Title: The Ultimate Educator: Achieving Maximum Adult Learning Through
Training and Instruction 
Series: National Victim Assistance Academy Advanced Topic Series
Authors/Editors: Christine Edmunds, Kip Lowe, Morna Murray, Anne
Seymour for the National Victim Assistance Academy. Sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime, National Victim Assistance
Academy; in conjunction with Victims' Assistance Legal Organization
(VALOR), California State University-Fresno, National Crime Victims'
Research and Treatment Center at the Medical University of South Carolina,
University of New Haven, and Washburn University
Published: June 2002
Subject: Victim assistance training and leadership
132 pages
274,432 bytes
 
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Appendices, figures, charts, forms, and tables are not included in this ASCII
plain-text file. To view this document in its entirety, download the Adobe
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1. The Many Roles and Responsibilities of the Ultimate Educator

o Introduction
o The Ultimate Educator
o Roles and Responsibilities
o It's Magic Time!

Chapter 2. Ultimate Coordination

o Introduction
o Three Needs to Which Coordinators Respond
o The Many Roles of the Program Coordinator
o Four Guiding Principles of Coordination
o Program Coordination in Action
o The Ultimate Coordinator Is All Things to All People!
o References

Chapter 3. Ultimate Adult Learning


o Historical Roots of Adult Learning Principles
o Adult Learning and the Ultimate Educator
o Learning Style
o Learning Environment Conditions Affect Learning
o The Ultimate Educator Is an Adult Learning Expert!
o References

Chapter 4. Ultimate Style and Skill

o Introduction
o Style Stereotypes
o Communication Style
o Trainer Skill Assessment
o The Ultimate Educator Has Ultimate Style!
o References

Chapter 5. Ultimate Facilitation

o Introduction
o Doing Your Homework
o Responsive Behaviors
o General Skills
o The Ultimate Facilitator Is a Master Magician!

Chapter 6. Ultimate Presentation

o Introduction
o The Role of the Presenter/Trainer
o Teaching Versus Training
o Training Preparation
o Anatomy of a Presentation
o Communication Skills and Styles
o Dealing with "Problem Participants"
o Training Aids
o "Staying on the Cutting Edge"
o References

Chapter 7. Ultimate Lesson Development and Design

o Introduction
o Background Information
o Materials Required
o Learning Goals and Objectives
o Instructional Activities
o Evaluation/Assessment
o Putting It Together: Lesson Plan Principles and Preparation
o Follow-up Activities
o References

Chapter 8. Ultimate Closing and Evaluation

o Introduction
o Ending an Individual Session
o Ending the Workshop
o Evaluation
o Ultimate Educators Close Workshops with Style and Class and Gather the
Information Necessary to Provide Even Better Training in the Future!
o References

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Appendices are not included in this ASCII plain-text file. To view this
document in its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file available
from this Web site.

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This project was supported by Grant Number 95-MU-GX-K002(S-5)
awarded by the Office for Victims of Crime, Office of Justice Programs, U.S.
Department of Justice. The Assistant Attorney General, Office of Justice
Programs coordinates the activities of the following program offices and
bureaus: Bureau of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice Statistics, National
Institute of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and
the Office for Victims of Crime. Points of view in this document are those of
the author and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the
U.S. Department of Justice.

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Chapter 1. The Many Roles and Responsibilities of the Ultimate Educator

Introduction

Many of you have had the pleasure of learning new information or a new skill
under the guidance of a skilled teacher, changing your behavior assisted by a
skilled therapist, or acquiring new knowledge aided by a skilled trainer. You
remember with fondness and admiration that sixth grade teacher, for example,
and wonder how he or she worked magic. You have written on evaluations,
"outstanding instructor, best training session I have ever attended, I learned a
lot!" What was it about these "magicians" that made those situations such rich
and rewarding learning experiences?

Behind every learning opportunity there was an ultimate educator: an individual
who helped you explore ideas and feelings, assess and analyze, and develop
and implement new ways of thinking and behaving. Certainly there was
something "special" about these gifted individuals, and yet underneath all that
magic, there was keen understanding and some readily identifiable skills that
made it all work.

What makes this course different from other "how to train" courses? The
difference is subtle but powerful; a difference that gains clarity and importance
as you progress through the course. Most "how to train" courses focus on the
content of training, the "basics," such as adult learning principles, lesson plan
development, training design, training tools, and evaluation--all important and
essential elements of a trainer development course. Participants in these courses
limit their attention to the "tangible" components (the what) of training. They
learn how to develop, organize, deliver, and evaluate training with a few
presentation tips and strategies. When participants apply their new knowledge
and skills back in the "real world," they feel somewhat more competent and
may improve their overall rating, but they may still look back to that magical
instructor and ask themselves why, when they seemingly applied the same
principles and techniques, it just was not as effective (or as enjoyable!).

