large reception area 
and two offices. 


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Chapter 8: Maintaining Program Funding 

This chapter discusses how programs have successfully convinced law 
enforcement agencies, school districts, and elected and appointed municipal 
and county officials to provide funding. The chapter concludes with four case 
studies of programs that have been especially innovative, hard working, or successful 
in maintaining funding. 

How to Motivate Law Enforcement Agencies to Maintain Funding 

Police departments and sheriff's agencies report they provide funding for SROs 
because the program: 

(1) reduces the workload of patrol officers or road deputies; 

(2) improves the department's image and the image of its officers among 
juveniles; 

(3) creates and maintains improved relationships with the schools; and 

(4) improves and maintains the department's reputation in the community. 

Reduce the Burden on Patrol Officers or Road Deputies 

SRO programs reduce the burden on their patrol officers: 

(1) by making it unnecessary for principals and assistant principals to call 911 
or the law enforcement agency's nonemergency number to handle problems 
in the schools and 

(2) by preventing problems in the schools that otherwise would have required a 
police response. 

Reduce the Number of Time-Consuming 911 and Nonemergency Calls From the 
Schools 

Before they began their SRO programs, many police and sheriff's departments 
contacted for the study reported that they had had to send patrol officers or road 
deputies to schools to handle problems several times a week or even several times a 
day, sometimes tying up the officers or deputies for hours at a time. As a result, law 
enforcement administrators felt, or subsequently discovered, that placing officers in 
the schools as SROs wouldand didreduce and even eliminate 911 and other 
calls for service for regular patrol officers. The drastic reduction or complete 
elimination of these calls from schools is a major reason some departments in the 
study are willing to help pay for their programs. 

 The chief of the Garner, North Carolina, Police Department reported that the number 
one reason he fought so hard for the SRO position was that road officers "were 
already having to spend a number of hours a week investigating crimes at the 
school; it only made sense to position an officer at the school full time." 


 According to Sergeant Paul Marchand, the program supervisor in Salem, New 
Hampshire, "We pay for the program because, by assigning officers to the 
schools, we free up manpower on the street. Before we had SROs, we were 
constantly sending patrol officers to the schools. It makes sense from a 
deployment point of view to have officers in the schools rather than send over 
patrol officers whenever there is a problem. The high school has 2,300 kids and 
200 staff; it's a small town." 

 Based on an analysis of 911 calls in 1999 before the program began and again in 
2001 after the SROs were in the schools, the Stark County Sheriff's Office in Ohio 
documented that that road deputies were spared having to respond to 
approximately 280 calls in 2001 because SROs handled them (see the discussion 
on "Empirical Evidence" below for additional information about these data). 

 The assistant chief of a police department reported that, at a meeting on 
department budget cuts that he was going to be attending, he was not going to 
even raise the idea of cutting the SRO program. "While some department 
personnel feel the program takes too many officers away from patrol duties," he 
observed, "they don't realize the calls SROs take and prevent. SROs deal with 
problems which would otherwise go to 911." 

The program may benefit other bureaus in the agency. West Orange, New Jersey, 
Police Department administrators reported that funding three additional SROs to 
work full time at the middle and high schools reduced the juvenile bureau's 
workload. SROs now initially respond to many incidents that detectives previously 
handled. As a result, the bureau's officers have more time available to respond to 
other juvenile problems. Some SROs are able to pass on to the detective bureau or 
patrol division valuable information about crimes in the community that students 
and even staffwith whom the SROs have a good rapport are willing to report. 

Prevent Crimes That Would Have Required a Police Response 

In addition to freeing up patrol officers from responding to 911 calls from the 
schools, Salem, New Hampshire, Police Chief Paul Donovan expected the SROs 
to be proactive and prevent problems. Indeed, many agencies in the study have 
concluded that, because SROs prevent trouble that would have ended up 
resulting in a 911 or nonemergency call, the program reduces the burden on 
patrol officers even more. 

SROs prevent problems that might otherwise result in 911 or nonemergency calls 
in three ways. 


 Students come to realize that, with an SRO stationed in the school, they are 
likely to be arrested if they commit a crime because an officer is there to 
witness itor because faculty or other students are quick to report the behavior 
to the SRO without the need to call the police department or sheriff's office (an 
important element of effective community policinginvolving the community in 
crime prevention). 

 SROs report over and over again that "good kids"and even some 
troublemakerswill tell the officers when they feel a crime is going to happen so 
it can be prevented because they feel a sense of duty to protect their schools 
or for their own personal safety they do not want criminal behavior 
occurring in their schools. Former high school principal Paul Houlihan in Palm 
Beach County said, "I can't count the number of times in the past that this kind of 
prevention work with student informants has prevented more serious problems 
from breaking out on campus." 

 The improved communication that an SRO program creates between the 
law enforcement agency and school district results in "extracurricular" 
sharing of information that helps to prevent crime. An SRO in West Orange 
said, "The transfer of intelligence between the schools and the [juvenile] bureau 
has allowed the department to respond proactively to potential youth-related 
problems. If there has been a fight between students over the weekend and the 
bureau believes the dispute may carry over to school on Monday, the SRO 
reports this to school administrators even before classes begin so they can take 
steps to prevent anything from developing." 

Improve the Image of the Police Among Juveniles 

Many law enforcement administrators contacted for the study report that one of 
their most important goals in putting SROs in the schools is to improve juveniles' 
attitudes and behavior toward police officers (e.g., in terms of reporting crime). 
Most of these police administrators report that their programs accomplished this 
goal. Chief Paul Donovan reported that "I have walked through school hallways 
with the SRO, and kids come up to me asking to talk about problemsI was 
amazed kids would do that; it showed a lot of respect." 

Create and Maintain Improved Police-School Relationships 

A number of police and sheriff's departments support SROs in part because they 
value the improved relationships that typically result between the agency and 
the school district. For example, the Salem police chief, captain, and program 
supervisor all report that the program changed what was an adversarial relationship 
between the two entities into a collaborative one. According to Chief Donovan: 


I can pick up the phone and talk right away to the superintendent [of 
schools]. There's a trust because they know us, so they are much more 
comfortable bringing the department into the schools. They also bring us 
problems they might not have shared with us in the past. Principals and the 
superintendent now call the captain about potential issues that could come 
up, such as problems with a teacher: Here's what we've got; what should 
our next steps be? Before the SRO program began, the schools would 
have handled the problem on their own and maybe ruined a chance to do a 
decent investigation. When the superintendent gets calls from elementary 
school principals on these types of issues, he now tells them to call us. If 
we didn't have SROs, the school department would not have invited the 
captain to serve on the Best Schools Initiative for the middle school with 
teachers, administrators, and parents, to develop goals for the schools. 

Maintain or Improve the Agency's Reputation 

Finally, personnel in several departments testified that the program has improved 
the agencies' image in three different respects. 

Provide Positive Publicity for the Chief or Sheriff 

Although no sheriff made this observation, other agency personnel said that the 
program enhanced their sheriff's bid for reelection. According to a member of 
one sheriff's office, "There are a large number of school employees who vote in the 
county." Another member of the agency reported that the sheriff benefits from the 
national attention the program gets as an exemplary program. 

Avoid Courting Public Criticism If the Program Is Cancelled 

A number of program personnel reported that the public would hold it against 
any chief or sheriff who stopped supporting the program. When one police 
department's COPS in Schools grant ran out, the department absorbed the cost. 
When later in the year the city manager ordered a five percent cut in every 
department, the chief decided to axe the crime prevention unit completely. Why did 
he keep the SRO program? According to a staff member, "He took tremendous flak 
for cutting the prevention unit; taking cops out of the schools would have resulted in 
an even worse backlash from the community." 

Accommodate the Wishes of Local Government 

Some agencies continue to fund the program because local government officials 
want to see it maintained. For example, just as some sheriffs may feel that 
terminating the program is politically dangerous because voters could object, some 
police chiefs find dropping the program risky because the town officials who 


appoint them want to keep it going. When one police department's COPS in Schools 
grants expired, the chief picked up the entire cost of the program. According to a 
member of the department, one reason the chief was willing to foot the bill was 
because "it helps a lot that the mayor supports the programhe provides the 
department's money. Since the mayor appoints the chief, the chief accepts the 
elected official's request." 

How to Motivate the Schools to Contribute (More) Funding 

As the previous chapter documents, many programs have been supported partially 
and, in some cases, substantially with school district funding. Indeed, support from 
school administrators has been crucial to keeping some programs afloat: 

 According to Al Weidner, budget director for the Sarasota County School Board, "I 
have never turned down funding for the program . . . . because schools say they 
don't know how they would function without it. I want to make sure we could not be 
spending the money on something else and getting a better return on our 
investment, but principals go out of their way to single out the program to me." 
Weidner adds that if the budget director gets negative comments from the schools 
on a program, "I will highlight that to the assistant superintendent. Conversely, I 
highlight programs that the schools support." 

 When the Chula Vista, California, Elementary School District's budget was in dire 
straights and the budget committee considered making cuts in the SRO program to 
save money, the principals expressed strong opposition to the idea, and cuts were 
avoided. 

 Albuquerque Chief Public Safety Officer, Nicholas Bakas, reported that, when the 
SRO program was in jeopardy because the city was $50 million in the hole, parents 
and school administrators telephoned him, the mayor, and the media to protest the 
planned cutbut the school administrators were the most vocal'you can't take 
these guys away from us!' " 

 When county commissioners in Maury County, Tennessee, tried to reduce the 
number of SRO positions, board of education members, school administrators, and 
teachers joined parents and the sheriff at the budget meetings to support continued 
funding of the program. The commissioners kept all the SROs. 
 
