STATE AND LOCAL MITIGATION PLANNING
how-to guide
Understanding Your Risks: identifying hazards
and estimating losses
Contents
foreword
introduction
STEP ONE identify hazards
worksheet #1
STEP TWO profile hazard events
worksheet #2
flood hazard profiles
earthquake hazard profiles
tsunami hazard profiles
tornado hazard profiles
coastal storm hazard profiles
landslide hazard profiles
wildfire hazard profiles
Version 1.0 August 2001
STEP THREE inventory assets
worksheet #3a
worksheet #3b
flood hazard asset inventory
earthquake hazard asset inventory
tsunami hazard asset inventory
tornado hazard asset inventory
coastal storm hazard asset inventory
landslide hazard asset inventory
wildfire hazard asset inventory
STEP FOUR estimate losses
worksheet #4
flood hazard loss estimation
earthquake hazard loss estimation
tsunami hazard loss estimation
tornado hazard loss estimation
coastal storm loss estimation
landslide hazard loss estimation
wildfire hazard loss estimation
afterword
appendix a glossary
appendix b library
appendix c worksheets
[END TABLE OF CONTENTS]

the
natural
hazard
mitigation
planning
process
Natural hazard mitigation planning
is the process of figuring out how to
reduce or eliminate the loss of life
and property damage resulting from
natural hazards such as floods,
earthquakes, and tornadoes. Four
basic phases are described for the
natural hazard mitigation planning
process as shown in this diagram.
For illustration purposes, this diagram
portrays a process that appears
to proceed in a single direction.
However, the mitigation
planning process is rarely a linear
process. It is not unusual that ideas
developed while assessing risks
should need revision and additional
information while developing the
mitigation plan, or that implementing
the plan may result in new goals
or additional risk assessment.
[DIAGRAM displaying the Hazard Mitigation Planning Process: movement from 
Organize Resources to Assess Risk to Develop a Mitigation Plan to Implement the Plan 
and Monitor the Progress
Organize Resources: From the start, communities should focus on the resources needed 
for a successful mitigation planning process. Essential steps include identifying and 
organizing interested members of the community as well as the technical expertise 
required during the planning process.
Assess Risk: Next, communities need to identify the characteristics and potential 
consequences of hazards. It is important to understand how much of the community can 
be affected by specific hazards and what the impacts would be on important community 
assets.
Develop a Mitigation Plan to Implement the Plan: Armed with an understanding of the 
risks posed by hazards, communities need to determine what their priorities should be 
and then look at possible ways to avoid or minimize the undesired effects. The result is a 
hazard mitigation plan and strategy for implementation.
Monitor the Progress: Communities can bring the plan to life in a variety of ways ranging 
from implementing specific mitigation projects to changes in the day-to-day operation of 
the local government. To ensure the success of an ongoing program, it is critical that the 
plan remains relevant. Thus, it is important to conduct periodic evaluations and make 
revisions as needed.]

foreword
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has
developed this series of mitigation planning "how-to" guides to
assist states, communities, and tribes in enhancing their natural
hazard mitigation planning capabilities.
These guides are designed to provide the type of information
states and communities need to initiate and maintain a planning
process that will result in safer communities. These guides are
applicable to states and communities of various sizes and varying
ranges of financial and technical resources.
This how-to series is not intended to be the last word on any of the
subject matter covered; rather, it is meant to be an easy to understand
guide for the field practitioner. In practice, these guides may
be supplemented with more extensive technical data and the use
of experts if possible.
The how-to guides cover the following topics:
* Getting started with the mitigation planning process
including important considerations for how you can
organize to develop a plan;
* Identifying hazards and assessing losses to your community
and state;
* Setting mitigation priorities and goals for your community;
* Evaluating potential mitigation measures through the
use of benefit-cost analysis and other techniques;
* Creating a mitigation plan and implementation strategy;
* Implementing the mitigation plan including project
funding and revising the plan periodically as changes in
the community occur; and
* Incorporating special circumstances in hazard mitigation
planning for historic structures, among other
topics.

[GLOSSARY: mit-i-gate\ 1: to cause to
become less harsh or hostile;
2: to make less severe
or painful
plan-ning\ : the act or process of making
or carrying out plans; specif: the establishment
of goals, policies and procedures
for a social or economic unit]

[SIDE TIP: The Disaster
Mitigation Act of
2000
The impetus for states and
local governments to undertake natural
hazard mitigation planning was given
a significant boost on October 30, 2000,
when the President signed the Disaster
Mitigation Act of 2000 (Public Law
106-390). The law encourages and rewards
local and state pre-disaster planning,
promotes sustainability as a strategy
for disaster resistance, and is
intended to integrate state and local
planning with the aim of strengthening
statewide mitigation planning. This new
approach facilitates cooperation between
state and local authorities,
prompting them to work together. This
enhanced planning network enables
local, tribal, and state governments to
articulate accurate and specific needs
for mitigation, resulting in faster allocation
of funding and more effective risk
reduction projects.]

Why should you spend the time to read
these guides?
* It simply costs too much to address the effects of
natural disasters only after they happen;
* Neither communities nor their residents can be made
whole by state and federal aid after disasters;
* You can prevent a surprising amount of damage from
these hazards if you take the time to anticipate where
and how these natural phenomena occur; and
* The most meaningful steps in avoiding the impacts of
natural hazards are taken at the state and local levels by
officials and community members who have a personal
stake in the outcome and/or the ability to follow
through on a sustained program of planning and
implementation.
The guides focus on showing how mitigation planning:
* Can help your community become more sustainable
and disaster-resistant through selecting the most appropriate
mitigation measures, based on the knowledge
you gain in the hazard identification and loss estimation
process.
* Allows you to focus your efforts on the hazard areas that are
most important to you by incorporating the concept of
determining and setting priorities.
* Can save you money by providing a forum for engaging
in partnerships that could provide technical, financial,
and/or staff resources in your effort to reduce the
effects, and hence the costs, of natural hazards.

[SIDE TIP: Developing a successful
natural hazard
mitigation plan
for your community depends
on how well you understand
the potential problems you face. This
how-to guide is focused on the second
phase of the natural hazard mitigation
planning process and will help you estimate
your losses from selected hazard
events.]

introduction
Risk assessment answers the fundamental question that fuels
the natural hazard mitigation planning process: "What would
happen if a natural hazard event occurred in your community or state?"
Risk assessment is the process of measuring the potential loss of
life, personal injury, economic injury, and property damage resulting
from natural hazards by assessing the vulnerability of people,
buildings, and infrastructure to natural hazards.
Risk assessment provides the foundation for the rest of the mitigation
planning process. The risk assessment process focuses your
attention on areas most in need by evaluating which populations
and facilities are most vulnerable to natural hazards and to what
extent injuries and damages may occur. It tells you:
* The hazards to which your state or community is
susceptible;
* What these hazards can do to physical, social, and
economic assets;
* Which areas are most vulnerable to damage from
these hazards; and
* The resulting cost of damages or costs avoided
through future mitigation projects.
In addition to benefiting mitigation planning, risk assessment
information also allows emergency management personnel to
establish early response priorities by identifying potential hazards
and vulnerable assets.
The steps in this how-to guide describe some methods you may use
to develop this information. Subsequent guides assist you in determining
priorities for mitigation and in deciding which assets in
your community or state should be protected.

[GLOSSARY: haz-ard\ : a source of
danger
vul-ner-a-bil-i-ty\ : open to
attack or damage
risk\ : possibility of loss or
injury]



[SIDEBAR: Understanding
Your Risks:
Identifying Hazards & Estimating
Losses is part of a series
of guides that will help you identify, plan,
and evaluate measures that can reduce
the impacts of natural hazards in your
community or state through a comprehensive
and orderly process known as
Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning.
As detailed in the Foreword, the process
consists of four basic phases as shown
below. The first phase consists of creating
a mitigation planning team (referred
to as the "Planning Team" in these
guides) with representatives from the
public and private sectors, citizen groups,
colleges or universities, as well as nonprofit
agencies.
This guide, Understanding Your Risks,
addresses the second phase of the planning
process. Guides dealing with the
third and fourth phases, Develop a Mitigation
Plan and Implement the Plan
and Monitor Progress, discuss establishing
goals and priorities, selecting mitigation
projects, conducting benefit-cost
analyses, and writing, implementing, and
revisiting the mitigation plan.]

State and Local Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is a shared responsibility between states and local
communities. Both states and communities should assess their risks
from natural hazards as part of their respective planning processes.
While local governments focus on the hazards, vulnerabilities, and
risks on a local or regional scale, states should focus on the regional and statewide 
implications of hazards. The risk assessment
process introduced in this guide encourages the reciprocity of
information and support between states and local governments -
states provide leadership and support to local communities, and
local communities provide their states with local-level risk analyses.
Through this exchange of information, statewide risk assessments
based on detailed, local-level analysis are produced.
States can provide leadership early on by establishing guidelines,
setting expectations, and providing incentives for local risk assessment
and mitigation planning activities. To support and facilitate
the risk assessment process, states should be able to provide communities
with technical assistance, basic hazard data, and access to
a range of state agency technical resources. Key decisions must be
made by states to ensure a level of consistency in local risk data to
facilitate statewide analysis.
As states gain a greater understanding of where the highest risks
are across the state, they will be better prepared to decide where
and how mitigation resources can be most effective. This information
will become part of the state's mitigation plan, where mitigation
priorities and criteria for those priorities are articulated.
How do you use this guide?
Understanding Your Risks provides detailed, step-by-step instructions
on the procedures which are part of the Assessing Risks phase of
the Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning Process. The recommended
steps in this guide, shown here, are organized into four
simple steps to estimate losses from a single hazard event. More
complex risk assessment processes use complicated statistical
analysis of a wide range of past hazard events and geological,
climatic and meteorological data to determine probable losses on
an annual basis. The intent of this how-to guide is to help you
develop a baseline estimate of possible losses throughout your
community or state from one event.
Losses, as used here, are represented as the monetary damage to
structures and contents, interruption of services, and displacement
of residents and businesses. The use of money as a measure of loss
serves several purposes:
* It conveys the financial cost of a disaster to a community.
It is important to note that there are other intangible
losses that occur in a community such as losses of
historic or cultural integrity or damage to the environment
that are difficult to quantify. Other costs, including response and recovery costs, are often 
unrecoverable
(these costs are not addressed in this guide).
* It provides an explicit representation of what a community
or state stands to lose in a disaster. This is
useful for elected officials and other decision makers
who will need to balance the costs of mitigation against
the costs of damage.
* It provides comparable measurements of losses across
different hazards or different parts of the community. It
assists a community in determining which hazards or
what parts of the community to focus on.
* It provides a dollar amount to use as part of a benefit-cost
analysis to be applied later (in subsequent how-to
guides) in determining the cost-effectiveness of mitigation
initiatives.
After you have estimated losses using one hazard event, you may
find it necessary to conduct a comprehensive risk assessment by
assessing the full range of hazard events. The work you produce
here will serve as a good foundation for this additional effort if the
need arises but will be of immediate benefit in helping set priorities
and identifying mitigation projects in the next phase of the
planning process  Develop a Mitigation Plan.

[CAUTION SIDEBAR: Comprehensive
Risk Assessment
Later in the planning process
(the third and fourth phases),
you will have enough information to decide
what mitigation actions you will pursue,
and how they may be funded. Potential
mitigation projects that will use
federal funding require an analysis of
benefits and costs across a broad range
of hazard events. If you plan to use federal
funding, it may be necessary to
conduct a comprehensive hazard profile
by considering all possible hazard
events. For example, a devastating flood
may occur every thousand years, however
theres also a chance of a minor
level of flooding every year, although the
depth will obviously be much less. The
small annual floods may result in far
more damage than one big flood that
may only occur once a century. In a rigorous
risk assessment or benefit-cost
analysis, mathematical calculations are
used to determine the expected damages
from the whole range of possible
flood events, or other hazards that could
impact an area. This provides a more
accurate and complete picture of risk
(and the benefits of avoiding it) than the
single-point method. The procedures
for doing an analysis with FEMA benefit-
cost analysis software are simple
and are discussed as part of the how-to
guide for the third phase of the planning
process, Develop a Mitigation
Plan.]


Multi-Hazard Guidance
Where appropriate, this guide includes specific information to
estimate losses for seven natural hazards, with a unique icon to
identify each:
Floods
Coastal Storms
Earthquakes 
Landslides
Tsunamis 
Wildfires
Tornadoes

Obviously, there are other hazards that can affect states and
communities. While this guide does not provide specific direction
for all hazards, the basic procedures explained here could
be adapted for any natural hazard with variations that respond to
the peculiar nature of each hazard. For a more complete description
of the range of natural hazards that can affect the
United States, please see Multihazard Identification and Risk
Assessment published by FEMA.

State and Local Guidance
This guide is focused on providing guidance to communities,
tribes, and states. While much of the hazard identification and loss
estimation process operates in a similar fashion for each level of
government, there are critical points where estimating losses for
communities and tribes and states are different due to the differences
in size. Therefore, throughout this document, guidance
focused solely on the role of the States is identified as a sidebar
with this icon. Furthermore, guidance focusing on communities
includes tribes as well.
Types of Information
In addition to helpful hints and useful information identified by
the Tips icon, this guide also provides a number of options that
can be used in situations where detailed information is not readily
available.
You should follow the main procedures outlined in this guide to
produce your loss estimation. However, when you are unable to get
desired information, such as the Flood Insurance Rate Map, or
when a procedural shortcut may exist, the alternative method will
be identified by the Basic icon.
In addition to the alternative method, advanced information has
also been provided and will be identified by the Advanced icon.
This method can be used to refine your loss estimation to improve
your results or when specialists may be needed.
The HAZUS icon identifies suggestions for using the risk assessment
tool, HAZUS (Hazards U.S.). In addition to estimating
earthquake losses, HAZUS contains a database of economic,
census, building stock, transportation facilities, local geology, and
other information that can be used for a number of steps in the
risk assessment process.
Finally, the Caution icon will alert you to important information
about the risk assessment process.

Glossary
The Glossary icon identifies terms and concepts that need
further explanation. These and other common risk assessment-related
terms and phrases are defined in the Glossary included in
Appendix A.
[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: During the development
of a mitigation
plan, you will need to
gather information and data
from a number of sources.
As with any effort of this type, it is important
to be aware of how different authors
use terms. The easiest way is to
make sure you look for specific definitions
within the source documents to
be sure you understand the intended
meaning.]

Library
In addition, a risk assessment Library has been included in
Appendix B. The library has a wealth of information, including
Web addresses, reference books, street addresses, and phone
numbers to help you conduct your loss estimation. Each of the
Websites and references listed in this how-to guide are included in
the library.
Hazardville
Applications of the various steps in the risk assessment process will
be illustrated through a fictional community, the Town of
Hazardville. Hazardville, located in the State of Emergency, is on a
quest to develop a natural hazard mitigation plan, which includes
an estimate of potential losses. Hazardville is a small community
with limited resources and multiple hazards. When we left
Hazardville after the first phase of the planning process, Organize
Resources, the town had just established its mitigation planning
team, the Town of Hazardville Organization for Risk Reduction
(THORR). Fictional newspaper accounts featuring the THORR
will illustrate the various steps in the risk assessment process (see
page xi).
Worksheets
Finally, to help you obtain the information you need at each step
of the process, worksheets have been developed to correspond
with the structure of this guide. In each step, examples of the type
of information to be included in these worksheets are shown. All
of the worksheets have also been included in Appendix C at the
end of this guide. You should photocopy these forms and record
your progress as you undertake this risk assessment process. Alternatively,
you may use the worksheets as templates with which to set
up your own computer spreadsheets, databases, or other applications.

[CAUTION SIDEBAR: Please keep in mind
that the World Wide Web is
an ever-changing source of
information and that web addresses
and the information
they contain will change over
time.]

Getting Started
This guide will help you answer the following questions:
What kinds of natural hazards can affect your state or community?
What may have happened in the past that you should know about?
Quite naturally, many people are only aware of the most obvious
risks, usually as a result of a disaster that affected their community
or state in the recent past such as a tornado, hurricane, or
flood. In many cases, however, there are hazards most people are
not aware of because they haven't affected the community or
state during the lifetimes of current residents.
Step 1 of this guide  Identify Hazards  helps explain how to determine
which natural hazards can affect you.

[CAUTION SIDEBAR: Many Midwestern
communities are located
near the New Madrid
fault, an area with a high
seismic risk; however, most
residents are not aware of this risk because
the last significant earthquake
occurred in the early 19th Century. In
addition, many arid regions of the country
face significant risk due to flooding,
even though most of their watercourses
are dry. When heavy rains occur in
these areas, the storms can be very intense
and cause flash floods on hillsides
(alluvial fans) and in "dry" streambeds.]

How bad can it get?
How "big" is each hazard's potential impact? Will it affect every area the
same or will certain areas get hit harder than others? How often will each
type of hazard impact your community or state?
It's important to know the location and amount of land area that
may be affected by certain kinds of hazards. For example, there
may be areas that can be affected repetitively by a hazard in one
part of the community (such as floodplains adjacent to streams and
rivers) or there may be potential community-wide impacts from
events such as hurricanes or earthquakes. You should also note
that a specific type of hazard can have varying effects on a community,
depending on the severity of individual hazard events. For
example, differences in the depth of floodwaters from discrete
flood events will yield corresponding differences in the amount of
damages.
Step 2 of this guide  Profile Hazard Events  will help you determine how
bad a hazard can get.

[CAUTION SIDEBAR: Even within the
same hazard event,
there can be different types
of impacts. Hurricanes can
cause flooding due to torrential
rains across broad coastal and inland
areas. However, along the shoreline,
hurricanes and other coastal
storms can cause an increase in the
mean sea level, called a "storm surge".]

[TIP SIDEBAR: As communities
and states work together
to generate statewide
mitigation plans, many
communities may want to
update or revise their risk assessment
to assess risks from several hazard
events encompassing a range of intensities
and/or frequencies or to determine
future risks.]

What will be affected by these hazards?
Are there buildings, roads, and/or other facilities in the community that
will be damaged or destroyed by these hazards? Are there concentrations of
certain populations in hazard areas that are especially vulnerable, such as
elderly or non-English speaking people?
An inventory will help you identify the assets that can be damaged
or affected by the hazard event. For detailed assessments, the
inventory will also include information on special populations and
building characteristics like size, replacement value, content
value, and occupancy. In many cases, community assets may be
vulnerable to more than one type of hazard, and you may need
to look at different characteristics of the same asset to understand
its vulnerability to each type of hazard. For example, if a
building is subject to both floods and earthquakes, you will be
interested in the location and elevation of the building so you
can tell how much of its structure and contents will be damaged
by flooding. You will also be interested in the construction of the
building and its ability to resist physical damage caused by the
anticipated ground movements during an earthquake.
Step 3 of this guide  Inventory Assets  will help you determine where
and/or to what extent these hazards will affect the assets of your community
or state.
How will these hazards affect you?
What are the varying effects of different hazards on community assets? To
what extent will assets be damaged by each hazard? If buildings and other
structures are destroyed or damaged, how much will it cost to replace and/
or repair them? If the contents of businesses and homes are also affected,
how much cost would be added? If there are indirect effects, what is the
accumulated cost of the losses?
Hazards create direct damages, indirect effects, and secondary
hazards to the community. Direct damages are caused immediately
by the event itself, such as a bridge washing out during a flood.
Indirect effects usually involve interruptions in asset operations
and community functions, also called functional use. For example,
when a bridge is closed due to a flood, traffic is delayed or rerouted,
which then impacts individuals, businesses, and public
services, like fire and police departments that depend on the
bridge for transportation. Secondary hazards are caused by the
initial hazard event, such as when an earthquake causes a tsunami,
landslide, or dam break. While these are disasters in their own
right, their consequent damages should be included in the damage
calculations of the initial hazard event. Your loss estimations will
include a determination of the extent of direct damages to property,
indirect effects on functional use, and the damages from
secondary hazards for each of the hazards that threaten your
community or state.
Step 4 of this guide  Estimate Losses  will help you determine how
hazards will affect your community or state.

[TIP SIDEBAR: It is important to continually provide
citizens with the information gained
throughout the risk assessment process.
This not only educates the community
on their hazards and risks in an
ongoing fashion, but facilitates wider involvement
in the process. Holding public
meetings to present the most recent
findings after each major step in the risk
assessment process allows the new
information to be reviewed and validated.
Making sure that media coverage
of the process is regularly
engaged is another
technique for ensuring that
no interested parties are left
out of the process.]

Go to Step 1
After you have read this Introduction and reconvened your Planning
Team, go to Step 1. In Step 1, you will identify all of your
potential hazards and determine which hazards are most prevalent
in your community.

[MOCK NEWSPAPER ARTICLE:
The Hazardville Post
Vol. CXI No. 65 Thursday, March 6, 2001
Risky
Business
[Hazardville, EM] The
Hazardville Town Council
unanimously approved the
creation of the Town of
Hazardville Organization for
Risk Reduction (THORR) at
a meeting last night. In anticipation
of the move, Mayor
McDonald nominated
THORR members last month.
The THORR members will
work with town staff to identify
natural hazards that could
threaten Hazardville and estimate
their losses from those
hazards. This process is
known as risk assessment. As
reported previously in the
Post, THORR will include a
number of prominent community
and business leaders.
Starting next month, the Post
will launch a series of articles
covering THORR's work on
the risk assessment process.]

step
1
identify
hazards
Overview
The first step in doing a risk assessment answers the question:
What kinds of natural hazards can affect your planning area?
In this step, you will simply identify all the natural hazards that
might affect your community or state and then narrow your list to
the hazards that are most likely to impact you.
Bear in mind that although a hazard may not have affected you
recently, it doesn't mean it won't in the future. You should look at
the full range of potential hazards and assess whether they may
affect the area you're including in your mitigation plan. While this
might sound daunting, there is a relatively small list of hazards to
consider.

[Photograph of St. Louis tornado damage, May 27, 1896.]

Remember that all subsequent steps in the Natural Hazard Mitigation
Planning Process are built on the information gathered
during risk assessment. As you proceed, remember to keep records
of what you've found and where youve found it. Your records may
include copies of documents or maps, notes on whom you talked
to and when you talked to them, Website references, and so forth.
You'll need these later in the loss estimations and in the rest of the
mitigation planning processes. Use Worksheet #1: Identify the
Hazards in Appendix C (see example on page 1-2) to keep track of
your research, and when you're finished with this step, you'll have
a list of hazards that could affect your community or state.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Remember, for now you
are simply compiling information
about what hazards
affect your state or community,
but later you will be assessing
the risks they pose. It's a good
idea to read through the whole guide
before starting to gather information, so
you can get everything you need from
the various sources and not have to return
later for additional data.]

Worksheet #1 Identify the Hazards step
Date: March 2001 What kinds of natural hazards can affect you?
Task A. List the hazards that may occur.
1. Research newspapers and other historical records.
2. Review existing plans and reports.
3. Talk to the experts in your community, state, or
region.
4. Gather information on Internet Websites.
5. Next to the hazard list below, put a check mark in
the Task A boxes beside all hazards that may occur
in your community or state.
Task B. Focus on the most prevalent hazards in your
community or state.
1. Go to hazard Websites.
2. Locate your community or state on the Website map.
3. Determine whether you are in a high-risk area. Get more
localized information if necessary.
4. Next to the hazard list below, put a check mark in the
Task B boxes beside all hazards that pose a significant
threat.

[LIST OF HAZARDS WITH CHECKBOXES FOR TASKS A AND B:
Avalanche
Coastal Erosion
Coastal Storm
Dam Failure
Drought
Earthquake
Expansive Soils
Extreme Heat
Flood
Hailstorm
Hurricane
Land Subsidence
Landslide
Severe Winter Storm
Tornado
Tsunami
Volcano
Wildfire
Windstorm
Other____________]

Use this space to record information you find for each of the hazards you will be
researching. Attach additional pages as necessary.

Hazard or Event Description
(type of hazard, date of event, number of
injuries, cost and types of damage, etc.)
[SAMPLE TEXT: 
Flood - June 1936. 500-year flood. One
death, some corn & crop losses.]

Source of
Information
[SAMPLE TEXT:
 *Members of
community
*Newspaper
*Floodplain
manager]

Map
Available
for this
Hazard?
[SAMPLE TEXT:
FIRM ]

Scale of
Map
[SAMPLE TEXT:
1 : 6000]

Hazard or Event Description
(type of hazard, date of event, number of
injuries, cost and types of damage, etc.)
[SAMPLE TEXT: 
Hurricane Camille - Nov. 1969. One death.
Flooding & wind caused $1.5 million in
damages.]
Source of
Information
[SAMPLE TEXT:
*Newspaper
*Internet
research]
Map
Available
for this
Hazard?
[SAMPLE TEXT:
FIRM &
storm
surge map]
Scale of
Map
[SAMPLE TEXT:
1 : 6000
1 : 6000]

Hazard or Event Description
(type of hazard, date of event, number of
injuries, cost and types of damage, etc.)
[SAMPLE TEXT: 
Severe storm caused flooding & landslides -
May 1973. $2 million in damages.]
Source of
Information
[SAMPLE TEXT:
*Newspaper
*State
geologist]
Map
Available
for this
Hazard?
[SAMPLE TEXT:
Topographic
&
soils maps]
Scale of
Map
[SAMPLE TEXT:
1 : 24000]

 Hazard or Event Description
(type of hazard, date of event, number of
injuries, cost and types of damage, etc.)
 [SAMPLE TEXT: 
Severe storm & tornadoes - April 1980.
Wind & flash floods caused $1.5 million in
damages.]
Source of
Information
*Newspaper]
Map Available
for this
Hazard?
[SAMPLE TEXT:
No]

Hazard or Event Description
(type of hazard, date of event, number of
injuries, cost and types of damage, etc.)
[SAMPLE TEXT: 
Wildfires - April 1981.
1,050 acres burned.]
[SAMPLE TEXT:
*Newspaper
*State fire
marshal]
Map Available
for this
Hazard?
[SAMPLE TEXT:
Topographic
USDA &
fuel model
maps.]
Scale of
Map
[SAMPLE TEXT:
1 : 24000]

Procedures & Techniques
Task A. List the hazards that may occur.
There is no one source for identifying which hazards may affect
your state or community. However, the following techniques are
methods that have worked for others and should at least provide
you with a good starting point.
1. Research newspapers and other historical records.
These records will often contain dates, magnitudes of the events,
damages, and further evidence of past natural disasters in your
community or state. A public library may also have documentation
on these events in the "local history" section. Local historical
societies may also be good sources of information.

[TIP SIDEBAR: The information you
discover in the newspapers
and on the Internet will
help you when you talk to
hazard experts in your community.
It will provide you with technical
terms and general factual information
about the various hazards, in addition
to helping you identify the appropriate
experts to contact.]

2. Review existing plans and reports.
The preceding techniques are focused on local sources of information
that will likely provide a good start to the process. However, to
ensure you are covering all of the possible hazards, you will want to
broaden the contacts you make. There are many types of plans and
documents that may have information on natural hazards in your
community or state. Many states will already have mitigation plans,
hazard identification reports, and/or risk assessment reports. State
transportation, environmental, dam, or public works reports or
plans may also contain relevant information. Although these may
not contain a lot of details about local hazard conditions, they
offer a good starting point for communities, and using them
improves consistency among communities within the state. Review
the plans for a list of hazards that can occur in the state or for a list
of disasters that have occurred in the past.
Local comprehensive plans, land use plans, capital improvement
plans, as well as building codes, land development regulations, and
flood ordinances may contain hazard provisions that indicate the
presence of local hazards. You should review these to determine
whether a local hazard exists.
3. Talk to the experts in your community, state, or region.
There are many sources of hazard information in government,
academia, and the private sector. Many local floodplain managers,
departments of public works, engineering, planning and zoning,
and transportation departments maintain information about
natural hazards. Those who would have been involved with past
natural hazard events such as the police and fire departments or
the local emergency management staff are also excellent sources
of information on past hazard events. Furthermore, state agencies,
including water or natural resources, geological survey, and emergency
management will have detailed knowledge about the nature
and extent of hazards in your state. University departments, including
planning, landscape architecture, geography, and engineering
may already have hazard maps or can help you obtain them. Many
local businesses that provide hazard related services might be
willing to assist you.

[TIP SIDEBAR: State emergency
management departments
are sometimes
housed in larger agencies
such as state police,
military, or public safety.]

Your best source of hazard information will often be your state.
The State Hazard Mitigation Officer (SHMO) will know what
hazards affect your state, and is also a good source for suggestions
about where to go for more detailed information. Bear in mind
that the SHMO may not have specific information about the
hazards that affect a particular community but will probably be
knowledgeable about your area of the state and will often be able
to suggest other people to talk to or additional resources.

[STATE GUIDANCE: Research past Presidentially
declared disasters, as
well as non-declared severe
events that have occurred in
your state and in other states
within your region. You should inquire
into the types of hazards that have occurred
in the adjoining states as well.
Communicate this information to your
communities.]

4. Gather information on Internet Websites.
The library at the end of this guide lists many such sites. These
may be hazard-specific sites that provide general information about
why particular hazard events happen, what the probabilities of
occurrence are, and how hazards are measured. Other Websites
will have state-specific, or even site-specific information about the
hazards in a particular area and about the characteristics of the
hazards, such as the probability, history of events, and expected
severity.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Search database or computerized
archives with the
following list of hazards as
keywords. Narrow the search
by using the name of your
community, state, or surrounding states
as keywords (the following list is not meant
to cover all known natural hazards).
* Avalanche
* Coastal Erosion
* Coastal Storm
* Dam Failure
* Debris Flow
* Drought
* Earthquake
* Expansive Soils
* Extreme Heat
* Flood
* Hailstorm
* Hurricane
* Land Subsidence
* Landslide
* Severe Winter Storm
* Tornado
* Tsunami
* Volcano
* Wildfire
* Windstorm]

Task B. Focus on the most prevalent hazards in your
community or state.
If your preliminary research reveals that your community or state
has been affected by a particular hazard or that experts consider
your area to be threatened by that hazard, you will concentrate
further research on it in later steps.
If your planning area has not experienced a hazard event in recent
memory but one of the sources indicates it is a possibility, it may be
worth a little extra effort to confirm that a particular hazard type is
relevant.
1. Go to the indicated Websites for the seven major hazards to
help you determine whether your community or state can be
affected by the hazard.
2. Locate the approximate location of your community or state
on the Website map.
3. Examine the map to determine whether you are located in a
high-risk area for that hazard and to determine the chance it
will occur in your planning area. You may need to get more
localized information for some of the hazards.
4. You may find that you can delete some hazards from your list
at this time; however, if you are unsure or uncomfortable with
the chance of the hazard occurring, it's better to keep all
potential hazards on the list, until you are certain that it is
appropriate to remove it.

[MOCK NEWSPAPER ARTICLE:
The Hazardville Post
Vol. CXI No. 100 Thursday, April 10, 2001
The Organization for Risk Reduction Seeks Danger
(Part 1 of a 4 Part Series on the Risk Assessment Process)
[Hazardville, EM] The Town of
Hazardville Organization for Risk Reduction
(THORR) is on a mission to find
out about the natural hazards that
threaten Hazardville. The task force, appointed
by Mayor McDonald, will develop
a hazard mitigation strategy to reduce
the town's vulnerability to natural
hazards such as floods, hurricanes, and
earthquakes. While the process of researching
the town's potential hazards
is not exactly fraught with danger, "the
task force is using a lot of different resources
to discover the past and possibly
future impacts from hazards," said
Joe Norris, the task force lead planner.
THORR began researching past impacts
from hazards simply by talking to
people in the community. "You'd be surprised
just how much information
people know and remember about the
disasters from years ago," said Norris.
"We visited an elderly man who lives
near Raging River who vividly recalled
the Flood of 1936. While there was not
much of a human toll because the Raging
River area was largely rural, agricultural,
and forested at the time, this
man recalled that the fast-moving waters
were apparently quite deep." Norris
noted that a search of local newspaper
archives confirmed the flood, as did a
conversation with the Floodplain Manager.
"She said that the flood was estimated
to be a 500-year event - something
that has only a 0.2% chance of happening
annually."
Another resource the task force has
tapped is the State Hazard Mitigation Officer
(SHMO). The SHMO provided
THORR with a copy of the state hazard
mitigation plan, which discussed past disasters
that have
occurred in the
State of Emergency.
THORR
has found the
document to be
useful in describing
the likelihood
that certain hazard
events will
occur in Emergency.
An even
more valuable resource
provided
by the SHMO has
been contact with
various hazard
experts in state
government.
"They're free!"
laughed Norris,
alluding to a concern
expressed
by the Town
Council that a
risk assessment
may be an expensive
endeavor.
Norris remarked that THORR has
found the State Geologist to be especially
helpful in furnishing information
on earthquakes and landslides. According
to the State Geologist, Hazardville
sits squarely in the middle of an earthquake
zone, about 100 miles from the
New Temptfate fault. "I know we've experienced
a few tremors over the years,
even some collapsed chimneys from one
of the stronger tremors, but I had no idea
the potential for stronger earthquakes
existed in Hazardville."
Through its research, THORR has
uncovered information on many large
and small hazard events. In fact, on 13
occasions from 1969 to 1999, these
events have met the criteria to be state
or federally declared disasters. The list
of events THORR has researched appears
above.
When asked what the next steps are
for THORR, Norris responded,
"THORR will continue to research these
hazards. The more information we have,
the better our risk assessment will be."]