An effective trainer development course must also explore the process--the
how to of training. What does the instructor do to ensure that session
participants successfully meet learning objectives? How does the instructor
perform the magic of training?

This manual and the accompanying training program define the multifaceted role
of the "magician" and look behind the smoke and mirrors to uncover the
magician's secrets. You will explore and manipulate principles that underlie all
quality "magic shows." You will learn and practice skills to add to your trick
bag and use the magic of this manual to transform yourself into the ultimate
educator.

The Ultimate Educator

Whether the environment is an academic classroom or training venue, the goal
is the same: maximum adult learning. With the focus of this course being the
identification of principles and skills that contribute to maximum adult learning,
the individual who performs the "magic" is the ultimate educator. 

The ultimate educator is a cross between a teacher and trainer. Employing a
combination of academic approaches and training skill-building strategies, the
ultimate educator creates a rich learning environment. The skills are universal
and cross all learning boundaries and content areas. 

Throughout the manual certain terms are interchangeable--training, trainer,
education, educator, instruction, instructor. This is a reflection of the vision of
the ultimate educator and the "magic" of learning. Teachers and trainers, new or
seasoned, can benefit from the principles and skills identified in this manual.

Roles and Responsibilities

The traditional perception of the instructor as a presenter of information is far
too simple. Within individual segments and across an entire course, the ultimate
educator wears many hats. The ultimate educator is a coordinator, facilitator,
presenter, and designer/developer.

The roles and responsibilities change with the type of training conducted by the
ultimate educator. The training program may be a one-hour stand-alone session
or a week-long academy; each dictates different and often unique
responsibilities for the instructor. You may be called upon to develop training,
coordinate a multiday workshop, deliver a single segment, participate in a panel
discussion with people you have never met before, or facilitate a group process.
While not all responsibilities will be required in all situations, these are some of
the critical responsibilities of the educator.

THE COORDINATOR

Man stand for long time with mouth open before roast duck fly in. --Chinese
Proverb

Just as much of the design work of training takes place before the trainer takes
the stage, much coordination takes place behind the scenes. The ultimate
educator must be skilled in the coordination of training.

Often you find that in addition to delivering courses, you are required to
perform management tasks related to coordination or training. While there is
usually not much glory in these responsibilities, they are critical; without
successful coordination, the session cannot take place.


Chapter 2, Ultimate Coordination, addresses coordination topics such as
logistics, scheduling, publicity, room setup, budget, special needs, trouble
shooting, and climate control.

THE FACILITATOR

They are able because they think they are able. --Virgil, Aeneid

Learning objectives tell you where you need to go. Training design is the map;
presentation, the vehicle; facilitation, the fuel. Effective facilitation skills help
guarantee that learning takes place. The ultimate educator is a master facilitator.

Chapter 5, Ultimate Facilitation, covers facilitation topics such as responsive
behaviors, motivation, commitment, body language, cooperation, group
dynamics, activities monitoring, knowledge solicitation, and handling problem
participants.

THE PRESENTER

The secret of teaching is to appear to have known all your life what you learned
this afternoon. --Unknown

The traditional role of instructor as presenter has received the bulk of attention
in training-for-trainer courses and is the most visible role in the training session.
One may adequately fill other instructor roles, but an outstanding instructor is
always an outstanding presenter. Therefore, the ultimate educator is a skilled
presenter. 

Chapter 6, Ultimate Presentation, de-mystifies the art of presentation. You will
learn about organization, hooks, aids, challenges, styles, roles, and how to
handle questions and answers.

THE DESIGNER/DEVELOPER

"Can you tell me please which way I ought to go from here?" said Alice.
"That depends a good deal on where you want to get to," said the Cat.
"I don't much care where," said Alice
"Then it doesn't matter which way you walk," said the Cat. -- Lewis Carroll
(1886) 

Much of the work of training takes place before the trainer takes the stage. The
ultimate educator must be knowledgeable about and skilled in the design and
development of training programs. 

Once you have established a need for training, it's time to determine what you
intend to teach and what the participant must do to demonstrate that he or she
has mastered or learned the objectives of the course. After writing specific
performance objectives, the ultimate educator then selects the methods,
techniques, and materials that will ensure successful training. Chapter 7,
Ultimate Lesson Development and Design, explores these components of
training programs.