Jim Aquilo, Administrative Assistant to the Superintendent of Schools (and a former 
principal for 12 years) for Plain Township School District in Stark County, said that 
"when the sheriff pulled out the SROs due to funding cuts, the schools went without 
the SRO for three weeks. The principals had a revolt because they appreciated the 
SRO's preventive role even more [than the feeling of security the officers created], 
including handling calls from parents for help. As a result, the superintendent [hired 


by the Plain Township Board of Education and County Superintendent] felt the 
SRO's presence was vital to the school's mission and made the decision to pay for 
the SRO." 

Even school board members who already support the program can feel the 
pressure. 

 A school board member in one jurisdiction said that, when one particular SRO 
retired, "people [i.e., school administrators] were more upset at losing him than they 
are at losing a teacher. School administrators have told me how much they benefit 
from the SROs' presence [in the schools] and work with the kids." 

 Robyn Marinelli, Sarasota County School Board supervisor of student services, said 
that, although she is one of the program's major supporters in the school district, 
the crucial support is from the grass roots. "Principals would be extremely upset if 
the program was cutthey would complain at principals' meetings and by e-mailing 
the superintendent and board members." 

Programs can gain school administration support, however, only if they provide a 
good quality "product"talented and dedicated SROs. James Bailey, Maury 
County Mayor, said that the key to his program's success (in addition to strong 
leadership at the sheriff's department) is "recruitment of quality officers who are 
leaders and who are genuinely interested in doing a good job." This, of course, is why 
carefully screening and training the SROstopics addressed in chapters 3 and 5is 
so important. It also means that programs need to evaluate their effectiveness to 
ensure that they are meeting the schools' needs. 

If the program does a good job, most school administrators and teachers gain three 
significant benefits from SROs that sometimes the program needs to remind 
school personnel they are gaining in order to motivate them to continue to 
support program funding: 

 increased safety in the schools, 
 the feeling of increased safety, and 
 improved response time. 

Provide Increased Safety in the Schools 

SROs improve safety in the schools by handling violence and preventing violence. 

Handle Violence 

SROs take care of violent incidents in the schools by handling situations involving 
fights, assaults, and weapons, and by helping to develop the schools' crisis response 
plans. 


Take care of fights, assaults, and weapons. Most school district administrators 
support the program because they believe it improves safety in the schoolsand 
protecting students is part of their job. 

 Four of the five school districts in Stark County, Ohio, that took on at least partial 
funding for their SROs after the sheriff said he could no longer pay the entire cost 
said they did so primarily to maintain safety in the schools and because students, 
parents, and teachers all feel safer with a deputy in the schools. 

 When a high school principal in another jurisdiction was asked what he might tell 
other school administrators about the SRO program, he simply stated, "If you have 
the opportunity to have an SRO at your school, 'how stupid of you to say no.' It is 
an awesome responsibility to be a principal and in charge of the safety of students 
today. We are very vulnerable." 

Several school administrators specifically highlighted how SROs serve to keep 
principals and assistant principals, and even teachers, out of harm's way (see 
the box, "Administrators Appreciate That SROs Protect Them From Physical 
Encounters"). In particular, several assistant principals reported they had discovered 
that irate parents show more respect to SROs than to administrators. Some 
administrators call in the SRO to mediate disputes between a furious parent and an 
assistant principal. 

 A high school assistant principal, reported that "when parents get belligerentand 
they can get very nastyI ask the SRO to sit in to 'observe,' and that usually calms 
them down." 

 On a day when the SRO at a Sarasota County middle school was at a training, the 
principal called Robyn Marinelli, supervisor of student services, to report that an 
angry parent who had walked into the school had just gotten into a fight with girls 
who were holding her daughter hostage. Marinelli called Tim Carney, the captain in 
charge of the program, who, with a supervisor and two SROs, rushed over to the 
school, evacuated the front office, and locked down the building. After the SROs 
had issued a no-trespass order to the parent, she left peaceably. 

Administrators Appreciate That SROs Protect Them From Physical Encounters 

 Austin Garofalo, a former Salem, New Hampshire, high school assistant principal, observed that "the 
SRO is extremely important for me to be able to do my job because I know I have the back-up 
someone who is skilled in dealing with belligerence and use of force that I am not trained to do and 
do not want to do." 

 In Louisiana, Terrebonne Parish School Board member L.P. Bordelon confirmed that "I was a school 
principal and I got into some scrapes breaking up fights, and I don't like to fight, so the SROs' 
presence is important [to making it unnecessary for administrators to have to break up fights]." 

 Cynthia Celander, a Marshall, Minnesota, high school assistant principal, says that she has the SRO 
sit in with her when she has to discipline a student and feels the situation may potentially escalate. 


Help develop crisis response plans. Many SROs contribute to their schools' safety 
by developing, or participating in the preparation of, their schools' crises 
management plans. 

 An SRO in Stark County sits on the school board's security committee and has 
assessed the physical safety of each building. He has helped devise crisis plans 
to implement during various types of emergency situations; as a result, according 
to a school official, the SRO had proven immensely helpful and resourceful during 
a meningitis scare during which he coordinated communication and contact 
among public health experts, parents, students, and school district personnel. 

 Dan Genest, the Salem middle school SRO, reported that he learned about 
conducting school safety surveys at an advanced National Association of School 
Resource Officer (NASRO) training. Based on what he learned, over the summer 
he conducted a survey of every room in his school documenting safety hazards 
such as windows that did not lock, rooms that were not clearly marked with a 
number, and lack of coverings on door windows that are needed if there is a 
lockdown. He reported his findings to school administrators who fixed some of the 
deficiencies, including installing shades on all door windows. He also learned how 
to run a lockdown at a school. As a result, he identified deficiencies in his 
school's lockdown proceduresfor example, the procedure did not address what 
to do if there were students in the gym or cafeteria. Again, he brought the 
information to the assistant principal, who changed the school's procedures. 

Prevent Violence from Occurring 

School administrators, as well SROs, agree that SROs are a valuable presence 
because they routinely prevent crime and violence from happening. This is 
one of the main reasons so many administrators in the study report that they 
support the program (see the box "School Administrators Cite the SROs' Ability to 
Prevent Crime and Violence as a Major Reason for Supporting the Program"). 

Similarly, the mere presence of police officers and deputies in the schools probably 
prevents some crime. L.P. Bordelon, the Terrebonne Parish School Board vice 
president in Louisiana, said that: 

Most school board members feel we are getting our money's worth because 
the SROs . . . . are a great deterrent. Kids do stupid things because of peer 
pressure, a dare, to take risks, etc. Seeing a uniformed police officer in the 
school deters them. So it's preventive discipline in the best sense of the word. 


Administrators Appreciate That SROs Protect Them From Physical Encounters 

According to Sergeant Rochelle Thompson, supervisor of the Oklahoma County 
Sheriff's Office SRO program, after the COPS in Schools grant ended in January 
2004 and Crooked Oak, one of five participating school districts, could not find the 
money to support its SRO, the department pulled the SRO out of the school. 

But, in February, Shannon Goodsell, the new superintendent of schools, called
me to ask to reinstate the SROand said he would find the moneybecause
there were guns being brought into the schools, gangs reappearing, and an
administrator had been attacked in the month since the SRO had left. According
to Goodsell, when the grant ran out, we tried to do it on the cheapwithout an
SRObut in three weeks all heck broke loose. So we cut each school line item
budget by 1-2 percentfootball and basketball, classroom supplies,
technologyto come up with the $30,000 to pay for the officer to come back.
As a new administrator, he had not been aware that it was the SRO program
that had "kept the lid" on the schools. 

A school district administrator in another State tells a similar story: 

The school district evaluated the programadministrators, counselors, and
faculty discussed whether we needed it to help kids. At the high school, the
SRO headed off a lot of the drinking that we had a problem with because of
what he learnedfor example, kids would warn him that a keg party was going
to take place. We have a lot of kids involved in DWIseveral have been
killedso drinking was a concern to all of us and we felt he was good in helping
with that. That's what tipped the scale in favor of paying for him. 
Local school administrators in Tucson tell school district officials that the mere 
presence of the cruiser on patrol or parked outside a middle or elementary school 
helps deter high school students from trespassing on school grounds and child 
molesters from approaching. 

Most principals and assistant principals contacted for the study agree that SROs 
also prevent crime and violence by counseling and mentoring kids so that 
they do not get into trouble. According to L.P. Bordelon, "SROs do a lot of 
counseling that keeps kids straight." 


Provide the Feeling of Increased Safety 

To many high ranking school administrators, almost as important as providing safety 
in the schools is providing the feeling of safety. According to one superintendent of 
schools, "Kids need to feel safe, and the SRO's presence makes a difference in their 
feeling of safety. He sends a message about creating a safe environment." Many 
school administrators support continued program funding in large measure or in part 
because SROs have this effect. 

 Paul Houlihan, a former high school principal in Palm Beach County who in the 
past served on budget review committees, consistently objected to any cuts in the 
SRO budget. Houlihan explained that "because the media often focuses on lack of 
safety, there is a need to provide parents with a sense of safety. Students," 
according to Houlihan, "need to feel that they are in a safe environment, and 
parents need to feel that they are sending their children to a safe school. There 
needs to be the appearance, as well as the reality, of a safe campus environment." 

 Marshall school board member Kathy Reiber reported that "We did surveys of 
students, and safety is one of their top concerns. So the district needs to make kids 
feel safeand the program is a small price to pay to help do that." 

Improve Response Time 

Over and over, administrators reported that they benefited tremendously by the quick 
response they got from their SROs in crises in comparison with how long it had taken 
them in the past to get an officer or deputy on scene by calling 911. The quick 
response relieves administrators from having to hold and pacify an often agitated, 
accused student for a long period of time. 

 Cynthia Celander, a Marshall high school assistant principal, reported that "if I 
called 911 every time a violent incident occurred, I'd have to wait for a patrol officer 
to arrive. Instead, Jim [Marshall, the SRO] handles it immediately." 