Floods
Floods are the most prevalent
hazard in the United States. This
map illustrates where there have
been past Presidential declarations
for flood events. FEMA has prepared
Flood Insurance Studies
(FIS) for floodprone communities.
These FISs contain information
on local flood history, local
flood problems, and other flood
studies that have been prepared
for the community.
FEMA has also created Flood
Insurance Rate Maps (FIRM) for
more than 19,000 communities in
the country as a part of the FIS. In
addition to the 100-year floodplain,
which is the area of the
community with a 1% chance of
flooding in any given year, the
FIRM also illustrates coastal high
hazard areas, the floodway, and
the 500-year floodplain, which is
the area of the community with a
0.2% chance of flooding in any
given year.
Digital Quality Level 3 flood data
(Q3) are available for 1,200
counties in CD-ROM format from
FEMA. A list of counties is available
at http://msc.fema.gov/MSC/
statemap.htm The digital Q3 flood
data are a digital representation of
certain features on FIRMs and can
also be viewed in HAZUS.
1 Review your FIRM or Q3 to identify areas prone to flooding. Alternatively, go to
www.esri.com/hazards to conduct a preliminary identification of flood hazards using
digital Q3 flood data available online.
2 Go to Step 2 for information on acquiring flood maps and on profiling your flood 
hazard.

Earthquakes

1 Go to the http://
geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/eq/
pubmaps/US.pga.050.map.
gif Website to determine
whether you are located in
an earthquake hazard zone.
2 Find the approximate location
of your community or
state on the seismic hazard
map.
3 If you are located in an area
with 2% g (peak acceleration)
or less, then you have a
relatively low seismic risk and
can probably avoid conducting
an earthquake risk
assessment at this time.
However, you should confirm
your findings with your state
geologist or emergency
manager.
4 If you are located in an area
with 3% g peak acceleration
or more, then you should
proceed to Step 2 to profile
your earthquake hazard.

Tsunamis

1 Go to the http://www.pmel.
noaa.gov/~bernard/senatec.
html Website. This page will
show population centers on
the West Coast of the
United States that are at risk
of tsunamis.
2 Find the approximate
location of your community
or state on the tsunami map.
3 If you are not located on the
West Coast, a Pacific Island,
or a Caribbean Island*, then
you have a relatively low
tsunami risk and can probably
avoid conducting a
tsunami risk assessment at
this time. However, you
should confirm your findings
with your state geologist or
emergency manager.
4 If you are located in communities
along the shoreline,
along coastal estuaries, or
along rivers affected by tides
in Alaska, Washington,
Oregon, California, Hawaii,
or Puerto Rico, then you
should proceed to Step 2 to
profile your tsunami hazard.
*NOTE:
Recent findings indicate that tsunamis are also possible along the Atlantic Ocean
coastal areas of Virginia and North Carolina. As more information become available,
these areas may also wish to include tsunamis in their risk assessment.

Tornadoes
1 Go to the http://www.fema.
gov/graphics/library/wmap.gif
Website. This page shows the
wind zones throughout the
United States. These wind
zones are based on historical
information on tornadoes
and hurricanes. The map
below illustrates areas where
Presidential declarations
have been issued for tornadoes
in the past.
2 Locate your community or
state on the US Wind Zone
map.
3 If you are not located in
one of the four colored
zones or special wind
regions on the map
above, you can probably
avoid conducting a
tornado risk assessment
at this time. However,
you should confirm your
findings with your state
meteorologist or emergency
manager.
4 If you are located in one
of the four colored zones
or special wind regions
on the map above, then
you should proceed to
Step 2 to profile your
tornado hazard.


Coastal Storms
1 Go to the http://www.aoml.
noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/tcfaqG.
html#G12 Website. This page
illustrates the probabilities of
a named storm for the
Atlantic Seaboard and the
Gulf of Mexico. The map
below illustrates where
Presidential declarations
have been issued for past
hurricanes.
2 Locate your community or
state on the coastal storm
probability map.
3 If you are not located in a
coastal storm probability
zone you can probably avoid
conducting a coastal storm
risk assessment at this time.
However, you should confirm
your findings with your state
coastal zone manager or
floodplain manager.
4 If you are located in a coastal
storm probability zone, then
you should proceed to Step 2
to profile your coastal storm
hazard.

Landslides

1 Go to the http://landslides.
usgs.gov/html_files/
landslides/nationalmap/
national.html Website. This
page illustrates large-scale
landslide risk areas.
2 Locate your community or
state on the landslide hazard
map. The Website listed
above allows you to zoom in
to different regions for a
closer look at the landslide
risk. While this map gives a
broad indication of large-scale
risk at a national scale,
it is important to know that
landslides should be evaluated
at a local scale. The
map shown above is not
suitable for small-scale,
community-level hazard
identification.
3 You should discuss landslide
potential with your state
geologist, who can be found
at http://www.kgs.ukans.
edu/AASG, and with your
local public works director.
4 If either your state geologist
or local public works director
indicates a landslide risk in
your community or state, you
should proceed to Step 2.

Wildfires
1 Go to the http://www.fs.fed.
us/land/wfas/fd_class.gif
Website. This page illustrates
the current fire danger
conditions and changes daily
based on current and past
weather, fuel types, and fuel
moisture. The map below
illustrates where Presidential
declarations have been
issued for forest fires in the
past.
2 Locate your community or
state on the fire danger map.
3 If you are located in or near
a low to moderate fire
danger class and not located
near forest, grasslands, or
dense wooded areas then you have a relatively low wildfire risk and probably can avoid 
conducting
a wildfire risk assessment at this time. However, you should confirm your findings with 
your state
fire marshal, forestry department, natural resources department or park service.
4 If you are located in or near a
dense woodland, forest or
grassland area, or have a high
to extreme fire danger class,
have experienced a prolonged
dry period, or have
experienced past wildfires,
you should proceed to Step 2
to profile your wildfire
hazard.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Keep your research
handy because after your
risk assessment is complete,
you will use this information
to help complete your hazard mitigation
plan as part of the third phase in
the Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning
Process.]

Summary
When you're finished with Step 1, you'll have a list of hazards that
could affect your community or state. At this point, it isn't necessary
to know anything specific about the hazards except that they
are likely to occur.
You will also have a list of plans, reports, Websites, articles, and
other resources that can help you later in the process as you
determine how these hazards can affect your community.
Through your research, you will begin to foster relationships with
experts in the state and local community. This network will continue
to be of use to the Planning Team as you continue to analyze
the effects of the hazards, and throughout the planning process.

After you have identified all of your hazards and determined which
hazards are most prevalent in your community or state
Go to Step 2
to use the information you have gathered to develop hazard
profiles.

step
2
2-1 Version 1.0 August 2001
profile
hazard
events Overview
With a list of potential hazards in hand from Step 1, the
next step is to develop hazard event profiles, which answers
the question: How bad can it get?
The information gathered in this step will help determine the assets
in the hazard areas you will inventory in Step 3.
Each hazard type has unique characteristics that can impact your
community or state. For example, an earthquake causes ground
shaking that will affect a community much differently than the
wind of a tornado. In addition, a given hazard type can produce
different effects depending on its magnitude, duration, or intensity.
For example, no two wildfires will impact a community in the same
way twice because the wildfire is driven by distinct wind and fuel
conditions, which can change very rapidly. Furthermore, the same
hazard events will affect different communities in different ways,
based on geography, development, population distribution, age of
buildings, etc. A hazard event is a specific occurrence of a particular
type of hazard.

[Picture of Lee County, Georgia during the 1995
Spring floods.]

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: The glossary in Appendix
A explains the relationship
between a hazard and hazard
event.]

For these reasons, the information you gather for each of your
hazard event profiles will reflect these different characteristics.
Some hazards, such as floods, coastal storms, wildfires, tsunamis, and
landslides will be profiled by mapping the geographic extent of
identifiable hazard events because they occur in predictable areas of
the community or state. Once the extent of these events is mapped
you will be able to determine which portion of your community or
state is vulnerable in Step 3 and begin taking inventory of the
elements that can be damaged. Other hazards, such as tornadoes
(which can occur anywhere), may be profiled simply by recording
the maximum potential wind speed. This type of information will be
used in Step 4 to evaluate the potential impact to individual structures
or elements in your jurisdiction.
This step is structured to explain the basic procedures and techniques
for profiling hazard events. It then instructs you on how to
gather specific hazard event profile information. Use Worksheet #2:
Profile Hazard Events in Appendix C (see example on page 2-2) to
help you record and keep track of your results.
Worksheet #2 Profile Hazard Events step
Date: May, 2001 How Bad Can It Get?
Task A. Obtain or create a base map.
You can use existing maps from:
*Road maps
*USGS topographic maps or Digital Orthophoto
Quarter Quads (DOQQ)
*Topographic and/or planimetric maps from other
agencies
*Aerial topographic and/or planimetric maps
OR you can create
a base map using:
Field surveys
*GIS software
*CADD software
*Digitized paper
maps

Title of Map
[sample text: USGS topographic ]
Scale 
[sample text: 1:24,000]
Date
[sample text: 1995]

Task B. Obtain a hazard event profile.
Check box when complete and fill in source of information.

Flood
1. Get a copy of your FIRM. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: FEMA Map Service Center]

2. Verify the FIRM is up-to-date and complete. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: Hazardville 
Planning Dept. & floodplain manager]

	
Earthquake
1. Go to the http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov Website.
2. Locate your planning area on the map.
3. Determine your PGA.
Tsunami
1. Get a copy of your tsunami inundation zone map. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: West 
Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center of NOAA]

Tornado
1. Find your design wind speed. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: Hazardville Building 
Inspector/Building Code]
	
Coastal
Storm
1. Get a copy of your FIRM. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: FEMA Map Service Center]

2. Verify that the FIRM is up-to-date and complete.
	 [SAMPLE TEXT: Hazardville Planning Dept. & floodplain manager]

3. Determine the annual rate of coastal erosion.
	 [SAMPLE TEXT: State Coastal Zone Manager]

4. Find your design wind speed.
	 [SAMPLE TEXT: Hazardville Building Inspector/Building Code]

Landslide
1. Map location of previous landslides. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: University study]

2. Map the topography. 	
3. Map the geology. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: USGS topographic maps]

4. Identify the high-hazard areas on your map. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: U.S. Natural 
Resources Conservation Service soil maps
Wildfire
1. Map the fuel models located within the urban-wildland interface
areas. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: National Fire Danger Rating]

2. Map the topography. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: USGS topographic map]

3. Determine your critical fire weather frequency. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: State Fire 
Marshal]

4. Determine your fire hazard severity. 	 [SAMPLE TEXT: How-To pg. 2-34]

Other
1. Map the hazard. 	

Task C. Record your hazard event profile
information. Check box when complete.
Flood
1. Transfer the boundaries from your FIRM onto your
base map (floodway, 100-yr flood, 500-yr flood).
2. Transfer the BFEs onto your base map.
Earthquake
1. Record your PGA: 	
2. If you have more than one PGA print, download or
order your PGA map.
Tsunami
1. Copy the boundary of your tsunami inundation
zone onto your base map.
Tornado
1. Record your design wind speed: 	
2. If you have more than one design wind speed,
print, download, or copy your design wind speed
zones, copy the boundary of your design wind
speed zones on your base map, then record the
design wind speed zones on your base map.
Coastal
Storm
1. Transfer the boundaries of your coastal storm
hazard areas onto your base map.
2. Transfer the BFEs onto your base map.
3. Record the erosion rates on your base map:
	
4. Record the design wind speed here and on your
base map: 	
Landslide
1. Mark the areas susceptible to landslides onto
your base map.
Wildfire
1. Draw the boundaries of your wildfire hazard areas
onto your base map.
Other
1. Record hazard event info on your base map. Other


Procedures & Techniques
Task A. Obtain/create a base map.
When you start the hazard event profiling process, you should
locate or create a base map so that you can show the areas that are
subject to various hazards. A base map should be as complete,
accurate, and current as possible and should be planimetric, which
is a flat representation of information in true geographic relationship
(to scale) with measurable horizontal distances. Other than
distinguishable buildings, roads, rivers, coastlines, place names, and
a north arrow, the map should be as uncluttered as possible. Use an
existing map or controlled photograph as a base to avoid the cost of
producing a new map.
Maps provide common frames of reference when describing where
and how hazards can affect you. Your base map will be essential in
Step 3 by showing the human and structural assets that should be
inventoried. HAZUS should be considered first as your primary
source of hazard data. (See Tip on page 2-5 for information on
base maps.)
HAZUS SIDEBAR: HAZUS  A Risk
Assessment Tool
Hazards U.S. (HAZUS), is a
standardized, nationally applicable
earthquake loss estimation methodology
that uses PC-based GIS
software. HAZUS contains an extensive
inventory of data that can help you conduct
your loss estimation in a timely, cost-efficient
manner.
Although HAZUS was originally designed
to be used to estimate earthquake losses,
it has a wider applicability to be used as a
mapping and inventory collection tool. For
example, you can use the HAZUS default
data to identify the census tracts located
in your community or state as your base
map.
Default data contained in HAZUS
* Demographic data (population,
age, ethnicity, and income);
* General building stock (square
footage of occupancy classes for
each census tract);
* Medical care facilities;
* Emergency response facilities (fire,
police, emergency operation centers);
* Schools;
* Dams;
* Hazardous material facilities;
* Roads, airports, and other transportation
facilities; and
* Electric power, oil, and gas lines and
other utility facilities.
Minimum System Requirements for
HAZUS99
* Intel Pentium class IMP compatible,
400 MHz or greater is recommended
* CD-ROM drive
* Hard drive (minimum 1 GB free
space required)
* Color printer or plotter
* Microsoft Windows 95 or greater
* MapInfo 5.5/5.0 software or
ArcView 3.2/3.1 GIS software
Minimum System Requirements for
HAZUS97
* Intel 486 or greater IBM compatible
computer, Pentium preferred
* CD-ROM drive
* Hard drive (minimum 200 MB free
space required)
* Color printer or plotter
* Microsoft Windows 3.1 or greater
* MapInfo 4.1.2 software or
ArcView 3.0 GIS software
HAZUS is available from the FEMA Distribution
Center at http://www.fema.gov/
hazus/
The HAZUS package contains a user
manual to get you started. If your community
does not have someone with the
technical resources or expertise needed
to use HAZUS ask your regional/or state
planning, geology, or transportation department,
or enlist the help of your local
college or university geography, planning,
or landscape architecture department to
create the maps for you. You may also
consider partnering with a private business
in your planning area or hiring someone
to assist you.

Task B. Obtain hazard event profile information.
In each of the seven hazard-specific sections that follow, you will be
given guidance on how to obtain, download, view, or order the
relevant hazard map or other profile information. The suggested
choice of return frequency for each hazard is based on the most
commonly available information for a particular hazard.
You will purposely consider just one hazard event in each hazard
section that follows to keep the process simple. For example, you
will consider only the 100-year flood event. A more comprehensive
hazard profile that considers all possible events, such as floods with
different probabilities, may still be needed at some future date, but
for now, this simplified version will be adequate to help you learn
more about your community's risks and narrow your focus for future
planning efforts.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Level of Risk
If your planning team determines
that the level of acceptable
risk is different than the
level identified by the suggested
hazard event in this guide, it may
be necessary to revise your risk assessment
by profiling a lesser or greater
hazard event. For example, you may
choose to evaluate an area greater than
the 100-year flood elevation established
on the FIRM by assessing the 100-year
flood elevation plus one additional foot (or
other amount).]

Task C. Record your hazard event profile information.
Use Worksheet #2: Profile Hazard Events to record your research for
each hazard profile. Keep track of where you found various maps,
such as FIRMs, or hazard event data, such as your design wind
speed.
The type of hazard will determine whether you will record the
relevant data on the worksheet or copy the boundaries of the
hazard event onto your base map.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Practical
Considerations
when Using Maps
Hazard profile maps can
range from simple traced maps to elaborate
GIS productions. Both renditions will
illustrate your hazard prone areas and will
assist you in the next step of taking inventory
of the elements that can be damaged.
Often the individual hazard maps to be
used are at different scales. This may require
an enlargement or reduction to the
scale of the base map selected. Use of
controlled photographic or computer mapping
methods makes this process easy
and accurate.
Copies of maps can be made on large
format copying machines used by most
reprographic companies. Maps also can
be professionally photographed and
transferred onto your base map.]

Summary
When you are finished with this step, you'll either have a map
showing the area impacted by each hazard type or you will have an
important piece of data regarding the characteristics of hazard
events affecting your planning area. In some cases, such as those
involving floods, you will have both.
The hazard specific sections that follow contain step-by-step instructions
to help you profile your hazards. Visit the library at the end of
this guide for more information on specific hazards, contacts, or
additional resources to help you profile your hazards.

When you have completed all of your hazard profiles
Go to Step 3
where you will inventory the assets in your planning area that can
be damaged by the hazard events you profile.


[TIP SIDEBAR: Base Map Options
Different maps have different
advantages and limitations.
Some alternatives (listed in order
of increasing price and utility)
include:
* Road maps. There are usually detailed
road maps available for areas in and
around urban centers. It is important to
verify the date the map was produced
because it may be outdated and inaccurate.
Also, although the street network
will be depicted, it is unlikely that
buildings will show up on the map.
Therefore, you'll have to convert the
map for use in risk assessment.
* USGS Topographic Maps. Maps
showing topographic relief are available
for the entire country at 1:24,000 scale
(see Scale and Coverage below) from
the United States Geological Survey
(USGS). Some structures are indicated
although not in great detail. Most
roads are shown but few are identified.
These maps can be obtained via the
Internet at http://mapping.usgs.gov/
mac/nimamaps/topo.html, or in hard
copy from USGS by calling 1-888-
ASK-USGS. These maps will have to
be converted for use as a base map,
just like the road maps. Like road maps,
it is important to verify the date the mapping
was completed to determine the
relative accuracy of the mapped information.
USGS Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quad (DOQQ)
A DOQQ is a computer generated image
of an aerial photograph in which displacements
caused by camera orientation and
terrain have been removed. These products
combine the image characteristics
of a photograph with the geometric qualities
of a map and can be used in numerous
GIS applications either alone or in
combination with other digital data.
For more information on the USGS digital
orthophoto program and DOQQ products
visit the USGS Web site at http://
mapping.usgs.gov/www/ndop/ or visit the
National Mapping Information Web page
at http://mapping.usgs.gov/index.html
* Topographic and/or Planimetric
Maps from other agencies. Local
agencies such as county or regional
planning commissions often have
maps. If there have been major roadwork
or infrastructure projects within
recent years, public works and transportation
departments may have detailed
maps that cover all or part of an
area of interest.
* Aerial Topographic and/or Planimetric
Maps. Communities can get new
aerial topographic (indicating all built
features as well as contour lines that
represent the physical shape of the
land) or planimetric (indicating built
features only) from companies that
specialize in aerial photography and
photogrammetry. These days, this
type of map is always produced in
digital as well as reproducible formats.
Topographic maps are usually more
expensive but may be quite useful
for other efforts including follow-up
planning for mitigation projects identified
later in the planning process. At
a minimum, aerial photographs are
useful in basic planning efforts as they
provide a reliable, recognizable representation
of the assets of the community
at a reasonable cost.
* Field Surveys. In unusual circumstances,
it may be practical to have
field surveys done. However, for areas
of any significant size, this option
is more expensive than aerial topographic
and planimetric maps and
may not yield significantly better information
for the mitigation planning
efforts.
Scale and Coverage
Scale determines the area covered on
the map. The scale is a proportion used
in determining a dimensional relationship,
which is the ratio of the distance between
two points on a map and the actual
distance between the two points on the
earth's surface. For example, the scale
1:500,000 means that one centimeter on
the map equals 500,000 centimeters (or
5,000 meters or 5 kilometers) on the
ground. Small-scale maps show less detail
for a large area. Smaller scales are
more common for regional (1:500,000
through 1:50,000), and community plans
(1:24,000 through 1:12,000).
The scale selected will depend upon the
map's purpose. There are no best scales,
only more appropriate ones to coincide
with planning requirements. Consider the
following scales for example:
* World: 1:30,000,000
* Continent: 1:5,000,000 to
1:2,000,000
* Region: 1:500,000 to 1:50,000
* Community or settlement:
1:24,000 to 1:12,000
* Building sites: 1:10,000 to 1:2,500
The level of detail, the hazards shown, and
the format of a risk assessment map can
range widely depending on the scale you
choose. The scale used for a risk assessment
is dependent upon not only the hazard
information to be shown but also upon
the scale of the base map. If a choice of
scales is available, then the following factors
become important in making the selection:
* Number of hazards to be shown.
* Hazard characteristics to be
shown.
* Range of relative severity of hazards
to be shown.
* Area to be covered.
* Use of the map in conjunction with
other planning documents.
* Function of the map, for example,
whether it is to be an index or detail
map.]
[STATE GUIDANCE: You may want to recommend that
communities use a consistent base
map, particularly if your state has already developed
mapping at a suitable scale that can be used locally
and covers the entire state. For example, a statewide
Geographic Information System (GIS) would allow you to easily
incorporate local information into state planning efforts.
As you proceed, keep in mind you will want to incorporate the
results of individual communities' risk assessments into your own.
This will give you more details on hazards and risks throughout
the state. You may want to provide guidance to communities on
the level of detail and return frequencies to use in local risk assessments
in order to produce a uniformly consistent state risk
assessment. You may also want to fill in the gaps for the areas of
the state or communities that do not have local risk assessments.
You will also need to decide whether you will conduct the loss
estimation state properties or request that local governments do
this as part of community-level planning. Either way, you should
make sure communities are aware how to treat state-owned facilities
in their loss estimation.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: Map Symbols
Mapped hazard areas can show various degrees of risk (e.g., seismic risk) or can identify 
a zone where risk is present
(e.g., a floodplain). Map symbols represent reality by conveying a sense of the hazard. 
Symbols that represent hazard
characteristics are selected for their legibility, clarity, and/or map production 
characteristics. There are three distinct map
symbols: points, lines, and areas. The maps below depict characteristics of Hurricane 
Georges using points, lines, and areas.
Points can be used to show location of
fire and police stations, hospitals, and
emergency shelters, as well as points
of impact from hurricanes, epicenters
of earthquakes or locations of specific
flood frequencies.
Lines can be used to separate areas
of landslide frequency, to represent
earthquake intensity, or to show tracks
of storms, fault rupture, or tsunamis.
Areas can be used to show the extent
of certain hazard conditions, such as
flooding as well as erosion and wildfire
zones.]

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: Advanced computer
programs have been developed
for displaying and analyzing
hazard identification
data. Three of the most common
computer programs used for hazard
mapping are FEMA's Hazards U.S.
(HAZUS), Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), and Computer Aided Design
& Drafting (CADD).
HAZUS
HAZUS contains an extensive inventory
of data that communities can use and
build upon as a loss estimation tool.
HAZUS is currently being expanded into
a multi-hazard methodology with new
models for estimating potential losses from
wind (hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes,
and extra-tropical cyclones) and
flood (riverine and coastal) hazards.
HAZUS is a flexible tool that has potential
for use in risk assessment, response and
recovery, and awareness and preparedness
programs.
GIS
GIS is a computer-based tool for mapping
and analyzing physical elements and
events that occur on earth. GIS is a database
that relates detailed information directly
to a geographical area for mapping
and analysis purposes. Software for GIS
is available from many distributors.
ArcView and MapInfo are two of the
most commonly used sources of GIS software.
GIS allows users to overlay different kinds
of data to determine relationships among
them. Maps produced with GIS can help
to explain hazard events, predict outcomes,
visualize scenarios, and plan
strategies. Some communities and regional
planning authorities maintain GIS
databases for planning land uses and
managing utilities. GIS can map hazard
areas and present hazard identification
information, allowing the user to compare
these areas with existing land uses. GIS
also allows the user to:
* Import geographic data such as
maps;
* Manipulate geographic data and
update community zoning maps;
* Store and analyze attributes associated
with geographic data;
* Perform queries and analyses to
retrieve data (for example, show all
child care centers within five miles
of a fire station); and
* Display results as maps or graphs.
CADD
CADD is a computer system that allows
users to perform drawing and design
tasks, enabling quick and accurate electronic
drawings. There are hundreds of
CADD programs available in the CADD
industry today, furnishing 2D drawings, 3D
drawings, topographic base maps, site
plans, and profiles/cross sections. Detailed
hazard maps in a variety of dimensions
can be made using CADD products
on a computer.
Digitizing
Digitizing maps is the process of converting
points, lines and area boundaries
shown on maps into x, y coordinates (e.g.
latitude and longitude, universal transverse
mercator (UTM) or table coordinates). If
your community does not already have
this capability, you should contact local
civil engineering or land surveying companies
to investigate opportunities for contracting
this work.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: Data Availability
If a particular hazard map is not
available for your planning area,
you can create one using a variety
of methods depending on the level of
detail and accuracy required. The following
examples range from simplest to the
most complex.
Historical hazard event. The chosen
event will determine the physical extent
of the hazard and the severity. This
method will provide a snapshot of one
potential event. Later in this step, the hazard-
specific sections that follow offer suggestions
of how to gather information for
historic hazard events.
Detailed hazard profile. You can create
a detailed hazard profile by researching:
* how likely it is that hazard will impact
the area (probability);
* how severe the hazard will be
(magnitude);
* where hazards will affect the community
or state (geographic extent);
and
* conditions in the community that
may increase or reduce the effects
of hazards.
These elements are closely related, and
are often combined in expressions linking
probability (or frequency) and magnitude
(or extent). Some examples of the
types of factors that can exacerbate (increase)
or mitigate (reduce) hazard effects
are:
* topography (for most hazards)
* soil characteristics (earthquakes
and landslides)
* soil saturation (floods and landslides)
* presence of fuel load (wildfires)
* presence of development in the
hazard area (floods)
* existence of hazardous materials
facilities in or near hazard zones
(for all hazards)
Some of the factors are aspects of the
planning area over which people have
some control. For example, while you cannot
control the duration of a hurricane, you
can decide not to build on or near steep
slopes. The hazard-specific sections that
follow offer suggestions of how to gather
information to conduct a detailed hazard
profile, and the library in Appendix B offers
suggestion of where to find more information
on specific hazards. These
factors will become important when planning
the mitigation actions to protect your
community or state from natural hazards
in phase three of the natural hazard mitigation
planning process.
Engineering study. Hydraulic engineers
calculate flood elevations through stream
gauge data and information on drainage
area, rainfall potential, characteristics of
the source of flooding (usually a river or
stream), and soil saturation. The hazard-specific
sections that follow offer suggestions
of various computer modeling
programs, as well as information about
who you should contact for additional help.
Data Limitation
Data about whats happened in the past
is often used to estimate whats likely to
happen in the future. For example,
chances are that tornado alley in the Midwest,
will experience more tornadoes this
year than other parts of the United States.
This assumption is simply based on the
fact that tornadoes have often impacted
that area in the past. The same is true in a
small town whose main street has flooded
numerous times in the past. However,
theres a big difference between a particular
street being flooded and an entire state
being impacted by tornadoes. There are a
number of site-specific characteristics that
determine flood potential. On the other
hand, a state that has experienced an average
of 100 tornadoes each year for the
last 30 years does not mean that a tornado
will hit any particular point in the state
next year.

[MOCK NEWSPAPER ARTICLE:
The Hazardville Post
Vol. CXI No. 158 Thursday, June 7, 2001
THORR Profiles Hazardville's Hazards
(Part 2 of a 4 Part Series on the Risk Assessment Process)
[Hazardville, EM] In April, the
Hazardville Post reported the ongoing
work of the Town of Hazardville
Organization for Risk Reduction
(THORR). THORR recently completed
its hazard research and has developed
a series of hazard profiles that
represent the next big step in describing
the problems.
Joe Norris, lead planner of the
task force, emphasized, "Our motto,
'A Small Town with Big Problems' is
certainly accurate when it comes to
natural hazards, but our recent efforts
of identifying and profiling the hazards
will help us deal with them effectively
in the future." Norris said
that a host of hazards, including floods,
earthquakes, tsunamis, tornadoes, hurricanes,
landslides, and wildfires, pose
potential threats to the Town of
Hazardville. THORR presented its
hazard profiles at last night's Board of
Supervisors meeting.

[Map of Hazardville Tsunami Hazard Profile
showing Tsunami Inundation Areas]

[Map of Hazardville landslide hazard Profile
Showing low, moderate, and high hazard areas, areas of existing or past landslides, and 
types of soil (silt, clay and sand)]

Mary Tremble, director of the
Hazardville Emergency Management
Agency (HEMA) and head of the
Earthquake, Tsunami and Landslide
Workgroup, revealed that Hazardville
has a moderate earthquake threat. "After
learning about our seismic potential
from the state geologist, the
Workgroup contacted Emergency
State University's Geology Department
for more information on seismicity.
Using maps produced by the
U.S. Geological Survey, we found that
the entire town is within a seismic
zone that has a 10% chance of exceeding
0.3g in 50 years." The %g refers
to the percent of acceleration due to
gravity and is used to measure the
strength of ground movements.
For Hazardville, that generally
means that an earthquake of that
size could cause moderate to severe
damage according to Tremble. For
example, it could cause moderate
damage to structures with un-reinforced
masonry chimneys or severe
damage to poorly constructed
buildings. A large off-shore earthquake
could also cause a tsunami
that could impact up to one-mile inland
of the Hazardville coastline
within 15 minutes of the quake.
Tremble reported that the biggest
concern for the Workgroup is
the area of town that is susceptible
to landslides. Several landslides
have been recorded on the bluffs
following heavy rains. These areas
are susceptible to slides mostly because
of ground saturation but also
present a danger when earthquakes
occur because of the steep slopes,
Tremble said. Hazardville has three
landslide zones. The areas of past
landslides are shown as high hazard
areas, Ms. Tremble said. The
moderate hazard area is north of
Raging River and includes areas
with steep slopes and unstable
soils.

 [Map of Hazardville Flood Hazard Profile
showing flood zones]

[Map of Hazardville Coastal Storm Hazard Profile
showing coastal flood zones]

Mr. David Waters, head of the
Flood and Hurricane Workgroup,
explained Hazardville's flood risk.
Waters, who is also the town's
Floodplain Manager, explained that
Hazardville's Flood Insurance Rate
Map (FIRM) shows the 100-year
floodplain (areas with a 1% chance
of flooding each year) in the coastal
region to the south and in the vicinity bordering Raging River in the
northern part of town. The
coastal region is designated as
AE and VE zones, meaning that
floods will have wave action and
will travel quickly. A map of the
town with its flood hazard zones
illustrates that floods pose a
threat to a significant portion of
the community.

[Map of Hazardville Wildfire Hazard Profile
showing low, moderate, high and extreme wildfire hazard areas ]

Ms. Wendy Soot, head of the
Tornadoes and Wildfires
Workgroup, cautioned that
Hazardville is also susceptible to
tornadoes. "Hazardville is located
in a 200 mph wind zone, which
means we could experience a
severe (F3) tornado. A tornado
of this severity could remove
roofs, knock over walls, and even
overturn cars and trains."
Soot, who is also the town's
Fire Marshal, added that Hazardville has
four wildfire zones. "We have an extreme
and high wildfire hazard area on the
northern edge of town due to the steep
topography and heavy fuel of the forest,"
(continued from page 2-8)
Ms. Soot said. "The area of town south
of Raging River is considered a moderate
and high wildfire hazard area, due to
the light fuel and proximity to the forest.
When asked about the professional
look of the maps, Norris responded that
all mapping was done using the town's
own resources. "In fact," he explained,
"the base was traced from a USGS map
by the Hazardville Planning Office." The
hazard profiles were compiled from
various sources including soil maps, topography
maps, and storm surge maps.
A map specialist from the transportation
department helped us trace the hazard
profiles on to our base map. Some of
the maps had to be reduced or enlarged
on a copy machine to produce the same
scale as the base map.
Norris expects the risk assessment
process to continue to be successful.
He credited the hard work of THORR
members and the state and federal government
workers who have assisted
them. "This has been and will continue
to be a truly cooperative effort," he said.

Task B. Obtain flood hazard event profile information.
The best source of local flood hazard information is the Flood
Insurance Study (FIS) developed under the National Flood Insurance
Program (NFIP) administered by FEMA. An FIS contains a
Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), which is an official map of a
community that shows areas at risk from flooding from the base
flood (see page 2-12 for more information on floods). Another
element of the FIS is a graph, also known as a flood profile, which
shows potential flood elevations
plotted along the waterways. This
information will help you delineate
the boundaries of the floodplain
in your planning area.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: Floods
At the very least, you
should research past or historic
flood events. You can
use old watermarks and eyewitness
accounts to delineate
the approximate flood boundaries and
depths of flooding on your base map, or
especially if there is not a FIRM or Q3
available for your community. Contact
your state NFIP coordinator for more information
on flooding in your area. In addition,
the USGS, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, or a civil engineer skilled in
hydraulic analysis can help you conduct
a flood study.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: The following is the system FEMA uses on the FIRMs to categorize
different floodplain areas.

Zone A: The Special Flood Hazard Area (except coastal V Zones) shown on a commun-
ity's Flood Insurance Rate Map. There are seven types of A Zones:
A: SFHA where no base flood elevation is provided.
A1  A30: Numbered A Zones (e.g., A7 or A14), SFHA where the FIRM shows a base 
flood elevation in relation to NGVD.
AE: SFHA where base flood elevations are provided. AE Zone delineations are now used 
on new FIRMs instead of A# Zones.
AO: SFHA with sheet flow, ponding, or shallow flooding. Base flood depths (feet above 
grade) are provided. 
AH: Shallow flooding SFHA. Base flood elevations in relation to NGVD are provided. 
AR: SFHA resulting from decertifying a previously accredited flood protection system 
that is in the process of being restored to provide protection from the base flood. An AR 
Zone is expected to be a temporary designation.
A99: An SFHA where a flood control project under construction will soon protect the 
area from the base flood. 
Zone B: Area of moderate flood hazard, usually depicted on Flood Insurance Rate Maps 
as between the limits of the base and 500-year floods. B Zones are also used to designate 
base floodplains of little hazard, such as those with average depths of less than 1 foot. 
Zone C: Area of minimal flood hazard, usually depicted on Flood Insurance Rate Maps 
as above the 500-year flood level. B and C Zones may have flooding that does not meet 
the criteria to be mapped as a Special Flood Hazard Area, especially ponding and local 
drainage problems. 
Zone D: Area of undetermined but possible flood hazard. 
Zone V: The Special Flood Hazard Area subject to coastal high hazard flooding. There 
are three types of V Zones: V, V#, and VE, and they correspond to the A Zone 
designations. 
Zone X: Newer Flood Insurance Rate Maps show Zones B and C (see above) as Zone X.]