It's Magic Time!

The manual and the accompanying training program cover additional topics
essential for the development of ultimate educators. Chapter 3, Ultimate Adult
Learning, provides the foundation for ultimate training and creating the ultimate
learning environment. Chapter 4, Ultimate Style and Skill, explores the
characteristics of successful instructors and provides an opportunity to assess
your own personal style. And last, Chapter 8, Ultimate Closing and Evaluation,
discusses the importance of effective training closure and evaluation.

Are you ready? It's magic time!

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Chapter 2. Ultimate Coordination

Program planners are very much like orchestra conductors. They must be able
to bring together diverse players and pieces in a harmonious and balanced
effort. This task may not be easy; some of the pieces may be much more
difficult than anticipated . . . --Caffarella 

Introduction

Coordinating a training/educational program is a significant and complex
undertaking. The process of coordination begins well before the start of a
training program and concludes long after the final closing has taken place.
Along the way, tasks range from the mundane to the more complicated, from
scheduling meeting rooms to curriculum development, from ordering food to
responding to participants' inquiries. Unlike the other training roles discussed
throughout this manual, the role of coordination takes place, to a large extent,
behind the scenes. A great majority of it occurs in preparation for the training. 

Effective coordination is absolutely key to the success of any training program.
Why is this so? Like the orchestra described in the above quotation, a training
program is a unique coming together of a talented and diverse group of
individuals and elements. Like a musical selection, each note must have been
rehearsed, each instrument must be tuned and ready, and each musician must
have thoroughly rehearsed his or her own piece of music. The conductor 
knows all the parts and is able to direct and manage the multiple components
into one cohesive and harmonious whole.

A program coordinator fulfills the same function. Coordination is the support
function of a training program--under the best of circumstances, it is the glue
that holds all the various components of the program together. That is not to say
that one person, i.e., the program coordinator, is responsible for holding
everything together, but rather that the process of coordination, and how it has
been organized, set up, and carried out, serves as the foundation for and
effectively sets the tone of any training program. 

It is important to distinguish between the process of coordination and the role of
the coordinator. Although the coordinator may be one distinct member of the
training/educational team, in fact, many facilitators and presenters perform
coordination functions, and coordinators often have presentation and facilitation
roles as well. In any successful training program, all members of the training
team (i.e., on-site faculty and coordinators) have established a smooth and
effective level of teamwork that allows for maximum flexibility and is fully
supportive of the needs of participants as well as the needs of the training team
members. This manual repeatedly illustrates that a key role of a training team is
to promote and maximize learning and, in so doing, to be fully aware of and
focused upon the needs of the audience. In the same way, the process of
coordination focuses upon meeting the needs of the key parties, i.e., the
participants, faculty, staff, and program sponsors, in carrying out the tasks
essential to managing a training program.

In addition to the training team, program coordinators often work with a
planning committee--a group of people who share responsibility for all
decisions regarding the training program. Generally the committee will include
the program sponsor, the coordinator, content specialists, and often, an
advisory board or group. To maximize the effectiveness and talents of the
planning committee, you must ensure from the beginning that all roles,
responsibilities, and expectations regarding each member are clearly and
specifically designed.

SCOPE

Coordination can refer to everything from a small in-house staff training to a
huge national-scope conference with thousands of attendees. Coordination as it
is discussed in this chapter is based predominantly on the type of training and
educational programs developed and implemented by the National Victim
Assistance Academy. This is not an exhaustive description of coordination from
the conference-planning viewpoint but rather an exploration of the kind of
program coordination that is key to the success of academic-based training and
education programs for adult learners.

Three Needs to Which Coordinators Respond

There are three types of needs to which a program coordinator must respond.
While these needs are discussed throughout this chapter, a brief summary
appears below.

EDUCATION/LEARNING NEEDS

There are differing levels of involvement that a program coordinator may have
in meeting the educational and learning needs of the training participants. Some
coordinators are also "content specialists" and so have responsibility for overall
coordination of every aspect of the training program, including curriculum and
resource development and other educational issues. Other coordinators may
focus more on the administrative and logistical tasks involved in the content
portion of the training. Assuming that learning objectives and training goals have
been clearly established by the training team and training sponsors well in
advance of the training, the process of addressing educational needs includes
management of curriculum materials, resource materials, other learning aids,
training of faculty and guest speakers, training schedule, and the learning
formats to be used.