 Paul Houlihan said, "On more than one occasion in the past, it would take much 
too long for the sheriff's department to respond to school calls for assistance. This 
is not longer a problem for schools when the SROs are already there." 

Several school administrators said they supported continued program funding 
primarily for this reason. 

 When the Chula Vista budget committee considered making cuts in the SRO 
program to save money, the principals opposed the cutback because their major 
concern was preventing disruption and having an immediate capacity to deal with it 
when it occurred. 


 A town council member in one jurisdiction said that the town has accepted the 
SRO program as part of the police department's budget because the high school 
principal and chief of police convincingly demonstrated to council members that 
an officer assigned to the school full time reduces the response time for incidents. 

To gain support from these administrators for continued program funding, programs 
must do their utmost to make sure that SROs are in factto the extent 
possibleimmediately available to the schools. As a result, many programs are 
careful not to pull their SROs out of the schools for special assignments or in-
service training except when schools are not in session (see chapter 5, "Training 
SROs"). Otherwise, Chief James Kelly of the Palm Beach County School District 
Police Department, observes, "administrators say, 'they're never here anyway when 
we need them, so what's the big deal?' " 

When Possible, Accommodate SchoolsGo the Extra Mile 

Programs can help ensure their survival if SROs go out of their way to make 
themselves useful to school administrators and teachers. Sometimes the extra 
effort is trivialbut still appreciated; at other times, it can involve a significant 
investment of time, effort, and even frustrationbut the payoff can be strong 
lobbying for the program by school officials. 

Sarasota County Sheriff's Office SROs, program supervisors, and even the sheriff 
have gone out of their way to accommodate the schools. The case study at the end 
of the chapter documents their efforts. The result has been tremendous support for 
the program among school district officials, including providing the program with 
free space in the school district's headquartersa significant financial savings to 
an agency with an acute space shortage. 


SRO Programs Provide Other Benefits to Schools

Some school board members, school administrators, and teachers support the SRO program 
at least in part because of three other benefits they feel SROs provide. 

Help Reduce Truancy 

Some school districts were initially interested in having SROs in the schools because 
administrators needed to reduce truancy levels. 

 During the process of planning and setting goals for the SRO program, school 
administrators from all but one of the five Stark County school districts participating in the 
program identified truancy as a major area of concern because their graduation and 
promotion rates had fallen well below the State's mandated levels. The administrators 
hoped that, with the consistent follow-up that the presence of an SRO would facilitate, 
chronic truants would grow tired of being "hassled" and begin to attend classes more 
regularly. Graduation rates began to improve markedly for all five districts (see the 
discussion under "Empirical Evidence of Effectiveness" in the text). 

 Nicholas Bakas, the Albuquerque Mayor's Chief Public Safety Officer, reported that "the 
possibility of cutting the program is always raised at budget time. But [in addition to its other 
benefits] the program is also seen as having the benefit of reducing truancy, which also 
reduces crime." 

Reduce Liability and Lawsuits 

Some school board members and school district administrators in the study appreciate that 
the program reduces their legal liability. A superintendent of schools observed that 
"assistant principals are always concerned about liabilitythat's why the windows on their 
doors are never covered. We have kids who are much bigger than deans, and we have 
female students being dealt with by male deans. So there is concern about liability, including 
the use of force." 

Save Time 

Several administrators and teachers reported that SROs save them significant time and 
stress. 

 Kathy Reiber, a school board member in Marshall (and a former classroom teacher), 
reported, "We put in more money because . . . . it saves stafffaculty and administrators 
considerable time. They have told me that, when there is an incident, because the SRO is 
there and knows the requirements and procedures for an investigation, it takes the weight 
off their shoulders." 

 A Maury County commissioner reported that "Having officers to worry about safety and 
discipline reduces the burden on teachers and allows them to spend more time teaching." 
SRO Program Guide 



Other programs, too, go out of their way to be helpful to school administrators and 
teachers. 

 One SRO registers student and faculty cars so that, if there is a problem with a 
vehicle, administrators can go to him to find out whose car it is. When an 
assistant principal saw a shotgun in a car in the school parking lot, he asked the 
SRO to investigate. Using his registry, the SRO was able to learn in a matter of 
minutes that the student and his father had gone hunting and had forgotten to 
remove the gun. 

 Some SROs perform background checks for administrators on faculty and other 
school employeesfor example, when a staff member is suspected of stealing. 
The police or sheriff's department either will not provide the service or cannot do 
so as quickly as the school district wants. 

 The Palm Beach County program has trained 6,000 school staff in de-escalation 
and physical restraint techniques for which the faculty express considerable 
gratitude (see the box "Teaching School Personnel 'Verbal Judo' and Restraint 
Techniques"). 


Teaching School Personnel 'Verbal Judo' and Restraint Techniques 

In 1992, Palm Beach County School District SROs saw that administrators were asking 
them to arrest students who got into trouble because of the principals' and assistant 
principals' poor verbal skills. As a result, James Kelly, the school district police 
department chief, arranged to train all school administrators in verbal skills and 
de-escalation strategies. Later, in 1994, he expanded the training to include physical 
restraint techniques adapted for educators working with children (that is, not through pain 
compliance), so they could avoid physical confrontations and serve as back-up to the 
SROs. 

Eventually, Kelly incorporated the training as part of a four-day course for selected school 
personnel who are members of each school's crisis team. The department's own training 
unit offers the training. As of late 2004, the unit had trained 6,000 school staff in the 
techniques along with explanations of State statutes and school policy on the use of 
physical force. Teachers receive continuing education credits for attending the course. 

According to Kathleen Weigel, a high school principal, "The department has trained my 
whole faculty in verbal judo, and 30 of my faculty are trained to do take-downs through 
team training. And Jim [Kelly] recertifies us every year. We don't have issues with fights 
because the staff and SROs are trained in verbal judo to de-escalate situationswith 
2,200 students, we have about only one fight a month." 

As the selected course evaluations below suggest, teachers report that the training has 
enabled them to feel more confident in front of students and has resulted in students 
responding positively to the teachers' "command presence." 

Have you utilized any of the verbal/non-hands on techniques to de-escalate potentially 
aggressive students? 

 A student was angry because I asked him to open his book. I sensed he was very 
angry, and I practiced active listening. I told him I saw he was angry, and he left the 
room. 

 Yes, every day. I have several EH [emotionally handicapped] students in my classroom. 
On one occasion, a student became frustrated and threw his paper on the floor and 
tipped over a chair. I used a soft but firm voice and calmed him down. My training 
helped de-escalate the situation. 

Have you utilized any of the self-defense procedures or control procedures? 

 There was a time when 2 students were fighting in a classroom, and I used a block 
procedure to prevent being hit in the stomach. 

 I have used the Finger Peel Technique to remove hands from hair pulling. 

 I helped another trained teacher take a fifth grade uncooperative student to the office. 
We used the elbow hold. 


How to Motivate Public Officials 

Typically, local elected and appointed officials, including town and city council 
members, mayors, and town managers, as well as school committee or school 
board members, decide on the funding for the local law enforcement agency and 
school system. As such, they are in the best position to make sure the program 
continuesor to drop it. 

When public officials support an SRO program, it is generally because: 

 they want to ensure that students are safe in their schools; 
 they risk the public's ire if they fail to support the program; or 
 school administrators have lobbied for its retention. 

Stress the Program's Contribution to Safety in the Schools 

Public officials with responsibility for schools are concerned about ensuring safety 
for students and faculty. This concern can take two forms: 

 recognition that they are responsible for keeping kids safeit is part of their job 
and 

 wanting to avoid being blamed if a tragedy occurs. 

Many public officials contacted for the study support continued funding for their 
SRO programs because, as West Orange, New Jersey, councilman John Skarbnik 
said, "They give additional security for the schools." According to Albuquerque's 
Chief Public Safety Officer Nicholas Bakas, he and the mayor decided to continue 
to fund the SRO program after the COPS in Schools grants ran out. "In light of the 
need to provide homeland security, it's the mayor's responsibility to be in a position 
to protect the 100,000 students in the city and have a liaison in the schools." 

According to program participants in many jurisdictions, some school committee 
members also continue to fund the program because, as one program supervisor 
said, "the school board supports the program in part because, if there were a 
tragedy at a school, it would become a political disaster if it had cut or killed the 
program." Kathy Reiber, school board member in Marshall, acknowledged that "I 
would be concerned about cutting the program and then a critical incident occurs 
and constituents say, 'Why did you cut the SRO?' " 

Generate or Channel Public Support for the Program 

These same public officials are, of course, responsive to their constituents, 
especially parents. In several communities, the potential for objections by angry 
parents if the officials cut back the SRO program appears to help motivate 


them to continue to provide funding. For example, one principal said, "Parents 
would object if we lost our copsI could make two calls [to influential members of 
the community] and have 100 parents vocally irate after telling the two [community 
members] whom else to call [to generate a protest]." The threatand 
effectivenessof complaints from parents is not just theoretical. 

 Because the Tucson city council can vote on individual line items in the city's 
budget, it could drop the SRO program. However, a member of the city council 
said that "constituents call me if an SRO is going to get movedone had surgery 
and, when a high school liaison officer filled in for him, the world fell apartthe 
principal called, residents calledthe PTA organized it. They were concerned that 
the SRO's leaving [was not temporary but] would be a long-term loss." 

 Albuquerque Chief Public Safety Officer Nicholas Bakas reported that when he 
and the new mayor came into office in 2001, "the city was $50 million in the hole. 
So the SRO program was on the chopping block. But . . . . parents and school 
administrators telephoned me, the mayor, and the media to protest the planned 
cut. So we kept the programbut the mayor also recognized that school safety 
was his responsibility." 

 Maury County Mayor James Bailey said that in 2003, when the county 
commission tried to reduce the number of SRO positions in the elementary 
schools, the county "rose up in arms." School administrators, teachersand 
parentsattended the budget meetings to support continued funding. 