1. Get a copy of your FIRM.
By using a copy of the FIRM, you
will evaluate the 100-year flood (a
flood that has a 1 percent chance
of occurring in any one year).
Copies of FIRMs can be requested
by calling the FEMA Map
Service Center at
1.800.358.9616, on the Internet
at http://www.fema.gov/maps,
or by contacting a FEMA Regional
Office. Additionally, the
NFIP's Guide to Flood Maps is
available on the web at http://msc.fema.gov/MSC/hardcopy, and flood risk and map 
information is available at
http://www.fema.gov/nfip/fmapinfo.htm.

FEMA is currently involved in converting FIRMs to digital format
(DFIRM). The DFIRM product will be designed to allow for the
creation of interactive multi-hazard digital maps that can be used
on a personal computer using GIS.

 [STATE GUIDANCE: Most flood information
is provided on a community-
wide scale. Rather
than compiling a FIRM for
each community in your
state, you can use Q3s. The Q3 maps
are available on the state-specific supplemental
data CD ROMs for use with
FEMA's GIS-based HAZUS Loss Estimation
software program.
You should also be prepared to assist
communities with obtaining flood mapping,
and understanding the information
presented on FIRMs.]


Digital Q3 flood data is available for 1,200 counties in CD-ROM
format. The Q3s are digital representations of certain features of
FIRMs and are intended for use with desktop mapping and GIS
technology. The Q3s are used for hazard mitigation planning,
floodplain management, land-use planning, natural resource and
environmental analysis, and insurance target marketing. They are
designed to provide the general location of the Special Flood
Hazard Area (SFHA). The main differences between the Q3s and
the official paper FIRMs is that the Q3s do not include the following:
* hydrographic features (streams and rivers, lake and
coastal shorelines);
* base flood elevations;
* cross-section lines;
* roads, road names, or address ranges; and
* locations, elevations and descriptions of benchmarks and
elevation reference marks.

The Digital Q3 Flood Data and DFIRMs are also available from the
FEMA Map Service Center, in addition, the Q3 maps are available
on the FEMA HAZUS CD.
If you participate in the NFIP you should have FIRMs locally.
Contact your NFIP coordinator or floodplain manager, usually
located in the planning, building, engineering, or natural resources
department, or your state NFIP coordinator for copies of your FIRM
or to help you identify areas that are prone to flooding. Your state
NFIP coordinator or state floodplain manager can be found at
http://www.floods.org/stcoor.html.

[TIP SIDEBAR: FEMA uses two methods to
make flood map changes.
The first is to actually change the map
and publish new copies. The other
method is to issue a letter that describes
the map change. There are two types of
letters indicating map changes:
LOMR  Letter of Map Revision
LOMA  Letter of Map Amendment
These letters officially amend
or revise the effective NFIP
map. Contact your FEMA regional
office for more information
on map changes.]


[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: What is a flood?
A flood is a natural event for rivers and streams. Excess
water from snowmelt, rainfall, or storm surge accumulates
and overflows onto the banks and adjacent
floodplains. Floodplains are lowlands, adjacent to rivers,
lakes, and oceans that are subject to recurring floods. Hundreds
of floods occur each year, making it one
of the most common hazards in all 50 states
and U.S. territories. Floods kill an average of
150 people a year nationwide. They can occur
at any time of the year, in any part of the country,
and at any time of day or night. Floodplains
in the U.S. are home to over nine million households.
Most injuries and deaths occur when
people are swept away by flood currents, and
most property damage results from inundation
by sediment-filled water.
Several factors determine the severity of floods,
including rainfall intensity (or other water
source) and duration. A large amount of rainfall
over a short time span can result in flash flood
conditions. A small amount of rain can also result
in floods in locations where the soil is saturated
from a previous wet period or if the rain is
concentrated in an area of impermeable surfaces
such as large parking lots, paved roadways, or other impervious
developed areas.
Topography and ground cover are also contributing factors for
floods. Water runoff is greater in areas with steep slopes and little
or no vegetative ground cover.
Frequency of inundation depends on the climate, soil, and channel
slope. In regions where substantial precipitation occurs in a particular
season each year, or in regions where annual flooding is
derived principally from snowmelt, the floodplains may be inundated
nearly every year. In regions without extended periods of
below-freezing temperatures, floods usually occur in the season
of highest precipitation. In areas where flooding is caused by melting
snow, and occasionally compounded by rainfall, the flood season
is spring or early summer.
Fortunately, most of the known floodplains in the United States
have been mapped by FEMA, which administers the NFIP. When
a flood study is completed for the NFIP, the information and maps
are assembled into a Flood Insurance Study (FIS). An FIS is a
compilation and presentation of flood risk data for specific watercourses,
lakes, and coastal flood hazard areas within a community
and includes causes of flooding.
The FIS report and associated maps delineate Special Flood Hazard
Areas (SFHAs), designate flood risk zones, and establish base
flood elevations (BFEs), based on the flood that has a 1% chance
of occurring annually, or the 100-year flood. The study may have
three components:
* The FIS  Flood Insurance Study text;
* The FIRM  Flood Insurance Rate Map; and
* A separate Flood Boundary and Floodway Map (FBFM)
that was issued as a component of the FIS for each community
studied prior to 1986. No BFE or flood zone names
are shown on the floodway map and people often confuse
the white floodway with the white area representing
land that is free from flooding. FIS reports published since
1986 have corrected this problem by delineating the floodways
as diagonally hatched areas on the FIRMs.

[Sketch shows the special flood hazard area (100-year floodplain), stream channel, 
normal water level, and base flood elevation. Also shows the floodway and the flood 
fringe, which is under water during a 100-year event.]

The 100-year flood designation applies to the area that has a
1 percent chance, on average, of flooding in any given year.
However, a 100-year flood could occur two years in a row, or
once every 10 years. The 100-year flood is also referred to as
the base flood. The base flood is the standard that has been
adopted for the NFIP. It is a national standard that represents a
compromise between minor floods and the greatest flood likely
to occur in a given area and provides a useful benchmark.
Base Flood Elevation (BFE), as shown on the FIRM, is the
elevation of the water surface resulting from a flood that has a
1% chance of occurring in any given year.
The BFE is the height of the base flood, usually in feet, in relation
to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) of 1929,
the North American Vertical Datum (NAVD) of 1988, or other
datum referenced in the FIS report.
Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) is the shaded area on a
FIRM that identifies an area that has a 1% chance of being flooded
in any given year (100-year floodplain).
FIRMs show different floodplains with different zone designations.
These are primarily for insurance rating purposes, but the
zone differentiation can be very helpful for other floodplain planning
purposes. The more common zones were listed in the table
on page 2-10.
Floodway is the stream channel and that portion of the adjacent
floodplain that must remain open to permit passage of the
base flood without raising the water surface elevation by more
than one foot.
NGVD  National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929, the national
datum used by the NFIP. NGVD is based on mean sea
level. It was known formerly as the "Mean Sea Level Datum of
1929 (MSL)." NAVD 88 = North American Vertical Datum of
1988 is being phased in.]

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: It's important to recognize that there
is actually a range of floods, other than
just the 100-year flood, that could happen within your
planning area. For example, a house located close to
a flood source might experience some level of flooding
every 5 to 10 years. The level or depth of flooding is determined
by the probability.
The probability of a flood is based on a statistical chance of a
particular size flood (expressed as cubic feet per second of water
flow) occurring in any given year. The annual flood is usually
considered the single greatest event expected to occur in any
given year. The percent annual chance of floods is estimated
based on watershed and climatic characteristics or watershed
models, water surface elevations, and hydraulic models that reflect
topographic characteristics.
The risk created by the 100-year flood would be much greater
than the risk from the annual flood based on the amount of damages
each event produces  once. But the annual flood would]

[TIP SIDEBAR: Conditions that may exacerbate or
mitigate the effects of floods
The following factors will affect the severity of a flood:
* Impermeable Surfaces: Excessive amounts of
paved areas or other surfaces upstream or in the community
can increase the amount and rate of water runoff. Development
affects the runoff of stormwater and snowmelt
when buildings and parking lots replace the natural vegetation,
which normally would absorb water. When rain falls
in an undeveloped area, as much as 90 percent of it will
infiltrate the ground; in a highly developed area, as much
as 90 percent of it will run off.
* Steeply sloped watersheds: In hilly and mountainous
areas, a flood may occur minutes after a heavy rain. These
flash floods allow little or no warning time and are characterized
by high velocities.
* Constrictions: Re-grading or filling within or on the edge
of floodplains obstructs flood flows, backing up floodwaters
onto upstream and adjacent
properties. It also reduces the
floodplain's ability to store excess
water, sending more water downstream
and causing floods to rise
to higher levels. This also increases
floodwaters velocity
downstream of the constriction.
* Obstructions: Bridges, culverts
and other obstructions can block
flood flow and trap debris, causing
increased flooding upstream and
increased velocity downstream.

[Sketch shows bridge construction in the flood fringe, constricting the floodway, which 
causes the flood elevation to rise.]

* Debris: Debris from the watershed,
such as trees, rocks, and
parts of damaged buildings, increases
the hazard posed by moving
water. Moving water will float,
drag or roll objects, which then act
occur much more frequently and over time may in fact produce a
much greater risk to the structure than the 100-year flood.
Flood frequencies can be determined by plotting a graph of the
size of all known floods for an area and determining how often
floods of a particular size may occur. In addition, hydrologic and
hydraulic data gathered from rivers and streams is a valuable
but time-consuming effort to calculate flood frequencies. If at least
20 years worth of data are available through stream gauging,
models can be used to determine the statistical frequency of given
flood events.
The USGS maintains river gauge records. Historical and current
river gauge information can be observed at its Website at http://
water.usgs.gov. Some local agencies may also have gauge
records.
The process of conducting a more rigorous risk assessment to
include all of the possible hazard events will be discussed in the
how-to for the third phase of the Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning
Process, Develop a Mitigation Plan.
as battering rams that can knock holes in walls and further
exacerbate the effects of debris.
* Contamination: Few floods have clear floodwater, and
the water will pick up whatever was on the ground within
the floodplain, such as soil, road oil, farm and lawn chemicals,
and animal waste. In addition, if a wastewater treatment
plant was inundated, the floodwaters will likely include
untreated sewage. Contamination is also caused by
the presence of hazardous material storage in the floodplain
and in the community, as well as upstream from the
community.
* Soil saturation: Rainfall in areas already saturated with
water will increase the runoff.
* Velocity: Flood velocity is the speed of moving water, measured
in feet per second. High velocities (greater than 5
feet per second) can erode stream banks, lift buildings off
their foundations, and scour away soils around bridge supports
and buildings.]

2. Verify that the FIRM is up-to-date and complete.
No map is perfect and floodplains change due to a number of
reasons. From time to time, FEMA, communities or individuals may
find it necessary for a FIRM to be updated, corrected, or changed.
Review the FIRM to determine whether any of the following circumstances
apply to your planning area:
* Significant construction has occurred within the
already identified floodplains on your FIRM.
* Upstream communities have had significant development
since the FIRM was published.
* There has been a flood for which inundation pattern
indicates that the FIRM boundaries are no longer
accurate.
* A major flood control project has been completed
within your community, or upstream of your
community.
* Changes in topography in or adjacent to existing
mapped floodplains.

[Caution Sidebar: If you live in a community that
could be affected if an upstream
dam were overtopped
or breached, contact your state dam
safety official identified on the Website of
the Association of State Dam Safety Officials
(ASDSO), at http://crunch.tec.army.mil/
nid/webpages/nid.cfm and click on "State
Links". The state official will assist you in determining
whether there are any large dams
that could flood your community if breached
or overtopped. There are thousands of significant
and high-hazard potential dams in
the U.S. About 60 percent have Emergency
Action Plans, which delineate the
inundation area if the dam fails or
is overtopped. The inundation areas
are usually much larger than
the 100-year floodplain.]

If the area you're considering is not within the 100-year floodplain,
you may elect to concentrate on other hazards because
your risk is, by definition, relatively small. However, you may still
have flood risks that arise from one or more of the following,
which are not shown on the FIRM:
* Drainage areas of less than one square mile;
* Sewer backup;
* Drainage system backup;
* Dam breaches; and
* Stormwater runoff problems.
[Tip Sidebar: As you map your flood
hazard areas and plan for
mitigation of flood hazards, consider
applying for credit for Community
Floodplain Management
Planning under FEMA's Community Rating
System (CRS). If you are not currently enrolled
in CRS, contact your state floodplain
manager.]

Task C. Record your hazard event profile information.
1. Transfer the boundaries from your FIRM onto your base map.
2. Record the base flood elevations onto your base map.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
profile
or if you are finished with all your hazard profiles
Go to Step 3

Earthquakes
Task B. Obtain earthquake hazard event profile
information.
1. Go to the http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov Website.
The map shows the national Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)
values for the United States with a 10% chance of being exceeded
over 50 years. This is a common earthquake measurement that
shows three things: the geographic area affected (all colored areas
on the map), the probability of an earthquake of each given level
of severity (10% chance in 50 years), and the severity (the PGA is
indicated by color). (Source: 
http.geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/eq/pubmaps/US.pga.050.map.gif)

[TIP SIDEBAR: Peak ground acceleration
(PGA) is a measure of the strength of
ground movements. The PGA measures
the rate in change of motion relative to
the established rate of acceleration due
to gravity (g) (980 cm/sec/sec). For example,
in an earthquake with an acceleration
of the ground surface of 244 cm/
sec/sec, the PGA or rate in change of
motion is 25%g where:
%g = Ground Surface Acceleration
/ Rate of
Acceleration due to
Gravity;
%g = 244 cm / sec/ sec/ 980
cm / sec / sec; and
%g = 25%]

2. Locate your planning area on the map.
You can also generate maps based on zip codes or longitude and
latitude by following the directions on the Website.
3. Determine your Peak Ground Acceleration.
Determine the PGA zone(s) in which your planning area is located.
This is done by identifying the color associated with your planning
area and correlating it with the color key located on the map. Large
planning areas may be located in more than one zone.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: Seismic hazard maps are available
for the whole country, as well as regional
maps of Alaska, California, Nevada,
and the Central and Eastern United
States. For California, the USGS and the
California Division of Mines and Geology
have earthquake fault zone maps and
seismic hazard zone maps. You can order
these maps by calling
USGS at 1-888-ASK-USGS.
You should also contact your
state geologist for additional
hazard information.]

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: What is an Earthquake?
Earthquakes are one of nature's most damaging hazards. An earthquake
is a sudden motion or trembling that is caused by a release of strain
accumulated within or along the edge of Earth's tectonic plates. The severity
of these effects is dependent on the amount of energy released
from the fault or epicenter. The effects of an earthquake can be felt far beyond the
site of its occurrence. They usually occur without warning and after just a few seconds
can cause massive damage and extensive casualties. Common effects of
earthquakes are ground motion and shaking, surface fault ruptures, and ground
failure.
Earthquakes are more widespread than is often realized. The area of greatest seismic
activity in the United States is along the Pacific Coast in California and Alaska,
but as many as 40 states can be characterized as having at least moderate earthquake
risk. For example, seismic activity has been recorded in Boston, Massachusetts;
New Madrid, Missouri; and Charleston, South Carolina, places not typically
thought of as earthquake zones. Areas prone to earthquakes are relatively easy to
identify in the Western United States based on known geologic formations; however,
predicting exactly when and where earthquakes will occur is very difficult
everywhere.
There are several common measures of earthquakes. These include Richter Magnitude,
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI), Moment Magnitude and Peak Ground Acceleration
(PGA), among others. For this guide, we're using PGA for measuring
earthquake hazard.
Acceleration: One way to express an earthquake's severity is to compare its acceleration
to the normal acceleration due to gravity. If you're standing on the surface
of the earth and drop an object (ignoring wind resistance), it will fall toward the earth
faster and faster, until it reaches terminal velocity. This principle is known as acceleration
and represents the rate at which speed is increasing. The acceleration due
to gravity is often called "g", a term you may have heard associated with roller
coasters, rockets, or even stock car racing. The acceleration due to gravity at the
earth's surface is 9.8 meters (980 centimeters) per second squared. That means
that every second that something falls toward the surface of earth its velocity increases
by 9.8 meters per second. A 100% g earthquake is very severe.
An analogy would be if you floor your car's gas pedal and your groceries get
smashed against the back of the trunk. The quicker you press on the gas, the more
eggs are likely to get broken. That's because the quick acceleration caused the
contents of your trunk to shift rapidly and violently, not slowly and smoothly. In fact,
the eggs might not have moved at all if you had sped up slowly. The same thing is
true in an earthquake. If ground acceleration is rapid, more things tend to break than
if the shaking is relatively slow, even if the ground moves the same distance.
Earthquake Motion: The variables that characterize earthquakes are ground motion,
surface faulting, ground failure, and seismic activity. Ground motion is the
vibration or shaking of the ground during an earthquake. When a fault ruptures,
seismic waves radiate, causing the ground to vibrate. The severity of the vibration
increases with the amount of energy released and decreases with distance from
the causative fault or epicenter, but soft soils can further amplify ground motions.
Surface faulting is the differential movement of two sides of a fracture  in other
words, the location where the ground breaks apart. The length, width, and displacement
of the ground characterize surface faults.
Liquefaction is the phenomenon that occurs when ground shaking causes loose
soils to lose strength and act like viscous fluid. Liquefaction causes two types of
ground failure: lateral spread and loss of bearing strength. Lateral spreads develop
on gentle slopes and entail the sidelong movement of large masses of soil as
an underlying layer liquefies. Loss of bearing strength results when the soil supporting
structures liquefies. This can cause structures to tip and topple.
Definition sketch for earthquake.]

Task C. Record your hazard event profile
information.
1. Record your PGA value.
If you are located in only one PGA zone, note that
zone on Step 2 Worksheet and go to the bottom of
this page; otherwise, continue with part 2 of this
task.
2. Print, download, or order your PGA map.
If you are located in more than one PGA zone, you
will need a copy of your PGA map. Maps can be
printed, downloaded or ordered from the USGS
Website.
3. Transfer the boundary of your PGA zones onto your
base map.
4. Record the PGA value(s) on your worksheet.

[HAZUS SIDEBAR: The HAZUS Loss Estimation Tool
FEMA developed a standardized, nationally applicable
earthquake loss estimation methodology.
This methodology is implemented with PC-based
software called HAZUS (Hazards U.S.),which
runs on a Geographic Information System (GIS) platform.
The HAZUS loss estimation methodology is a software program
that uses mathematical formulas and information about
building stock, local geology and the location and size of
potential earthquakes, economic data, and other information
to estimate losses from a potential earthquake. HAZUS
is capable of using two separate GIS systems (MapInfo
or ArcView) to map and display ground shaking, the pattern
of building damage, and demographic information about
a community.
Once the location and size of a hypothetical earthquake are
identified, HAZUS will estimate the violence of ground shaking,
the number of buildings damaged, the number of casualties,
the amount of damage to transportation systems,
disruption to the electrical and water utilities, the number of
people displaced from their homes, and the estimated cost
of repairing projected damage and other effects.
* Level 1  All of the information needed to produce a
rough estimate of losses from an earthquake is included
in the HAZUS software. This is data from national
databases and describes in general terms the
geology of the region and the building inventory and
economic structure of the community. The default data
that HAZUS includes are used to provide a basic estimate
of losses and are useful in mitigation planning.
* Level 2  More accurate estimates of losses require
more detailed information about the community. To produce
a Level 2 estimate of losses, detailed information
will be required about local geology, an inventory
of buildings in the community, and data about utilities
and transportation systems. Assistance from
geotechnical and structural engineers may be necessary
for this analysis, as well as a GIS specialist to
add the detailed information into the HAZUS model.
* Level 3  The most accurate estimate of loss will require
detailed engineering and geotechnical input to
customize the methodology to the specific conditions
of the community.
While Level 1 HAZUS studies can typically be carried out
by local government emergency services or planning staff,
the assistance of structural engineers, geologists and GIS
specialists is generally needed for Level 2 and Level 3 estimates.]

[STATE GUIDANCE: Unlike communities, states may have many
different PGA zones. Your proximity to faults and soil
and subsurface characteristics all affect the level of
earthquake hazard. Here it is also important to note
the pattern or gradation of seismic characteristics
across the state.]

Go to the next hazard on your
list to profile
or if you are finished with all your hazard profiles,
Go to Step 3

Tsunamis

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: What is a Tsunami?
A tsunami is a series of long waves generated in the ocean by a sudden
displacement of a large volume of water. Underwater earthquakes, landslides,
volcanic eruptions, meteor impacts, or onshore slope failures can cause this
displacement. Most tsunamis originate in the Pacific "Ring of Fire," the area of the 
Pacific
bounded by the eastern coasts of Asia and Australia and the western coasts of North
America and South America that is the most active seismic feature on earth. Tsunami
waves can travel at speeds averaging 450 to 600 miles per hour. As a tsunami nears the
coastline, its speed diminishes, its wavelength decreases, and its height increases greatly.
Unusual heights have been known to be over 100 feet high. However, waves that are 10
to 20 feet high can be very destructive and cause many deaths and injuries.
After a major earthquake or other tsunami-inducing activity occurs, a tsunami could
reach the shore within a few minutes. From the source of the tsunami-generating event,
waves travel outward in all directions in ripples. As these waves approach coastal areas,
the time between successive wave crests varies from 5 to 90 minutes. The first
wave is usually not the largest in the series of waves, nor is it the most significant. One
coastal community may experience no damaging waves while another may experience
destructive deadly waves. Some low-lying areas could experience severe inland 
inundation
of water and deposition of debris of more than 1000 feet inland.
Along the West Coast, the Cascadia Subduction Zone threatens California, Oregon,
and Washington with devastating local tsunamis. Earthquakes of Richter scale magnitude
of 8 or more have happened in the zone, and there is a 35 percent chance that an
earthquake of this magnitude could occur before 2045 (estimated between the years
1995 and 2045). The Alaska and Aleutian Seismic Zone that threatens Alaska has a
predicted occurrence (84 percent probability between 1988 to 2008) of an earthquake
with magnitude greater than 7.4 in Alaska. If an earthquake of this magnitude occurs,
Alaska's coastlines can be expected to flood within 15 minutes.]

Task B. Obtain tsunami
hazard event profile
information.
Get a copy of your tsunami
inundation zone map.
Tsunami inundation zone
maps show low-lying areas that
could be affected by tsunamis.
Communities can obtain state level
inundation maps and
other information about
tsunamis from:
* West Coast/Alaska
Tsunami Warning
Center of NOAA/
NWS by calling
907.745.4212 or by
writing 910 S.
Felton Street,
Palmer AK 99645-
6552.
* Pacific Tsunami
Warning Center in
Hawaii at
808.689.8207 or 91-
270 Fort Weaver
Road, Ewa Beach,
HI 96706.
Communities in Oregon can
request maps from the Oregon
Department of Geology and
Mineral Industries (DOGAMI)
by calling 503.731.4100 or by
writing 800 NE Oregon Street,
#28, Portland, OR 97232.
Washington and California
communities should contact
their state geologist for
mapping information.

[TIP SIDEBAR: What are the Characteristics of Tsunamis?
Debris: As the tsunami wave comes ashore, it brings with it debris from the
ocean, including man-made debris like boats, and as it strikes the shore,
creates more on-shore debris. Debris can damage or destroy structures on
land.
Distance from shore: Tsunamis can be both local and distant. Local tsunamis give
residents only a few minutes to seek safety and cause more devastation. Distant tsunamis
originating in places like Chile, Japan, Russia, or Alaska can also cause damage.
High tide: If a tsunami occurs during high tide, the water height will be greater and cause
greater inland inundation, especially along flood control and other channels.
Outflow: Outflow following inundation creates strong currents, which rip at structures
and pound them with debris, and erode beaches and coastal structures.
Water displacement: When a large mass of earth on the ocean bottom impulsively
sinks or uplifts, the column of water directly above it is displaced, forming the tsunami
wave. The rate of displacement, motion of the ocean floor at the earthquake epicenter,
the amount of displacement of the rupture zone, and the depth of water above the rupture
zone all contribute to the intensity of the tsunami.
Wave runup: Runup is the height that the wave extends up to on steep shorelines,
measured above a reference level (the normal height of the sea, corrected to the state of
the tide at the time of wave arrival).
Wave strength: Even small wave heights can cause strong, deadly surges. Waist-high
surges can cause strong currents that float cars, small structures, and other debris.]

In addition, information is available
from the following Websites:
* U.S. Geological Survey:
www.usgs.gov/themes/
coast.html
* University of Washington:
www.geophys.washington.edu
* Pacific Marine Environmental
Laboratory:
www.pmel.noaa.gov

[BASIC SIDEBAR: If you cannot find the necessary information to
produce a tsunami profile, research past tsunami events in
your area and contact your state coastal zone manager for help identifying
areas that would be susceptible to tsunami inundation. Indicate any
areas threatened by tsunami waves on your base map.]

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: Most tsunami mapping has been done at a statewide level.
If no local-level mapping has been done, you may consider hiring a
consultant to help develop or provide the following information:
* Historic tsunami sources;
* Potential future local and distant sources;
* Potential for ground failures and other geologic effects that could
cause tsunamis;
* An estimate of the number of waves, their heights, arrival times,
and inundation depths and distances;
* Calculations of water velocities and debris loads; and
* Estimates of the probabilities of occurrence and levels of certainty.]

Task C. Record your hazard
event profile information.
Transfer the boundary of your tsunami
hazard area onto your base map.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Conditions that may exacerbate or mitigate the
effects of tsunamis
The following factors will affect the severity of a tsunami:
* Coastline configuration: Tsunamis impact long, low-lying stretches
of linear coastlines, usually extending inland for relatively short distances.
Concave shorelines, bays, sounds, inlets, rivers, streams, offshore canyons,
and flood control channels may create effects that result in greater
damage. Offshore canyons can focus tsunami wave energy, and islands
can filter the energy. The orientation of the coastline determines whether the
waves strike head-on or are refracted from other parts of the coastline. Tsunami
waves entering flood control channels could reach a mile or more inland,
especially if it enters at high tide.
* Coral reefs: Reefs surrounding islands in the western North Pacific and the
South Pacific generally cause waves to break, providing some protection to
the islands.
* Earthquake characteristics: Several characteristics of the earthquake that
generates the tsunami contribute to the intensity of the tsunami, including the
area and shape of the rupture zone, and:
* Fault movement: Strike-slip movements that occur under the ocean create
little or no tsunami hazard. However, vertical movements along a fault
on the seafloor displace water and create a tsunami hazard.
* Magnitude and depth: Earthquakes with greater magnitude cause more
intense tsunamis. Shallow-focus earthquakes also have greater capacity
to cause tsunamis.
* Human activity: With increased development, property damage increases,
multiplying the amount of debris available to damage or destroy other
structures.]

Go to the next
hazard on your list to
profile
or if you are finished with all your
hazard profiles,
Go to Step 3

Tornadoes

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: What is a Tornado?
A tornado is a violently rotating
column of air extending
from a thunderstorm to the
ground. The most violent tornadoes are
capable of tremendous destruction with
wind speeds of 250 mph or more. Damage
paths can be in excess of 1 mile wide
and 50 miles long.
Tornadoes are among the most unpredictable
of weather phenomena. While
tornadoes can occur almost anywhere
in the world, they are most prevalent in
the United States. According to the National
Weather Service, about 42 people
are killed because of tornadoes each
year. Tornadoes can occur in any state
but are more frequent in the Midwest,
Southeast, and Southwest.
Tornado season runs ordinarily from
March through August; however, tornadoes
can strike at any time of the year if
the essential conditions are present.
What Causes a Tornado?
Thunderstorms and hurricanes spawn
tornadoes when cold air overrides a layer
of warm air, causing the warm air to rise
rapidly. The winds produced from hurricanes,
earthquake-induced fires, and
wildfires have also been known to produce
tornadoes.
The frequency of tornadoes in the nation's
midsection is the result of the recurrent
collision of moist, warm air moving north
from the Gulf of Mexico with colder fronts
moving east from the Rocky Mountains.]

Task B. Obtain tornado hazard event profile
information.
Find your design wind speed.
Find your planning area on the "Design Wind Speed" map from
FEMA's Taking Shelter from the Storm: Building a Saferoom in Your
House publication 320. This map is based on design wind speeds set
forth by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).
(This publication can be viewed at http://www.fema.gov/fima/
tsfs02.shtm or ordered from the FEMA Publication Center.) Look up
the wind zone and indicated speed for your planning area. For
example if you live in Fayetteville, North Carolina, you would find
that you are located in wind zone III, which is associated with
200-mph wind speeds.

[Design Wind Speed map for community shelters
Source: ASCE 7-98]

Unlike some other hazards, mapping the tornado risk is less important
because it is unlikely that a community has variable tornado
risks within its jurisdiction. In most cases, communities need only
determine that they have a tornado risk (from Step 1) and then
proceed to determine their design wind speed. (See Tip on page
2-21.)

[STATE GUIDANCE: States may have more
than one wind speed designation.
You can either represent
all of the wind speeds on
your base map or decide to
use the higher wind speed for
the whole state.]

Task C. Record your hazard
event profile information.
1. If you are located in only one
Design Wind Speed zone, note that
zone on Worksheet #2 and go to the
bottom of this page, otherwise, continue
with this task.
2. If you are located in more than one
Design Wind Speed zone, you will need
a copy of the Design Wind Speed
maps.
3. Transfer the boundary of your
Design Wind Speed zones on to your
base map.
4. Record the Design Wind Speed
zones on your base map.

[TIP SIDEBAR: The nature of tornadoes is that they strike at random.
While it is known that some areas of the country experience
tornadoes more than others, predicting exactly what parts of your community
or state have a greater chance of being struck by a tornado is
difficult. The NOAA Website http://www.outlook.noaa.gov/tornadoes has
tornado statistics broken out by state. It also identifies tornado events per 1,000
square miles.
In order to determine the likelihood and potential severity of tornado events in your
state or community, you should ascertain the number of tornadoes that have affected
the area in the past and their intensity. Take note, however, that the past
number and severity of events is not necessarily a predictor of future occurrences.
To determine the magnitude of tornadoes that have affected your community or
state in the past, go to www.tornadoproject.com, click on "All Tornadoes" in the
navigation frame, and then click the link, Every state in the USA. The site provides
by state and county a list of all tornado occurrences and magnitudes for the years
1950 to 1995. Find your county and collect the recorded tornado history.
Tornadoes are categorized by damage pattern, F0 through F5. The table below
shows the tornado category, expected damages, and corresponding wind speed.

FUJITA TORNADO MEASUREMENT SCALE: 
F-Scale Number Intensity Phrase Wind Speed M.P.H. Type Of Damage Done 
F0 Gale Tornado 40 - 72 M.P.H. 
- Some damage to chimneys
- Snaps off small trees
- Damages signboards 
F1 Moderate Tornado 73 - 112 M.P.H.
- The lower limit is the beginning of a hurricane
- Peels surfaces of roofs
- Mobile homes pushed over
- Moving cars pushed off the road
- Large trees snapped, or up rooted
- Attached garages are destroyed 
F2 Significant Tornado 113 - 157 M.P.H.
- Considerable damage
- Roofs torn off frame
- Mobile homes demolished
- Box cars pushed over
- Large trees snapped up or up rooted
- Light objects become missiles 
F3 Severe Tornado 158 - 206 M.P.H.
- Roof and some walls torn off well-constructed houses
- Trains over turned
- Most trees in the forest are up rooted 
F4 Devastating Tornado 207 - 260 M.P.H.
- Well-constructed houses leveled
- Structures with weak foundations, blown off some distance
- Cars thrown a long distance
- Large objects become missiles 
F5 Incredible Tornado 261 - 318 M.P.H.
- Strong framed houses lifted off of foundations, and carried off
- Car sized missiles fly further than 100 meters
- Tree debarked
- Steel reinforced concrete structures badly damaged]

Go to the next
hazard on your list to
profile
or if you are finished with all your
hazard profiles
Go to Step 3

Coastal Storms
[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: What is a Coastal Storm?
Coastal storms can cause increases in tidal elevations (called storm
surge), wind speed, and erosion, caused by both extratropical events
and tropical cyclones.
Extratropical events include Nor'easters and severe winter low-pressure systems.
Both West and East coasts can experience these non-tropical storms that
produce gale-force winds and precipitation in the form of heavy rain or snow. These
cyclonic storms, commonly called Nor'easters on the East Coast because of the
direction of the storm winds, can last for several days and can be very large 
1,000-mile wide storms are not uncommon.
A "tropical cyclone" is a generic term for a cyclonic, low-pressure system over
tropical or sub-tropical waters. Tropical cyclones with maximum sustained winds
of less than 39 mph are called tropical depressions. A tropical storm is a cyclone
with maximum sustained winds greater than 39 mph and less than 74 mph,
and hurricanes are intense tropical weather systems with maximum sustained
winds of 74 mph or higher that develop over the north Atlantic Ocean, northeast
Pacific Ocean, or the south Pacific Ocean east of 160E longitude. A special category
of tropical cyclone is a typhoon, which is peculiar to the western North
Pacific Basin, frequently affecting areas in the vicinity of Guam and the North
Mariana Islands. Typhoons whose maximum sustained winds attain or exceed
150 miles per hour are called super typhoons.
The primary focus of this section is on the effects of hurricanes although all these
types of coastal storms can have similar impacts in terms of wind damage, flooding
and coastal erosion.
What is a Hurricane?
A hurricane is a category of tropical cyclone characterized by thunderstorms and
defined surface wind circulation. Hurricanes develop over warm waters and are
caused by the atmospheric instability created by the collision of warm air with
cooler air.
Hurricane winds blow in a large spiral around a calm center called the eye, which
can be 20-30 miles wide. When a hurricane nears land, it may bring torrential
rains, high winds, storm surges, coastal flooding, inland flooding, and, sometimes,
tornadoes. A single hurricane can last for more than two weeks over water and
can extend outward 400 miles. The hurricane season for the Atlantic Coast and
Gulf of Mexico is June 1 to November 30. On average, five hurricanes strike the
United States every year. In a two-year period, an average of three significant
(category 3 or higher; see Saffir-Simpson scale on page 2-23) hurricanes will
strike the United States. Duration depends on the forward motion of the storm and
the availability of a warm water source for energy.
Some hurricanes are characterized primarily by water  a rainy or wet hurricane 
while others are primarily characterized by wind  a windy or dry hurricane. Wet
hurricanes can flood both coastal and inland areas, even as the storm dissipates
in wind strength, while windy hurricanes primarily affect coastal areas with their
high winds and storm surge. You should, therefore, determine the location and the
expected severity of flooding, storm surge, and winds from hurricanes and tropical
storms that may affect the community or state by finding expected areas of
flooding and peak gusts.
Because hurricanes are large, moving storm systems, they can affect entire states
or entire coastlines. Not only will coastal development be affected, but also areas
far inland can suffer direct impacts from hurricanes and tropical storms.]