PHYSICAL NEEDS

The participants, staff, and faculty involved in a training program have a wide
variety of physical needs, and the primary goal for meeting these needs focuses
on establishing maximum comfort that is individually tailored as much as
possible. This includes ensuring accessibility for participants with disabilities and
accommodating any and all special needs of participants and faculty;
comfortable and clean rooms for participants and faculty who are staying on-
site; plentiful, appetizing, and nutritious meals and snacks (if meals are not
provided, then information regarding good local restaurants should be
provided); well-lit and temperate meeting rooms with comfortable chairs;
access to telephones; and provision of transportation and/or information
regarding its availability.

EMOTIONAL NEEDS

The coordinator is the contact person for all participants and faculty. You must
be visible, available, and accessible at all times. It is especially important for
participants to know that there is one person to whom they can direct
questions, concerns, problems, and complaints. It is crucial for the coordinator
to understand that training programs, while learning-filled, fun, and often
exhilarating, can trigger anxiety in many participants. Even seasoned faculty
members can experience anxiety or concerns regarding a coordination matter.
It is important for the coordinator to thoroughly understand this role and be
willing and able to serve as the "central processing unit" or conduit for contact
with the outside world. This can include crisis intervention and/or simply
emotional support.

In meeting the emotional needs of participants and faculty, coordinators may
feel like "emotional punching bags." Coordinators should attempt to avoid
taking issues, complaints, and concerns personally. It is helpful for coordinators
to have a support person--usually a faculty member--who can debrief in
difficult situations, brainstorm solutions to problems, and provide "care to the
caregiving coordinator." If stress resulting from other people's emotional needs
is not addressed, it can detrimentally affect both the attitude and the
effectiveness of coordinators.

The Many Roles of the Program Coordinator

Program coordinators fulfill many roles--some of these include:

o Scheduler.

o Contract negotiator.

o Program designer and planner.

o Content expert.

o Curriculum developer.

o Advertising guru.

o Audiovisual aid coordinator.

o Budget broker.

o Faculty coordinator.

o Participant/student liaison.

o Program sponsor liaison.

o Information clearinghouse.

o Physical/emotional first aid provider.

o Facilities expert.

o Housekeeper.

o Troubleshooter.

o Financial manager.

o Complaint department.

o Sounding board.

o Mood monitor.

o Deadline enforcer.

o Clock watcher.

o Humor relief; and let's not forget-- 

o Diplomat.

The above list is not exhaustive by any means; effective coordination involves
wearing not one hat, but literally dozens of different hats each and every day.
For some people (but certainly not all), this work can be immensely interesting.
However, keep in mind that effective coordination is not an "add-on" to other
training tasks; it is an art that must be learned. As stated by Rosemary
Caffarella:

Effective program planners are not born that way. Through trial and error, they
become more skilled at balancing the various components and tasks of the
process (1994, 24). 

Because many adult trainers and educators are primarily content specialists,
they may not have been exposed to or even be aware of material and
information on program planning. Many learn coordination specifics "by the seat
of their pants" during a previous training program, or by being asked (though
they have no prior coordination experience) to serve as program coordinator
for an upcoming program because of their position in the sponsoring or training
organization. No matter what a coordinator's past experience, there are four
principles of the coordination process that are essential to a basic understanding
of the complexities of coordination, as well as the key role it serves in helping to
ensure the success of any training endeavor.

Four Guiding Principles of Coordination

COORDINATION IS A NONLINEAR PROCESS

In program coordination, there is no set order or sequence to the tasks
involved. Jobs and duties do not follow one after another in orderly fashion;
rather there is a constant and ever-evolving circle of interconnected parts that
requires continual checking and re-checking, monitoring, and attention. The
analogy of a juggler is appropriate; a coordinator must become very adept at
keeping a lot of balls in the air at the same time, and be prepared to start all
over again with a smile if one (or all) of those balls drop! 

Program coordinators must develop a working style that allows them to monitor
and document the ongoing progress of the various details to which they must
attend. Accurate and comprehensive record keeping is a must. It is extremely
helpful to have accessible contact information (telephone number, e-mail, etc.)
for all parties, e.g., training team members and facilities staff, with whom the
coordinator communicates on a regular basis before, during, and after the
training program. 