Officials, of course, can also be influenced by constituent praise for programs. 
West Orange councilman John Skarbnik reported, "I've heard positive things about 
the SROs from parentsthe issue comes up when there are problems [in the 
schools] and the SROs are there [to handle them]." As described in the box 
"Generating Public Support for the Program," programs can take the initiative to 
help ensure that positive assessments of the program reach the ears of 
public officials. 


Generating Public Support for the Program 

Many programs do not leave it to chance to get the word to officials that their SROs are doing 
important work in the schools. 

 Elementary school principal Christopher Renouf in Sarasota County said, "Safe and orderly 
schools is a hot topic with parents. Last night at a monthly parent advisory council meeting, 
members raised the issue. The SRO volunteered to stay and attend the meeting on his 
own time." [emphasis added] 

 The Maury County program believes that its efforts to generate public support paid off when 
a coalition consisting of parents, school administrators, and the sheriff convinced 
the county commissioners not to reduce the number of SROs. The program's activities 
designed to create community support include: 
 attending every community eventaccording to Captain Nathan Johns, it helps when 
a community member can say, "You work in my son's school, and now you are 
directing traffic during the county fair!" 
 marketing the program through news media and presentations to clubs; 
 inviting parents to schools for extracurricular activities, because the SROs are 
present and parents can see the interactions between the deputies and their children 
and can ask the SROs questions; and 
 providing monthly activity reports to the county commissionone commissioner 
reported that all the commissioners appreciate the sheriff's concerted efforts to keep 
them informed of program activities. 

 The Fontana program actively seeks recognition for its program and then publicizes the 
approval and awards it receives to those who hold its purse strings. 
 With funding from Microsoft, the program developed and implemented a high school 
program called DRY2K designed to reduce underage drinking and driving. Based on 
part on the program's success, the department then applied for and received awards 
from the California League of Cities and the International Association of Chiefs of 
Police. The department highlighted the awards in meetings with the city council, 
school board, and community organizations. 
 The program received a Model School Resource Officer Agency Award from the 
National Association of School Resource Officers. The program arranged for a local 
trophy company to produce replicas of the award plaque and gave copies to every 
city council member and school district administrator. 


What Motivates Everybody 

There are two strategies that can motivate every type of funding source to continue 
to provide money for an SRO program: 

(1) scientific evidence (especially when provided by independent evaluators) 
that the program is achieving its goals (or at least those goals that the 
people who hold the purse strings care about); and 

(2) documentation that SROs are productive and doing what they are supposed 
to be doing. 

Develop Empirical Evidence of Program Effectiveness3 

Administrators of any program are often understandably reluctant to evaluate their 
efforts because they lack time or expertise, or have concerns about violating 
confidentiality. Most of all, they may be apprehensive that the evaluation results will 
not show that they are doing a good job. However, SRO programs may need the 
results of an evaluation to provide compelling evidence to funding sources of 
the need to continue the program. Program staff may also need the results to 
convince their own agency heads to continue to provide or request funding for the 
program. 

Program supervisors contacted for the study usually evaluate their programs in two 
ways: 

(1) look at statistical data to see if the program has been responsible for any 
improvements; and 

(2) conduct surveys to find out if program "consumers" are using and benefiting 
from the program. 

Examine Statistical Data 

As shown in the box "Sample Statistical Data Program Supervisors Can Consider 
Examining to Evaluate the Program," program supervisors can study a range of data 
to document program effectiveness. In general, supervisors should examine data that 
will show the program is achieving what school administrators, school board 
members, local town officials, as well as the police chief or sheriff, want the program 
to be doing. Of course, the data need to be available or easily generated, and 
programs need to have access to them. 

Footnote
3 Program evaluation is also essential to find out whether the program needs improvement and, if so, what specific 
changes are needed. Chapter 6, "Supervising SROs," addresses this component of program evaluation. Of course, 
many program evaluations address both goalsassess effectiveness and identify the need for improvement. 


Sample Statistical Data Supervisors Can Consider Examining to Evaluate the Program 

Number of students SRO advised 
Number of students SRO taught 
Police calls for service 
Arrests and citations 
Weapons and drugs seized 
Number and types of safety or disorder problems solved 
Crime incidents in school by type of incident (e.g., fights, bullying) 
Crime incidents in vicinity of school 
Noncriminal disorder incidents in school 
Noncriminal disorder incidents in vicinity of school 
Victimization in school and in vicinity of school 
Truancy rates 
Suspensions (in-school and out-of-school) and expulsions 
Student tardiness 
Student levels of fear 
Student satisfaction with the SRO 

The discussion below gives examples of how programs have used specific data to 
assess whether their goals were being achieved. 

Crime rates. Perhaps the most common statistic that school boards and community 
members contacted for the study want to see decline is the crime rate in schools. 

 In Terrebonne Parish, the most important original purpose for establishing the SRO 
program was to reduce the number of fights in the schools. Data suggest that this 
goal was achieved at South Terrebonne High School at least in part because of the 
SRO program. The number of suspensions for fighting at the school declined from 
72 to 48 and then to 32 for two school years starting with the year the program 
began and then in the following school years remained relatively constant at about 
one-third the original rate (24 to 29 suspensions per year). 

 From the 1991-92 school year to the 1994-95 school year (the year the SRO 
program began), the number of reported incidents at a junior high school in another 
jurisdiction increased from 8 to 19, and 19 to 78. The number remained relatively 
constant for the next three school years and then declined significantly during the 
1998-1999 school year to 34 incidents, with a further drop to 22 incidents during the 
2000-2001 school year (see appendix A). The increase during the SRO's initial 
years may be attributable to the officer's recording incidents that previously were 
not reported to the police department; the decline beginning with the 1998-1999 
school year may reflect a decrease in student misconduct due to the SRO's 
consistent presence and intervention. 


 The Delaware Department of Education commissioned an evaluation of the State 
Police SRO program in 1998 that compared the number of incidents, number of 
students involved in incidents, and number of incidents resulting in police charges 
in schools with and without SROs in 1994-95 (before any SROs had been placed 
in the schools) and in 1997-98. The evaluation found that schools that never had 
an SRO had a statistically significant increase in the number of police charges in 
1997-98 compared with 1994-95, while there was no significant increase in 
schools with SROs. Despite limitations of the evaluation, the Department of 
Education was able to use the results to support continued and expanded 
funding of the program by both the legislature and school districts. The 
department has also used the results to obtain funding from other sources. 

Truancy rates. During the process of planning and setting goals for the SRO 
program, school administrators from all but one of the Stark County Sheriff's Office 
partner school districts hoped that the SROs would reduce truancy because the 
schools' graduation and promotion rates had fallen well below State-mandated 
levels. The SROs counseled truant students, met with their parents or guardians, 
and, in some cases, conducted home visits. Graduation rates generally increased 
for the three-and-one-half year period since the program began compared with the 
four-year period before it began. Of course, to suggest that the work of a single 
officer serving numerous schools would, in and of itself, improve attendance, would 
be to oversimplify the explanation. Nonetheless, the figures do show the positive 
results of the districts' sustained campaigns to tackle truancy, efforts in which the 
SRO program has played an integral role. As a result, the Plain Township School 
District in Stark County presented the data to the town's chief administrative 
officer and to the three elected trustees who appoint him. 

Discipline rates. Many programs expect SROs to reduce discipline rates. Data 
collected over two years from Stark County showed that, as the officers became 
more fully integrated in their high schools, there was a decrease in the number of 
disciplinary actions per 100 students (in-school suspensions, Saturday schools, 
out-of-school suspensions, expulsions). A similar decline occurred in some of the 
middle schools. By and large, other data showed that the school districts imposed 
fewer of the strictest punishments (out-of-school suspension or expulsion) in the 
2001-02 school year than they did in 2000-01. Principals suggested two 
explanations for the improvement: 

 With a fuller integration of the SRO program, administrators were able to 
intervene in cases before they developed into more serious infractions. 

 The SROs' presence may have helped to de-escalate student misbehavior by 
calming tensions already in progress. 


Fairless High School in Stark County tracks changes in a number of measures of 
school safety and performance to assess the effectiveness of its Community Care 
Teamof which the school's SRO is an integral partthat seeks to overcome 
barriers that prevent at-risk students from obtaining an education. The data from 
1991 to 2002 (the program began in 1996) showed a significant improvement in 
discipline rates as well as in a number of other areas (see below). As a result of 
this evidence of the team's effectiveness, when the Stark County Sheriff, facing 
massive layoffs due to a budget cut, asked the school district to increase its share 
of the SRO's cost, the school board contributed an additional $16,000 from its 
general fund to continue to maintain the SRO on the team. Richard Hull, the high 
school principal at the time who set up the Care Team, was able to make a 
convincing case for the funding in part because he had data showing that the team 
was contributing to significant improvements in student proficiency and school 
safety. 

Selected Measures of Effectiveness of the Fairless High School Before and After 
Community Care Team Became Operational 

Measure                1991         2002 
graduation rate         66%          91% 
reading proficiency     74%          95% 
writing proficiency     66%          96% 
math proficiency        39%          84% 
delinquency rate        60 students   2 students 
severe discipline rate  111 students 27 students 

Free up patrol officers. The Stark County sheriff was interested in knowing whether 
placing a deputy in the five school districts had freed road deputies to perform 
other vital patrol functions in the county. Data showed that the number of incidents 
that deputies other than SROs responded to at schools within its partnering districts 
decreased dramatically from 197, or 75 percent of incidents in 1999, to 93, or just 
25 percent of incidents in 2001. Without the SRO program in place, even if one 
expected a level number of incidents at the schools, sheriff's office deputies would 
have had to leave their other patrol areas to respond to approximately 100 more 
incidents at schools. If the number of incidents that required a response rose to the 
level actually reported in 2001, then deputies would have had to spend even more 
time away from their other patrol duties, responding to approximately 280 calls (75 
percent of 373). 