Task B. Obtain coastal storm
hazard event profile
information.
The state hurricane program manager,
who usually works for the state
emergency management office, will
have information on hurricanes,
Nor'easters, storm surge, and coastal
erosion and can provide a history of
storms that have affected the state.
Another source of information or
assistance is the state coastal zone
manager who should have information
on state coastal hazards including
information on habitat and
environmental resources that may
be affected by such hazards.
Inland communities will be most
concerned with the flooding aspect
of coastal storms. Torrential rains of
even Category One hurricanes and
tropical storms have been known to
cause 500-year floods (which have a
0.2% chance of occurring each
year) and greater flooding in inland
communities. Coastal communities
will need to determine how severe
the high winds, storm surge and
erosion could be from their storm
surge inundation map.
1. Get a copy of your FIRM.
Coastal flooding is shown on the
FIRM. Copies of FIRMs can be
requested by calling the FEMA Map
Service Center at 1.800.358.9616, on
the Internet at http://www.fema.
gov/maps, or by contacting a FEMA
Regional Office. Additionally, the
National Flood Insurance Program
 (NFIP) Guide to Flood Maps is available on the web at http://msc.
fema.gov/MSC/hardcopy.htm and Flood Insurance Rate Map
(FIRM) information is available at http://www.fema.gov/fmapinfo.
htm. For more information on FIRMs, see page 2-10 to 2-14.
To request copies of your FIRM or to help you identify areas that
are prone to coastal hazards and storm surge, contact your NFIP
coordinator or floodplain manager. They usually work in the planning,
building, engineering, or natural resources department.
Coastal communities or states with a coastline should determine
areas of coastal flooding, characterized as V zones and A zones,
oriented approximately parallel to the shoreline.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Coastal A zones are not currently
mapped or regulated by FEMA any differently
than inland A zones; however,
flood hazards in coastal A zones, like
those in V zones, can include
the effects of waves, velocity
flow, and erosion (although
the magnitude of these effects
will be less than those in V
zones.)

Saffir-Simpson Scale:
Category Definition Effects  
One: Winds 74-95 mph. No real damage to building structures. Damage primarily to 
unanchored mobile homes, shrubbery, and trees. Also, some coastal road flooding and 
minor pier damage 
Two: Winds 96-110 mph. Some roofing material, door, and window damage to buildings. 
Considerable damage to vegetation, mobile homes, and piers. Coastal and low-lying 
escape routes flood 2-4 hours before arrival of center. Small craft in unprotected 
anchorages break moorings. 
Three: Winds 111-130 mph. Some structural damage to small residences and utility 
buildings with a minor amount of curtainwall failures. Mobile homes are destroyed. 
Flooding near the coast destroys smaller structures with larger structures damaged by 
floating debris. Terrain continuously lower than 5 feet ASL may be flooded inland 8 
miles or more. 
Four: Winds 131-155 mph. More extensive curtainwall failures with some complete roof 
structure failure on small residences. Major erosion of beach. Major damage to lower 
floors of structures near the shore. Terrain continuously lower than 10 feet ASL may be 
flooded requiring massive evacuation of residential areas inland as far as 6 miles. 
Five: Winds greater than 155 mph. Complete roof failure on many residences and 
industrial buildings. Some complete building failures with small utility buildings blown 
over or away. Major damage to lower floors of all structures located less than 15 feet 
ASL and within 500 yards of the shoreline. Massive evacuation of residential areas on 
low ground within 5 to 10 miles of the shoreline may be required.  ]

[TIP SIDEBAR: How are
Pacific
Coast States
Different
than Atlantic and
Gulf Coast States?
Eastern and Central Pacific
hurricanes sometimes affect
the West Coast of North
America and the Hawaiian Islands.
Easterly winds push
tropical cyclones that form off
the Mexican and Central American
coasts out toward the Central
Pacific. In the Eastern
Pacific, hurricanes or tropical
storms are more likely to bring
heavy rains, flash floods,
mudslides, and high winds to
Mexico's Pacific Coast than
the U.S. southern California
coast.
Although the California coast
has not been hit by a hurricane-
strength storm, it has
experienced heavy rain from
tropical storms and depressions
in the past. While many
hurricanes form off the west
coast of Mexico, they tend to
move seaward. Rarely, when
a tropical cyclone reaches the
extreme southern California
coast, they tend to be weak
compared to East Coast hurricanes.
Remnant moisture from
dissipated hurricanes or tropical
storms sometimes brings
monsoon-like rains to the
Southwest.
Under tropical cyclone conditions,
the Pacific Coast experiences
storm surges of limited
magnitude because of the
great ocean depths close to
shore.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: What are the Characteristics of Coastal Storms?
Storm surge: The most dangerous and damaging feature of a coastal storm is
storm surge. Storm surges are large waves of ocean water that sweep across
coastlines where a storm makes landfall. The more intense the storm, the greater
the height of the water. The higher the storm surge, the greater the damage to the 
coastline.
Storm surges inundate coastal areas, wash out dunes, cause backwater flooding in rivers,
and can flood streets and buildings in coastal communities. Storm surge areas can be 
mapped
by the probability of storm surge occurrences using Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from
Hurricanes modeling (SLOSH) (see page 2-26).
Storm tide: If a storm surge occurs at the same time as high tide, the water height will be
even greater. Storm tide is the combination of the storm surge and the normal tide. For 
example,
a 15-foot storm surge along with the normal 2-foot high tide creates a storm tide of 17
feet.
Inland Flooding: In recent years, most deaths related to hurricane and tropical storm 
activity
have been the result of inland flooding. As hurricanes move across land bringing 
torrential
rains and backwater flooding from the ocean, rivers and streams overflow. Hurricanes 
and
tropical storms have been known to cause floods whose elevations represent greater than 
a
500-year probability of occurring in inland areas.
Water force: During hurricanes and other coastal storms, coastal areas will experience
flooding with velocity or "wave action," defined as areas subject to receiving waves on 
top of
the rising water from coastal flooding. The velocity and the force of the water make 
flooding
even more destructive. The velocity and wave action knock over buildings, move debris,
erode dunes, scour the shoreline, and displace and redeposit sand. Areas subject to coastal
flooding with velocity are designated as V or VE zones on FIRMs.
Wind velocity: The higher the wind speed, the greater the damage. Hurricane force winds
can travel hundreds of miles inland, creating substantial damage to buildings, vegetation, 
and
infrastructure.
Coastal erosion: Coastal erosion is the wearing away of coastal land. It is commonly used
to describe the horizontal retreat of the shoreline along the ocean, or the vertical 
downcutting
along the shores of the Great Lakes. Erosion is considered a function of larger processes 
of
shoreline change, which includes erosion and accretion. Erosion results when more 
sediment
is lost along a particular shoreline than is redeposited by the water body. Accretion
results when more sediment is deposited along a particular shoreline than is lost. When 
these
two processes are balanced, the shoreline is said to be stable.
In assessing the erosion hazard in your community or state, it is important to realize that
there is a temporal, or time aspect associated with the average rate at which a shoreline is
either eroding or accreting. Over a long-term period (years), a shoreline is considered 
either
eroding, accreting or stable. When you evaluate coastal erosion in your community or 
state,
you should focus on the long-term erosion situation. However, in the short-term, it is 
important
to understand that storms can erode a shoreline that is, over the long-term, classified as
accreting, and vice versa.
Erosion is measured as a rate, with respect to either a linear retreat (i.e., feet of shoreline
recession per year) or volumetric loss (i.e., cubic yards of eroded sediment per linear foot 
of
shoreline frontage per year). Erosion rates are not uniform, and vary over time at any 
single
location. Annual variations are the result of seasonal changes in wave action and water
levels.
Erosion is caused by coastal storms and flood events; changes in the geometry of tidal 
inlets,
river outlets, and bay entrances; man-made structures and human activities such as shore
protection structures and dredging; long-term erosion; and local scour around buildings 
and
other structures.
Further information on coastal erosion can be found in FEMA-55, Coastal Construction 
Manual,
FEMA's Multihazard Identification and Risk Assessment, Evaluation of Erosion Hazards
published by The Heinz Center, and Coastal Erosion Mapping and Management, a 
special
edition of the Journal of Coastal Research.]

2. Verify that the FIRM is up-to-date and complete.
If there has been a coastal
storm since the date of the
FIRM, the coastline and
hazard zones may no longer
be accurate. Coastal storms can
either erode or extend the
coastline, possibly causing the
flood hazard zones to change.
Consult your local floodplain
manager for further advice.
3. Determine the annual rate of
coastal erosion in your coastal
area.
Contact your State Coastal
Zone Management Program to
determine the annual long-term
erosion rate in your area
of the state. This program may
be housed in a separate coastal
agency, an environmental
agency, or a water resources
agency. Once you know the
annual rate, multiply this rate
by the number of years over
which you are planning. Most
erosion maps consider a 30- or
60-year time frame. You would
then measure the amount of
erosion that would take place
over the 30- or 60-year timeframe
from the existing shoreline
and mark this on your
base map.
4. Find your design wind speed.
Contact your state or local building code official to determine your
design wind speed.
Task C. Record your hazard event profile information.
1. Transfer the boundaries of your hurricane hazard areas (flooding
erosion) onto your base map.
2. Record the base flood elevations and wind zones on your base map.

[STATE GUIDANCE: States should be prepared
to assess the severity of a
hurricane statewide. Considerations
like sheltering and
evacuation can be especially
problematic because, although these
may occur only along the coast, the repercussions
of relocating thousands of
people inland may be felt across the
state.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: When coastal erosion occurs, shoreline geometry changes,
possibly causing flood hazard zones to change.]


[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: For more in-depth analysis of the hurricane probability and
effects in your area, you should contact your state coastal zone manager
and/or your SHMO. Go to http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutmeow.html
to find information on the inland wind model, which estimates the maximum
sustained surface wind as a storm moves inland. This model can
be used to estimate the maximum inland strength of hurricane force winds (or any
wind threshold) for a given initial storm intensity and forward storm motion. You can
find examples of the Maximum Envelope of Winds (MEOW) based on the strength
and forward motion of hurricanes in three tables shown on the Web page, one for
each of the regions: Gulf Coast, East Coast, and Northeast Coast.
The National Hurricane Center (NHC), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE),
the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and your state emergency management
agency have detailed information about the hurricane risk in your community.
These organizations are important when doing detailed analysis of hurricane probabilities
through SLOSH modeling and Hurricane Evacuation Studies. SLOSH is a
computerized model run by the NHC to estimate storm surge heights and winds
resulting from historical, hypothetical, or predicted hurricanes by taking into account
pressure, size, forward speed, track, and winds.
The SLOSH boundaries may differ from the base flood boundary on the FIRM. The
SLOSH flood areas are determined by compositing the model surge values from
200-300 hypothetical hurricanes. The point of a hurricane's landfall is crucial to
determining which areas will be inundated by the storm surge. Where the hurricane
forecast track is inaccurate, SLOSH model results will be inaccurate. As a result,
the SLOSH model is best used for defining the potential maximum surge for a
location.
To determine whether a hurricane or tropical storm may affect your community or
state, you should find historical evidence of hurricane or tropical storm activity. At
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastall.html you will find historical data and maps to locate
past hurricane tracks that may have passed through or near your community
or state. The maps show all Atlantic tropical cyclone tracks and their wind strength
from 1927 to the present.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: Conditions that may exacerbate or mitigate the
effects of coastal storms
The following factors will affect the severity of a coastal storm:
* Coastal shape: Concave shoreline sections sustain more damage
because the water is driven into a confined area by the advancing storm,
thus increasing storm surge height and storm surge flooding.
* Storm center velocity: The slower the storm moves, the greater the damage.
The worst possible situation is a storm that stalls along a coast, through
several high tides.
* Nature of coast: Rocky coasts are least disturbed. Cliffs along coasts with
sedimentary deposits can retreat by slumping or rock falls, but damage is
most severe on low-lying barrier island shorelines because they are easily
overwashed by storm waves and storm surge.
* Previous storm damage: A coast weakened by even a previous minor
storm may be subject to proportionally greater damage in a subsequent storm.
* Human activity: With increased development, property damage increases,
multiplying the amount of floating debris available to damage or destroy other
structures.
* Hardened sand and flood control structures: Structures such as groins,
jetties, or seawalls exacerbate localized scour and erosion and can be undermined,
resulting in collapse (particularly seawalls).]

Go to the next
hazard on your list to
profile
or if you are finished with all your
hazard profiles
Go to Step 3

Landslides
[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: What is a
Landslide?
Landslides are described as
downward movement of a
slope and materials under the force of
gravity. The term landslide includes a
wide range of ground movement, such
as rock falls, deep failure of slopes, and
shallow debris flows. Landslides are influenced
by human activity (mining and
construction of buildings, railroads, and
highways) and natural factors (geology,
precipitation, and topography). They are
common all over the United States and
its territories.
What Causes a Landslide?
Landslides occur when masses of rock,
earth, or debris move down a slope.
Therefore, gravity acting on an overly
steep slope is the primary cause of a
landslide. They are activated by storms,
fires, and by human modifications to the
land. New landslides occur as a result of
rainstorms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and various human activities.
Measures of Landslides
Mudflows (or debris flows) are flows of
rock, earth, and other debris saturated
with water. They develop when water rapidly
accumulates in the ground, such as
during heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt,
changing the earth into a flowing river of
mud or "slurry."
Slurry can flow rapidly down slopes or
through channels and can strike with little
or no warning at avalanche speeds.
Slurry can travel several miles from its
source, growing in size as it picks up
trees, cars, and other materials along the
way.
Other types of landslides include: rock
slides, slumps, mudslides, and earthflows.
All of these differ in terms of content
and flow.]

Task B. Obtain landslide hazard event profile
information.
The best predictor of future landslides is past landslides because
they tend to occur in the same places. Landslides, like other geologic
hazards, are very complex and require someone with geologic
expertise to conduct a geotechnical study. You should start by
talking to your local or state geology, planning, public works or
engineering departments, which should have information on past
landslides. These agencies can provide maps, as well as information
about causes, damage, deaths, injuries, and areas impacted by past
landslides. If current maps are not available, the specialists mentioned
above can help create one for your community.

It is important to consult with a local geologist or other professional
familiar with past landslides in order to interpret landslide hazard
information.
1. Identify high-hazard areas on your map.
Identify existing or old landslides:
* On or at the base of slopes;
* In or at the base of minor drainage hollows;
* At the base or top of an old fill slope;
* At the base or top of a steep cut slope; or
* Developed hillsides where leach field septic systems are
used.
2. Map the topography.
Topographic maps can be obtained from the USGS or your state
geologic survey. Specifically, you will need to know where the steep
slopes are. Steeper slopes have a greater probability of landslides.
Contact your state geological survey or natural resources department
for more information or help in interpreting topographic
maps.
3. Map the geology.
Underlying geology also plays an important part in the review of
slope. In addition to slope angle, the presence of rock or soil that
weakens when saturated, as well as poorly drained rock or soil are
indicators of slope instability as well. Contact a local geologist or
state geological survey for more information or assistance in identifying
the various geological features of your community or state.

[TIP SIDEBAR: The three most useful
types of landslide
maps are (1) landslide inventories,
(2) landslide susceptibility
maps, and (3)
landslide hazard maps.
Landslide inventories identify areas that
appear to have failed due to landslides,
including debris flows and cut-and-fill failures.
Detailed inventories depict and classify
each landslide and show scarps,
zones of depletion and accumulation,
active versus inactive slides, geological
age, rate of movement, and other pertinent
data on the depth and type of materials
involved in sliding. Overlaying a
geologic map with an inventory map that
shows existing landslides can identify
specific landslide-prone geologic units.
For this reason, a landslide inventory is
essential for preparing a landslide susceptibility
map.
Landslide susceptibility maps depict
areas that have the potential for landslides
by correlating some of the principal factors
that contribute to landslides  steep
slopes, geologic units that lose strength
when saturated, and poorly drained rock
or soil  with the past distribution of landslides.
These maps indicate the relative
stability of slopes; however, they do not
make absolute predictions. More complex
maps may include additional information
such as slope angle, and
drainage.
Landslide hazard maps show the real
extent of the threat: where landslides have
occurred in the past, where they are likely
to occur now, and where they could occur
in the future. They contain detailed
information on the types of landslides,
extent of slope subject to failure, and probable
maximum extent of ground movement.
These maps can be used to predict
the relative degree of hazard in a landslide
area.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: Conditions that may exacerbate or mitigate the
effects of landslides
The following factors will affect the severity of a landslide:
* Erosion  Erosion caused by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves created
by overly steep slopes.
* Unstable slopes  Rock and soil slopes are weakened through saturation
by snowmelt or heavy rains.
* Earthquakes  The shaking from earthquakes creates stress that makes
weak slopes fail.
* Volcanic eruptions  Eruptions produce loose ash deposits and debris
flows.
* Vibrations  Machinery, traffic, blasting, and even thunder may cause vibrations
that trigger failure of weak slopes.
* Increase of load  Weight of rain/snow, fills, vegetation, stockpiling of rock
or ore from waste piles, or from man-made structures may cause weak
slopes to fail.
* Hydrologic factors  Rain, high water tables, little or no ground cover,
numerous freeze/thaw cycles may cause weak slopes to fail.
* Human activity  These include development activities such as cutting
and filling along roads and removal of forest vegetation. Such activities are
capable of greatly altering slope form and ground water conditions which
can cause weak slopes to fail.
* Removal of lateral and underlying support  Erosion, previous slides,
road cuts and quarries can trigger failure of weak slopes.
* Increase of lateral pressures  Hydraulic pressures, tree roots, crystallization,
swelling of clay soil may cause weak slopes to fail.
* Regional tilting  Geological movements can trigger weak slopes to fail.]

Task C. Record your hazard event profile information.
Mark the areas susceptible to landslides on your base map.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
profile
or if you are finished with all your hazard profiles
Go to Step 3


Wildfires
[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: What is a Wildfire?
A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire
spreading through vegetative
fuels, exposing and possibly
consuming structures. They often begin
unnoticed and spread quickly and are usually
signaled by dense smoke that fills the
area for miles around. Naturally occurring
and non-native species of grasses, brush,
and trees fuel wildfires.
A wildland fire is a wildfire in an area in
which development is essentially nonexistent,
except for roads, railroads, power
lines and similar facilities. An Urban-Wildland
Interface fire is a wildfire in a geographical
area where structures and other
human development meet or intermingle
with wildland or vegetative fuels.
States with a large amount of wooded,
brush and grassy areas, such as California,
Colorado, New Mexico, Montana, Kansas,
Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia,
Florida, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Massachusetts,
and the national forests of the
western United States are at highest risk
of wildfires. Additionally, areas anywhere
that have experienced prolonged droughts,
or are excessively dry, are also at risk of
wildfires.
People start more than four out of every
five wildfires, usually as debris burns, arson,
or carelessness. Lightning strikes are
the next leading cause of wildfires.
Wildfire behavior is based on three primary
factors:
* Fuel
* Topography
* Weather
The type, and amount of fuel, as well as its
burning qualities and level of moisture affect
wildfire potential and behavior. The continuity
of fuels, expressed in both
horizontal and vertical components is also
a factor, in that it expresses the pattern of
vegetative growth and open areas.
Topography is important because it affects
the movement of air (and thus the fire) over
the ground surface. The slope and shape
of terrain can change the rate of speed at
which the fire travels.
Weather affects the probability of wildfire
and has a significant effect on its behavior.
Temperature, humidity and wind (both
short and long term) affect the severity and
duration of wildfires.]

Task B. Obtain wildfire hazard event profile
information.
Wildfire hazard maps won't show the extent or range of where a
wildfire will occur because they are dependent on the amount of
fuel available, weather conditions, and wind speed and direction.
On the other hand, wildfire hazard maps should show geographic
locations of where wildfires have taken place in the past and areas
that are prone to wildfires.
Contact your state forest service at http://www.stateforesters.org/
sflist.html or your USFS Region office at http://www.fs.fed.us/
intro/directory/orgdir.htm for wildfire mapping information.

1. Map the fuel models located within the urban-wildland interface area of
your community.
Use the fuel model key (page 2-31)excerpted from the National Fire
Danger Rating (NFDR) System, 1978, U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) Forest Service, as a guide, to determine the fuel model
classifications within your community or state. It represents all
wildfire fuels from Florida to Alaska and from the East Coast to
California, so they are only general descriptions.
You can also download the USDA fuel model map from the Internet
at: http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wfas/nfdr_map.htm. The USDA map
was designed to assess fire danger across the continental United
States and may not be site specific.
Using the fuel model key, map the various fuel classifications based
on the following categories:
* Heavy Fuel is vegetation consisting of round wood 3 to 8
inches in diameter. (fuel models G, I, J, K and U on the
fuel model key)
* Medium Fuel is vegetation consisting of round wood 1/3
to 3 inches in diameter. (fuel models B, D, F, H, O, Q,
and T on the fuel model key)
* Light Fuel is vegetation consisting of herbaceous plants
and round wood less than  inch in diameter. (fuel
models A, C, E, L, N, P, R and S on the fuel model key)
For more information or assistance contact your local arborist or
state forestry or natural resources department.

2. Map the topography.
In general terms, the steeper the slope of the land, the faster a fire
can spread up the slope. Using a topographic map, identify areas of
your community or state with slopes less than 40%, between 41%
and 60%, and greater than 61%, corresponding to low, moderate
and steep gradients relative to the spread of wildfires.
Contact your state geological survey or natural resources department
for more information or help with topographic maps.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Visit the USFS Website
at http://www.fs.fed.us
/links/maps.shtml/ or the
USGS Website at http://
mcmcweb. er.usgs.gov/
topomaps/ for general information about
topographic maps, finding and ordering
topographic maps, and an explanation of
topographic map symbols.]

3. Determine your critical fire weather frequency.
This is a set of weather conditions, usually a combination of low
relative humidity and wind, whose effects on fire behavior make
control difficult and threaten firefighter safety. The average number
of days per year of critical fire weather experienced in your
community or state can be obtained from your local or state fire
marshal, forestry department, or department of natural resources.
The National Weather Service or NOAA Websites can help you
determine past weather conditions.

[STATE GUIDANCE: Most communities
or regions should have one
critical fire weather frequency
number; however, states may
have more than one zone depending
on climatic and atmospheric conditions.
The state forester should be
prepared to assist communities in determining
their critical fire weather frequency,
as well as the type of fuel
models to use, and the fuel loading
levels.]

4. Determine your fire hazard severity.
Using the Fire Hazard Severity Table below, determine your fire
hazard severity. You may have more than one classification in your
community or state depending on the degrees of the slope and fuel
models. For example, if you experience an average of five critical
fire weather days per year, have heavy fuel, and less than 40 slopes,
then you are in a high fire hazard area. If your average number of
days of critical fire weather per year increases above eight, you
would be in an extreme fire hazard area.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: If you cannot find the
necessary information to produce
a wildfire profile contact
your fire marshal or state forest
service for help identifying
fire prone areas of grasslands or
dense wooded areas. Research past or
historic wildfire events and use eyewitness
accounts to delineate the approximate
wildfire boundaries. Indicate these
areas on your base map as potential wildfire
hazard areas.]

Task C. Record your hazard event profile information.
Draw the boundaries of your wildfire hazard areas onto your base map.

Critical Fire Frequency 
< 1 /Day/Year 2 to 7 Days/Year >8 Days/Year 
Slope (%)<40 41-60 >61 Slope (%)<40 41-60 >61 Slope (%)<40 41-60 >61
Fuel Classification 
Light Fuel M M M M M M M M H 
Medium Fuel M M H H H H E E E 
Heavy Fuel  H H H H E E E E E
M = Moderate hazard 
H = High hazard
E = Extreme hazard 
Source: Urban Wildland Interface Code: 2000

Fuel
Model Key
Source:
Urban Wildland
Interface Code: 2000

I. Mosses, lichens, and low shrubs predominate ground fuels.
A. An overstory of conifers occupies more than one-third of the site: MODEL Q.
B. There is no overstory, or it occupies less than one-third of the site (tundra): MODEL 
S.
II. Marsh grasses and/or reeds predominate: MODEL N.
III. Grasses and/or forbs predominate.
A. There is an open overstory of conifer and/or hardwood trees: MODEL C.
B. There is no overstory.
1. Woody shrubs occupy more than one-third, but less than two-thirds of the site; 
MODEL T.
2. Woody shrubs occupy less than one-third of the site.
a. The grasses and forbs are primarily annuals; MODEL A.
b. The grasses and forbs are primarily perennials: MODEL L.
IV. Brush, shrubs, tree reproduction or dwarf tree species predominate.
A. Average height of woody plants is 6 feet or greater.
1. Woody plants occupy two-thirds or more of the site.
a. One-fourth or more of the woody foliage is dead.
(1) Mixed California chaparral: MODEL B.
(2) Other types of brush: MODEL F.
b. Up to one-fourth of the woody foliage is dead; MODEL Q.
c. Little dead foliage: MODEL O.
2. Woody plants occupy less than two-thirds of the site: MODEL F.
B. Average height of woody plants is less than 6 feet.
1. Woody plants occupy two-thirds or more of the site.
a. Western United States; MODEL F.
b. Eastern United States: MODEL O.
2. Woody plants occupy less than two-thirds but more than one-third of the site.
a. Western United States; MODEL T.
b. Eastern United States; MODEL D.
3. Woody plants occupy less than one-third of the site.
a. The grasses and forbs are primarily annuals: MODEL A.
b. The grasses and forbs are primarily perennials: MODEL L.
V. Trees predominate.
A. Deciduous broadleaf species predominate.
1. The area has been thinned or partially cut, leaving slash as the major fuel component; 
MODEL K.
2. The area has not been thinned or partially cut.
a. The overstory is dormant; the leaves have fallen: MODEL E.
b. The overstory is in full leaf: MODEL R.
B. Conifer species predominate.
1. Lichens, mosses, and low shrubs dominate as understory fuels: MODEL Q.
2. Grasses and forbs are the primary ground fuels: MODEL C.
3. Woody shrubs and/or reproduction dominate as understory fuels.
a. The understory burns readily.
(1) Western United States: MODEL T.
(2) Eastern United States:
(a) The understory is more than 6 feet tall: MODEL O.
(b) The understory is less than 6 feet tall: MODEL D.
b. The understory seldom burns; MODEL H.
4. Duff and litter, branchwood, and tree boles are the primary ground fuels.
a. The overstory is overmature and decadent; there is a heavy accumulation of dead tree 
debris: MODEL G.
b. The overstory is not decadent; there is only nominal accumulation of debris.
(1) The needles are 2 inches or more in length (most pines).
(a) Eastern United States: MODEL P.
(b) Western United States: MODEL U.
(2) The needles are less than 2 inches long: MODEL H.
VI. Slash is the predominant fuel.
A. The foliage is still attached; there has been little settling.
1. The loading is 25 tons/acre or greater; MODEL I.
2. The loading is less than 25 tons/acre but more than 15 tons/acre: MODEL J.
3. The loading is less than 15 tons/acre: MODEL K.
B. Settling is evident; the foliage is falling off; grasses, forbs, and shrubs are invading the 
area.
1. The loading is 25 tons/acre or greater: MODEL J.
2. The loading is less than 25 tons/acre: MODEL K.

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: The Wildland Fire Assessment System (WFAS) was
created to help evaluate risk factors, which vary depending on current
and past weather conditions, fuel types and moisture. Observations are
reported daily during peak wildfire season, from late winter to early spring,
to the Weather Information Management System (WIMS). The information
is processed by the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS), which
creates national maps of selected fire weather and fire danger components.
Copies of the maps can be viewed on the WFAS Website (the address is located in
Appendix A).
The fire danger map described above indicates low to extreme fire danger values
for the United States based on past and current weather, fuel types, and the presence
of live and dead fuel moisture.
In addition to the fire danger maps referenced above, communities and states should
map areas of past wildfire damages. This information is available from the local or
state emergency management agency or fire department. Areas with significant
fuel sources located adjacent to developed areas are prime risks for wildfire damage
and should be mapped as well.
Even if your community is not especially close to a source of burning, you should
be aware that fires in nearby areas could quickly and easily spread into your community.
Conditions that may exacerbate or mitigate the effects of wildfires
The following factors will affect the severity of a wildfire:
* Climatic Considerations  Areas of extreme climate conditions, including
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and duration of high velocity,
precipitation, wind direction, fog and other atmospheric conditions.
* Topographic Considerations  elevation and ranges of elevation, location
of ridges, drainages and escarpments, percent of grade (slope), location of
roads, bridges and railroads.
* Geographic Considerations  Fuel types, concentration in a mosaic and
distribution of fuel types, earthquake fault zones, hazardous material routes.
* Flammable material on structure exteriors.
* Narrow roadways leading to developed areas.
* Inadequate hydrants or poorly placed hydrants.
* Combustible landscaping or debris near structures.
* Development  increased development and human activity in and near the
wildland interface.]

Go to the next hazard on your list to
profile
or if you are finished with all your hazard profiles
Go to Step 3

step
3
inventory
assets
Overview
The third step in the risk assessment process answers the question:
What assets in the community or state will be affected by
the hazard event?
Now that you know where natural hazard events can affect your
community or state, you will conduct an inventory of the vulnerable
assets. The inventory will help you understand what can be affected
by the different hazard events.

[Aerial photograph of urban area: Your communitys assets may include
hospitals, schools, museums, apartment
buildings, and public infrastructure or utilities
such as bridges or overhead power
lines.]

You will first develop and map a general inventory of assets in your
community or state. Then, using the maps developed previously in
Step 2, you will identify the assets inside your hazard areas. For
example, using your floodplain maps from Step 2, you will identify
all of the assets within the 100-year floodplain boundary. However,
some hazards can affect the entire community (such as earthquakes
or tornadoes) and some will only affect limited areas. Thus, the
unique combinations of hazards that can affect you will determine
how much inventory collection will be appropriate. An initial
inventory can be done very quickly and easily using the baseline
data contained in HAZUS.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Information regarding
the amount of population and
building stock located in the
hazard areas can provide a
powerful initial glimpse into the
nature of the community's vulnerability
to natural hazards. This can help secure
political and community support and funding
for mitigation planning and for the
projects to be later identified.]

[HAZUS SIDEBAR: HAZUS contains inventory
information for every
community in the United
States. While HAZUS is currently
used for generating
earthquake loss estimates, it can also
be used to inventory elements exposed
to other hazards. The package includes
GIS maps showing schools, street roadway
maps at the county level, SLOSH
basin maps outlining areas that can be
inundated by hurricane surges, Q3 flood
data maps indicating floodplains at the
county level, and land use/land cover
maps, among others.
HAZUS also allows users to update and
add location-specific data. For more information
on using HAZUS, see the
HAZUS Users Manual or contact your
FEMA regional office.
A GIS system will also allow your community
to access and use the data available
in HAZUS. For example, if you have
a GIS flood layer, you may be able to
estimate the number of people living in
or near flood hazards areas by census
tract or compute the current value of
property located in the flood hazard area.
In either case, two things are important:
Be consistent. In order to perform any
comparisons in subsequent steps and
phases of the mitigation planning, you
should strive to use a consistent method
for evaluating and recording information
about elements of your community. This
is especially important if more than one
person will be gathering information. You
want to avoid subjective opinions and
judgments from the process as much as
possible.
Keep good records. The information you
collect at this phase will be of value
throughout the remainder of the planning
process.]

Worksheet #3a Inventory Assets 
What will be affected by the hazard event?
Task A. Determine the proportion of buildings, the value of buildings, and the population 
in your community
or state that are located in hazard areas.
Hazard : Flood
	
Date: July, 2001 

[TABLE Listing Types of structures, number in community or state,  number in hazard 
area, percent in hazard area, value of structures in community or state, value of structures 
in hazard area, percent of value in hazard area, number of people in community or state, 
number of people in hazard area, and percentage of people in hazard area.
Types of structures are: residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, religious/non-
profit, government, education, and utilities.]