ORGANIZATION IS MANDATORY

Whether you are coordinating a training for seasoned domestic violence
practitioners or an academic-based educational training on restorative justice,
the first rule to remember is that you must possess (or quickly develop): (1) a
high level of organization; (2) an extreme degree of attention to detail; and (3)
great flexibility. Again, this kind of working style is not for everyone, but
program coordination will quickly suffer if the coordinator is not thoroughly in
control of the many details that need to be addressed throughout the
development, planning, and implementation of a training program. Successful
program coordination must include an organized working plan for literally every
aspect of the training program, including: 


o Program goals and objectives.

o Staff and administrative assistance--needs and tasks.

o Budget and finances. 

o Marketing and participant outreach.

o Logistical arrangements.

o Development and coordination of training materials and resources (including
audiovisuals).

o Faculty selection and coordination. 

o Participant coordination and communication.

o Communication and coordination with the training sponsor. 

o On-site training requirements and coordination. 

o Evaluation.

o Follow-on activities related to the program.

As stated by Caffarella:

Careful planning of educational programs does not guarantee their success, but
it increases their probability for success. It also gives planners better data on
which to evaluate their successes and failures (1994, 7).

THE PERSONAL BELIEF SYSTEM OF THE COORDINATOR
DIRECTLY AFFECTS THE TRAINING

Another important but often overlooked aspect of program coordination is the
impact that a coordinator's personal belief system--and attitude toward adult
learning and program planning--has upon the training itself. Many times
coordinators think that since much of what they do in preparation for a training
or educational program is largely unseen by the participants, their attitude
toward program planning will not affect the participants. Alternatively, if a
program coordinator is not directly involved in training the participants, she or
he might feel that her or his understanding of the program and adult learning in
general is not critical to the program's success. This is, quite simply, untrue. 

If you are coordinating a program for adult learners, regardless of whether you
are actually involved in making a presentation or facilitating a session, you must
understand the underlying goals and purposes of this learning, and be aware of
the attitudes you bring to the program planning and educational process. As
discussed in Chapter 3, Ultimate Adult Learning, adults learn best when they
are involved in the learning process and when what they are learning is relevant
for them in their professional lives. Adults do not want to be "taught to"; rather,
they need to be active participants with a stake in the outcome of any learning
process. The philosophy and belief system that a coordinator possesses with
respect to adult learning permeates every aspect of a training program. If it is
inconsistent with the goals and objectives of the training, participants will know
it and will react accordingly. 

Boyle (1981) and Apps (1991) have provided some useful questions and
categories for help in assessing one's beliefs and attitudes about the following
four key areas:

The Purpose of Adult Education

o To promote changes in the way workers behave so their job performance is
enhanced.
o To encourage the growth and development of individual.
o To assist adults to bring about change in societal norms and values.

The Program Planning Process

o Program planners should act as content experts and/or managers of the
planning process, making sure all necessary tasks are completed. 
o Program planners should serve as coordinators and facilitators in the planning
process, enabling all parties (such as participants, supervisors, funding sources)
to have an active role. They also may be content experts.
o Program planners should act as negotiators between and among the various
groups involved in the planning process. They also may be content experts.

Adults as Learners

o Adults can and do want to learn regardless of age.
o Adults have a rich background of knowledge and experience that should be
used in the learning process.
o Adults, for the most part, are pragmatic in their learning. They want to apply
their learning to present situations.


The Learning Process

o Participants learn best when new information/skills build on past knowledge
and experience.
o Participants are more motivated to learn when a variety of teaching methods
are used.
o Participants learn both in independent, self-reliant modes and in
interdependent and collaborative ways (Caffarella 1994).

PROGRAM COORDINATION MUST BE ETHICAL

Closely related to understanding one's personal beliefs and values regarding
adult learning and program planning is the necessity for program planners to act
in an ethical manner in coordinating every aspect of the training program. Ethics
in this context means ensuring that the training is coordinated and carried out in
a way that is completely consistent with its stated goals and objectives. The
following passage effectively illustrates the close connection between
understanding one's approach to adult learning and the need for ethical
coordination of a learning program:

Although most program planners do not take the time to spell out clearly and
precisely their working philosophies, being cognizant of and acting on one's
beliefs about program planning is critical in planning programs for adults. Adult
learners and program sponsors are usually quick at making judgments about
planners who espouse one set of beliefs and then act in opposition to those
beliefs. For example, if potential program participants are asked for ideas for
future programs, they want to see those ideas used; and if their ideas are not
used, they want to know why (Caffarella 1994, 31).

This may seem obvious to most people, but actually, ethics in program
coordination can often be inadvertently overlooked. There are some "gray
areas" that can prove troublesome, even for coordinators with the best of
intentions. Some examples of unethical program behavior are:

o Asking people to serve in an advisory capacity and then ignoring their
advice.

o Stating the goals and objectives of a training program and then not modeling
those goals and objectives in the training itself.

o Employing big-name presenters who draw crowds, even though their
presentations may be neither relevant nor effective.


o Using out-of-date resources because they are less expensive to obtain
(Caffarella 1994).