Conduct Surveys 

Several program supervisors have surveyed students, teachers, school 
administrators, and parents to find out if they have used and benefited from the 
programand then used the findings to help convince funding sources to continue 


to fund the program. Many school districts routinely conduct "school climate" or 
"school quality" surveys of parents, students, or school personnel that include 
questions about school safety. In Oklahoma County, in conjunction with the Plain 
View School District's overall safety planning process, the school superintendent's 
office developed and distributed a survey to teachers and students in the spring of 
2002 that specifically addressed the SRO program's performance. The survey 
provided two important findings: 

 More staff and students from all three grades in the middle school reported that 
they would feel more comfortable discussing an unsafe situation with the SRO 
than with reporting it to a principal or teacher. 

 Of the various safety measures in place at their schools, staff and students most 
often rated the SRO as the most effective. 

Furthermore, when asked their opinion of their building's SRO, students checked 
off positive descriptions much more frequently than negative ones: 

 The top five responses were "Cares About Kids," "Fair," "Likes His/Her Job," 
"Good Role Model," and "Problem Solver." No more than eight percent of the 
students said they perceived their SRO as "Unavailable," "Useless," or someone 
who "Doesn't Like or Trust Kids." 

 Half the participants from both county school districts reported that their opinion of 
police had improved since the SROs' arrival, with only one percent reporting that 
their opinion of the police had gotten worse. 

The Palm Beach County School District conducts an anonymous annual survey 
among its principals in which school administrators assess 40 different school 
district departments in six different areas on a scale of 1-5, with 5 the highest 
rating. School district departments range from the school board, to information 
technology, to the assistant superintendent for curriculum and learning, to 
employee benefits and risk management. The department's ratings address six 
areas: cooperation, image, planning, communication, management, and overall 
performance. 

In 2003, among 125 of the district's 160 principals who responded to the survey, 
"School Police," with a rating of 4.38, had the eighth highest score among 40 
school district functions rated (see appendix B). While the police department is 
responsible for other important activities in addition to the SRO program, it is likely 
that most principals rate the department based primarily on their experience with 
the SROs in their schools. The school district also tracks changes in these ratings 
over time: the police department's rating has increased steadily in the past several 
years from 3.64 in 1996 to 4.38 in 2003an improvement of 20 percent. 


Focus Groups can Provide Useful Evidence of Program Effectiveness 

Focus groups make it possible to explore in depth student feelings and perceptions 
about a program. When in 1996 the Schaumburg program first expanded beyond a 
pilot school to three schools, the school board wanted empirical evidence that the 
program was working. As a result, school administrators hired a researcher from a local 
university at the end of the program's second year to conduct focus groups with 
students. The focus groups showed that, between the spring of 1996 and the spring of 
1997, student perceptions of safety were unchanged. However, as the researcher 
noted, "Lack of a particularly strong impact by the school resource officers during the 
first year should not be surprising . . . . one cannot expect a single staff member to 
counter in just one year the effects of normal developmental changes and the intensity 
of peer pressures." In short, while programs need to evaluate the SROs' work as early 
as the first year of operation to identify any problems with the program, the results in 
terms of outcomes should be treated with caution until after the program has been in 
operation for at least two years. 

As described in detail in the case study at the end of the chapter, until 2003 school 
guidance counselors in Schaumburg also conducted annual focus groups at each 
grade level at each of the five junior high schools with an SRO. The groups included 
random samples of 10 seventh graders and 10 eighth graders, as well as a group of 
about 10 combined seventh and eighth graders who had dealt with the SRO 
personally. 

Document SRO Activity 

Individuals in a position to sustain the program, or who can recommend that others
continue to fund it, are often unaware of how active SROs are and what they do. For
example, in Sarasota County community groups had been asking to be allowed to
bring their own education programs into the schoolswhich would have supplanted
some SRO activities. As a result, during an annual presentation of the budget to the
school committee, members asked what the SROs were teaching at each grade
level. After the SROs briefed the members on the officers' wide-ranging activities
from prom night to teaching about Internet safety, the committee decided to protect
the program against attempts by community groups trying to take over some of SRO
program's activities in the schools. 

s discussed in chapter 6, "Supervising SROs," most programs require SROs to
submit logs of their activities. While these logs are an important means of monitoring
SRO activity, programs can also use them to document that their SROs are
busyand busy doing the right things. For example, Wade McKittrick, the
Marshall high school principal, reported that "Jim [Marshall, the SRO] does a great
job keeping data on his hours, which kids he's talked with, and presentations he's
given. This is a very data-driven school districtwe evaluate the value of things and
make budget reductions based on that. Jim's data help sustain the program."


In Sioux Falls, South Dakota, the main reason the police department's community 
services division adopted a free incident tracking software program called School 
COP (see the box "School COP Enables SROs . . . .") was to document conclusively 
how busy and productive the 10 SROs were as a means of avoiding the possibility of 
other divisions in the police department, such as patrol, traffic, or detectives, "raiding" 
the SROs to increase their own personnel. Although the community services division 
is acting proactively in case other divisions should try to "steal" its officers, there is 
historical precedent in the department for being concerned. After the 9/11 tragedy, the 
agency lost nearly 10 percent of its sworn officers to the military. In response, the 
department divisions that lost officers sought to make up for their reductions in 
personnel by asking the chief to transfer officers from elsewhere in the department to 
their divisions. As a result, the chief did disband the Drug Abuse Resistance 
Education (D.A.R.E.) program and transferred its officers to the depleted divisions 
but he left the SRO program unscathed. 

School COP Enables SROs to Document Their Activities Effortlessly 

School COP is a free software package for entering, tracking, tabulating, and 
analyzing incidents that occur on school campuses. Since 2001, School COP has 
been downloaded over 5,500 times from its website (see below). It has also been 
distributed to over 7,000 police officers, sheriff's deputies, and school administrators 
at over 40 COPS in Schools conferences sponsored by the COPS Office. 

SROs say that School COP saves them time by making it easy to produce reports for 
supervisors, school administrators, and school boards. The software also helps SROs 
preserve their positions. As one SRO put it, "I document everything I've been doing 
meetings, counseling activities, etc. This helps me create my own job security . . . . 
and helps sell the program." 

 In one community, the police chief presented School COP graphs and summary 
reports to the school board. The SRO supervisor reports that "now they [city 
officials] are asking, 'Where are we going to find the funds to keep the SRO 
program going,' rather than wondering, 'Do we really want to continue this 
program?' " 

 An SRO program supervisor in a sheriff's office with over 20 SROs serving several 
school districts reports that the software "has been a tremendous asset to us. I 
currently enter all data from incident reports generated by the SROs as well as any 
done by patrol officers after school hours. I generate annual reports by district and 
individual school for the superintendents of each district for justification purposes to 
continue the SRO program within their districts." 

School COP and an instructional manual may be found at: 
www.schoolcopsoftware.com and downloaded for free. Included with the materials is a 
sample database that novice users can test out with impunitythat is, without losing 
any of their own data. 


The Palm Beach County School District Police Department keeps a chart that 
compares the number of times SROs conducted each of 11 activities each school 
year. Activities include student counseling, parent conferences, and arrests. The 
chart indicates that, while the student population increased by 7,372 students from 
2001 to 2002, the number of arrests decreased by 9 percent; similarly, while the 
number of students increased 5,083 from 2002 to 2003, the number of arrests 
again declined by 9 percent. 

Personal Experience With the Program Can Also Generate Support 

Personal experience with the program can sometimes supplement empirical evidence of 
effectivenessor substitute for it. According to Major Skip Rossi, the Sarasota County 
Sheriff's Office budget director (and a former SRO), "When I teach at FASRO [the Florida 
Association of School Resource Officers], I tell SROs in new programs, 'First and 
foremost, the program is built on relationships.' " Indeed, because Sarasota County 
central office staff and SRO program staff share office space in the same building, SRO 
supervisors and school district staff stop to talk informally when they run into each other 
on the sidewalks or in the corridors. 

In several other jurisdictions, individuals in a position to help continue program funding 
have had first-hand experience with the SRO program that has contributed to or sealed 
their willingness to support it. 

 As an elementary school teacher from 1971-1975, Tucson's assistant superintendent of 
schools had worked closely with the SRO in his school and never forgot the officer's 
help in finding lost children and addressing neighborhood squabbles that spilled over 
into the school. 

 A school board member in another jurisdiction said that her best friend's son was in 
trouble, but the SRO had helped him to go straightthe boy has graduated from 
college. She personally observed her son, who has Downs Syndrome, socializing 
comfortably with the SRO, who took an interest in the boy. 

 Kathy Reiber, Marshall school board member (and former classroom teacher), 
recounted that "I sat in on a D.A.R.E. class that my daughter was in and I saw Jim 
[Marshall, the SRO] work with kids and saw the rapport he has with them." 

 Councilman John Skarbnik in West Orange observed, "I have kids in the schools, and 
I've asked them about the SROs. They're very well selected and coach teams. My kids 
have become friendly with themthe SROs are almost like a teacher." 

Program staff can sometimes set up these personal experiences: Detective Kevin Nolan, 
the original SRO in Salem, used to invited school board members to shadow him; several 
took him up on the offer and saw first hand how productive and well liked Nolan was. 


The four case studies that follow illustrate some of the same approaches programs 
used to maintain program funding discussed above, but each program also used 
distinctive strategies that may be worthy of replication. 

 The Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department illustrates how a law enforcement 
agency with only 21 sworn officers and a single SRO in a very small community 
can maintain funding for its program despite a fiscal crisis if the agency works 
hard and creatively to build support, including making use of a citizens' academy 
attended by school officials. 