Task B. Determine whether (and where) you want to collect additional inventory data.
1. Do you know where your greatest damages may occur in your hazard areas? [yes or 
no]
2. Do you know whether your critical facilities will be operational after a hazard event? 
[yes or no]
3. Is there enough data to determine which assets are subject to the greatest potential
damages? [yes or no]
4. Is there enough data to determine whether significant elements of the community
are vulnerable to potential hazards? [yes or no]
5. Is there enough data to determine whether certain areas of historic, environmental,
political, or cultural significance are vulnerable to potential hazards? [yes or no]
6. Is there concern about a particular hazard because of its severity, repetitiveness,
or likelihood of occurrence? [yes or no]
7. Is additional data needed to justify the expenditure of community or state funds for
mitigation initiatives? [yes or no]

[SAMPLE TEXT: Joe, I think we need to do some more research.]

Worksheet #3b Inventory Assets 
What will be affected by the hazard event?
Task C. Compile a detailed inventory of what can be damaged by a hazard event.
Inventory the assets (critical facilities, businesses, historic, cultural, and natural resource 
areas, and areas of
special consideration), that can be damaged by a hazard event.
Date: August 2001 
Hazard : Flood
	

[TABLE Listing Name or Description of Asset, Sources of information, Size of building 
(sq ft), replacement value, contents value, function use or value, displacement costs per 
day, occupancy or capacity, and other hazard-specific information.
[check one of the following:
Critical Facility
Vulnerable Populations
Economic Assets
Special Considerations
Historic/Other Considerations]

Some examples of assets:
Historic Lighthouse
Bridge
Sewage Treatment Plant 
STP Outbuildings
Water Treatment Plant
Hospital 
Police/Fire Station]

HAZUS can summarize the number and value of structures in your
jurisdiction by the types of structure or the occupancy class. For
example, if you wanted to know how many residential or commercial
structures were in your community or state, you would select a
summary by the building occupancy class. If you wanted to know
how many manufactured homes or wood framed buildings were in
your community or state, you would select a summary by the building
structure type.
After assessing the number and value of the buildings and the size
of the population within the hazard areas, you will decide if you
should end your inventory data collection or continue to gather
additional information to identify the extent to which the assets
would be damaged by the hazard events. If you decide to gather
additional information, you will then collect details on specific types
of population, building stock, infrastructure, and lifelines in the
hazard areas in the order of their importance to the community.
This information will be necessary to generate the loss estimations
you will make in Step 4.
You will use Worksheet #3: Inventory Assets in Appendix C (see
example on pages 3-2 and 3-3) to keep track of the inventory data
you will gather. Photocopy the worksheet for each hazard you are
assessing. If you have many assets to inventory, you may want to use
HAZUS databases or create a computerized spreadsheet to make
your data collection efforts more manageable.
[STATE GUIDANCE: States can use
worksheet #3 to compile the
inventory data from each of
the local community risk assessments.]

Procedures & Techniques
Task A. Determine the proportion of buildings, the
value of buildings, and the population in your community
or state that are located in hazard areas.
1. Estimate or count the total number of buildings, value of buildings, and
number of people in your community or state.

[TIP SIDEBAR: U.S. Census Bureau
TIGER files are available from
http://www.census.gov/geo/
www/tiger.]

Using local resources, Census data, HAZUS, or other GIS capabilities,
you will determine the total number and value of buildings and
the population within your jurisdiction.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: To estimate the
total replacement
value of the buildings in
your community or state,
multiply the average building
replacement value by the number of
buildings. HAZUS can help you.]

a. Determine the total
number of buildings
inside your community
or state. Identify the
total number of buildings
located within your
community or state.

[WARNING SIDEBAR: Remember that so far, you have
only been considering one hazard event
for each hazard type. Later in the process,
you may find the need
to assess additional or possibly
all potential hazard
events. This may expand or
decrease your planning area.]

This information can be grouped by occupancy class,
such as residential, commercial, or industrial in HAZUS
or can be gathered from a tax assessment map, aerial
photograph or local planning document.
b. Determine the total estimated value of the buildings
inside your community or state. Establish the total
approximate replacement value of the buildings located
inside the hazard area. This information is also estimated
by occupancy class in HAZUS or can be gathered from
the tax assessment values of individual buildings, or by
developing an estimate for the area as a whole.
c. Determine the number of people inside your community
or state. Estimate the current population inside your
jurisdiction. Use HAZUS, current Census data, or local
figures to estimate the current population. You should
note whether or not you have large daytime, nighttime,
or seasonal differences in your population.
2. Estimate the total number of buildings, total value of buildings, and
number of people in each of your hazard zones.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Estimating future
development will be addressed
in the next phase of
the Mitigation Planning Process.
The phase Develop a
Mitigation Plan will include how-to guidance
on estimating future land use and
population and will account for future
risks. For now, you should note areas
where future development or redevelopment
may occur, to determine whether
those areas are subject to hazards.]

You will now use HAZUS, GIS, or printed maps to overlay the
hazard areas developed in Step 2 on top of your base map to determine
the number and value of the buildings and the population
that is vulnerable to the hazard events.
a. Determine the total number of buildings inside the
hazard area. Establish the total number of buildings
located inside the hazard area for each hazard type. You
can use HAZUS to group the buildings by occupancy
class or use GIS, a tax assessment map, or aerial photograph
to determine the number of buildings in the
hazard area.
b. Determine the total estimated value of the buildings
inside the hazard area. Establish the total approximate
replacement value of the buildings located inside the
hazard area. You can use HAZUS, GIS, tax assessment
values, or develop an estimate of the value of the buildings
inside the hazard area as a whole.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Your inventory should characterize
a building and its contents, as well
as its functions and the effect of the function
on the buildings, its service to the
community or state and its effect on the
economy. You should ask yourself, what
would happen to the community or state
if the building's function were
interrupted?
For example, providing drinking
water is a normal function
of local government, usually
undertaken by the public
works department. If your water treatment
plant is located in a hazard area
and can be damaged by a natural hazard
event such as a flood or an earthquake,
then it should be included in your
inventory. In addition to the potential for
physical damage to the plant itself, you
should estimate the cost to businesses
and residents for the period of time in
which potable water might not be available.]

c. Determine the number of people inside the hazard area.
Estimate the current population inside the hazard area.
Use HAZUS, current Census data, local figures, or an
estimate of the population. Once again, you should note
if there is a large daytime, nighttime, or seasonal population
change inside the hazard area.

[TIP SIDEBAR: An overlay can be produced by hand using a light table or
through the use of GIS.
A map showing the
location of the
communitys assets
can be produced
by overlaying the
base map for the
community
with a map
delineating hazard
area boundaries.]

[BASIC SIDEBAR: Using a light table (or
GIS if available), overlay this
information to see which
structures are located in more
than one hazard zone and
which areas of the community or state
are more or less susceptible to different
hazards.]

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: This overlay mapping
technique will
also be helpful in looking at
areas within the community
that are not currently developed
but could be in the future. There is
no better time to avoid potential problems
than before ground is broken for residential,
commercial, or industrial land uses.
By determining if any areas in the community
that could be developed are prone
to specific hazards, actions can be taken
in advance that will serve to limit loss of
life and property in the event of a disaster
event.]

3. Calculate the proportion of assets located in hazard areas.
To determine the proportion of structures, building value, or people
in your hazard areas compared to your community or state, divide
the number or value in your hazard area by the
total number or value in your jurisdiction. For
example, if you determined that you have 20
residential structures in your community and 10 of
those are located in the 100-year floodplain, then
50 percent, or 10 divided by 20, of your residential
structures are located in your flood hazard area.

[STATE GUIDANCE: States should inventory (or arrange for
communities to perform these assessments as part
of their inventories) state facilities (including critical
facilities) and properties lying in hazard areas, including:
* Infrastructure such as highways, bridges, waterways, and
utilities;
* Air, water, and other transportation terminals or ports;
* Lifelines and communication systems, such as phone lines
and antennae, or water and sewage treatment plants; and
* Public recreation areas, parks, or forests.
As you complete your inventory, determine how you will incorporate
the results into your statewide risk assessment.
You should begin to see the pattern of potential damage across
the state as communities complete their individual inventories.]

4. Determine the location of expected growth in your
community.
By referring to your local comprehensive plan, or
by talking with community officials, learn where
future growth is expected to take place. Note
whether these areas lie within hazard areas.

Task B. Determine whether (and where) you want to
collect additional inventory data.
This is a critical juncture in your risk assessment. You may decide to
end your inventory at this point, knowing the total estimated
population, number of buildings, and value of buildings in the
hazard areas, or you may decide to continue to gather additional
inventory information described in Task C.
Ending your inventory now will only provide you a very broad
picture of the potential extent of damage likely from a hazard
event. When time, money, or other resources are scarce, a truncated
inventory such as this can be helpful in demonstrating in a very
broad sense what your community stands to lose during a hazard
event. It can be particularly useful to convince decision-makers of
the need for further study to determine potential losses from
certain hazards. However, these figures will NOT allow you to
specify the structures that are at greatest risk of damage, making
objective determination of mitigation priorities difficult in the next
phase of the planning process.
Collecting additional information will allow you to determine to
what extent your assets can be damaged in a hazard event, giving
you a more accurate estimate of the losses (cost of damages) to your
community. At this time, loss estimation factors are available for
floods, coastal storms, and earthquakes. In order to benefit from the
use of these factors, you will need to gather additional inventory
information.
The decision whether to gather additional information for some or
all of your hazard areas is a subjective one. Your decision may be
based on your need for detailed hazard- or site-specific information
or the need to determine where to focus your information or the
need to determine where to focus your mitigation efforts as part of
the next phase of the Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning Process.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Community
Vulnerability
Assessment Tool
(CVAT) CD-ROM
The CVAT can be used to run a preliminary
vulnerability assessment to help
you determine whether or where you
would like to spend more time or resources
on collecting additional data. The
CVAT provides guidance on conducting
community-wide vulnerability assessments.
It also provides a case study demonstrating
the process for analyzing
physical, social, economic, and environmental
vulnerability to hazards at the local
level. For more information, visit the
NOAA Web site at http://www.csc.
noaa.gov/products.]

As you decide how much information to collect, ask yourself these
questions:
1. Is there enough data to determine which assets are
subject to the greatest potential damages?
2. Is there enough data to determine whether significant
elements of the community are vulnerable to potential
hazards?
3. Is there enough data to determine whether certain areas
of historic, environmental, political, or cultural significance
are vulnerable to potential hazards?

4. Is there concern about a particular hazard because of its
severity, repetitiveness, or likelihood of occurrence?
5. Is additional data needed to justify the expenditure of
community or state funds for mitigation initiatives?
You may want to gather detailed loss information on all of your
potential hazards, one hazard, or a particular area or neighborhood
affected by a hazard. You may also decide to gather detailed loss
information for all your critical and essential facilities, or you may
focus your attention on just the schools or hospitals. Additionally, if
you plan to use the loss information to help you identify and/or
prioritize mitigation projects in the next phase of the planning
process, you may find it necessary to gather the additional information
in order to perform a benefit-cost analysis.

If you wish to end your inventory collection at this point
Go to Summary (page 3-13)

Task C. Compile a detailed inventory of what can be
damaged by a hazard event.
You will now begin to develop a more detailed inventory of the
types of assets that are located in hazard areas, and the characteristics
of those assets. Collecting data on these characteristics will help
you determine the losses to these assets from different hazards.
1. Determine the priorities for your inventory collection efforts.
After you have determined for which hazard events you will gather
additional information, you will determine your priorities for
collecting the information. Choices about how much information
you can reasonably gather may be particularly important for large
communities or for areas with a dense concentration of assets. In
some cases, the hazard profiles created in Step 2 will have already
helped focus your efforts by eliminating areas without a significant
hazard threat from your immediate concern.

[HAZUS SIDEBAR: HAZUS separates critical buildings and facilities
into the five categories shown below based on their loss potential. For
the purpose of this guide, all of the following elements are considered
critical facilities:
* Essential Facilities are essential to the health and welfare of the whole
population and are especially important following hazard events. The potential
consequences of losing them are so great, that they should be carefully
inventoried. Be sure to consider not only their structural integrity and content
value, but also the effects on the interruption of their functions because the
vulnerability is based on the service they provide rather than simply their
physical aspects. Essential facilities include hospitals and other medical facilities,
police and fire stations, emergency operations centers and evacuation
shelters, and schools.
* Transportation Systems include airways  airports, heliports; highways 
bridges, tunnels, roadbeds, overpasses, transfer centers; railways  trackage,
tunnels, bridges, rail yards, depots; and waterways  canals, locks,
seaports, ferries, harbors, drydocks, piers.
* Lifeline Utility Systems such as potable water, wastewater, oil, natural gas,
electric power and communication systems.
* High Potential Loss Facilities are facilities that would have a high loss
associated with them, such as nuclear power plants, dams, and military
installations.
* Hazardous Material Facilities include facilities housing industrial/hazardous
materials, such as corrosives, explosives, flammable materials, radioactive
materials, and toxins.]

Following are some ideas on how to focus your time and money on
the most urgent and important elements within your community or
state.
* Identify critical facilities that are important to your
community or state. (See the definitions above).
* Identify vulnerable populations such as non-English
speaking people or elderly people who may require
special response assistance or special medical care after a
disaster.
* Identify economic elements such as major employers and
financial centers in your jurisdiction that could affect the
local or regional economy if significantly disrupted.
* Identify areas with special considerations such as areas of
high-density residential or commercial development that,
if damaged, could result in high death tolls and injury
rates.
* Identify historic, cultural, and natural resource areas
including areas that may be identified and protected
under state or federal law.
* Identify other important facilities which help ensure a
full recovery of your community or state following a
hazard event. These would include: government functions, major employers, banks, and 
certain commercial
establishments, such as grocery stores, hardware stores,
and gas stations.
2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.

[TIP SIDEBAR: The type of hazard
event will influence what
information should be gathered
in the inventory. In Steps
1 and 2 it became apparent
that because there are fundamental differences
in the hazard types, there are
corresponding differences in the type of
information and data you are collecting.
For example, floodwaters tend to inundate
whatever is within a given area to a
known consistent depth. However, hazard
events such as tornadoes that are
equally likely to occur anywhere in the
community are usually profiled in terms
of the magnitude (e.g., wind speed).
Therefore, for hazard events such as
floods, the information gathered will be
based on the geographic area expected
to be flooded, based on past experience.
For a less predictable hazard such as a
tornado, you will be less concerned with
specific location; instead, you will focus
on the construction characteristics for
buildings throughout the community.]

You will gather building-specific information regardless of the
hazard that you are assessing. The list below discusses the type of
information needed to calculate potential losses from different
hazards in Step 4. You may want to gather this information for all of
your hazards in combination with the hazard-specific information
listed in the next step.
a. Determine the size of the building. Measured by the
square foot, the size of the buildings is used to estimate
both the replacement and function value of buildings.
Sources of information include the tax assessment,
building, zoning, or planning departments.
b. Determine the replacement value. This is usually expressed
in terms of cost per square foot and reflects the
present-day cost of labor and materials to construct a
building of a particular size, type, and quality. The
replacement value is the current cost of returning a
physical asset to its pre-damaged condition.
If you do not already have the replacement values
from HAZUS or a local source use the table to the left
and find the average replacement values per square foot.
These costs are based on national averages for materials
and installation and may need to be adjusted to account
for regional differences. For example, building materials
and supplies cost more in Hawaii than Kansas. Finally,
multiply the cost per square foot by the size (in square
feet) of the building you are
assessing.
[CAUTION SIDEBAR The average replacement
values were adjusted
by the Consumer Price
Index (CPI) to represent 2000
dollar figures.
The CPI is the ratio of the value of a basket
of goods in the current year to the
value of that same basket of goods in the
previous year. It measures the average
level of prices of the goods and services
typically consumed by an urban American
family. The http://woodrow.mpls.frb.fed.
us/research/data/us/calc/hist1800.cfm
Website can be used to adjust historic
dollar figures to current year dollar figures.

TABLE: Average Building Replacement Value per Square Foot
Occupancy Class	Total $/sq. ft.
Single Family Dwelling	77
Mobile Home	52
Multi-family Dwelling	98
Temporary Lodging	102
Institutional Dormitory	98
Nursing Home	89
Retail Trade	67
Wholesale Trade	53
Personal/Repair Services	92
Professional[Tech. Services	87
Banks	151
Hospital	145
Medical Office/Clinic	112
Entertainment & Recreation	131
Theaters	98
Parking	30
Heavy Industrial	69
Light Industrial	69
Food/Drugs/Chemicals	69
Metals/Minerals Processing	69
High Technology	69
Construction	69
Agriculture	26
Church/Non-Profit Offices	113
General Services	88
Emergency Response	130
Schools	91
Colleges/Universities	115
Source: HAZUS]

c. Determine the content value.
If you do not already have
the estimated content values
from HAZUS or a local
source, use the table at right
to estimate the content
value. Find the type of
building you are assessing
and determine the percent of
the content replacement
value. Multiply this percent
by the building replacement
value to calculate the content
replacement value. Although
there is not a standard cost
variation table, you should
keep in mind that some contents such as antiques or
collectibles may be worth more than the average values.
Increase your estimated content loss for these types of
contents as you deem necessary.

TABLE: Contents Value as Percentage of Building Replacement Value
Occupancy Class	Contents Value
Residential (including temporary lodging, dormitory, and
nursing homes)	50
Commercial (including retail, wholesale, professional,
services, financial, entertainment & recreation)	100
Commercial (including hospital and medical off ice/clinic)	150
Commercial Parking	50
Industrial (including heavy, light, technology)	150
Industrial Construction	100
Agriculture	100
Religion/Non-Profit	100
Government Emergency Response	150
Government General Services	100
Education Schools/Libraries	100
Education Colleges/Universities	150
Source: HAZUS

d. Determine the function use or value. This represents the
value of a building's use or function that would be lost if
it were damaged or closed. A standard way to calculate
the monetary damage from losing public functions is to
use the budget of the service as a proxy for its value to
the community. For private functions, the table on page
3-12 shows the average annual sales or production based
on square footage. Using the table, find the type of
function you are assessing and multiply the index by the
structure size. The damages from "loss of function" are
often much greater than physical damage to a structure.

TABLE: Annual Gross Sales or Production (Dollars per Square Foot)
	Occupancy Class	Annual Sales ($/sq. ft.)
Commercial:
	Retail Trade	30
	Wholesale Trade	43
	Industrial:
	Heavy	400
	Light	127
	Food/Drugs/Chemicals	391
	Metals/Minerals Processing	368
	High Technology	245
	Construction	431
	Agricultural:
	Agriculture	83
Source: HAZUS

[TIP SIDEBAR: Example 1
To find the annual sales from
a 15,000 square foot grocery
store, you would multiply the
structure size by $30 per square foot
(from the table at right).
15,000 x $30
The annual sales would be $450,000.
Example 2
If a public library will be lost for three
months due to damage from a 100-year
flood, you could determine the damages
from the loss of function by multiplying
the monthly budget of the library (overhead,
rent, staff salaries, etc.) by three
months.]

e. Determine the displacement cost. The displacement cost
is the dollar amount it would cost for the function
(business or service) to be relocated to another structure
because of a hazard event. These costs include rent for
temporary building space per month, one-time displacement
costs to set up operations in the new space, lost
rent per month from all tenants, and other costs of
displacement.
f. Determine the occupancy or capacity. Determine how
many people the asset, such as a building or bridge, is
designed to hold or service. Building capacities are
available from local fire departments and/or fire
marshal's offices. Bridge load ratings can be obtained
from the responsible local, state, or federal transportation
departments.
3. Gather hazard-specific information about the assets.
The pages that follow discuss the type of information needed to
calculate potential losses from different hazards in Step 4. Because
the characteristics of different hazards create the need for different
types of data, you should review your unique combination of hazards
to determine how you may want to approach data collection.
The following table illustrates how different hazards may require
different data.

TABLE:  Building Data Requirements By Hazard

Building Type / Type of Foundation: Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami, Coastal Storm
Building Code Design Level / Date of Construction: Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami, 
Tornado, Coastal Storm, Wildfire
Roof Material: Tornado, Coastal Storm, Wildfire
Roof Construction: Tornado, Coastal Storm, Wildfire
Vegetation: Wildfire
Topography: Flood, Coastal Storm, Landslide, Wildfire
Distance from the Hazard Zone: Flood, Tsunami, Coastal Storm, Landslide, Wildfire

Summary
After you have completed Step 3, you will know the quantity of
buildings, people, and building values that lie in the different
hazard areas and what proportion of the community this represents.
If you decided to develop a more detailed inventory of what lies in
these hazard areas, you will also know about many of the characteristics
of the buildings and population. This will enable you to
estimate losses resulting from hazard events and to determine where
to best begin to address mitigation issues and focus your resources.
Above all, you now have a better understanding of what is at risk in
your community and an emerging picture of what your community
stands to lose after a hazard event.
Step 3 most likely will present the greatest challenge in the loss
estimation process and has the greatest potential to be a resource
drain, but it is actually the most meaningful step. The degree to
which you invest time and resources in the inventory will determine
the quality of the loss estimation in Step 4, and ultimately your
ability to prioritize mitigation actions during the next phase of the
planning process.

If you have completed your inventory
Go to Step 4
to estimate the losses.

[MOCK NEWSPAPER ARTICLE:
The Hazardville Post
Vol. CXI No. 256 Thursday, September 13, 2001
Hazardville Risk Assessment Back On Track
(Part 3 of a 4 part series on the Risk Assessment Process)
[Hazardville, EM] Town Council members
held a special meeting Monday,
upset that the inventory had not yet been
completed. Joe Norris, the lead planner
of the Town of Hazardville Organization
for Risk Reduction (THORR), testified
that the task force has been working since
April to collect data on the hazards that
could potentially affect Hazardville and
assess the effects of those hazards on
the town. Norris explained that collecting
the initial information on the town
and the hazards went fairly quickly.
Norris said, "The initial inventory
was simplified due to the assistance offered
by the State of Emergency Hazard
Mitigation Officer." To get the ball
rolling, the State of Emergency Office
of Emergency Preparedness (EOEP),
used a loss estimation tool developed
by the Federal Emergency Management
Agency, Hazards U.S. (HAZUS) to provide
an initial inventory of critical facilities
and buildings in the community.
This information was added to the base
map and assessed against each of the
hazard zones. The final tally from the
HAZUS inventory is shown in Table 1.
The slowdown came when the
THORR reviewed the initial numbers and
realized just how much and what was located
in the hazard zones. Norris exclaimed,
"Do you realize that all five
commercial establishments and the only
industrial plant in the Town of Hazardville
can be impacted from four different hazards,
and four out of the five business
can be impacted by a fifth hazard?" The
school, which substitutes as an emergency shelter, is vulnerable to five of
seven hazards. In addition, over $21 million
dollars in assets are vulnerable to
coastal storms alone, including the police/
fire department.

Table 1: HAZUS Inventory Totals
Occupancy Class
Residential	TOTAL ASSETS: 62	Flood: 16(25%)	Earthquake:* 62
	Tsunami: 3(4.8%)	Coastal Storm: 18(29%)	Tornado:* 62	Wildfire: 
19(30.6%)	Landslide: 2(3.2%)
Occupancy Class
Commercial	TOTAL ASSETS: 5	Flood: 4(80%)	Earthquake:* 5	Tsunami: 
5(100%)	Coastal Storm: 5(100%)	Tornado:* 5	Wildfire: 0	Landslide: 0
Occupancy Class
Industrial	TOTAL ASSETS: 1	Flood: 0	Earthquake:* 1	Tsunami: 1 
(100%)	Coastal Storm: 1 (100%)	Tornado:* 1	Wildfire: 0	Landslide: 0
Occupancy Class
Agricultural	TOTAL ASSETS: 2	Flood: 1(50%)	Earthquake:* 2	Tsunami: 0
	Coastal Storm: 1 (100%)	Tornado:* 2	Wildfire: 2(100%)	Landslide: 
2(100%)
Occupancy Class
Religion/Non-Profit	TOTAL ASSETS: 4	Flood: 1 (25%)	Earthquake:* 4
	Tsunami: 2(50%)	Coastal Storm: 4(100%)	Tornado:* 4	Wildfire: 0
	Landslide: 2(50%)
Occupancy Class
Government	TOTAL ASSETS: 7	Flood: 4(57%)	Earthquake:* 7	Tsunami: 1 
(14%)	Coastal Storm: 7(100%)	Tornado:* 7	Wildfire: 5(71%)	Landslide: 1 
(14%)
Occupancy Class
Education	TOTAL ASSETS: 1	Flood: 1 (100%)	Earthquake:* 1
	Tsunami: 1 (100%)	Coastal Storm: 1 (100%)	Tornado:* 1	Wildfire: 0	
Number of Buildings	TOTAL ASSETS: 82	Flood: 31(37.8%)	Earthquake:* 82
	Tsunami: 14(17%)	Coastal Storm: 41(50%)	Tornado:* 82	Wildfire: 
29(35%)	Landslide: 6(7.3%)
Approximate Value ($M)	TOTAL ASSETS: 34.357	Flood: 12.334(35.8%)
	Earthquake:* 34.357	Tsunami: 12.396(36%)	Coastal Storm: 
21.520(62.6%)	Tornado:* 34.357		Wildfire: 6.641(19%)	Landslide: 
3.900(11%)
Number of People	TOTAL ASSETS: 413	Flood: 74(18%)	Earthquake:* 
413	Tsunami: 9(2.2%)	Coastal Storm: 165(40%)	Tornado:* 413	Wildfire: 
29(7%)	Landslide: 19(4.6%)
* These hazards are random in nature and could affect any portion or the whole town.
Source: State of Emergency Office of Emergency Preparedness  HAZUS
[END TABLE 1]

Based on the HAZUS data, THORR
unanimously voted in favor of gathering
additional inventory data on all of the
town's critical facilities, as well as the
historic lighthouse and buildings that
have been flooded more than twice.
Norris explained, "The THORR realized
that more data was needed in order to
determine where the highest loss could
occur or what should be our top priority
for mitigation; however, inventorying
each of the buildings had been more
time consuming than anticipated and
identifying the number of buildings in
the various hazard areas quickly overwhelmed
the volunteers."
So, in addition to working with the
EOEP, THORR worked with numerous
volunteer and community groups to complete
the inventory. The local Girl Scout
troop verified the location of all the
buildings in the 100-year floodplain, and
the volunteer fire department conducted
a sidewalk survey to inventory the wildfire
hazard area, including the Clearview
Acres Subdivision. Members of the
University Geology Club inventoried the
landslide hazard areas, and the department
of Public Works received training
in Rapid Visual Screening for seismic
and wind vulnerability and inventoried
all public buildings for earthquakes and
tornadoes.
According to Norris, the final results
of the loss estimation should be
available in about two months after they
complete the final step of estimating
losses.

Floods
Task C. Compile a more detailed inventory of what can
be damaged by a flood hazard event.
1. Determine priorities for your inventory collection efforts.
In large communities, you may choose to prioritize your inventory
by selecting the more hazardous floodplains (based on Step 2) first,
by starting with the older buildings, critical facilities, or the assets
that are closest to the flood hazard such as those in the floodway.
For example, buildings that were constructed before local or state
floodplain ordinances went into effect will most likely not be
elevated to or above the expected flood level, and are most susceptible
to flood damage. Buildings whose structures or contents are
most susceptible to flood damage, such as wood frame buildings,
manufactured homes, or buildings with delicate contents or expensive
machinery are also more vulnerable to flood damage. You
should also identify repetitive loss properties as part of this activity.

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: Under NFIP guidelines,
repetitive loss structures include
any currently insured building with
two or more flood losses (occurring
more than ten days
apart) greater than $1,000 in
any 10-year period since
1978.]

2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.
Gather the building-specific information including size, replacement
value, content value, function use or value, displacement cost,
occupancy or capacity. For more information refer to Task C,
number 2 on page 3-10.

[STATE GUIDANCE: States should provide
communities
with information on
historic floods throughout the
state so communities will
know what type of damage has occurred
(even if it didn't occur within that particular
community).
States should ensure that lists of repetitive
loss properties are kept up to date
and that communities have the most current
list. States should contact their
FEMA Regional Office for this information.
FEMA also maintains a national list of
properties that comprise the Repetitive
Loss Target Group. These are repetitive
loss properties that have either experienced
four or more losses with the characteristics
above, or have had losses
that cumulatively exceed the property
value of the building.]

3. Gather hazard-specific information about the assets.
In addition to the items shown in the table below, the following
information will be used later in Step 4 to determine flood vulnerability:
* Lowest floor elevation. Identify the elevation of the
lowest floor of the lowest enclosed area (including
basement). This information can be obtained from an
elevation certificate (found in the office of the local
NFIP administrator, who also often serves as the local
building official or planner) if the building was constructed
after your floodplain management ordinance
was in force. It may also be available from a recorded
subdivision plat, site survey, or building permit.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: A basic approach to
estimating the lowest floor elevation
is to estimate the elevation
for a whole block of
similarly located buildings.
You may also consider generalizing your
inventory by making an assumption that
buildings constructed after the FIRM was
published are above the base flood elevation
and buildings constructed prior
to the FIRM are below the base flood elevation.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: If a lowest floor elevation
has not been
recorded, it can be determined
in a number of ways.
The most accurate way is to
hire a professional land surveyor to field-measure
the lowest floor elevation from
a local surveying benchmark or other
point of known elevation. Other less accurate
methods include measuring (such
as with a hand level) from a nearby
benchmark, a neighbor's property that
has been surveyed, or any other point of
known elevation. Also, property owners
who have experienced prior flooding may
have marked the water level on the building.
These property owners can check
local records for the elevation of the flood
during that storm and estimate the lowest-
floor elevation relative to their high water
mark.
FIGURE: Lowest Floor Elevation (A Zones). 
In Zone A, the lowest floor elevation is the top of the lowest floor surface.
A = Elevation of survey benchmark set by local, state or federal agency.
B = Distance between lowest floor surface and benchmark.
A + B = Lowest Floor Elevation.]

* Base Flood Elevation. The base flood elevation is the
elevation (referenced to a datum) of the flood having a
one percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any
given year. This information can be found on the FIRM
and flood profile. The following diagram shows how to
find the BFE at a given point in the floodplain.

[TIP SIDEBAR: To determine the BFE
using the FIRM:
1. locate a feature(s) on the FIRM,
near the site you are assessing,
that also appears on the FIS Flood
Profile, such as a bridge, highway,
or cross-section.
2. Calculate the distance from the
feature along the stream to the site
you are assessing using the scale
used on the FIRM.
[Hazardville FIRM shows Old Macdonalds Farmhouse is 500 feet downstream of the 
Highway 101 bridge in Zone AE.]

3. Locate the site you are assessing
on the FIS Flood Profile by using
the scale on the FIS to measure the
distance from the feature to the site.
4. Follow a vertical line up to the water
surface line on the Flood Profile.
5. Follow a horizontal line to the y-axis
to read the elevation.
[Hazardville Flood Insurance Study shows calculation that the 100-year flood for Old 
MacDonalds Farm is a little over 9 feet in elevation.]]

[TABLE shows building data requirements for floods are 
Building Type / Type of Foundation, Building Code Design Level / Date of Construction, 
Topography, and Distance from the Hazard Zone]


Go to the next hazard on your list to
inventory
or if you are finished with all your hazard inventories
Go to Step 4

Earthquakes
Task C. Compile a more detailed inventory of what can
be damaged by an earthquake hazard event.
1. Determine priorities for your inventory collection efforts.
Determining inventory priorities for earthquakes requires consideration
of the potential intensity of the earth movements. For example,
some buildings, such as those constructed of unreinforced
masonry, perform very poorly in earthquakes. In addition, buildings
constructed prior to seismic building code requirements or under
low seismic building codes will also perform poorly in earthquakes
of a given intensity. With this in mind, you might choose to inventory
only those at first, to see what risks are evident before proceeding
with a full inventory. This can be accomplished through a
seismic evaluation of your buildings.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Code Seismic
Design Level
States and communities
change their building codes
over time as more is learned
about hazards and construction techniques.
The determination of high, moderate,
or low code levels can be
considered subjective. You should talk
with your local and/or state code officials
to determine this aspect of vulnerability.
For example, in areas of high seismicity
(e.g., coastal California), buildings of
newer construction (e.g., post-1973) are
best represented by High-Code damage
functions, while buildings of older construction
would be best represented by
Moderate-Code damage functions, if built
after about 1940, or by Pre-Code damage
functions, if built before about 1940
(i.e., before seismic codes existed). Pre-
Code damage functions are appropriate
for modeling older buildings that were not
designed for earthquake load, regardless
of where they are located in the United
States.]

This method of selecting elements with the most apparent vulnerability
determines whether there is sufficient vulnerability to justify
additional evaluations. For example, if you initially include in your
inventory only those buildings that would do poorly in an earthquake
of a known intensity and/or those with high occupancy and
conclude that there is still not much risk, you may wish to assume
that other types of buildings or structures will be at even lower risk.

[TIP SIDEBAR: NEHRP Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of
Existing Buildings (FEMA 178) presents a nationally applicable
method for engineers to identify buildings or building components that
present unacceptable risks in an earthquake. Four structural subsystems
in which deficits may exist are identified:
* Vertical elements resisting horizontal loads;
* Horizontal elements resisting lateral loads;
* Foundations; and
* Connections between structural elements or subsystems.

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic
Hazards: A Handbook (FEMA 154) and Supporting Documentation (FEMA
155) present a method for quickly identifying buildings posing risk of death, injury,
or severe curtailment in use following an earthquake. Trained personnel can use
the methodology known as "Rapid Screening Procedure (RSP)" to identify potentially
hazardous buildings. This identification is based on a 15- to 30-minute exterior
inspection, using a data collection form included in the handbook. Twelve basic
structural categories are inspected, leading to a numerical "structural score" based
on visual inspection. Building inspectors are the most likely group to implement an
RSP, although this report is also intended for building officials, engineers, architects,
building owners, emergency managers, and interested citizens. The supporting
documentation reviews the literature and existing procedures for rapid visual
screening.]