As a coordinator, you need to periodically assess your own ethics in program
coordination. Although an ethical "disconnect" can be minor and seemingly
insignificant, ultimately it will affect the overall quality of the training and the
educational experience for participants, not to mention the level of trust that can
be achieved between the participants and the training team. 

The specific details that go into the task of program coordination vary
considerably from training to training. What is universally true about program
coordination, however, is the fact that this process sets the tone for the training
and ultimately, the quality of learning that will take place. Although the kinds of
tasks and events that need to be coordinated by any program planner is
discussed further in this chapter, the ongoing focus, as it is throughout this
manual, is on the process of coordination and how, when performed effectively,
this process interrelates and interacts with the overall training process as well as
enhances and maximizes the learning environment and process. 

Program Coordination in Action

In looking at the specifics of program coordination and how program
coordinators contribute to the maximization of adult learning, it is useful to
separate this process along a continuum, including: (1) pretraining coordination;
(2) on-site coordination; and (3) posttraining coordination. During all phases of
coordination, the ultimate coordinator operates from the standpoint of fulfilling
the following two essential queries:

1. How can the training process and learning environment be enhanced and
maximized for the benefit of participants and the training team?

2. How can the coordinator meet the needs of participants and the training team
in the most effective way possible so that maximum attention can be focused
upon learning?

PRETRAINING COORDINATION

This phase of program coordination is clearly the most comprehensive in laying
the foundation and setting the tone for a successful training program. For
purposes of this discussion, it is assumed that the underlying objectives and
educational goals for the training program have already been clearly and
comprehensively established. Generally, the major tasks to be accomplished
during this phase include:

o Determine training dates.

o Select site.

o Develop and manage training budget.

o Negotiate contracts for training facilities and amenities.

o Select meeting rooms.

o Advertise the training.

o Develop training resources.

o Arrange for academic credit or other continuing education credits.

o Select participants.

o Identify any special needs of participants and/or faculty.

o Communicate/coordinate with participants.

o Select/invite faculty.

o Coordinate with faculty.

o Coordinate with facilities staff.

o Liaison with program sponsor(s).

o Schedule technical equipment and staff.

o Develop training schedule and agenda.

o Purchase/acquire training supplies/resources.

o Oversee evaluation process.

Determine training dates. Decisions about the training dates depend on the
availability of the site that is to be used for the training, whether it is in-house or
must be contracted outside the coordinating organization. If it is imperative that
a particular site be used, then clearly the training dates will revolve around its
availability. As much as possible, training programs should be scheduled during
weekdays so as to not interfere with participants' off time on the weekends. If
additional time is needed, a carryover into Saturday can be optimal, particularly
for people who may be traveling from out of town and who may need to allow
for Saturday night stayover airfares. 

Make sure to check that your selected training dates do not conflict with any
holidays or religious observances. Part of being multiculturally sensitive is not
just including such information in your training program, but ensuring from the
start that the selected date does not conflict with participants' religious
observances. In addition, be aware of other training programs and conferences
already scheduled in your state or on the national level. For example, a
statewide victim services training is scheduled for victim advocates; however,
because the state prosecutors' annual meeting is also scheduled for the same
time, prosecutor-based advocates are faced with the difficult choice of which
program to attend. Finally, if key presenters are needed for the program's
success, they should be "locked in" as early as possible (popular speakers may
plan their schedules up to one year in advance).

Select site. Assuming other factors regarding the training have not already
predetermined its location (e.g., it is a component of a university program or
offered by an organization with its own training facility), there are typically
prerequisites to meet regarding the location and how it fits into the overall
training scenario. The site and corresponding facilities directly affect the learning
that takes place. Obviously, the most important spaces for participants are the
meeting rooms, both the large meeting rooms and any other rooms that might
be used for breakout discussions or other smaller group activities.

There are essentially five different types of facilities that may be appropriate for
adult training programs:

1. In-house organizational facilities.

2. Hotel and motel facilities.

3. Conference and retreat centers.

4. University and college facilities.

5. Resort areas (Caffarella 1994).

Depending on the learning objectives and goals, and the purpose and nature of
the training program itself, there are advantages and disadvantages to each type
of facility and site. Considerations and objectives should be specifically set forth
well before this stage so that it is perfectly clear what type of facility will best
suit the needs of the training. 