 The Sarasota County Sheriff's Office program has endured for over a quarter of a 
century through a combination of approaches, including providing a service that 
principals and assistant principals tell the school district budget director is 
absolutely essential; benefiting financially from free office space (and close 
interpersonal contact) in the headquarters building owned and occupied by the 
school district; and accommodating reasonable requests from the schools for 
services that are technically outside the scope of its contract. 

 Empirical evidence of the Schaumburg program's effectiveness, including periodic 
focus groups with students, that indicated the program was working, along with 
widespread support for the program among voting parents, helped convince the 
town to increase its financial contribution to the program when the school district 
could no longer pay most of the cost. 

 When budget cutbacks forced the Stark County Sheriff's Office to reassign its five 
SROs to patrol, four of the five school districts found the money to have the 
officers returned to the schools. In one district, a "revolt" by the principals at 
losing their SROs, coupled with statistics showing that student expulsions had 
declined and graduation rates had increased, helped convince the school district 
and elected town trustees to find the money. 


Case Study: Marshall, Minnesota, Police Department (21 sworn officers) 

By providing a service school officials value highly, and by creatively promoting the 
program, the Marshall Police Department kept its SRO program afloat when it had 
to ask the school district to increase its share of the costs. 

The Chief Builds Support Through a Citizens Academy 

Robert Yant, the Marshall police chief, in part because he anticipated the need for 
support for the SRO program from the school district after he had submitted a grant 
application to the COPS Office, instituted a citizens' academy and encouraged 
school administrators to attend. The chief felt that administrators who were more 
familiar with the nature of police work, with the operations of his department, and 
with key members of the department would provide increased support for the 
program that would not only make the SRO's job easier but also improve the 
chances of the school district's maintaining, and even increasing, its financial 
contribution to the program after the COPS in Schools grant ran out. Initially, the 
grant covered half of the officer's wages and benefits for three years, with the city 
contributing 35 percent of the cost and the school district 15 percent. 

Yant went out of his way to invite school administrators to participate in the 
academy. Eventually, the high school principal and assistant principal, one of the 
two elementary school principals, two-thirds of the school board members, and 
some city council members attended. Their participation represented a significant 
commitment27 hours spread over one evening and a Saturday every other week, 
culminating in a ride-along with the officer who became the SRO. 

Later, as Chief Yant had hoped, the administrators suggested to other 
administrators, teachers, and secretaries in their schools that they attend a future 
academy. As a result, at the recommendation of Cynthia Celander, the high school 
assistant principal who attended the first academy, the high school principal, Wade 
McKittrick, attended the second academy after the SRO program had begun. While 
he says that having worked in a Minneapolis suburb previously that had an SRO 
had already made him a believer in the program, "I needed to understand how the 
Marshall Police Department understands and addresses issuesit was essential 
for me to know the intricacies of the department. Every police department looks at 
things differently." He also met people in the departmentfor example, the 
dispatchers and the chiefso he could later call them and be immediately 
recognized. "Relationship building," he says, "is an important consideration in a 
school-police collaboration." 

Chief Yant continued to build support for the SRO program in other ways. For 
example, he arranged for one of his detectives to give a presentation to the school 
board on gang- and drug-related activity in the town and on campus to make sure 


that the administrators would accept the SRO's prevention and enforcement activities 
in the schools related to gang activity such as graffiti, signals, clothing, and tattoos. 
More generally, the presentation was designed to help the board realize the need for 
an officer in the schools. 

Funding Cutbacks Force a Change in the Funding Ratio 

According to Marshall senior high school principal Wade McKittrick, at the same time 
that the COPS in Schools grant was going to expire in 2002, at a bimonthly school 
administrators meeting with the superintendent, attended also in this instance by the 
school district financial officer, it was clear that the district had to make cuts. 
"Knowing that the grant was running out, the question was raised, 'Do we want to 
contribute more [than the 15 percent they were already contributing] for this 
program?' The answer was 'Yes.' " 

Cynthia Celander, assistant principal at Marshall high school, remembers that "The 
superintendent of schools, financial director, and business manager had heard 
enough positive comments about the program to fund it." However, providing 
funding for the SRO program meant reducing money in other places even more than 
the school district had already planned. While the school district was able to avoid 
cutting personnel in 2002-03, it did increase fees for some extracurricular activities 
and reduced expenditures for capital budgets and supplies. According to Celander, 
"This year [2003-04], we had to cut teachers, in part because enrollment is down. But 
cutting the SRO was not discussed: the business manager just shook his head and 
said, 'I'll figure something out.' " 

Why the School District Was Willing to Increase its Contribution 

The school district decided to increase its contribution to the program for four 
reasons. 

Concern to Enhance School Safety 

Several school district administrators made clear that they felt that Jim Marshall's 
presence in the schools made it less likely that there would be a safety problem and 
that, if a problem occurred, it would be dealt with much more swiftly than if 
administrators had to call 911. 

Helping Students to Feel Safe 

School administrators believe that the SRO contributed significantly to helping 
students to feel safe. 
 


 According to Kathy Reiber, a school board member, "We did surveys of students, 
and safety is one of their top concerns. So the district needs to make kids feel 
safeand the program is a small price to pay to help do that." 

 Another school official said, "Kids need to feel safe, and the SRO's presence 
makes a difference in their feeling of safety. He sends a message about creating 
a safe environment." 

Concern about Liability 

According to one school district official, in addition to concerns about protecting 
students, "A factor at the back of people's minds is that, if the SRO was removed 
and a critical incident occurred, parents would blame the school district for dropping 
the program. The program is good PR for the school district because it shows that 
we are concerned about the kids' safety and we are spending money to do 
something about it. Some school killings elsewhere in Minnesota last year created 
concern about school safety. We'd be hard pressed after those killings to take away 
the SRO." 

Benefits to School Administrators 

Most administrators feel it is not the program that helps them, it is this 
particular SRO, Jim Marshall, who helps them. 

 The SRO eases the burden on school administrators by helping to handle certain 
problem situations or taking care of them entirely. For example, Wade McKittrick 
says, "If a teacher can't get a student who is disruptive to leave class, Jim can do 
this." 

 Another school administrator reported, "There's no question he makes my job 
easier. For example, he can take a kid I'm so frustrated with and he puts a 
different spin on things and calms the kid down. He also reduced recidivism with 
some kids." 

 According to Kathy Reiber, "We put in more money because the program was 
working. It saves stafffaculty and administratorsconsiderable time." 


Case Study: Sarasota County, Florida, Sheriff's Office (500 sworn) 

The Sarasota County SRO program, administered by the sheriff's office and funded 
almost equally by the sheriff and the school district, has survivedand expanded 
for over a quarter of a century. The program appears to have sustained itself not 
because of any single component but through a combination of features. 

The Program Provides Substantial Benefits to the Sheriff's Office 

The sheriff's office considers the program a showcase, a particularly bright spot in the 
department that gets national attention. In addition, according to Major Skip Rossi, a 
former SRO and currently the department's budget director, "If we dropped the SRO 
program, we'd be sending road deputies to the campuses all day because the 
principals are now conditioned to have immediate help." 

The school district provides the sheriff with in-kind services. The superintendent of 
schools and sheriff decided together to house the SRO program in the building 
owned by the school district and used for its headquarters. Because space is tight in 
the sheriff's office building, the department would have had to rent space and 
furniture to house the program. However, the school district donated space to the 
program for free, including a large reception area and two offices. 

The Schools Realize Important Benefits From the Program 

Because the SROs are well versed in how to deal with kids and because of the 
officers' knowledge of safety issues, the chance of a tragedy occurring in the schools 
is reduced. For the same reason, the school district's liability is reduced.The program 
also eases the burden on school administrators, who are concerned about liability, 
too: What do I do if a kid has a gun? one of them wondered. They prefer to have 
an SRO available to handle the problem." Some principals have stated that they 
would prefer to give up a teacher rather than lose their SRO. 

Because the program is housed in the building owned by the school district and used 
for its headquarters, the school district has immediate access to program staff 
something it has made use of during crises or just for in-person meetings instead of 
phone calls. When a teacher was arrested, the superintendent was able to meet 
immediately with the SRO administrator to discuss the matter. Furthermore, by their 
mere accessibility, SRO supervisors can provide security for school district 
employees in the building. Robyn Marinelli, supervisor of student services, recounted 
that "when the school district received word late one night that an employee might 
become extremely upset and act out, the executive director asked me to have an 
SRO in the lobby at 7:30 a.m. and remain all day. I called [Tim] Carney [the captain in 
charge of the program], who posted one there." The year before, the program 
stationed an SRO outside the superintendent's office when it appeared that an angry 
school district employee might try to hurt him. 


The Program Accommodates Reasonable Requests From the Schools 

The program frequently honors school district requests for assistance even though 
it is not strictly speaking required to do so by the contract. 

 A school principal called Robyn Marinelli about an irate parent who had come to 
the school swearing and unwilling to budge because her daughter had been 
struck by another student. Because the school's regular SRO was at a training at 
the time, school officials had called road deputieswho locked the parent in the 
office. As a result, Marinelli called Sergeant Tim Enos, one of the three 
supervisors, who immediately dropped what he was doing and raced to the 
school, where he defused the situation. 

 When Marinelli has called Enos to report rumors suggesting there might be gang 
activity at a particular school at the end of the day, the sergeant has sent four or 
five SROs to help keep the peace. Marinelli has asked Enos, "Can you go direct 
traffic at the beginning-of-the-school-year teachers' meeting?" The program does 
not have to do this, but he agrees. 

 A principal asked for extra details for his graduation to handle the 500 cars that 
would be showing up at the school. Captain Carney arranged for a couple of 
substitute SROs who are not assigned to specific campuses to help park the cars 
and showed up himself to help out. 

 SROs provide security at school board meetings. On one occasion, an SRO had 
to arrest an irate parent who refused to leave the podium; the officer then shut 
down the building. 