2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.
Gather the building-specific information including size, replacement
value, content value, function use or value, displacement cost,
occupancy or capacity. For more information refer to Task C,
number 2 on page 3-10.

[HAZUS SIDEBAR: If you are using
HAZUS to estimate
your earthquake
losses, these calculations
will be completed within the
program.]

3. Gather information about the assets.
In addition to the information shown in the table below, the
following information will be needed to determine earthquake
vulnerability as part of Step 4:
* Seismic design building code. One aspect of structure
vulnerability is based on building codes. Older buildings
constructed under a low seismic design building code or
without any seismic considerations are more vulnerable
to earthquakes of a given intensity than buildings constructed
to a high or moderate seismic design building
code. Determine the level (high, moderate, low, or precode)
of seismic design building code that is currently in
effect, when it went into effect, and what levels of
seismic codes have been in effect in the past. Based on
this information work with your building code department
to determine under which code the buildings in
your inventory were designed. Keep in mind that buildings
built under a code with low seismic design provisions
could have been subsequently retrofitted under a more
stringent code.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: Using HAZUS to
identify buildings
constructed before the adoption
of seismic building codes
can help you quickly identify
buildings that will be vulnerable
to earthquakes.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: Intensity is a subjective measure
of the strength of the shaking
experienced in an earthquake. Intensity
is based on the observed
effects of ground shaking on
people, buildings, and natural features. It varies
from place to place within the disturbed
region depending on the location of the observer
with respect to the earthquake epicenter.
The "intensity" reported at different points
generally decreases away from the earthquake
epicenter. Local geologic conditions
strongly influence the intensity of an earthquake;
commonly, sites on soft ground or alluvium
have intensities 2 to 3 units higher than
sites on bedrock. The Modified Mercalli
Scale represents the local effect or damage
caused by an earthquake.
It is possible to relate the PGA value you identified
in Step 2 to the Mercalli scale. (See table.)
[TABLE: Modified Mercalli Intensity and PGA Equivalents:
MMI
accel. (%g) 
MMI
I 
accel. (%g) 
0.1 
Description of Intensity Level 
Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable circumstances. 
MMI
II 
accel. (%g) 
0.2 
Description of Intensity Level 
Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately 
suspended objects may swing. 
MMI
III 
accel. (%g) 
0.3 
Description of Intensity Level 
Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many 
people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. 
Vibration similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated. 
MMI
IV 
accel. (%g) 
0.7 
Description of Intensity Level 
Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, 
windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck 
striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably. 
MMI
V 
accel. (%g) 
1.5 
Description of Intensity Level 
Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable 
objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop. 
MMI
VI 
accel. (%g) 
3 
Description of Intensity Level 
Felt by all; many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen 
plaster. Damage slight. 
MMI
VII 
accel. (%g) 
7 
Description of Intensity Level 
Damage negligible in building of good design and construction; slight to moderate in 
well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed 
structures; some chimneys broken. Noticed by persons driving motor cars. 
MMI
VIII 
accel. (%g) 
15 
Description of Intensity Level 
Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial 
buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, 
factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. 
MMI
IX 
accel. (%g) 
32
Description of Intensity Level 
Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures 
thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. 
Buildings shifted off foundations. 
MMI
X 
accel. (%g) 
70 
Description of Intensity Level 
Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures 
destroyed with foundations. Rails bent. 
MMI
XI - 
Description of Intensity Level 
Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly. 
MMI
XII - 
Description of Intensity Level 
Damage total. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air.]


[TABLE shows building data requirements for earthquakes are 
Building Type / Type of Foundation and Building Code Design Level / Date of 
Construction]

Go to the next hazard on your list to
inventory
or, if you are finished with all your hazard inventories
Go to Step 4


Tsunamis
Task C. Compile a more detailed inventory of what can
be damaged by a tsunami hazard event.
1. Determine priorities for your inventory collection efforts.
If your community has a relatively small tsunami area, you may
decide to inventory all of the assets inside the hazard boundary on
your base map. If you have a large tsunami area or if numerous
buildings are located inside the hazard boundary, you may decide to
prioritize your inventory by starting with those closest to the shoreline,
and critical facilities.
2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.
Gather the building-specific information including size, replacement
value, content value, function use or value, displacement cost,
occupancy or capacity. For more information refer to Task C,
number 2 on page 3-10.
3. Gather information about the assets.
After you have made a list of all the assets located inside the tsunami
hazard area, you will need to gather information shown in the
table below.

[TABLE shows building data requirements for tsunamis are 
Building Type / Type of Foundation, Building Code Design Level / Date of Construction, 
and Distance from the Hazard Zone.]


Go to the next hazard on your list to
inventory
or, if you are finished with all your hazard inventories
Go to Step 4



Tornadoes
Task C. Compile a more detailed inventory of what can
be damaged by a tornado hazard event.
1. Determine priorities for your inventory collection efforts.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Meteorologists use
the Fujita scale to determine
the intensity of tornadoes.
Most tornadoes are in the F0-
F2 class. Building to modern
wind standards provides significant property
protection from these hazard events;
however, a community in the direct path
of a violent tornado may experience extensive
damages. Designing buildings to
extreme wind speeds, such as those associated
with an F-3 or greater tornado
is beyond the scope of current building
codes.
The Building Performance Assessment
Report for the Oklahoma and Kansas
Tornadoes (FEMA 342) includes a good
description of tornadoes and associated
damage.
Communities should build new shelters
or reinforce existing shelters to withstand
the design wind speeds described in
Step 2.]

Since tornadoes can possibly affect the whole community or state, it
is very important to set some priorities because inventorying everything
could be very labor and time intensive. If necessary, communities
and states should narrow their inventory to assets that are of
particular importance from a public safety, historical, economic, or
environmental standpoint.
Communities that want to begin by identifying the assets that are
not built to withstand the design wind speed, or assets that typically
get damaged in tornadoes should examine the date of construction.
For example, buildings that were constructed before local or state
building codes went into effect, and/or buildings built to codes
whose wind speed standards are below those indicated on the
Design Wind Speed map shown below are more vulnerable to
tornadoes.

[FIGURE: Design wind speed map for community shelters.]


2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.
Gather the building-specific information including size, replacement
value, content value, function use or value, displacement cost,
occupancy or capacity. For more information refer to Task C,
number 2 on page 3-10.
3. Gather information about the assets.
After you have made a list of all the assets you wish to include inside
the tornado hazard area, you will need to gather the information
shown in the table below.

[TABLE shows building data requirements for tornadoes are 
Building code design level / date of construction, roof material, and roof construction.]


Go to the next hazard on your list to
inventory
or if you are finished with all your hazard inventories
Go to Step 4


Coastal Storms
Task C. Compile a more detailed inventory of what can
be damaged by a coastal storm hazard event.
1. Determine priorities for your inventory collection efforts.
In addition to identifying critical facilities, you may further prioritize
your inventory items by starting with buildings and other assets
closest to the coastal storm hazard area or at the lowest elevations
and prone to the highest potential flood and tidal surge levels, wave
velocities, and erosion hazards.
Because hurricane-strength winds would likely affect whole communities
or large portions of your state, conducting an inventory of
every building subject to coastal storm winds would be very time and
labor intensive. Therefore, if necessary, you should identify solely
buildings or areas that may be more prone to wind hazards. The
condition, age, and primary building materials can be indications of
the building's physical vulnerability to wind and water hazards.
Knowing the wind provisions of the building code and the floodplain
management regulations in effect at the time of construction
are essential in determining buildings' vulnerability to coastal
storms.

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: Coastal flooding, high
winds, and often erosion will
affect the coastal storm hazard
area in your community.
Keep in mind that the flood
zones and boundaries shown on the
FIRM are based on conditions at the time
the study was completed. As shoreline
erosion occurs, the location of these
zones and boundaries will change. For
example, the red house, currently in Zone
AE may be located in Zone VE within 30
years and the green house, currently out
of the floodplain entirely, may be located
in Zone AE within 30 years.
[FIGURE shows current shoreline, shoreline after 30 years erosion, current zone VE, 
current zone AE, and these two zones after 30 years erosion.]]

Identify the assets that may be exposed to coastal storm hazards
according to your priority system. For example, buildings or structures
built before local floodplain ordinances went into effect most
likely will not be elevated to or above the expected flood level or
may have obstructions or an enclosed space below the elevated
structure making them most susceptible to flood, wind, or storm
surge damage. Also, buildings or structures built on high bluffs
above the oceans or high cliffs such as those along the Great Lakes
are susceptible to erosion of the land beneath the foundation.
Once the erosion reaches the foundation, the house will be lost or
damaged sufficiently to become uninhabitable.
2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.
Gather the building-specific information including size, replacement
value, content value, function use or value, displacement cost,
occupancy or capacity. For more information refer to Task C,
number 2 on page 3-10.
3. Gather Information about the assets.
In addition to the items listed in the table on the next page, the
following information will be used in Step 4 to determine vulnerability
to coastal storms:
* Lowest floor elevation. For V zones, the relevant elevation
is that of the bottom of the lowest horizontal
structural member, NOT the top of the lowest finished
floor as used in non-coastal flood assessments. This
definition is used for consistency with NFIP minimum
floodplain management requirements.
This information can be obtained from an elevation
certificate if the building was built after your
community's floodplain management ordinance was in
force. It also may be available from a recorded subdivision
plat, site survey, or building permit.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: A basic approach to
estimating the lowest floor elevation
is to estimate the elevation
for a whole block of
similarly located buildings.]


[FIGURE: Lowest Floor Elevation (V Zones). 
In Zone V, lowest floor elevation is the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural 
member.
A = Elevation of survey benchmark set by local, state or federal agency.
B = Distance between bottom of lowest horizontal structural member and benchmark.
A + B = Lowest Floor Elevation.]


* Base Flood Elevation. The base flood elevation is the
elevation (referenced to a datum) of the flood having a
one percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any
given year. This information can be found on the FIRM.

[TABLE shows building data requirements for coastal storms are 
Building type / type of foundation, building code design level / date of construction, 
building code design level / date of construction, roof material, roof construction, 
topography, and distance from hazard zone.]


Go to the next hazard on your list to
inventory
or, if you are finished with all your hazard inventories
Go to Step 4


Landslides
Task C. Compile a more detailed inventory of what can
be damaged by a landslide hazard event.
1. Determine priorities for your inventory collection efforts.
Landslides usually affect infrastructure such as roads and bridges,
but they can also affect individual buildings and businesses. If your
community has a relatively small landslide area, you may decide to
inventory all of the assets inside the hazard boundary on your base
map. If you have a large landslide area or if numerous buildings are
located inside the hazard boundary, you may decide to prioritize
your inventory by starting with the critical facilities.
2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.
Gather the building-specific information including size, replacement
value, content value, function use or value, displacement cost,
occupancy or capacity. For more information refer to Task C,
number 2 on page 3-10.
3. Gather information about the assets.
After you have made a list of all the assets located inside the landslide
hazard area, gather the data listed in the table below.

[TABLE shows building data requirements for landslides are 
topography and distance from hazard zone.]

Go to the next hazard on your list to
inventory
or if you are finished with all your hazard inventories
Go to Step 4

Wildfires
Task C. Compile a more detailed inventory of what can
be damaged by a wildfire hazard event.
1. Determine priorities for your inventory collection efforts.
If your wildfire hazard area is relatively small, you may decide to
inventory all of the assets within your wildfire hazard boundary on
your base map. If you have a large wildfire hazard area or if you
have many assets within your hazard area, you may decide to
prioritize your inventory by starting with the critical facilities. You
can also prioritize by first inventorying the extreme wildfire hazard
area and then as time and money permit, inventorying the high
and moderate hazard areas.
Information about buildings that were constructed before local or
state fire codes were adopted or upgraded can be gathered from the
building permit or planning office.
2. Gather building-specific information about the assets.
Gather the building-specific information including size, replacement
value, content value, function use or value, displacement cost,
occupancy or capacity. For more information refer to Task C,
number 2 on page 3-10.
3. Gather Information about the assets.
After you have made a list of all the assets located inside the wildfire
hazard area, gather the data listed in the table below.

[TABLE shows building data requirements for wildfire are 
Building code design level / date of construction, building code design level / date of 
construction, roof material, roof construction, topography, and distance from hazard 
zone.]



Go to the next hazard on your list to
inventory
or if you are finished with all your hazard inventories
Go to Step 4

step
4

estimate
losses
Overview
The fourth step in the loss estimation process answers the question:
How will the communitys assets be affected by the hazard event?

[Picture of elementary school that suffered
devastating losses during tropical
storm Alberto in 1994.]

So far, you have determined that one or more hazards may affect
your planning area (Step 1), profiled the hazard events (Step 2),
and inventoried the assets that can be damaged by the hazard event
(Step 3). In this step, you will bring this information together to
estimate your losses in terms of the expected losses from hazard
events to people, buildings, and other important assets. Some
buildings, infrastructure, or functions will be damaged more than
others in the same hazard event because they are more vulnerable
their location or construction makes them more susceptible
to damage from the hazard event. For example, two bridges of
similar construction that are exposed to the same flood hazard
event may experience different levels of damage. One bridge may
be built to lower construction standards, be older, or have a lower
elevation, thus suffering greater damage than the other bridge.

[TIP SIDEBAR: The most convenient
way to express
the expected losses
is in terms of dollars. This will
provide a relative ranking of
risk to different elements of the planning
area from different hazards. They are extremely
rough estimates that should not
be used for any other purpose.]

Remember, a true risk assessment takes into account all of the
possible hazard events rather than just a single event. For the
purpose of this planning guide, the
losses will be calculated from a selected
hazard event.

[TIP SIDEBAR: If you conducted an abbreviated inventory in Step 3,
you will not assess the level of damage for each asset in the inventory (Task
A). Instead, you will determine a level of damage from each hazard
for the entire hazard area using historical evidence of damage and
data on population growth.
For example, assume that in Step 1, you discovered that a flood in
1955 caused $1,000,000 in damages and affected 1,000 residents
in the floodplain. In the years since the 1955 flood, census data
reveal that the community population has grown 70 percent. By comparing
aerial photographs of the same area taken in the 1950s and in the 1990s, you
estimate that floodplain development has increased by 50 percent. Therefore,
you conclude that the same flood today would cause $1,500,000 in damage,
or rather, $9,881,423 when adjusted to 2001 dollars. In addition, you estimate
the number of affected residents would be about 1,700.
If you discovered in Steps 1 and 2 that you are threatened by a hazard that
has not occurred in recent memory, then you can base your estimate of risk
on some general rules of thumb identified in the hazard specific sections which
follow.
After you have estimated the amount of damage and number of affected residents
for your abbreviated inventory, skip to Task B to complete Step 4.]

To complete the loss estimation, you
will first assess the level of damage
from a hazard event, both as a percentage
of the assets structural and
content replacement value and as a
function. To illustrate, your investigation
may find that in a 100-year flood
event, a particular building could
suffer damage at a level equal to 50
percent of its total value. Next, you
will calculate the potential loss by
multiplying the value of the structure,
contents, or use that you gathered in
Step 3 by the percent of damage expected from the hazard event. It
is important to remember that a comprehensive loss estimation
should include the contents and functions of the buildings in
addition to the risk to the structure itself. Also, please note that this
can become more complex as you attempt to account for a wider
range of possible effects from one or more hazards. Therefore, you
should use Worksheet #4: Estimate Losses in Appendix C(see
example on page 4-2) to keep track of your results. If you used a
computerized spreadsheet or GIS database for your inventory in
Step 3, then you may want to continue to use that same method for
this step.

Worksheet #4 Estimate Losses step
How will these hazards affect you?
Date: October, 2001 
Hazard: FLOOD

Task A.1: Calculate structure loss.
Name/Description of Structure
Structure replacement value (step 3) multiplied by
Percent damage (step 4) equals
Loss to structure.
Add losses to all structures to obtain total loss to structures.

Task A.2: Calculate contents loss.
Name/Description of Structure
Replacement value of contents (step 3) multiplied by
percent damage (step 4) equals 
Loss to contents.
Add content losses for all structures to determine total loss to contents.

Task A.3: Structure use and function loss.
Name/Description of Structure
Average Daily Operating Budget (step 3) multiplied by 
Functional downtime in number of days (step 4) plus
displacement cost per day (step 3) multiplied by
Displacement time (step 4) equals
Structure use and function loss.

Task B.1: For each structure, add structure loss + content loss + function loss.

Task B.2: Add the Task B.1 sums for all structures to obtain 
Total Loss for Hazard Event.


Procedures & Techniques
Task A. Determine the extent of damages.

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: A loss estimation table is a
projection of likely damage by
magnitude of the hazard (expressed
as a percentage of
replacement cost), based on
observed past damages.]

The hazard-specific sections that follow will help you estimate the
potential losses to your assets from the hazards that can affect you.
You will find that some of the hazards have definitive loss estimation
tables while others do not. In the cases where loss estimation tables
are not currently available, you can use the full value of the assets
that are in the hazard area, or base your assumptions on your past
experiences with those hazards in your planning area. For example,
if your planning area is susceptible to wildfires and you inventoried
all of the assets that can be damaged by a wildfire, then you would
assess the vulnerability by estimating the number of assets that
would be destroyed in a wildfire based on past wildfires.

[TIP SIDEBAR: In this how-to guide
floods, earthquakes, and
coastal storms have loss estimation
tables (tornadoes,
landslides, tsunamis, and
wildfires do not). These tables are from
various sources including the Means
Square Foot Cost publication, HAZUS,
and FEMAs Benefit-Cost Analysis module.
They have been simplified and represent
generalized information. For more
detailed analysis, go to the source listed
for each table.]

1. Estimate the losses to structures.
Determine how the various hazard events will affect the structures
within your planning area. Use the structure loss estimation tables
to determine the estimated percent of damage from the various
hazard events. The estimated damages are expressed as a percentage
of structure replacement value. Multiply the structure replacement
value (Step 3) by the expected percent damage (provided in
the hazard-specific sections that follow) to determine the loss to the
structure in a particular hazard event.
For example, if the librarys structure replacement value equals
$100,000 and the expected damage from a 100-year flood is 40
percent of the structure, then the loss to this structure from a flood
is $40,000.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Loss to structure =
(structure replacement
value) x (percent damage)]

2. Estimate the losses to contents.
Determine the expected amount of damage to the contents of the
structures you inventoried. Multiply the replacement value of the
contents (Step 3) by the expected percent damage to determine the
losses to the contents from a particular hazard event.
For example, if the librarys content replacement value equals
$225,000 and the expected damage from a 100-year flood is 10
percent of the contents, then the losses to these contents from a
flood is $22,500.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Loss to contents =
(content replacement value)
x (percent damage)]

[BASIC SIDEBAR: A basic approach to overcome
limited time or resources is to start by estimating
the losses to all the
structures and then, as resources
allow, calculate the
content loss, and then the
function loss, etc.]

3. Estimate the losses to structure use and function.
First, you will determine functional downtime, or the time (in days)
that the function would be disrupted from a hazard event. If a
hazard specific loss estimation table is not available, research past
damage in your area and determine the average number of days
various functions were unavailable following a hazard event. Next,
estimate the daily cost of the functional downtime. Divide the
average annual budget or sales (Step 3) by 365 to determine the
average daily operating budget or sales. Multiply the average daily
operating budget or sales by the functional downtime to determine
the cost of the loss of function for the period that the business or
service was unable to operate due to the hazard event.

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: Functional downtime
is the average time (in
days) during which a function
(business or service) is unable
to provide its services
due to a hazard event.]

[TIP SIDEBAR: Functional downtime
may also be associated
with a bridge, road, or
utility that can be damaged by
a hazard, and each of their
several components may have a different
associated vulnerability. Consider a
gas pipeline exposed to a wildfire: the
various parts of the gas transmission
systemthe piping, the pumps, the monitoring
system, and end-distribution
pieceswill likely react differently under
the same level of pressure from the heat
of the wildfire and will have different effects
when they fail. If the gas pipeline
fails, the results will probably reach far
beyond physical damages to the pipe 
there could be large-scale business disruption,
people might have to leave their
homes, the leaking gas could lead to additional
fires, and so on. Use your best
judgment and experience to determine
functional downtime for functions with
many components.]

For example, if an ice cream shop had daily sales of $2,500 during
the summertime and was forced to close for two weeks because of
damages from a hazard event, their function loss would be $35,000
($2,500 x 14 days).
If you are assessing a public facility, such as a library with an annual
budget of $600,000 and an average daily budget of $1,644
($600,000 / 365), you could estimate the losses by using the annual
budget as a proxy for the value of the service to the community. For
example, if the library were closed for seven days due to a flood
event, then the cost for the loss of use for seven days would be
$11,508.
Next, you will determine the displacement time, or the time (in
days) that a function may need to operate from a temporary location
due to a hazard event. For example, if the library was closed
for 7 days (functional downtime) and then resumed operations
from an empty trailer for the next 90 days until they could repair
the damages to the existing building, then the displacement time
would be 90 days. Note that not all functions would require displacement
before resuming operation.
[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: Displacement time is
the average time (in days) that
the buildings occupants typically
must operate from a temporary
location while repairs
are made to the original building due to
damages resulting from a hazard event.]

Multiply the displacement cost (Step 3) by the displacement time to
determine the cost of the displacement from the regular place of
business due to the hazard event.

When you are determining losses to other kinds of community
functions, such as government services, public works, or business
activity, you use the same procedure. First, determine the cost of loss
of function to the community based on its normal condition
(functional downtime cost). Then assess the cost of displacement
because of a hazard event (displacement cost). The sum of these
two numbers will tell you the losses as a result of losing the function
in a particular event.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Losses to functions
= (functional downtime
costs) + (displacement time
costs)]

For example, the losses to the librarys structure, use and function
are the total of the functional downtime costs ($11,508) plus the
displacement costs ($34,400), or $45,908.
4. Calculating human losses.
There are credible estimates available from HAZUS (for earthquakes)
and other sources estimating the number of people that
may be hurt or killed in various types of buildings under different
hazard conditions. For the risk assessment it is important to note
that the likelihood of people being injured or killed depends upon
factors such as warning time and the characteristics of the hazard
itself. However, this guide does not place a dollar value on human
lives; rather, you should note areas that can be improved to help
save lives and reduce injuries in future hazard events.
5. Complete Task A on Worksheet #4.

Task B. Calculate the loss from each hazard event.
1. Calculate the losses to each asset.
To determine which individual assets could sustain the largest
potential losses, add the structure loss, content loss, and function
loss for each asset to determine the total loss. For example, you
expect your town library to be damaged by a 100-year flood and the
structural damage is estimated at $40,000. The content damage to
the books and other equipment is estimated at $22,500, and the loss
from having to close the library for a week and the displacement for
90 days is estimated at $45,908. By adding each loss, the total flood
loss for the library from a 100-year flood would be $108,408.
This information help you begin to form a picture of the damages
that could be sustained in a hazard. You now know how individual
hazard events can impact the various assists of your community or
state.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Loss = structure loss +
content loss + function loss]

[TIP SIDEBAR: After you have calculated the losses, you may want to
assign a rank or relative priority to the losses to determine your mitigation
priorities. In fact, there have been numerous attempts by academicians,
communities, and states to develop quantitative methods to produce such
rankings, ranging from the very simple to the very complex, particularly
when losses were calculated using different probabilities of occurrence.
Experience has shown, however, that most communities do not rely on the relative
ranking of losses as the primary determinant of priorities in beginning to address
mitigation approaches. While quantitative processes form the basis of the risk 
determinations,
political issues drive the decisions on which mitigation initiatives are
pursued first. In other words, decisions involving mitigation initiatives are usually
(and should be) discussed in the context of other ongoing planning processes that
include consideration of non-hazard-related community goals as well as those related
to emergency management. This will be discussed further in the next phase of
the Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning Process.]

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: Coastal hazard areas often present multiple risks at the same
time. For example, hurricanes may simultaneously create wind, inland
and coastal flooding, and erosion losses. Logically, the presence of multiple
risks complicates the analysis process. Sometimes these risks do
not influence each other at all in the same hazard event and losses may
be analyzed separately and simply added up to get a picture of the total losses. At
other times risks may exacerbate or nullify each other. There is no single best
approach to assessing multiple risks. In general, its important first to understand
the losses created by individual hazards, then try to determine the interaction among
them.
It is perfectly legitimate from a statistical standpoint to add losses from different
hazards of the same frequency (and from different frequencies if the level of damage
is normalized by probability calculations). For example, if a coastal house would
experience $14,000 damage in a 50-year wind event and $4,500 damage in a 50-
year flood, then the house has $18,500 combined 50-year losses.
Its also true that one hazard can cancel another out at some point. For example,
lets assume our coastal house would be destroyed by a 100-year wind event and
a 100-year flood would result in three feet of water in the same house. In this case,
the effect of flooding is negligible at the 100-year frequency since the house is
presumably already destroyed by the wind.
Combinations of risk are most often addressed by adjusting standard damage curves
to indicate the interactivity between or among risks.]


2. Calculate the estimated damages for each hazard event.
To find out which hazard event could have the largest economic
losses for your community or state, total the loss from each hazard
event type. For example, if there are three buildings located in the
100-year floodplain with estimated total flood losses of $10,000,
$5,000, and $2,500, then your estimated flood loss from the 100-year
flood event is $17,500.
Next, to find out which hazard event would likely impact the
greatest proportion of the community or state, calculate the percent
of the value of the assets susceptible to damage from each hazard.
Divide the total hazard losses, by the total value of the assets you
assessed for that hazard (from Step 3). For example, if your flood
losses are estimated at $17,500 and
the value of the three buildings
you assessed is $100,250, then your
flood losses would be approximately
$17,500 divided by $100,250
or 17 percent of the value of the
assets.

3. Create a composite map.
Prepare a map that shows a composite
of the areas of highest loss
(from Worksheet #4). You may
want to indicate areas affected by
multiple hazards as your high loss
potential areas and the areas with
one or no hazards as moderate or
low potential loss. Another alternative
is to identify areas with
multiple critical facilities, major
employers, repetitively damaged
structures, and infrastructure as
high potential loss areas.

[TIP SIDEBAR: A composite loss
map can be created by
overlaying results of individual
hazard maps to determine
areas with
relatively more assets at
risk than others.
Although this process can
be enhanced by weighting
the individual hazard
results, any method that
helps the community visualize
areas with multiple
concerns can be helpful.
This process is best accomplished
with GIS, but
manual overlays with light
tables and tracing paper
will suffice.]

[STATE GUIDANCE: The state should compile local risk assessments
for a comprehensive summary and analysis of potential disaster losses.
This should combine the states risk assessment of state-owned structures
as well as those from the local risk assessments. The information
provided from the local risk assessments should also be referenced in
the statewide mitigation plan.
For these reasons, you may consider specifying a general format for the information
to be provided from the local communities as well as offering technical assistance
to ensure the quality of the data. This might include help or training in
benefit-cost analysis and HAZUS, development expertise in interpreting damage
curves and estimating economic effects of lost functions for large-scale damages.]

Summary
After this step you should have a good idea of which assets are
subject to the greatest potential damages and which hazard event is
likely to produce the greatest potential losses.

After you have estimated the expected losses from each of your
hazard events
Go to the afterword
for information pertaining to the next step of the Natural Hazard
Mitigation Planning Process.

[MOCK NEWSPAPER ARTICLE:
The Hazardville Post
Vol. CXI No. 319 Thursday, November 15, 2001
Town Council Alarmed by Risk Assessment Results
(Part 4 of a 4 part series on the Risk Assessment Process)
[Hazardville, EM] The members of the
Town Council were stunned last night
after learning the results of the risk assessment.
At the public meeting to discuss
the results, Joe Norris, lead planner
of the Town of Hazardville Organization
for Risk Reduction (THORR),
reported that Hazardville certainly deserves
its name. Norris said that since
the last board meeting on December 4,
2001, THORR has computed the risk
from seven separate hazards (floods,
earthquakes, tsunamis, tornadoes,
coastal storms, landslides, and wildfires).
"After taking an inventory of all of
the assets in the community that lay
within the hazard zones, the team estimated
the amount of damage the assets
would sustain based on the selected
magnitude of the hazard events," Norris
explained. "Using information we
gleaned from maps and tax assessment
records, we judged the possible structural
damage, content damage, and consequences
of the loss of function or
structure use, then calculated the likely
cost of this damage to the community."
As the Town Council members questioned
Norris and the THORR
workgroup leaders, each disclosed the
dangers to which the town is subject.
Mr. David Waters, head of the Flood
and Coastal Storm Workgroup, testified
to the Council that the town's manufactured
home park has the greatest vulnerability
of flood hazards due to the low
elevation of the land in that area. "We
estimated that a 100-year storm event
would cause about two feet of flooding
inside many of the homes in the park,
which would result in about 63 percent
total damage," he reported. A 100-year
flood can also damage the bridge crossing
the Raging River, especially if debris
like timber and large rocks are
swept away by the running water. Waters
stated that the coastal region is vulnerable
to coastal storms, but the inland
areas can be flooded as well. "But the
biggest threat from coastal storms is the
erosion," stressed Waters. We estimated
that with the current rate of erosion at
five feet per year, the Hazardville boardwalk
would be consumed by the Relentless
Ocean within 60 years."
According to Ms. Wendy Soot, head
of the Tornadoes and Wildfires
Workgroup, erosion and flooding are not
the only threats to the manufactured
home park, the older areas of town, and
the boardwalk. She explained that these
areas are the most vulnerable assets to
tornadoes in town, however a tornado
could remove roofs, knock over walls,
and even overturn cars and trains in any
area of town. Soot, the town's Fire Marshal,
added that a wildfire could spread
very quickly in the Tinderbox National
Forest and that a number of buildings in
that area are vulnerable to wildfires.

"The biggest initial concern for the
Workgroup, which was landslides, turned
out to be a very minor hazard in comparison,"
Tremble said. "A large landslide
could destroy the lighthouse on the
southwest shore of town and threaten the
only road out of town, but it does not
appear that landslides would cause the
widespread damage once imagined."
When asked what the cost of these
potential damages could be to the town,
Norris submitted to the Council a copy
of the team's composite loss map and
several hazard maps with a chart describing
the criteria for determining the
levels of potential loss to the hazards
(see accompanying figures). The hazard
maps exhibited the structures that
Norris explained that the team then
produced a Composite Loss Map (see
graphic opposite) by relating the potential
losses across hazards. "The team noticed
that much the shoreline faced moderate,
high, and extreme vulnerability to
nearly every hazard. With so many different
hazards presenting a high potential
loss for this area, we decided that
their overall exposure to loss was 'extreme'.
On the other hand, the Middle
Aged Residential Neighborhood has a
moderate vulnerability only to earthquakes;
therefore, we decided that their
composite potential loss was 'moderate'."
Norris cautioned that the loss values
should not be compared across hazards
because each has a different probability
of occurrence, "however, the
composite loss map demonstrates which
areas of the community have the greatest
potential of loss from the greatest
number of hazards."
When asked about the next steps for
the town in light of the risk assessment,
Norris replied, "Even though completing
the risk assessment was challenging,
it will be the foundation for our hazard
mitigation plan. Now that we know what
is susceptible to the different hazards,
and what those hazards will do to the
buildings, infrastructure, and economy
of Hazardville, we can start answering
the question of how to deal with it."
the team considered to be at moderate,
high, and extreme potential for loss to
each hazard. For each structure, the team
determined the vulnerability thresholds
based on the vulnerability of structures
to the hazard and the probability of each
hazard occurring. "Our results show that
individually, each of these hazards shows
a significant risk to the town." The accompanying
chart demonstrated the criteria
by which team determined which
loss category the structures belonged.
"Because of the importance to the community
during or after a disaster, a critical
facility that exhibited potential vulnerability
to the hazard we determined
should be in the 'high' or 'extreme' category."
Mary Tremble, director of the
Hazardville Emergency Management
Agency (HEMA) and head of the
THORR's Earthquake, Tsunami, and
Landslide Workgroup, testified that
Hazardville has a number of older
unreinforced masonry buildings that
are extremely vulnerable to earthquakes.
In addition, earthquakes could
disrupt the power and water supply to
town by fracturing the lines or causing
leaks. "Using HAZUS, we determined
that an earthquake with 0.3g
could result in about $4 million in
damages." An offshore earthquake
that produces a tsunami could also
result in major damage to the coastal
areas and moderate damage to the
Town's police and fire department.