If facilities require contracts, program coordinators must check them out
thoroughly and never rely on verbal or written descriptions alone. A checklist of
issues to think about in considering and selecting a site for a training includes the
following:

1. Availability on program dates.

2. Costs.

o Meeting rooms
o Food (meals and breaks)
o Lodging
o Recreation
o Audiovisual equipment

3. Location.

o Safe and secure lighting
o Barrier-free access
o Convenience

4. Transportation convenience.

o Public
--Convenience
--Frequency
--Cost

5. Accessibility for people with disabilities.

o Private rooms
o Parking

6. Meeting rooms.

o Size
o Appearance
o Lighting

o Decor
o Furnishings

7. Cleanliness.

o Ventilation, heating, and cooling
o Sound projection

8. Supporting Services.

o Food
o Accommodations/lodging
o Recreation
o Fitness facilities
o Public telephone
o Quality of service

9. Accessibility to medical services in cases of emergency.

10. General factors.

o Attractions in the area
o Experience in hosting/housing educational programs
o Site personnel
o Safety issues (Nadler and Nadler 1987; Vosko 1991; Munson 1992)

Develop and manage training budget. The program coordinator is usually
responsible for developing and managing the program budget for the training.
This is a complex task and one whose specific details are beyond the scope of
this discussion. Yet, in terms of the process of coordination, it is critical that the
budget reflects the objectives and goals of the learning program and that it be
well-planned and understood by all essential parties to the process. The ability
to develop a sound budget for a training program is also an acquired skill, one
that requires the coordinator to essentially anticipate every need that will arise
before development of the training has even begun. Remember, you do not
want to run out of money just when it is time to buy the coffee and doughnuts
for breaks!

The program budget is much more than a description of the dollar amounts that
will be allotted to each program activity and resource. It is a comprehensive
and detailed planning guide that can serve as a very useful check throughout
every stage of the program. The planning necessary for creating a
comprehensive and thorough budget will serve as the primary foundation of and
assurance that all program goals and objectives will be met. An example of the
budget categories used for the National Victim Assistance Academy is attached
as Appendix E, Sample Budget.

Negotiate contracts for training facilities and amenities. Anything that will be
provided by the training facility itself (e.g., hotel, university, etc.) must be
included in a written contract. This includes all arrangements regarding meeting
rooms, sleeping rooms, meals, refreshments, equipment, and any other
obligation the facility agrees to undertake. The art of negotiating favorable
contracts is another skill that can be acquired through experience and thorough
questioning of and research into all particulars of the facilities. You should be
aware of the legal elements of a contract as well as the ramifications of signing a
contract. Seek legal help if you are unsure about any aspect of the contractual
process.

Select meeting rooms. Meeting rooms are critical since they are the primary
learning environments, defined by Finkel as "every space in a facility in which
meeting activities occur and the degree to which every detail of those spaces
can be designed to contribute to higher levels of learning" (Caffarella, citing
Finkel 1984). This requires a great deal of attention to numerous details so as
to ensure that the environment is conducive to participant learning and the
overall effectiveness of trainers and instructors. In some cases, there will be no
choice as to meeting rooms, such as a training held in-house in the only space
large enough to accommodate participants. In such cases, the available space
should simply be used to its best advantage. However, when there is a choice
as to which meeting space can be used, the following summary of factors set
forth by Caffarella (1994) offers some important considerations:

o Access. Choose rooms that are barrier-free and accessible (ramps, elevator
access, braille directions).

o Room size. Avoid overcrowding and oversized rooms.

o Room structure. The ideal room structure is square. Watch out for narrow
rooms and posts in the wrong places.

o Windows. Choose rooms with no windows or rooms whose windows can
be completely covered.

o Furnishings. Make sure tables and chairs are movable. Chairs need to be
padded and provide good back support. 

o Adornments. Check to see whether pictures, sculptures, or other types of
adornment can be taken down.

o Lighting. Look for indirect, warm fluorescent lighting and rheostatic controls.
Eliminate all sources of glare. 

o Temperature. Make sure you are able to regulate the temperature. Keep the
temperature between sixty-five and seventy degrees. If you err, err on the cool
side.

o Ventilation. Keep the air circulating in the room. 

o Noise. Check for noise from heating and air-conditioning units in adjoining
rooms, corridors, and outside the building.

o Acoustics. Check on the bounce and absorption of sound. 

o Electrical outlets. Identify the location and type of outlets (for example, prong
outlets).

o Computer hookups. Check for telephone jacks that would allow for
computer hookups.

o Access to other areas. Check for easy access to restrooms, vending
machines, eating facilities, etc. 