 The sheriff's office had been removing the SROs from the schools during the 
summer to do beach patrol. As a result, at a principals' meeting several years ago 
it was agreed that, because there were summer schools going on, the SROs 
were needed on campus. The group assigned a principal to take up the concern 
with the sheriff, who arranged to have an SRO in the summer schools or on call 
at all times. 

The sheriff has personally been helpful to the school district. In 2002, the 
county held a referendum to increase the millage on the property tax to provide an 
additional $33 million for each of the following four years to increase funds for the 
schools. To support the Sarasota County School District's efforts, during the 
campaign the sheriff told community groups and the press about the importance of 
approving the referendum. He never mentioned the SRO program, which stood to 
benefit only slightly from the additional monies (the schools would use a very 
modest amount to pay for SRO overtime), instead campaigning primarily in an 
effort to provide support to the schools. 


The result of this willingness to accommodate administratorswithin reason 
increases support for the program throughout the entire school district community 
because word of how pleased principals, teachers, and school district 
administrators are with the program travels to the people in charge of allocating the 
money. As a result, the budget managers in the school district who decide whether 
they will continue to contribute money to maintaining the program consistently 
approve each year's new contract. According to Al Weidner, the school district's 
budget director: 

Even in hard times in the 1990s when the system lost State funding, we
increased the program's funding because schools say they don't know how
they would function without it. The feedback I get from principals is that the
SROs are visible and teach. The principals go out of their way to single out
the program to me. I want to make sure we could not be spending the money
on something else and getting a better return our investment, but none of the
administrators ever suggested cutting the SRO program. I recommend to
the assistant superintendent what to spend the district's money on and,
if I get negative comments from the schools on a program, I will
highlight that to the assistant superintendent. Conversely, I highlight
programs that the schools support. [emphasis added]

Neither Partner Feels the Other Is Not Paying Its Fair Share 

The school district has paid about half of the program's costs from when the 
initiative first began in 1980, and this has never changed. With only two significant 
exceptions, the sheriff's office and the school district have split the program costs 
($2.34 million in 2004): first, the sheriff's office currently pays the $66,000 for the 
office manager; second, while during the program's first year the two agencies split 
the cost of one SRO's cruiser, the sheriff's office has paid for the officers' cruisers 
ever since. 

When the sheriff's office requested funding for two additional SROs for the 2004-05 
budget, the school board agreed to pay half the cost and the county commissioners 
approved the expenditure. The department and school board also agreed to split 
the $3,015 cost of maintaining a dog in the program. The school district agreed to 
contribute $10,000 for SRO training expenses for registration fees, per diem, and, 
when out of state, travel expenses. According to Al Weidner: 

When Robyn [Marinelli] and [Tim] Carney negotiated for the 2004-2005 
contract, Robyn came to me to ask for the $10,000 for training the SROs. I 
had no problem approving the funds because the program is very important 
and we had the moneythe schools like the program and want to expand 
it. 


Personal Experience With the Program and Program Staff Helps Ensure 
Everyone Supports the Program 

There are very senior administrators in the sheriff's office who, as former SROs, have 
a first-hand appreciation for the program. The current sheriffone of the founders of 
NASROwas the program's second SRO, and the department's current budget 
director was the third SRO. Three captains are former SROs. 

The program has resulted in a close professional and even personal relationship 
between a number of sheriff's and school district personnel. Major Rossi goes fishing 
with one school principal who is a long-time program supporter. Because they are 
housed in the same building, SRO supervisors and school district staff talk informally 
all the time, sharing concerns and gossip, squeezing arms, and ribbing each other. 
"This [close proximity] is a big advantage," Sergeant Tim Enos said. "Now, we can 
connect a face with the name if we have to communicate by telephone." But, more 
typically, people pop into each other's offices or call to ask, "Can I come down to 
talk?" 

Case Study: Schaumburg, Illinois, School District 54 (140 sworn) 

Until 2004, School District 54 paid for three-quarters of the five SROs' salaries and, 
because of the perceived quality of the program that was in part based on empirical 
evidence and in part due to the program's perceived benefits to administrators and 
students, for eight years there was never a question about cutting it back. Examples 
of empirical evidence included declines in tobacco use and the continued failure of 
gangs to gain a foothold in the schools. 

 Possession of cigarettes and smoking declined dramatically. Detective John 
Jameson, the program's first SRO, along with Ward Nelson, then an assistant 
principal, rediscovered an existing town ordinance that empowers officers to fine 
students $75 for possession of cigarettes. Using the ordinance, the SRO ticketed 
some students, whose parents had to pay the fine. In addition, in the first few cases 
the students and their parents had to go to court. The other SROs began using the 
ordinance, as well. As a result, within two years, cigarette possession and smoking 
ended in and around the middle schools. According to one principal, "The school 
used to have to suspend several kids for having cigarettes on them; that has 
stopped." Without the SROs issuing the citations, it would have been too 
cumbersome for school administrators to have repeatedly called 911 to have a 
patrol officer come over to issue them. 

 Gang activity remained out of the schools. Both the school district's SRO 
coordinator and the police department's SRO supervisor believe that local police 
departments had already done a good job of making it difficult for gangs to establish 
a foothold in the community. However, they believe that the SRO program continued 
to keep them out of the schools. Among the reasons students in focus groups (see 


below) gave for the absence of gang activity were the Gang Resistance 
Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) program taught by the SROs and the 
presence of SROs in the buildings. 

Focus Groups Showed the Program Was Workingbut Could Be Improved 

Until 2003, the school district conducted annual focus groups at each grade 
level at each of the five junior high schools. The groups included a random 
sample of 10 seventh and 10 eighth graders, and a group of about 10 combined 
seventh and eighth graders, selected by the principal, assistant principal, and SRO, 
who had dealt with the SRO personally. School guidance counselors moderated 
the groups, which included a significant focus on the SRO program. 

The results for the school years 1999-2000 and 2000-2001 suggested that the 
focus group participants generally found the program helpful. The students 
participating in the 2000-2001 focus groups said that theyand their parents 
overwhelmingly liked having an SRO in school and felt safer because of his 
presence. Comments from students included statements like "They [other students] 
feel good about John Jameson and safer" and "He's very visible." 

These findingswhich the school district shared with school board 
membershelped convince school district administrators to continue to ask 
the school board each year to maintain funding for the program. The results 
also pointed out the need for improvements in the program (see the box "By 
Identifying Needed Improvements . . . ."). 

By Identifying Needed Improvements, Focus Groups Made It Possible to Make the 
Program Even More Attractive to School Administrators 

School District 54 gives the results of its annual focus groups to each school for 
purposes of goal setting. For example, the early focus groups showed that students 
saw the SROs as law enforcers. As a result, the program coordinator reminded the 
SROs of the need to spend more time on building relationships with students. The 
focus groups also indicated a need to address bullying and sexual harassment. As a 
result, the SROs added these topics to their classroom offerings. 

The focus groups were discontinued after the 2001-2002 school year because they 
had served their purposes of convincing the board of the program's value and 
identifying areas needing improvement when the SROs were new at the job. In 
addition, the process and logistics for conducting the focus groups are arduous. 
However, the district may resume them for the 2004-2005 school year because 
there will be two new SROs. 


Because of a Budget Deficit, the School District Asked the Police Department 
to Pay a Larger Share of the Program Costs 

When a budget crunch forced the school board in 2002 to discuss laying off 
teachers, the idea of dropping or cutting back the SRO program was never raised. 
However, things changed in 2003. That year, the school district approached the 
Village of Schaumburg (which funds the police department) to explain that, 
because of a severe financial crisis and the resulting need to try to save teaching 
positions, it could not longer contribute three-quarters of the program's funding. (A 
nearby school district had already abandoned its SRO program.) The district had 
already frozen its instructional budget for six years, and it was retiring teachers with 
30 years' experience and either not replacing them or replacing them with entry-
leveland less expensiveteachers. The school district's funding, derived largely 
from property taxes, was curtailed by a cap on its ability to raise taxes; in addition, 
State aid for schools had declined. 

Initially, the school district asked the police department to obtain grant funding for 
the SROs, but the department pointed out that COPS in Schools grant cannot be 
used to support existing SROs. Furthermore, the village was experiencing fiscal 
problems itself because it was committed to funding a new convention center and 
at the same time confronting a decline in sales tax revenue. 

The school district then surveyed some other SRO programs in Illinois and 
discovered that program costs were split evenly between the police department (or 
town) and the school district. As a result, the school board in a presentation to the 
village council's health and safety committee and in a meeting with the village 
manager (who proposes the budget to the village council) asked the village to 
adopt the same formula. Sergeant Jerry Thommes, the police department's 
program supervisor, also made a presentation to the village trustees and safety 
committee urging them to retain the program. The negotiations lasted several 
months. 

Eventually, the village agreed to increase its contribution to half the program's costs 

because of the widespread support for the program among parents that 
would have made it politically unwise to abandon the program. Furthermore, 
the village and police department still had a financial incentive to continue the 
program because the school district would continue to fund 50 percent of five 
SROs for nine months of the year, making it possible to in effect keep these officers 
for about half price. 

In turn, the elected school board members agreed to continue to fund the other half 
primarily for the same reason the village didwidespread program support 
among parents who might have objected vociferously (and at the ballot box) 
if the program were abandoned. According to one participant, "No one wanted to 


be singled out in the media as having to accept responsibility for the program's 
demise." Another participant said that, if the program were dropped, "There could 
have been a backlash from residents." In addition, some school board members with 
children in the schools had an especially informed understanding of the program's 
value. Finally, according to one participant, "the school board is comfortable with 
having cops in the building in case an incident arisesand the SROs do a great job 
of anticipating problems." 

The police department itself lost no money or personnel despite the school district's 
reduced contribution, because the department's funding level from the village did not 
change. According to one source, although the village lost 25 percent of the 
contribution that the school district had been paying into its general fund, it was able 
to achieve economies elsewhere to offset the loss, for example, by merging the 
health and public works departments into a single department. In addition, because of 
a hiring freeze in the police department, several positions were unfilled whose 
salaries, as a result, were not being funded. 