[TOWN OF HAZARDVILLE COMPOSITE LOSS MAP: Significant Portions of the
Hazardville Community are
at High or Extreme
Vulnerability to Hazards]

[TABLE: Hazardville Loss Estimation Criteria:
Hazardville Loss Estimation Criteria

Hazard Type
Floods
Moderate Criteria (Yellow)
- Structures prone to less than 1 foot flooding
High Criteria (Orange)
- Structures prone to 1 to 4 feet flooding
- Mobile homes in floodplain
- Critical facilities in floodplain
Extreme Criteria (Red)
- Structures in floodway, or prone to >4 feet flooding or velocities >3 feet per second
- Critical facilities prone to >2 feet flooding or velocities >3 feet per second
- Mobile homes prone to >2 feet flooding or velocities >3 feet per second
- Repetitive flood loss structures

Hazard Type
Earthquakes
Moderate Criteria (Yellow)
- Wood-frame structures
High Criteria (Orange)
- Pre-seismic code structures
- Unreinforced masonry buildings
Extreme Criteria (Red)
- Structures on or near soils prone to liquefaction
- Critical facilities built pre-seismic code

Hazard Type
Tsunamis
Moderate Criteria (Yellow)
- Structures near the coast
High Criteria (Orange)
- Critical facilities near the coast
- Pre-seismic or pre-flood code structures near the coast
Extreme Criteria (Red)
- Pre-seismic or pre-flood code structures adjacent to the shoreline

Hazard Type
Tornadoes
Moderate Criteria (Yellow)
- Pre-wind code structures 
High Criteria (Orange)
- Historic buildings
- Critical facilities
Extreme Criteria (Red)
- Mobile homes
- Pre-wind code critical facilities
- Overhead power lines

Hazard Type
Coastal Storms
Moderate Criteria (Yellow)
- Structures near the shoreline
- Structures in the 100-year floodplain
High Criteria (Orange)
- Pre-flood or pre-wind code structures near the shoreline (including A or X zones)
- Critical facilities near the shoreline (including A or X zones)
Extreme Criteria (Red)
- Structures located in coastal V zones, seaward of dunes, or in areas with high erosion 
rates
- Pre-flood or pre-wind code critical facilities

Landslides
Moderate Criteria (Yellow)
- Structures near steep slopes
High Criteria (Orange)
- Structures near steep slopes prone to erosion
Extreme Criteria (Red)
- Structures near steep slopes that have soils prone to liquefaction
- Structures near previous landslide areas

Hazard Type
Wildfires
Moderate Criteria (Yellow)
- Structures in close proximity to areas with light or medium fuels with slopes less than 
40%
High Criteria (Orange)
- Structures in close proximity to areas with medium fuels with slopes 41-60%
Extreme Criteria (Red)
- Critical facilities in close proximity to areas with medium fuels and slopes 41 percent+ 
Other structures in close proximity to areas with medium fuels and slopes 61 percent+
- Other structures in close proximity to areas with heavy fuels and slopes 41 percent+]

Floods
Task A. Determine the extent of damages from floods.
These loss estimation tables provide only very broad estimates based
on historical trends. To get a better idea of the likely damage
associated with a given flood level, you should conduct further
research on the structure by talking with a structural engineer.

[GLOSSARY SIDEBAR: Flood vulnerability is
the likelihood of something to
be damaged in a flood. Generally,
it is measured by how
much something will be damaged
as a percentage of its replacement
value. For example, the Federal Insurance
Administration database shows that
a particular kind of house will get 35 percent
damage if 4 feet of water inundated
it. Another building gets 20 percent damage
at the same flood depth. The building
that gets the 35 percent damage is
more vulnerable to flood damage. Remember
that this is only one of the components
of risk. Later in this section, youll
learn how to use this information to determine
the expected future damages
from one or more floods.
There are two things that determine vulnerability
to a flood. The first is the tendency
of physical things to get damaged.
The second is the potential loss of function
from losing certain elements of a
community because of a flood. These are
combined in the discussion at right, although
they must be separately counted.]

1. Calculate losses to structures due to floods.
In assessing physical vulnerability, the most important factor is the
extent to which structures get damaged when they are exposed to
water, high velocity, and debris impact. As compared to some of the
other hazards considered in this guide, the effect of floods on
building performance is fairly well understood and documented.
The Flood Building Loss Estimation Table at right depicts the
extent of damage from various flood depths on different kinds of
structures. This table is from the FEMA Benefit-Cost Analysis Module
and has been compiled based on flood damage across the
country. This table provides a rule of thumb and may need to be
adjusted for extenuating circumstances. There are many sources of
this kind of information, often called damage curves. The library
(Appendix B) provides several references.
Depth of Flooding. Using the information you gathered previously,
estimate the base flood depth at the location you are assessing by
subtracting the lowest floor elevation from the base flood elevation.

[SIDEBAR: In this example, the first floor elevation
is 5 feet above mean sea level;
therefore, this structure would experience
approximately 7 feet of flooding in
a 100-year flood event. [FIGURE shows lowest floor elevation = 5 feet and base flood 
elevation = 12 feet.
Dept of flooding is the difference between the base flood elevation and the lowest floor 
elevation = 12 - 5 = 7.]]

Percent Structural Damage.
Using the Flood Building Loss
Estimation Table at right, find
the type of structure youre
assessing, match it with the
estimated flood depth and
determine the percent damage
expected to that particular
building.

[CAUTION TIP: It is important to note that this table is based on data from a wide range
of building uses, including public/nonprofit, commercial, residential, and mixed
buildings. It can also be used to evaluate infrastructure projects.
Flood Building Loss Estimation Table:
[The table shows percentage of building damage as a function of flood depth and building 
type (1 or 2 stories, with basement or without basement, or manufactured home).]]


For example, a two-story residential
building without a
basement that had 7 feet of
flooding is estimated to result in
26 percent structural damage.
But a manufactured home with
7 feet of flooding would result
in 82 percent structural damage.
2. Calculate losses to contents due
to floods.
The Flood Contents Loss
Estimation Table shown here
provides a simplified indication
of the percent damage to
building contents for various
depths of flooding.

Flood Contents Loss Estimation Table:
[The table shows percentage of contents damage as a function of flood depth and building 
type (1 or 2 stories, with basement or without basement, or manufactured home).]

Percent Contents Damage.
Using the depth of flooding
determined above, find the type
of building youre assessing on
the Flood Contents Loss Estimation
Table, match it with the
estimated depth of flooding for
that area of your community,
and determine the percent
contents damage. For example,
a two-story residential building
without a basement that had 7
feet of flooding is estimated to
result in 39 percent contents
damage, whereas a manufactured home with 7 feet of flooding would result in 90 percent
contents damage.
Since the contents damage chart has been established over many
flood events, the values are for generic contents. If you know that a
particular building would endure an extraordinary amount of
contents damage due to the particular contents, you should increase
this value. For example, you should increase the amount of contents
damage if a residence located in the floodplain contained valuable
antiques or if you know an area is prone to excessively muddy water
or contamination.

[STATE GUIDANCE: States should remember
to include the contents
from state owned facilities
that are located in the floodplain,
including vehicles and
equipment.]

3. Calculate losses to building use and function due to floods.
The tables shown below and at right provide a simplified indication
of functional downtime and displacement time for buildings due to
various depths of flooding.

Flood Functional Downtime Table:
[The table shows days of functional downtime as a function of flood depth and building 
type (1 or 2 stories, with basement or without basement, or manufactured home).]

Functional Downtime. Using the
depth of flooding determined
previously, find the type of building
youre assessing on the Flood
Functional Downtime Table,
match it with the estimated depth
of flooding for that area of your
community, and determine the
functional downtime.
For example, a business in a two-story
building without a basement
that had 7 feet of flooding would
be closed for approximately 26
days before business can resume in
another location. By contrast, a
business in a manufactured home
with 7 feet of flooding would be
closed for 30 days before resuming
business in another location.
Displacement Time. Using the depth of flooding determined above,
find the type of building youre assessing on the Flood Displacement
Time Table, match it with the estimated depth of flooding for that
area of your community, and determine the displacement time.
For example, a business located in a two-story building without a
basement that had 7 feet of flooding would be displaced from its
regular building for approximately 158 days, while a business located in a manufactured 
home with 7 feet of flooding would be
displaced for 365 days.

Flood Displacement Time Table:
[The table shows days of displacement time as a function of flood depth and building 
type (1 or 2 stories, with basement or without basement, or manufactured home).]

4. Consider human losses due to floods.
In the event that an area is subject
to flash flooding where there are
insufficient warning systems, it is
possible that in basements or lower
areas of homes, deaths can occur,
especially if flash flooding occurs
overnight. This situation (flash
flooding) can also add to the
contents damage of some buildings
if there is not enough time to
move contents to upper floors.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Storm surge, tsunamis,
and flash floods can result in
casualties, but deaths or injuries
from non-flash riverine
floods are relatively uncommon
and are not considered in the guide.]

Go to the next hazard on your list to
estimate losses
or if you are finished with all your assessments
Go to the afterword

Earthquakes
Task A. Determine the extent of damages from earthquakes.
There are a number of factors that determine a buildings performance
in an earthquake. Mostly these have to do with the structural
system, but things like height, the design of the first story, and
building materials are also factors. In assessing the physical vulnerability
of structures, the most important factor is how fragile they
are. Fragility is the tendency of something to deform or break when
it is subjected to stress. The more fragile something is, the more
vulnerable it is. For example, most communities have some buildings
that are constructed of unreinforced masonry. These buildings
are often made of brick or stone and lack steel reinforcing to resist
the effects of earthquakes.

[BASIC SIDEBAR: The quickest and easiest
method of calculating risk
from an earthquake is
through the use of HAZUS.
You will need to select a scenario
earthquake or to base your analysis
on a historic event; otherwise, all of
the calculations and mapping will be completed
for you.]

When the earth is still, most of the forces on the walls of a masonry
building are compressive, but in an earthquake, tension is introduced
into structures from side-to-side movements such as swaying.
Brick and stone are good at resisting compression or crushing, but
are poor in resisting the effects of tension, which occurs when a
building is being pulled apart. Unreinforced masonry buildings have
little resistance to this kind of force, and often collapse under
relatively light ground shaking.
1. Calculate losses to structures due to earthquakes.
The tables on the following pages provide a simplified indication of
the damages to different kinds of buildings at various PGA values.
For each building in your inventory, find the type of building you
are assessing on the correct table and match the PGA value with the
seismic design level (discussed in Step 3) to determine the estimated
percent structural damage.
For example, if you are assessing a wood-framed single-family home
constructed to high seismic building codes, in a 0.5 g PGA zone, you
would estimate the structure to sustain 10 percent damage in an
earthquake. However, the same structure built prior to any seismic
building codes would sustain 32 percent structural damage.
2. Calculate the losses to contents due to earthquakes.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Vulnerability of Contents
Building contents are also vulnerable to
damage during an earthquake. Contents
are most often damaged by falling, so an
assessment will gauge not only if contents
will fall under certain shaking conditions,
but also whether they will break if
they do fall. Remember, a full-blown risk
assessment might include visits to many
unique buildings in community, but for ordinary
buildings such as residences,
the vulnerability of
contents will be quite similar
from place to place.]

Building contents are often vulnerable to damage during an earthquake.
Your risk assessment should estimate the likely value of
contents within buildings that are similar, such as residences. You
might also want to conduct site visits of buildings with unique or
especially valuable community assets.
Contents loss estimation tables are not currently available for
earthquake damage. Your estimated contents loss should be based
on the replacement value of the contents, the potential of the
contents to break or fall and the estimated percent structural
damage. As a rule, the percent contents damage will usually be one
half of the percent structural damage.
For example, if you were assessing a residential building with an
estimated 40 percent building damage, you would estimate that the
contents damage would be 20 percent of the buildings replacement
value.

[Earthquake Single Family Residence Loss Estimation Tables;
Earthquake Apartment Building Loss Estimation Tables;
Earthquake Professional Office Building Loss Estimation Tables;
Earthquake Retail Trade Building Loss Estimation Tables;
Earthquake Wholesale Trade Warehouse Loss Estimation Tables;
Earthquake Light Industrial Facility Loss Estimation Tables.
All Tables from HAZUS.
Building damage ratios (%) and loss of function (# of days) depend upon strength of 
earthquake, type of construction (braced steel frame, reinforced masonry, or unreinforced 
masonry) and general seismic design level of construction (high, moderate, low, or pre-
code).

[TIP SIDEBAR: Estimating the contents losses due to earthquakes
can be a difficult process and in many cases may be counter
intuitive to non-technical users. For example, buildings designed under
high seismic building codes may actually have a higher proportion of
content damage than older/weaker buildings, because they are designed
to sway and absorb the motion of the ground movements.
Earthquake contents damage ratios are generally around half of the buildings damage
ratios. This relative proportion is slightly higher for structures built using higher
seismic design codes and decreases for buildings constructed under low seismic
design codes, although these differences are not major. HAZUS will give you more
accurate estimates of potential contents damage from earthquakes.]

3. Calculate the losses to building use and function due to earthquakes.
In this step you will assess community or state vulnerability in terms
of loss of function. In this area, vulnerability is directly related to
how long a function will be interrupted due to an earthquake. You
will estimate how long particular functions in the community will be
interrupted because of an earthquake.

[HAZUS SIDEBAR: For earthquake hazards,
HAZUS provides users
with estimates of:
* Physical damage to buildings
and critical facilities;
* Direct and indirect economic
losses;
* Repair and replacement
losses; and
* Social impacts.]

Building loss of function times (in days) are presented in the tables
on the preceding pages. These times represent estimates of the
average time for actual cleanup and repair, or reconstruction. These
estimates should be extended to account for delays in decision making,
financing, inspection etc., as necessary. For each building
in your inventory, find the type of structure you are assessing on the
correct table and match the PGA value with the seismic design level
to determine the estimated loss of function (in days).
For example, if you were assessing a wood-framed single-family
home constructed to high seismic building codes, subject to 0.5 g
PGA, you would estimate 31 days of lost function. However the same
structure built prior to any seismic building codes would sustain 241
days of lost function.

4. Calculate human losses due to earthquakes.
While direct deaths and injuries from an earthquake are unlikely,
they can occur as an indirect result when structures collapse. Evaluate
your current and previous seismic building codes to determine
the number of people living in buildings constructed before the
seismic building code was adopted, or in buildings located in densely
populated areas.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
estimate losses
or if you are finished with all your assessments
Go to the afterword

Tsunamis
Task A. Determine the extent of damage from tsunamis.
In assessing physical vulnerability, the most important factor is the
extent to which structures get damaged when they are exposed to
tsunamis. Structures located in coastal areas with known offshore
faults are at the greatest risk of damage from tsunamis.

[STATE GUIDANCE: The state should focus
on areas where tsunamis
may inundate major
transportation routes, and
state-owned facilities, or impact
facilities that would have statewide
effects, such as airports, ports, and critical
facilities that serve large areas.]

1. Calculate losses to structures due to tsunamis.
Since there are not any standard loss estimation models and tables
for tsunamis, your estimated structure vulnerability will be based on
the proximity of the structure to the shoreline, and/or past occurrences
of tsunamis.
If you hired a geologist or other expert to create your communitys
tsunami hazard map, he or she may also be able to estimate the
potential damage for you.

[TIP SIDEBAR: As a rule of thumb,
use the vulnerability assumptions
and figures that you will
use for the flood component
of coastal storms and increase
them if necessary.]

2. Calculate losses to contents due to tsunamis.
Again, there are not any standard loss estimation models and tables
for contents damage from tsunamis. Your estimated contents loss
should be based on the structural damage you just determined.
3. Calculate losses to structure use and function due to tsunamis.
Vulnerability is directly related to how long a function will be
interrupted due to a tsunami. Since there are not any standard
displacement time or functional downtime tables for tsunamis, such
as there are for floods, you must estimate how long particular
functions will be interrupted because of a tsunami hazard event. Go
to page 4-4, Estimate the losses to structure use and function to
find specific advice on how to assess the displacement time and
functional downtime.
4. Calculate human losses due to tsunamis.
In the event that an area is subject to tsunamis, it is possible that
deaths can occur. You may need to rely on statistics from past
tsunamis in your area to determine the vulnerability of the population
to tsunamis.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
estimate losses
or if you are finished with all your assessments,
Go to the afterword

Tornadoes
Task A. Determine the extent of damage from tornadoes.
In assessing vulnerability, the most important factor is how likely
structures are to fail when they are subjected to wind loads that
exceed their design or to flying debris that penetrates the building.
Structural damages from tornadoes are a function of the buildings
location relative to the tornado vortex, which cannot be predicted
or mapped. In general, building damages can range from cosmetic
to complete structural failure, depending on wind speed and location
of the building with respect to the tornado path. Only a
qualified architect or structural engineer can do more than the
most rudimentary analysis of a buildings capacity to resist the
effects of tornadoes.

[STATE GUIDANCE: The state should focus
on state buildings and
facilities that, if damaged or
destroyed by a tornado,
would have statewide effects,
such as critical facilities, transportation
terminals, and state government buildings.]

1. Calculate losses to structures due to tornadoes.
Since there are not any standard loss estimation models and tables
for tornadoes, your estimated structure vulnerability will be based
on past occurrences of tornadoes and the design wind speed you
determined in Step 2.
2. Calculate losses to contents due to tornadoes.
Again, there are not any standard loss estimation models and tables
for content damage from tornadoes. Your estimated content losses
should be based on the amount of damage to the structures.
3. Calculate losses to structure use and function due to tornadoes.
Vulnerability is directly related to how long a function will be
interrupted due to a tornado. Since there are not any standard
displacement time or functional downtime tables for tornadoes, you
will estimate how long particular functions will be interrupted
because of a tornado hazard event. Go to page 4-4, Estimate the
losses to structure use and function to find specific advice on how
to assess the displacement time and functional downtime.
4. Calculate human losses due to tornadoes.
The safest place for people during a tornado is in a safe-room or
storm shelter designed to specific performance criteria. Communities
should assess the number, location, capacity, and strength of
shelters throughout the community to ensure they are able to house
residents and withstand the design wind speed. This is primarily the
responsibility of the emergency manager.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
estimate losses
or if you are finished with all your assessments,
Go to the afterword

Coastal Storms
Task A. Determine the extent of damage from coastal
storms.
There are numerous factors to consider when assessing the vulnerability
of buildings in coastal storms. Physical vulnerability refers to
a buildings capacity to withstand:
* high-velocity storm surge flooding,
* erosion or scour, and
* strong winds
For example, the end walls of homes with gabled roofs receive
much of the force of winds, and if trusses are not properly braced,
roofs can fail. However, only a qualified architect or structural
engineer can do more than the most rudimentary analysis of a
buildings structural integrity, so for the purposes of this loss estimate,
use common sense strategies for determining a buildings
capacity to withstand wind and water.
1. Calculate losses to structures due to coastal storms.
In assessing physical vulnerability,
the most important factor is the
extent to which structures get
damaged when they are exposed
to water, erosion/scour, high
velocity wind, and debris impact.

[V Zone Flood Building Loss Estimation Table:
Three columns are labeled 1. flood depth (feet), 2. building without obstructions (% 
building damage), and 3. building with obstructions.] 

Flood Damage. The V Zone Flood
Building Loss Estimation Table
is an example of
the extent of damage from various
flood depths in coastal V zones on
different kinds of buildings. This
table is from the FEMA Benefit-
Cost Analysis software and has
been compiled based on coastal
damage in the United States. This
table may need to be adjusted for
extenuating circumstances. The V
zone is usually only the first two or
three blocks of homes closest to
the flooding source. You will also
need to assess the vulnerability for
structures in coastal A zones as
well. Use the tables beginning on
page 4-13 as the basis to assess the
coastal A zones. You may wish to
increase the figures slightly to
account for greater velocities in
coastal A zones than in riverine A
zones.
* Estimate depth of flooding:
Using the information you
gathered previously, estimate
the flood depth at the location
you are assessing by
subtracting the lowest floor
elevation from the flood
elevation, as shown in the
illustration.

[Figure: Depth of Flooding.
Lowest floor elevation = 6 feet, base flood elevation = 10 feet.
Depth of flooding = 10 - 6 = 4 feet.]

* Determine percent structural damage: Using the V Zone
Flood Building Loss Estimation Table, find the type of
building youre assessing, match it with the estimated flood
depth, and determine the expected damage to that particular
building. For example, a building 4 feet below the base
flood, without any obstructions under the lowest floor, would
be estimated to have 58 percent structural damage. But a
structure with obstructions below the base flood elevation
would result in 61 percent structural damage.
Erosion Damage. Unfortunately, current standard loss estimation
models and tables for erosion damages are not available. As a result,
you may wish to simplify your consideration of structure damage so
that buildings are assumed to be either undamaged or severely
damaged due to erosion. Although slight or moderate damage can
occur due to erosion, the likelihood of this level of damage is
considered small. Your estimated structure loss from erosion should
be based on past experience, the location of the structure within
the hazard area, rate of erosion, and the structure replacement
value.
Wind Damage. There are currently no standard loss estimation
models or tables for wind damage. You should consult with your
building official to help determine the amount of damage to be
expected to your communitys assets as a result of the design wind
speed you determined in Step 2.
2. Calculate losses to contents due to coastal storms.
Building contents are often vulnerable to damage by wind and
water during a coastal storm; therefore, your assessment should take
into account the fact that contents
on lower levels of buildings may
receive water damage, while those
on upper floors may receive wind
damage. Your risk assessment should
estimate the likely value of contents
within buildings that are similar,
such as residences. You also may
want to conduct site visits to buildings
with unique or especially
valuable community assets.

[V Zone Flood Contents Loss Estimation Table:
Three columns are labeled 1. flood depth (feet), 2. building without obstructions (% 
building damage), and 3. building with obstructions.] 

Flood Damage. Using the depth of
flooding determined previously,
find the type of structure youre
assessing on the V Zone Flood
Contents Loss Estimation Table,
match it with the estimated depth
of flooding for that area of your
community, and determine the
percent contents damage.
Since the contents damage chart
has been established over many
coastal flood events, the values are
for generic contents. If you know
that a particular structure would
endure an extraordinary amount of
contents damage, you should
increase this value. You should also
increase the amount of contents
damage if a residence located in
the floodplain is known to contain
valuable items or if you know an
area is prone to excessively muddy
water or contamination.

[V Zone Flood Functional Downtime Estimation Table:
Three columns are labeled 1. flood depth (feet), 2. building without obstructions (days of 
functional downtime), and 3. building with obstructions (days of functional downtime).] 

Erosion Damage. Again, there are
no standard loss estimation models
and tables for contents damage
from erosion.
Your estimated contents loss should
be based on the structural damage
from erosion, location of the
structure within the hazard area,
and rate of erosion.


[V Zone Flood Displacement Time Estimation Table:
Three columns are labeled 1. flood depth (feet), 2. building without obstructions (days of 
displacement), and 3. building with obstructions (days of displacement).] 

Wind Damage. There are currently no standard loss estimation
models and tables for contents damage from coastal storm winds.
You should base your estimates on the structural damage from wind,
and the location of the building within the hazard area.

[STATE GUIDANCE: States should remember
to include the contents
from state owned facilities
that are located in the coastal
floodplain, including vehicles
and equipment.]

3. Calculate losses to structure use and function due to coastal storms.
In this step you will assess community or state vulnerability in terms
of loss of function. In this area, vulnerability is directly related to
how long a function will be interrupted due to a coastal storm, so
you will estimate how long particular functions in the community
will be interrupted. Depending on the severity of the coastal storm
and the amount of damage a building or other structure is likely to
sustain, it is possible the function could be completely eliminated.
The tables on the previous pages provide a simplified indication of
functional downtime and displacement time for structures due to
various depths of flooding.
Functional Downtime: Using the depth of flooding determined
earlier, find the type of building youre assessing on the V Zone
Flood Functional Downtime Table, match it with the estimated
depth of flooding for that area of your community, and determine
the function downtime.

For example, a building that had 4 feet of flooding is estimated to
result in 30 days of downtime before business can resume in another
location.
Displacement Time: Using the depth of flooding determined earlier,
find the type of building youre assessing on the V Zone Flood
Displacement Time Table, match it with the estimated depth of
flooding for that area of your community, and determine the
displacement time.
For example, a building that had 4 feet of flooding is estimated to
result in 365 days of displacement time.
4. Calculate human losses due to coastal storms.
Increased development in coastal areas has placed a high number of
people at risk of hurricanes and coastal storms. Fortunately, most
hurricanes and other coastal hazards are predictable and take a
number of days to develop, which allows adequate warning time.
However, deaths still can occur, especially when evacuation orders
are ignored.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
estimate losses
or if you are finished with all your assessments
Go to the afterword

Landslides
Task A. Determine the extent of damage from landslides.

[STATE GUIDANCE: The state should focus
on landslides that will
block major transportation
routes, bury state-owned facilities,
or impact facilities that
would have statewide effects, such as
airports, ports, and critical facilities that
serve large areas.]

In assessing physical vulnerability, the most important factor is the
extent to which structures get damaged when they are exposed to
landslides. Structures located close to dangerous topographic features
such as the tops or bases of slopes or in valleys are at a greater
risk of damage from landslides.
1. Calculate losses to structures due to landslides.
Unfortunately, current standard loss estimation models and tables
only tabulate damages for landslides resulting from earthquakes.
(See the earthquakes resource list in Appendix B or HAZUS for
more information.) Your estimated structure loss should therefore
be based on the location of the structure within the hazard area
and past occurrences of landslides. If you hired a geologist or other
expert to create your communitys landslide hazard map, he or she
may also be able to estimate the potential damage for you. If not,
assessing vulnerability to structures can be simplified so that they are
assumed to be either undamaged or severely damaged due to
landslides. Although slight or moderate damage can occur due to
landslides, the likelihood of this level of damage is considered small.
You may wish to consult with your building official to help estimate
structural damage.
2. Calculate losses to contents due to landslides.
Again, there are no standard loss estimation models and tables for
content damage from landslides.
Your estimated contents loss should be based on the location of the
structure and its contents within the hazard area and past occurrences
of landslides.

[ADVANCED SIDEBAR: The acceleration required
to initiate slope movement
is a complex function of
slope geology, steepness,
groundwater conditions, type
of landslide, and history of previous slope
performance. A generally accepted relationship
or simplified methodology for
estimating slope movements has not
been developed yet.]

3. Calculate losses to structure use and function due to landslides.
Vulnerability is directly related to how long a function will be
interrupted due to a landslide. Since there are not any standard
displacement time or functional downtime tables for landslides, you
will estimate how long particular functions in the community will be
interrupted because of a particular level of damage. Go to page 4-4,
Estimate the losses to structure use and function, to find specific
advice on how to assess the displacement time and functional
downtime.

4. Calculate human losses due to landslides.
In the event that an area is subject to earthquakes, rapid snowmelt,
or mudflows, or where there are insufficient warning systems, it is
possible that deaths can occur, especially if roads are damaged. You
may need to rely on statistics from past landslides in your area to
determine the vulnerability of the population to landslides.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
estimate losses
or if you are finished with all your assessments
Go to the afterword

Wildfires
Task A. Determine the extent of damage from wildfires.
In assessing physical vulnerability, the most important factor is the
extent to which structures get damaged when they are exposed to
fire and heat. Structures located near the urban-wildland interface
area are at the greatest risk of damage from wildfires.

[STATE GUIDANCE: States should focus
on state buildings and facilities
that, if damaged or destroyed
by wildfires, would
have statewide effects. Contact
your state forester or the U.S. Forest
Service (see Appendix B).]

1. Calculate losses to structures due to wildfires.
Current standard loss estimation tables do not exist for wildfires.
You may wish to contact your local fire department to help estimate
structural vulnerability.
2. Calculate losses to contents due to wildfires.
There are not any standard loss estimation models and tables for
contents damage. Assumptions about damage to contents should be
increased for contents that are sensitive to heat such as electronics,
and contents that would be damaged as a result of the fire suppression
efforts (i.e., water damage) such as books or paper files.

[TIP SIDEBAR: Use the Wildfire Hazard
Rating Form on
page 4-37 to calculate the
hazard to subdivisions within
the community. You may also
wish to use it to evaluate all areas near
the urban wildland interface. Contact your
local fire department or engineer for assistance
with this form.]

3. Calculate losses to structure use and function due to wildfires.
Vulnerability is directly related to how long a function will be
interrupted due to a wildfire. Since there are no standard displacement
time or functional downtime tables for wildfires, you will need
to estimate how long particular functions will be interrupted because
of a wildfire hazard event. Go to page 4-4, Estimate the losses
to structure use and function, to find specific advice on how to
assess the displacement time and functional downtime.
4. Calculate human losses due to wildfires.
Most wildfire related deaths occur as the result of fire suppression
activities. However, if roads are damaged or there is insufficient
warning time, other injuries and deaths can occur. Since there are
no death or injury curves for wildfires, estimate the number of
injuries or deaths based on past wildfire events.

Go to the next hazard on your list to
estimate losses
or if you are finished with all your assessments
Go to the afterword

Wildfire Hazard Rating Form
-Subdivision-
Name of Subdivision:
Date:
County:
Size (Acres):
#Lots:
Rating:
Comments 

A. Subdivision Design, Points
1. Ingress/Egress:
Two or more primary roads, 1
One Road, 3 
One-way in, one-way out, 5 
2. Width of Primary Road:
20 feet or more, 1 
20 feet or less, 3 
3. Accessibility:
Road Grade 5% or less, 1 
Road Grade 5% or more, 3 
4. Secondary Road Terminus: 
Loop roads, cul-de-sacs with
outside turning radius of 45 feet
or greater, 1 
Cul-de-sac turnaround radius
is less than 45 feet, 2 
Dead-end roads 200 feet or less
in length, 3
Dead-end roads greater than
200 feet in length, 5
5. Average lot size:
10 acres or larger, 1 
Larger than 1 acre, but less than
10 acres, 3 
1 acre or less, 5
6. Street signs:
Present, 1 
Not present, 5
B. Vegetation
1. Fuel Types:
Light, 1 
Medium, 5 
Heavy, 10 
2. Defensible Space:
70% or more of site, 1 
30% or more, but less than 70%, 3 
Less than 30% of site, 5 
C. Topography Points
1. Predominant Slope
8% or less, 1 
More than 8%, but less than 20%, 4 
20% or more, but less than 30%, 7 
30% or more, 10 
D. Roofing Material
Class A Rated, 1 
Class B Rated, 3 
Class C Rated, 5 
Non-Rated, 10 
E. Fire Protection  Water Source
500 GPM Hydrant within 1,000 feet, 1 
Hydrant farther than 1,000 feet or draft
site, 2 
Water source within 20 minutes or
less, round trip, 5 
Water source farther than 20 minutes,
and but less than 45 minutes round trip, 7 
Water source farther than 45 minutes
round trip, 10 
F. Existing Building Construction
Materials
Noncombustible siding/deck, 1 
Noncombustible siding/combustible
deck, 5 
Combustible siding and deck, 10 
G. Utilities
All underground utilities, 1 
One underground, one above ground, 3 
All above ground, 5 
TOTAL FOR SUBDIVISION ___________

RATING SCALE:
MODERATE HAZARD 40-59
HIGH HAZARD 60-74
EXTREME HAZARDS 75+
Source: Urban Wildland Interface Code, 2000

afterword
You have completed your loss estimate.
Now what?

[FIGURE: As detailed in the Foreword,
the Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning
process consists of four basic phases.
The next how-to in the series, Develop
a Mitigation Plan, will directly build on
the work you have just completed.]

Your loss estimate is the foundation upon which you will
develop a state or local mitigation plan. With it, you should be
able to identify what areas of your community or state are susceptible
to each hazard, where the highest losses would occur, how
much a hazard may cost were it to occur, and how the lives and
quality of life in your community or state might be affected in the
aftermath of a disaster. You also now have a factual basis for developing
a mitigation strategy for your community or state. This will be
important data necessary to support future mitigation decisions.
It is therefore important to compile the results of your work into a
written report. This report should be presented to citizens and
elected officials. The State Hazard Mitigation Officer should be
aware of the completion of your loss estimate because the State
may want to use it as part of its statewide risk assessment.
The results of your risk assessment will likely draw interest from a
wide range of sectors in the community or state. Business owners
and residents will want to know what the results of the risk assessment
mean for them and what to do next. You have an opportunity
to use the results of the risk assessment as a tool to galvanize the
community and to secure interest and support for the remainder
of the hazard mitigation planning process. The risk assessment can
be an effective tool for public education, disaster response and
recovery, and economic development. For example, you can use
the results of the risk assessment to:
* Promote flood insurance by targeting at-risk properties;
* Support a public hazard awareness initiative;
* Encourage elected officials to approve and implement a
hazard mitigation plan;
* Support economic development decisions by allowing
hazards to be mitigated when new development takes
place; and
* Reduce costs spent on disaster response and recovery
through pre-identification of at-risk populations or
areas, and implementation of mitigation initiatives.
By gathering information from a variety of state and local resources,
you have begun to forge relations within your community
and state that will continue to be nurtured throughout the planning
process.
In the next phase of the Natural Hazard Mitigation Planning
Process, Develop a Mitigation Plan, you will find solutions to address
the potential impacts of natural hazards in your community or
state by developing a strategy to reduce the effects of the hazards.
The mitigation strategy will be based on the risk assessment you
just completed in the second phase of the Natural Hazard Mitigation
Planning process and will provide a comprehensive strategy to
address the mitigation priorities within your community or state.


appendix a
glossary
Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Acceleration due to gravity
at the earth's surface is 9.8 meters per second squared. That means that every
second that something falls toward the surface of earth its velocity increases
by 9.8 meters per second.
Asset
Any manmade or natural feature that has value, including, but not limited to
people; buildings; infrastructure like bridges, roads, and sewer and water
systems; lifelines like electricity and communication resources; or environmental,
cultural, or recreational features like parks, dunes, wetlands, or
landmarks.
Base Flood
Flood that has a 1 percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any
given year. Also known as the 100-year flood.
Base Flood Elevation (BFE)
Elevation of the base flood in relation to a specified datum, such as the
National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. The Base Flood Elevation is used
as the standard for the National Flood Insurance Program.
Bedrock
The solid rock that underlies loose material, such as soil, sand, clay, or gravel.
Building
A structure that is walled and roofed, principally above ground and permanently
affixed to a site. The term includes a manufactured home on a permanent
foundation on which the wheels and axles carry no weight.
Coastal High Hazard Area
Area, usually along an open coast, bay, or inlet, that is subject to inundation
by storm surge and, in some instances, wave action caused by storms or
seismic sources.
Coastal Zones
The area along the shore where the ocean meets the land as the surface of
the land rises above the ocean. This land/water interface includes barrier
islands, estuaries, beaches, coastal wetlands, and land areas having direct
drainage to the ocean.
Community Rating System (CRS)
An NFIP program that provides incentives for NFIP communities to complete
activities that reduce flood hazard risk. When the community completes
specified activities, the insurance premiums of policyholders in these communities
are reduced.
Computer-Aided Design And Drafting (CADD)
A computerized system enabling quick and accurate electronic 2-D and 3-D
drawings, topographic mapping, site plans, and profile/cross-section drawings.
Contour
A line of equal ground elevation on a topographic (contour) map.
Critical Facility
Facilities that are critical to the health and welfare of the population
and that are especially important following hazard events. Critical
facilities include, but are not limited to, shelters, police and fire stations,
and hospitals.
Debris
The scattered remains of assets broken or destroyed in a hazard event.
Debris caused by a wind or water hazard event can cause additional
damage to other assets.
Digitize
To convert electronically points, lines, and area boundaries shown on
maps into x, y coordinates (e.g., latitude and longitude, universal
transverse mercator (UTM), or table coordinates) for use in computer
applications.
Displacement Time
The average time (in days) which the building's occupants typically must
operate from a temporary location while repairs are made to the original
building due to damages resulting from a hazard event.
Duration
How long a hazard event lasts.
Earthquake
A sudden motion or trembling that is caused by a release of strain
accumulated within or along the edge of earth's tectonic plates.
Erosion
Wearing away of the land surface by detachment and movement of soil
and rock fragments, during a flood or storm or over a period of years,
through the action of wind, water, or other geologic processes.
Erosion Hazard Area
Area anticipated to be lost to shoreline retreat over a given period of
time. The projected inland extent of the area is measured by multiplying
the average annual long-term recession rate by the number of years
desired.
Essential Facility
Elements that are important to ensure a full recovery of a community or
state following a hazard event. These would include: government
functions, major employers, banks, schools, and certain commercial
establishments, such as grocery stores, hardware stores, and gas stations.
Extent
The size of an area affected by a hazard or hazard event.
Extratropical Cyclone
Cyclonic storm events like Nor'easters and severe winter low-pressure
systems. Both West and East coasts can experience these non-tropical
storms that produce gale-force winds and precipitation in the form of
heavy rain or snow. These cyclonic storms, commonly called Nor'easters
on the East Coast because of the direction of the storm winds, can last
for several days and can be very large  1,000-mile wide storms are not
uncommon.
Fault
A fracture in the continuity of a rock formation caused by a shifting or
dislodging of the earth's crust, in which adjacent surfaces are differentially
displaced parallel to the plane of fracture.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Independent agency created in 1978 to provide a single point of accountability
for all Federal activities related to disaster mitigation and
emergency preparedness, response and recovery.
Fire Potential Index (FPI)
Developed by USGS and USFS to assess and map fire hazard potential
over broad areas. Based on such geographic information, national policy
makers and on-the-ground fire managers established priorities for
prevention activities in the defined area to reduce the risk of managed
and wildfire ignition and spread. Prediction of fire hazard shortens the
time between fire ignition and initial attack by enabling fire managers to
pre-allocate and stage suppression forces to high fire risk areas.
Flash Flood
A flood event occurring with little or no warning where water levels rise
at an extremely fast rate.
Flood
A general and temporary condition of partial or complete inundation of
normally dry land areas from (1) the overflow of inland or tidal waters,
(2) the unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from
any source, or (3) mudflows or the sudden collapse of shoreline land.
Flood Depth
Height of the flood water surface above the ground surface.
Flood Elevation
Elevation of the water surface above an established datum, e.g. National
Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929, North American Vertical Datum of
1988, or Mean Sea Level.
Flood Hazard Area
The area shown to be inundated by a flood of a given magnitude on a
map.
Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM)
Map of a community, prepared by the Federal Emergency Management
Agency, that shows both the special flood hazard areas and the risk
premium zones applicable to the community.
Flood Insurance Study (FIS)
A study that provides an examination, evaluation, and determination of
flood hazards and, if appropriate, corresponding water surface elevations
in a community or communities.
Floodplain
Any land area, including watercourse, susceptible to partial or complete
inundation by water from any source.
Frequency
A measure of how often events of a particular magnitude are expected to
occur. Frequency describes how often a hazard of a specific magnitude,
duration, and/or extent typically occurs, on average. Statistically, a
hazard with a 100-year recurrence interval is expected to occur once
every 100 years on average, and would have a 1 percent chance  its
probability  of happening in any given year. The reliability of this
information varies depending on the kind of hazard being considered.
Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity
Rates tornadoes with numeric values from F0 to F5 based on tornado
wind speed and damage sustained. An F0 indicates minimal damage such
as broken tree limbs or signs, while and F5 indicated severe damage
sustained.
Functional Downtime
The average time (in days) during which a function (business or service)
is unable to provide its services due to a hazard event.
Geographic Area Impacted
The physical area in which the effects of the hazard are experienced.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
A computer software application that relates physical features on the
earth to a database to be used for mapping and analysis.
Ground Motion
The vibration or shaking of the ground during an earthquake. When a
fault ruptures, seismic waves radiate, causing the ground to vibrate. The
severity of the vibration increases with the amount of energy released
and decreases with distance from the causative fault or epicenter, but
soft soils can further amplify ground motions
Hazard
A source of potential danger or adverse condition. Hazards in this how-to
series will include naturally occurring events such as floods, earthquakes,
tornadoes, tsunami, coastal storms, landslides, and wildfires that
strike populated areas. A natural event is a hazard when it has the
potential to harm people or property.
Hazard Event
A specific occurrence of a particular type of hazard.
Hazard Identification
The process of identifying hazards that threaten an area.
Hazard Mitigation
Sustained actions taken to reduce or eliminate long-term risk from
hazards and their effects.
Hazard Profile
A description of the physical characteristics of hazards and a determination
of various descriptors including magnitude, duration, frequency,
probability, and extent. In most cases, a community can most easily use
these descriptors when they are recorded and displayed as maps.
HAZUS (Hazards U.S.)
A GIS-based nationally standardized earthquake loss estimation tool
developed by FEMA.
Hurricane
An intense tropical cyclone, formed in the atmosphere over warm ocean
areas, in which wind speeds reach 74-miles-per-hour or more and blow in
a large spiral around a relatively calm center or "eye." Hurricanes
develop over the north Atlantic Ocean, northeast Pacific Ocean, or the
south Pacific Ocean east of 160E longitude. Hurricane circulation is
counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
Hydrology
The science of dealing with the waters of the earth. A flood discharge is
developed by a hydrologic study.
Infrastructure
Refers to the public services of a community that have a direct impact
on the quality of life. Infrastructure includes communication technology
such as phone lines or Internet access, vital services such as public water
supplies and sewer treatment facilities, and includes an area's transportation
system such as airports, heliports; highways, bridges, tunnels,
roadbeds, overpasses, railways, bridges, rail yards, depots; and waterways,
canals, locks, seaports, ferries, harbors, drydocks, piers and regional
dams.
Intensity
A measure of the effects of a hazard event at a particular place.
Landslide
Downward movement of a slope and materials under the force of gravity.
Lateral Spreads
Develop on gentle slopes and entail the sidelong movement of large
masses of soil as an underlying layer liquefies in a seismic event.
Liquefaction
The phenomenon that occurs when ground shaking causes loose soils to
lose strength and act like viscous fluid. Liquefaction causes two types of
ground failure: lateral spread and loss of bearing strength.
Loss of Bearing Strength
Results when the soil supporting structures liquefies. This can cause
structures to tip and topple.
Lowest Floor
Under the NFIP, the lowest floor of the lowest enclosed area (including
basement) of a structure.
Magnitude
A measure of the strength of a hazard event. The magnitude (also
referred to as severity) of a given hazard event is usually determined
using technical measures specific to the hazard.
Mitigation Plan
A systematic evaluation of the nature and extent of vulnerability to the
effects of natural hazards typically present in the state and includes a
description of actions to minimize future vulnerability to hazards.
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)
Federal program created by Congress in 1968 that makes flood insurance
available in communities that enact minimum floodplain management
regulations in 44 CFR 60.3.
National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD)
Datum established in 1929 and used in the NFIP as a basis for measuring
flood, ground, and structural elevations, previously referred to as Sea
Level Datum or Mean Sea Level. The Base Flood Elevations shown on
most of the Flood Insurance Rate Maps issued by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency are referenced to NGVD.
National Weather Service (NWS)
Prepares and issues flood, severe weather, and coastal storm warnings
and can provide technical assistance to Federal and state entities in
preparing weather and flood warning plans.
Nor'easter
An extra-tropical cyclone producing gale-force winds and precipitation
in the form of heavy snow or rain.
Outflow
Follows water inundation creating strong currents that rip at structures
and pound them with debris, and erode beaches and coastal structures.
Planimetric
Describes maps that indicate only man-made features like buildings.
Planning
The act or process of making or carrying out plans; the establishment of
goals, policies and procedures for a social or economic unit.
Probability
A statistical measure of the likelihood that a hazard event will occur.
Recurrence Interval
The time between hazard events of similar size in a given location. It is
based on the probability that the given event will be equaled or exceeded
in any given year.
Repetitive Loss Property
A property that is currently insured for which two or more National
Flood Insurance Program losses (occurring more than ten days apart) of
at least $1000 each have been paid within any 10-year period since 1978.
Replacement Value
The cost of rebuilding a structure. This is usually expressed in terms of
cost per square foot, and reflects the present-day cost of labor and
materials to construct a building of a particular size, type and quality.
Richter Scale
A numerical scale of earthquake magnitude devised by seismologist C.F.
Richter in 1935.
Risk
The estimated impact that a hazard would have on people, services,
facilities, and structures in a community; the likelihood of a hazard
event resulting in an adverse condition that causes injury or damage.
Risk is often expressed in relative terms such as a high, moderate or low
likelihood of sustaining damage above a particular threshold due to a
specific type of hazard event. It also can be expressed in terms of potential
monetary losses associated with the intensity of the hazard.
Riverine
Of or produced by a river.
Scale
A proportion used in determining a dimensional relationship; the ratio
of the distance between two points on a map and the actual distance
between the two points on the earth's surface.
Scarp
A steep slope.
Scour
Removal of soil or fill material by the flow of flood waters. The term is
frequently used to describe storm-induced, localized conical erosion
around pilings and other foundation supports where the obstruction of
flow increases turbulence.
Seismicity
Describes the likelihood of an area being subject to earthquakes.
Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA)
An area within a floodplain having a 1 percent or greater chance of
flood occurrence in any given year (100-year floodplain); represented
on Flood Insurance Rate Maps by darkly shaded areas with zone designations
that include the letter A or V.
Stafford Act
The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, PL
100-107 was signed into law November 23, 1988 and amended the
Disaster Relief Act of 1974, PL 93-288. The Stafford Act is the statutory
authority for most Federal disaster response activities, especially as they
pertain to FEMA and its programs.
State Hazard Mitigation Officer (SHMO)
The representative of state government who is the primary point of
contact with FEMA, other state and Federal agencies, and local units of
government in the planning and implementation of pre- and post-disaster
mitigation activities.
Storm Surge
Rise in the water surface above normal water level on the open coast due
to the action of wind stress and atmospheric pressure on the water
surface.
Structure
Something constructed. (See also Building)
Substantial Damage
Damage of any origin sustained by a structure in a Special Flood Hazard
Area whereby the cost of restoring the structure to its before-damaged
condition would equal or exceed 50 percent of the market value of the
structure before the damage.
Super Typhoon
A typhoon with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph or more.
Surface Faulting
The differential movement of two sides of a fracture  in other words,
the location where the ground breaks apart. The length, width, and
displacement of the ground characterize surface faults.
Tectonic Plate
Torsionally rigid, thin segments of the earth's lithosphere that may be
assumed to move horizontally and adjoin other plates. It is the friction
between plate boundaries that cause seismic activity.
Topographic
Characterizes maps that show natural features and indicate the physical
shape of the land using contour lines. These maps may also include
manmade features.
Tornado
A violently rotating column of air extending from a thunderstorm to the
ground.
Tropical Cyclone
A generic term for a cyclonic, low-pressure system over tropical or subtropical
waters.
Tropical Depression
A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of less than 39 mph.
Tropical Storm
A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds greater than 39 mph
and less than 74 mph.
Tsunami
Great sea wave produced by submarine earth movement or volcanic
eruption.
Typhoon
A special category of tropical cyclone peculiar to the western North
Pacific Basin, frequently affecting areas in the vicinity of Guam and the
North Mariana Islands. Typhoons whose maximum sustained winds
attain or exceed 150 mph are called super typhoons.
Vulnerability
Describes how exposed or susceptible to damage an asset is. Vulnerability
depends on an asset's construction, contents, and the economic value
of its functions. Like indirect damages, the vulnerability of one element
of the community is often related to the vulnerability of another. For
example, many businesses depend on uninterrupted electrical power 
if an electric substation is flooded, it will affect not only the substation
itself, but a number of businesses as well. Often, indirect effects can be
much more widespread and damaging than direct ones.
Vulnerability Assessment
The extent of injury and damage that may result from a hazard event of
a given intensity in a given area. The vulnerability assessment should
address impacts of hazard events on the existing and future built environment.
Water Displacement
When a large mass of earth on the ocean bottom sinks or uplifts, the
column of water directly above it is displaced, forming the tsunami wave.
The rate of displacement, motion of the ocean floor at the epicenter,
the amount of displacement of the rupture zone, and the depth of water
above the rupture zone all contribute to the intensity of the tsunami.
Wave Runup
The height that the wave extends up to on steep shorelines, measured
above a reference level (the normal height of the sea, corrected to the
state of the tide at the time of wave arrival).
Wildfire
An uncontrolled fire spreading through vegetative fuels, exposing and
possibly consuming structures.
Zone
A geographical area shown on a Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) that
reflects the severity or type of flooding in the area.

appendix b
library
General Contact Information
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
http://www.fema.gov
FEMA Headquarters:
500 C Street, SW, Washington, D.C. 20472
Phone: (202) 646-4600
FEMA Publications Warehouse
800-480-2520
FEMA Mitigation Planning
http://www.fema.gov/fima/planning.htm
American Planning Association
http://www.planning.org
Institute for Business and Home Safety
http://www.ibhs.org
National Hurricane Center
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov
National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS)
http://www.nibs.org/
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
http://www.nist.gov
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
http://www.noaa.gov
National Weather Service
http://www.nws.noaa.gov
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regional Sites and
Districts
http://www.usace.army.mil/
organizations.htm#Divisions
United States Geological Survey (USGS) Homepage
http://www.usgs.gov/ (888-ASK-USGS)
identify hazards
American Red Cross  local chapters
http://www.redcross.org/where/where.html
Disaster Center
http://www.disastercenter.com
Digital Q3 Flood Data
http://msc.fema.gov/MSC/statemap.htm
ESRI
http://www.esri.com/hazards
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Multi-Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment: A
Cornerstone of the National Mitigation Strategy. 1997
Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction.
FEMA and American Planning Association.
Planning Advisory Service (PAS) Report Number 483/
484. 1998.


Landslide Risk Areas
http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/
landslides/nationalmap/national.html
National Weather Service (NWS)  Regional Offices
http://weather.gov/organization.html
Natural Hazards Center
http://www.Colorado.EDU/hazards/sites/
costs.html
Natural Hazards Statistics
http://www.noaa.gov/om/hazstats.shtml
NOAA, Central Library
http://www.lib.noaa.gov
NOAA, National Geophysical Data Center
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/hazard/
resource
State Emergency Management Agencies
http://www.fema.gov/fema/statedr.shtm
http://www.ak-prepared.com/statelinks.htm
State Geologists
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/AASG/AASG.html
State Hazard Mitigation Officers
http://www.floods.org/shmos.htm
http://www.hazmit.net/
State Historic Preservation Officers
http://www.sso.org/ncshpo/shpolist.htm
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation
http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/~bernard/
senatec.html
U.S. Geological Survey
http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/
Wildfire Danger Conditions
http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wfas/fd_class.gif
Wind Zones
http://www.fema.gov/graphics/library/wmap.gif
World Wide Weather and Climate Events
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/reports/
weather-events.html#STORM
profile hazard events
Association of State Dam Safety Officials
http://www.damsafety.org
Coastal and lake bathymetry and climate 
NOAA National Data Center
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/bathymetry
Elevation, hydrology, land use, transportation, etc. 
USGS National Mapping Information
http://mapping.usgs.gov
Endangered species, etc. 
U.S. National Biological Information Infrastructure
http://www.nbii.gov
Federal Lands  Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
Geospatial Home Page
http://www.blm.gov/gis

FEMA Map Service Center
http://www.fema.gov/maps/
Flood Risk and Map Information
http://www.fema.gov/nfip/fmapinfo.htm
Forestry Service Contacts
State:
http://www.stateforesters.org/sflist.html
Regional:
http://www.fs.fed.us/intro/directory/orgdir.html
GIS Data Sources for Forest Areas 
USDA Forest Service (USFS)
http://www.fs.fed.us
HAZUS instruction and technical information
http://www.fema.gov/hazus/
HAZUS99 User's Manual and HAZUS99 Technical
Manual, Vols. 1, 2, & 3. FEMA-366
National parks  National Park Service (NPS)
http://www.nps.gov/gis
National Wetlands Inventory 
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
http://www.nwi.fws.gov
NFIP Guide to Flood Maps
http://msc.fema.gov/MSC/hardcopy.htm
NFIP State Coordinators
http://www.floods.org/stcoor.htm
Seismic hazards 
USGS National Seismic Hazard Mapping Project
http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/eq
Spatial Data Resources by State
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/nchaz/htm/
dinfo_6.htm
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
http://www.usace.army.mil/
USDA Wildfire Fuel Model Map
http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wfas/nfdr_map.htm
USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service
(NRCS)  National Cartography and Geospatial
Center (NCGC)
http://www.statlab.iastate.edu/soils/nsdaf
USGS Topographic Maps
http://mapping.usgs.gov/mac/nimamaps/topo.html
http://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/topomaps/
http://stats.bls.gov/datahome.htm
inventory assets
Bureau of Labor Statistics
http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/BasicFactsServlet
Census Information
http://www.census.gov/geo/www/tiger/
Consumer Price Index
http://woodrow.mpls.frb.fed.us/research/data/us/
calc/
FEMA Publication on Substantial
Damage
Guidance on Estimating Substantial Damage. FEMA-
311
HAZUS instruction and technical information
http://www.fema.gov/hazus/
HAZUS99 User's Manual and HAZUS99
Technical Manual, Vols. 1, 2, & 3. FEMA
Socio-Economic Data Resources
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/nchaz/
htm/dinfo_4.htm
USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service
http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/
assess risk
Building construction costs.
Building Construction Cost Data, 2001.
Means. 2001.
Commercial and residential cost per square foot.
Repair & Remodeling Cost Data, Commercial,
Residential. Means. 1999.
Residential cost per square foot.
Residential Cost Data, 2000. Means. Howard
M. Chandler (Editor). 2000.
General Hazard Information
Floods
Association of State Dam Safety Officials
http://www.damsafety.org/
Copies of FIRMs, FISs, DFIRMs, Digital Q3 Flood
Data, and FHBMs
http://www.fema.gov/maps/
FEMA Map Service Center 800.358.9616
Flash-Flood Safety Rules
http://srh.noaa.gov/oun/severewx/safety.html#flashflood
Flood Risk and Map Information
http://www.fema.gov/nfip/fmapinfo.htm
Flood Safety Rules
http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/nh-flood.htm
Floodplain Management Association
http://www.floodplain.org
General Flood Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/FloodFlash/
FloodFlash.asp
Guide to Flood Maps on the web
http://msc.fema.gov/MSC/hardcopy.htm
Latest hydrological information (flooding, droughts, snow
conditions, and water supply)
http://www.nws.noaa.gov/oh/hic/conds.html

Real-time hydrologic data page
http://water.usgs.gov/realtime.html
Regional River Forecast Centers
http://www.crh.noaa.gov/ahps/rfc.html
State Floodplain Managers
http://www.floods.org/stcoor.htm
United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw
USGS Streamflow Data Historical
http://water.usgs.gov/usa/nwis/sw
Earthquakes
Building Seismic Safety Council
http://www.bssconline.org
California Division of Mines and Geology
http://www.consrv.ca.gov/dmg/shezp/index.htm
Earthquake hazard history, by state
http://wwwneic.cr.usgs.gov/neis/states/states.html
Earthquake maps and information
http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/
eqmaps.html
FEMA HAZUS homepage
http://www.fema.gov/hazus/
FEMA Publications
Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential
Seismic Hazards: A Handbook. FEMA-154. Supporting
documentation. FEMA-155.
NEHRP Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of
Existing Buildings: A Pre-Standard. FEMA-310.
GIS data available on earthquakes
http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/eq/html/genmap.html
USGS Earthquake homepage
http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/
USGS National and regional custom earthquake risk
maps
http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/eq
http://eqint.cr.usgs.gov/eq/html/custom.shtml
United States Geological Survey 888-ASK-USGS
Tsunamis
General Tsunami Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Tsunami/
tsunami. asp
National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program
http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami-hazard/
Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries
(DOGAMI)
503.731.4100
800 NE Oregon Street, #28
Portland OR 97232
Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory

http://www.pmel.noaa.gov
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
808.689.8207
91-270 Fort Weaver Road
Ewa Beach HI 96706
Tsunami Inundation Mapping
http://newport.pmel.noaa.gov/time/reports/
may2000stat.html
U.S. Geological Survey
http://www.usgs.gov/themes/coast.html
University of Washington
http://www.geophys.washington.edu
West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center of NOAA/NWS
907.745.4212
910 S. Felton Street
Palmer AK 99645-6552
Tornadoes
ASCE Wind Speed Maps
http://www.ascepub.infor.com/windload.html
General Tornado Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Tornado/
tornado.asp
Tornado Project Online
http://www.tornadoproject.com
Tornado Safe Room Program
http://www.fema.gov/mit/saferoom/
Coastal Storms
500-year and 100-year return peak
gust hurricane wind speeds
http://www.fema.gov/hazards/hurricanes/hurfacts.shtm
ASCE Wind Speed Maps
http://www.ascepub.infor.com/windload.html
Coastal zone management programs by state
http://www.ocrm.nos.noaa.gov/czm/
czmsitelist.html
FAQ: Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Tropical Storms
http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/
tcfaqG.html#G12
FEMA Publications
Coastal Construction Manual. FEMA-55
Multihazard Identification and Risk Assessment.
http://www.fema.gov/mit/tsd/
ft_mhira.htm
Evaluation of Erosion Hazards. The Heinz
Center. http://www.fema.gov/nwz00/
erosion.shtm

General Hurricane Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Hurricane/
hurricane.asp
Great Lakes Commission
http://www.glc.org
Historical data and maps on past hurricane tracks
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastall.html
Hurricane Safety Rules
http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/nh-hurr.htm
Inland Wind Model estimates maximum winds of
landfalling hurricanes
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutmeow.html
United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw
Landslides
American Planning Association 
Landslide Hazards and Planning
http://www.planning.org/Landslides
General Landslide Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Landslide/
Landslide.asp
How to do landslide hazard analysis
http://www.itc.nl/ilwis/
Landslide and Mudflow Fact Sheet
http://www.fema.gov/hazards/landslides/landslif.shtm
Landslide hazard maps (San Francisco Bay Area)
http://wrgis.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of97-745
Landslide overview map of US
http://landslide.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/
nationalmap/national.html
http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/nlic/
maporder.html
Wildfires
Firewise
http://www.firewise.org
General Wildfire Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Wildfire/
wildfire.asp
Local wildfire observations and trend forecasts
for fire weather forecasts zones.
http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wfas/fd_class.gif
NOAA Fire Event Satellite Photos
http://www.osei.noaa.gov/Events/Fires/

Resolution Fire Danger Rating Fuel Model Map
http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wfas/nfdr_map.htm
U. S. Forest Service, USDA
http://www.fs.fed.us/
USGS Topographic Maps
http://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/topomaps/
Wildland Fire Assessment System
http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wfas/
Wildland Fire Updates
http://www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/nfn.html
Other Hazards
Avalanches
http://www.avalanche.org
Dam Safety
http://www.usbr.gov/laws/damguide.html
Dam Safety Program  FEMA
http://www.fema.gov/fima/damsafe/
Drought  USDA
http://www.drought.unl.edu/dm/index.html
Drought  USGS
http://www.usgs.gov
Extreme Heat Fact Sheet
http://www.fema.gov/hazards/extremeheat/heatf.shtm
General Heat Wave Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/HeatWave/
HeatWave.asp
General Severe Thunderstorm Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Thunderstorm/
Thunderstorm.asp
General Volcano Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Volcano/
volcano.asp
General Winter Storm Information
http://www.nfpa.org/Education/
TalkingAboutDisaster/Winter/
Winter.asp
National Severe Weather Laboratory estimates the likelihood
of severe thunderstorm hazards in the United States.
http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/hazard
Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program
http://www.volcano.si.edu/
Snow and Ice  National Snow and Ice Data Center, University
of Colorado
http://www-nsidc.colorado.edu
Volcano Hazard Maps
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov

Miscellaneous Risk Assessment Information
Alabama Coastal Hazard Assessment
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/alabama/
startup.htm
Association of Dam Safety Officials
http://crunch.tec.army.mil/nid/webpages/nid.cfm
Multi-hazard map production with GIS emphasis
http://www.esri.com/hazards
National Institute of Standards and Technology
http://www.nist.gov
National Science Foundation
http://www.nsf.gov
Natural Hazards Research and Applications
Information Center, University of Colorado
http://www.colorado.edu/hazards
New Hanover County, NC Hazard Identification/Risk
Assessment
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/nchaz/htm/
case1.htm
USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
Vulnerability Assessment Techniques and Applications
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/vata/

State Resources:
Coastal Zone Management
Emergency Management
Environmental Protection
Health
Labor
Natural Resources Management
Planning
Transportation
Local Resources:
Emergency Management
Environmental Management
Fire Department
Floodplain Management
Historical Society
Planning
Public Works Department
Non-Governmental Resources:
American Red Cross
Salvation Army
GaResourcestric Companies


appendix c
worksheets
Worksheet #1 Identify the Hazards
Worksheet #2 Profile Hazard Events
Worksheet #3a Inventory Assets (Tasks A and B)
Worksheet #3b Inventory Assets (Task C)
Worksheet #4 Estimate Losses

Worksheet #1 Identify the Hazards step
What kinds of natural hazards can affect you?
Date: 
Task A. List the hazards that may occur.
1. Research newspapers and other historical records.
2. Review existing plans and reports.
3. Talk to the experts in your community, state, or region.
4. Gather information on Internet Websites.
5. Next to the hazard list below, put a check mark in the
Task A boxes beside all hazards that may occur in your
community or state.
Task B. Focus on the most prevalent hazards in your
community or state.
1. Go to hazard Websites.
2. Locate your community or state on the Website map.
3. Determine whether you are in a high-risk area. Get more
localized information if necessary.
4. Next to the hazard list below, put a check mark in the Task B
boxes beside all hazards that pose a significant threat.
[LIST OF HAZARDS WITH CHECKBOXES FOR TASKS A AND B:
Avalanche
Coastal Erosion
Coastal Storm
Dam Failure
Drought
Earthquake
Expansive Soils
Extreme Heat
Flood
Hailstorm
Hurricane
Land Subsidence
Landslide
Severe Winter Storm
Tornado
Tsunami
Volcano
Wildfire
Windstorm
Other____________

Use this space to record information you find for each of the hazards you will be
researching. Attach additional pages as necessary.
Hazard or Event Description
(type of hazard, date of event, number of injuries, cost and types of damage, etc.)
Source of Information
Map Available for this Hazard? [yes or no]
Scale of Map

Worksheet #2 Profile Hazard Events step
How Bad Can It Get?
Date 
Task A. Obtain or create a base map.
You can use existing maps from:
*Road maps
*USGS topographic maps or Digital Orthophoto
Quarter Quads (DOQQ)
*Topographic and/or planimetric maps from other
agencies
*Aerial topographic and/or planimetric maps
OR you can create
a base map using:
Field surveys
*GIS software
*CADD software
*Digitized paper
maps
Title of Map
Scale 
Date

Task B. Obtain a hazard event profile.
Flood
1. Get a copy of your FIRM. ______________________________
2. Verify the FIRM is up-to-date and complete. ________________
__________________________________________________
Earthquake
1. Go to the http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov Website.
2. Locate your planning area on the map.
3. Determine your PGA.
Tsunami
1. Get a copy of your tsunami inundation zone map. ____________
__________________________________________________
Tornado
1. Find your design wind speed. ___________________________
__________________________________________________
Coastal storm
1. Get a copy of your FIRM. ______________________________
2. Verify that the FIRM is up-to-date and complete.
__________________________________________________
3. Determine the annual rate of coastal erosion.
__________________________________________________
4. Find your design wind speed.
__________________________________________________
Landslide
1. Map location of previous landslides. ______________________
2. Map the topography. __________________________________
3. Map the geology. ____________________________________
4. Identify the high-hazard areas on your map. ________________
Wildfire
1. Map the fuel models located within the urban-wildland interface
areas. _____________________________________________
2. Map the topography. __________________________________
3. Determine your critical fire weather frequency. ______________
4. Determine your fire hazard severity. ______________________
Other
1. Map the hazard. _____________________________________

Task C. Record your hazard event profile
information. Check box when complete.
Flood
1. Transfer the boundaries from your FIRM onto your
base map (floodway, 100-yr flood, 500-yr flood).
2. Transfer the BFEs onto your base map.
Earthquake
1. Record your PGA: _____________________
2. If you have more than one PGA print, download
or order your PGA map.
Tsunami
1. Copy the boundary of your tsunami inundation
zone onto your base map.
Tornado
1. Record your design wind speed: _________
2. If you have more than one design wind speed,
print, download, or copy your design wind speed
zones, copy the boundary of your design wind
speed zones on your base map, then record the
design wind speed zones on your base map.
Coastal Storm
1. Transfer the boundaries of your coastal storm
hazard areas onto your base map.
2. Transfer the BFEs onto your base map.
3. Record the erosion rates on your base map:

4. Record the design wind speed here and on your
base map: ________________
Landslide
1. Mark the areas susceptible to landslides onto
your base map.
Wildfire
1. Draw the boundaries of your wildfire hazard
areas onto your base map.
Other
1. Record hazard event info on your base map.

Worksheet #3a Inventory Assets 
What will be affected by the hazard event?
Task A. Determine the proportion of buildings, the value of buildings, and the population 
in your community
or state that are located in hazard areas.
Hazard _____________ Flood

Date:

[TABLE Listing Types of structures, number in community or state,  number in hazard 
area, percent in hazard area, value of structures in community or state, value of structures 
in hazard area, percent of value in hazard area, number of people in community or state, 
number of people in hazard area, and percentage of people in hazard area.
Types of structures are: residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, religious/non-
profit, government, education, and utilities.]

Task B. Determine whether (and where) you want to collect additional inventory data.
1. Do you know where your greatest damages may occur in your hazard areas? [yes or 
no]
2. Do you know whether your critical facilities will be operational after a hazard event? 
[yes or no]
3. Is there enough data to determine which assets are subject to the greatest potential
damages? [yes or no]
4. Is there enough data to determine whether significant elements of the community
are vulnerable to potential hazards? [yes or no]
5. Is there enough data to determine whether certain areas of historic, environmental,
political, or cultural significance are vulnerable to potential hazards? [yes or no]
6. Is there concern about a particular hazard because of its severity, repetitiveness,
or likelihood of occurrence? [yes or no]
7. Is additional data needed to justify the expenditure of community or state funds for
mitigation initiatives? [yes or no]

Task B. Determine whether (and where) you want to collect additional inventory data.
1. Do you know where your greatest damages may occur in your hazard areas?
2. Do you know whether your critical facilities will be operational after a hazard event?
3. Is there enough data to determine which assets are subject to the greatest potential
damages?
4. Is there enough data to determine whether significant elements of the community
are vulnerable to potential hazards?
5. Is there enough data to determine whether certain areas of historic, environmental,
political, or cultural significance are vulnerable to potential hazards?
6. Is there concern about a particular hazard because of its severity, repetitiveness, or
likelihood of occurrence?
7. Is additional data needed to justify the expenditure of community or state funds for
mitigation initiatives?

Worksheet #3b Inventory Assets 
What will be affected by the hazard event?
Task C. Compile a detailed inventory of what can be damaged by a hazard event.
Inventory the assets (critical facilities, businesses, historic, cultural, and natural resource 
areas, and areas of
special consideration), that can be damaged by a hazard event.
Date: 
Hazard __________ 

[TABLE Listing Name or Description of Asset, Sources of information, Size of building 
(sq ft), replacement value, contents value, function use or value, displacement costs per 
day, occupancy or capacity, and other hazard-specific information.
[check one of the following:
Critical Facility
Vulnerable Populations
Economic Assets
Special Considerations
Historic/Other Considerations]

Worksheet #4 Estimate Losses step
How will these hazards affect you?
Date 
Hazard _______________________________________

Task A.1: Calculate structure loss.
Name/Description of Structure
Structure replacement value (step 3) multiplied by
Percent damage (step 4) equals
Loss to structure.
Add losses to all structures to obtain total loss to structures.

Task A.2: Calculate contents loss.
Name/Description of Structure
Replacement value of contents (step 3) multiplied by
percent damage (step 4) equals 
Loss to contents.
Add content losses for all structures to determine total loss to contents.

Task A.3: Structure use and function loss.
Name/Description of Structure
Average Daily Operating Budget (step 3) multiplied by 
Functional downtime in number of days (step 4) plus
displacement cost per day (step 3) multiplied by
Displacement time (step 4) equals
Structure use and function loss.

Task B.1: For each structure, add structure loss + content loss + function loss.

Task B.2: Add the Task B.1 sums for all structures to obtain 
Total Loss for Hazard Event.