Case Study: Stark County, Ohio, Sheriff's Office (100 sworn officers) 

In the process of designing its SRO programs, the Stark County Sheriff's Office 
requested suggestions from school administrators in its partnering school districts, as 
well as from leaders at other area schools, on the types of problems that a deputy 
might help them to manage. School administrators have continued to play a 
significant role in the program's operation, participating in the screening and selection 
of SROs and in defining the officers' roles and responsibilities. The administrators' 
involvement contributed to their willingness to support funding the program 
after the COPS in Schools grant ran out. 

Budget Cutbacks Forced the Sheriff to Stop the Program 

In January 2003, a fiscal crisis, a weakening economy, and a shrinking county budget 
combined to endanger the program's continuation. After voters defeated a proposed 
sales tax increase, the sheriff's office was forced to lay off over 40 employees as well 
as the entire detective bureau. These cuts prompted the agency to recall its five 
SROs to redeploy them to conventional patrol. In turn, the sheriff's office also had to 
give up its COPS in Schools grant after only two-and-one-half years in the middle of 
the 2002-2003 school year because the grant cannot be used to pay for road 
deputies. 

As a result, the sheriff's office told the school districts that they would have to pick up 
most of the cost of SROs if they wanted the program to continue. The department 
and the school districts then engaged in protracted negotiations over the amount of 
the schools' contributions, with each side trying to pay as little as possible (with the 
exception noted below). According to Major Rick Perez, the program supervisor who 
conducted the negotiations, "There was a chance the school districts would not fund 
the deputies. It went down to the wire." 


Four of the five school districts found the money. Their motivation was concern to 
maintain safety in the schools and because students, parents, and teachers all felt 
safer with a deputy in the schools. In addition, one school district that had reduced its 
serious truancy rate significantly at least in part as a result of the efforts of its SRO to 
catch truants was concerned the rate would go back up without the SRO. 

The one school district that did not continue the program would have had to lay off a 
teacher to afford the SRO. In addition, residents in the school district have a history of 
resisting tax increases to enhance school programs and services. Only after many 
years of attempts by the school district did local residents recently approve its first tax 
levy to fund a badly needed new high school. 

Plain Local School District Managed to Find the MoneyThree Times 

One of the four school districts that found the money illustrates the difficulties and 
possibilities school systems face in trying to sustain an SRO program. According to 
Major Perez, after the schools in the district had gone without their SROs for three 
weeks "the principals had a revolt because they had become dependent on the 
SROs over the preceding two-and-one-half years. They liked the real sense of 
security the SRO brought to the staff even though he was spread out over 11 
buildings. They did not want to go through the second half of the school year without 
an SRO in the schools. They appreciated the SRO's preventive role even more, 
including handling calls from parents for help." 

Still, there was a lot of negotiating among the sheriff's office, town trustees, and 
superintendent over who could pay what to fund the SRO for the rest of the school 
year. The township said it could not pay because it was facing cuts after residents of 
the town had defeated a special tax. As a result, the superintendent of schools made 
the decision to pay for the SRO. The town treasurer, hired by the board of education 
as its fiscal manager, approved the $20,851 needed for the remainder of the 20022003 
school year. 

The next school year, 2003-2004, the superintendent and treasurer convinced the 
three town trustees and the township administrator that it was "their turn" to provide 
the funding "for protecting the students." According to Mark Cozy, Chief Township 
Administrative Officer of Plain Township, who is appointed by the township's three 
elected trustees, the schools kept statistics that they presented to the trustees 
and chief administrator officer documenting that, although arrests had gone up 
since the SRO began working in the schools, expulsions had gone down and the 
graduation rate had increased. In addition, school administrators strongly 
advocated for retaining the SRO. Finally, the sheriff's office (with which the township 
contracts for general law enforcement services) strongly supported the program. As a 
result, the trustees and administrator agreed to provide the $42,000 for the 9-month 
school year, with the sheriff's office paying the SRO's salary during the three summer 
months. 


The school board and trustees agreed to split the cost of the SRO for the 20042005 
school year. The trustees pay the sheriff the full cost of the SRO, and the 
school board reimburses the trustees half the expense. Each party sacrificed to be 
able to contribute its share: the school board cut back on its hiring plans, while the 
trustees decided to lease, instead of buy (as originally planned), the new cruisers 
the sheriff's office needed. 

Fairless Local School District Found Money From Diverse Sources 

In 1996, Richard Hull, when he was the high school principal, developed a 
Community Care Team for the Stark County Fairless Local School District high 
school. The team consists of teachers, a mental health counselor, a drug 
prevention expert, a truancy officerand the school's SRO. The team seeks to 
overcome the obstacles that prevent at-risk students from obtaining an education. 

When the sheriff told the district it would have to increase its contributions to its 
SRO's salary and fringe benefits, Hull was able to come up with the funds from 
multiple sources. First, he was able to secure one-third of the total needed 
contribution$16,000from the school district's general fund. Hull raised the 
remaining funds from the David Foundation, which provides grants to public 
charities that assist underprivileged and disadvantaged children in Stark County, 
the local chapter of the United Way, and an individual donor. 


Image of Appendix B: Comparison of Performance Scores among Palm Beach, Florida
School District School Support Services


Image of Appendix A: Graph of Reported Incidents by Year at One Junior High School


Additional Resources 
The following publications and Web sites provide additional informationor 
sources of additional informationabout planning, improving, or maintaining an 
SRO program and about school safety issues. 

Publications 

Addressing School-Related Crime and Disorder: Interim Lessons from School 
Based Problem-Solving Projects 

This report is based on the activities of COPS School Based Partnership grantees. 
Tips and recommendations are provided for developing successful school-based, 
problem-solving efforts. Available from 
http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=574 

Bomb Threats in Schools 

This publication summarizes knowledge about the problem, reviews factors that 
increase the risk of bomb threats in schools, and reviews responses to the problem 
and what evaluative research and police practice have suggested about the 
effectiveness of these responses. Available from www.cops.usdoj.gov 

Bullying in Schools 

There is ongoing concern about school violence, and police have assumed greater 
responsibility for helping school officials ensure students' safety. As pressure 
increases to place officers in schools, police agencies must decide how best to 
contribute to student safety. Will police presence on campuses most enhance 
safety? If police cannot or should not be on every campus, can they make other 
contributions to student safety? What are good approaches and practices? 
Available from http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=272 

The COPS Collaboration Toolkit: How to Build, Fix, and Sustain Productive 
Partnerships 

This toolkit provides practical guidance to law enforcement agencies as they 
develop and sustain partnerships that support community policing. The toolkit will 
benefit law enforcement personnel, community-based organizations, educators, 
youth, government officials, and others seeking to combine efforts to reduce crime 
and social disorder problems. Available from 
http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?Item=344 

COPS Gangs Toolkit 

The COPS Gangs Toolkit is an interactive CD, which consists of five publications 
that provide details of community policing solutions to youth crime and school 
violence. Each publication can be downloaded from the disk or ordered from the U. 
S. Department of Justice Response Center at (800) 421-6770. Available from 
http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?Item=1309 


Creative Partnerships: Supporting Youth, Building Communities 

This COPS Innovations piece highlights community policing approaches to developing 
partnerships with youth. Three youth-focused programs funded by the COPS Office 
illustrate partnerships that law enforcement, schools, and community organizations 
can form to address juvenile crime and victimization issues. Available from 
http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=573 

School COP Software Package 

As described in the section on documenting program activity in Chapter 8, Maintaining 
Program Funding, this free, downloadable software program makes it possible to 
quickly and simply enter, track, tabulate, and analyze incidents that occur on school 
campuses. Available from www.schoolcopsoftware.com 

School Crime: K-12 

This document provides an overview of problems facing schools today: firearms, drug 
and alcohol abuse, gangs, sexual crimes, hate crimes, domestic violence, and 
homicide. The publication also highlights the general security measures 
recommended by the National School Safety Center. Available from 
http://www.ncvc.org/ncvc/main.aspx?dbName=DocumentViewer&DocumentID=32368 

School Critical Incident Planning: An Internet Resource Directory 

The resources gathered on this Internet site are intended to assist law enforcement 
and school personnel to prepare for, respond to, and resolve critical incidents in 
schools. Available from http://www.nlectc.org/assistance/schoolsafety.html 

SRO Performance Evaluation: A Guide to Getting Results 

This publication is a step-by-step guide to help law enforcement and school personnel 
use SRO performance evaluation differently than they have in the past in an effort to 
better address school crime and disorder problems. This publication is forthcoming 
and will available on the COPS Office website: www.cops.usdoj.gov 

Victim Services in Schools 

This document discusses the creation of school-based victim service programs as 
and effective way to prevent victimization in schools and to address the needs of 
those who are victimized. The document also provides a bibliography, additional 
resources, and more information on school-based action plans. Available from 
http://www.ncvc.org/ncvc/main.aspx?dbName=DocumentViewer&DocumentID=32373 

 


Web Sites 

Center for Safe Schools 
www.safeschools.info/ 

Center for the Prevention of School Violence 
www.cpsv.org 

Circle Solutions 
www.circlesolutions.com 

Corbin & Associates 
www.copsite.com/corbin/main.html 

National Association of School Resource Officers 
www.nasro.org 

National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice 
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/ 

National School Safety Center 
www.nsscl.org 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office), U.S. Department of 
Justice 
www.cops.usdoj.gov 
www.copsinschools.org 


FOR MORE INFORMATION: 
U.S. Department of Justice 
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 
1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W. 
Washington, D.C. 20530 
To obtain details on COPS programs, call the 
COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770 
Visit COPS Online at the address listed below. 
Created Date: June 2005 
ISBN: 1-932582-53-3 
www.cops.usdoj.gov