The way the meeting room is arranged has a tremendous impact on the quality
and quantity of learning that takes place. It is crucial for the coordinator to
understand the learning objectives and the kind of learning and interaction that
will take place. For example, if you want to encourage and utilize group
processing, the ideal arrangement is probably round tables, not classroom style
rows. Tables should be arranged in a semi-circle around the presentation area.
Moreover, you may need to allow for space for special equipment, such as
computers, overhead projectors, or distance learning equipment. Smaller
spaces lend themselves better to a more intimate learning environment; if you
have no choice but to use a larger room, make arrangements to partition it or
use the seating arrangement to create a smaller, more congenial learning
environment. 

In larger meeting rooms, the emphasis is the same; although in a training of 100
or more people, you obviously will not have the same seating flexibility or
opportunity for individual participant sharing. Again, the environment should be
maximized to allow for as much participant involvement in the lesson as
possible. Amphitheatre style seating arrangements (try to have tables or lap
desks) can be effective when all participants have a good view and the
acoustics are good. Make sure in larger meeting rooms that instructors and
facilitators have the option of using microphones if they have trouble being
heard by all participants. Hand held and clip-on microphones--particularly
those without cords--can be especially helpful since they do not limit the
speaker to one specific location. 

One final note on seating arrangements: If you are using a space off-site and are
asked by the facility staff how you want the room arranged, be specific. Do not
hastily describe what you have in mind, assuming that they have done this a
hundred times before and so will know exactly what you want. A drawing is
worth a thousand words, and a highly specific and detailed drawing even more.
The room should be set up, if at all possible, the night before the training is to
begin, and you should check it at that time to be sure it is the way you want it. 

Advertise the training. Depending on the type of training, there are many
options for advertising the event to potential participants, including brochures,
fliers, advertisements in trade magazines, online advertising via e-mail and Web
sites, etc. Any advertisement should answer the basic questions of who, what,
where, when, and why. Having a clear picture of the audience to be reached is
the essential first step to any marketing campaign (Caffarella 1994, 174). The
materials should be geared toward the target audience in such a way that
potential participants are able to clearly understand requirements and/or
prerequisites for the program. In keeping with the ethical approach to program
coordination, it is critical that the coordinator, even a coordinator who is not
involved with content aspects of the training, be keenly aware of the needs of
the target audience. Since one of the primary tasks of any program coordinator
is information broker, the coordinator must be familiar with what is being
offered and how it can contribute to and enhance the professional experience
and expertise of potential participants. For example, victim service
professionals who call for information about the National Victim Assistance
Academy (NVAA) are often interested in knowing how they might benefit from
the training and whether their experience level is appropriate for them to be
participants. 

While training announcements vary based upon length of the program and
topics, etc., the core components to consider for advertising a program include:

o Cover page that includes the title of the program, days, dates, location, and
sponsorship.

o Introduction/overview that highlights the reasons for the training (why
participants should attend).


o Conference/training goals.

o Description of target audience.

o Information about the training faculty (including brief credentials).

o Information about conference resources available to participants (as well as
opportunities for them to bring resources to share with others).

o Answers to frequently asked questions, i.e. whom to contact for additional
information via telephone, fax, e-mail, or Web site.

o Training agenda/topics.

o Registration and fees (if applicable).

o Lodging and logistics (if applicable).

o Dress code.

o Registration form with details and deadlines for submission.

o Academic credit or other continuing education/professional credit available
to participants.

Develop training resources. Responsibilities for the program coordinator in this
area can vary considerably, from a primary and direct involvement in content to
more of an oversight role. The development of resources for a training program
is a major undertaking in and of itself, so the coordinator must understand that
this task must be extremely well planned and carried out within clearly
established deadlines and budget constraints. As with any other task in the
process of coordination, the coordinator must identify staff and faculty members
who have the expertise and availability to assist in the development of resource
materials, and must coordinate all aspects of development and final production
of the materials. The coordinator must also ensure the compliance of all training
resources with any applicable Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
requirements, e.g., closed-captioning for videotapes.

Arrange for academic credit or other continuing education credits. Some
training programs, like the NVAA, provide the opportunity for participants to
receive credit, such as academic credit at the undergraduate and/or graduate
levels, or continuing legal education or other allied professional education units.

When this has been identified as an objective of a training program, the
coordinator must initiate approval processes well in advance of the start date
for the program. Approval processes for university academic credit, for
example, vary from university to university and must typically go through several
channels of approval before a final decision is made by the credit-granting
university. Similar procedures exist for continuing professional education
credits. The key to this task is to identify the university or other academic
personnel who are the pertinent decision-makers for the credit issue and work
closely with them to satisfy the requirements for making educational credit
available to participants. It is also important to work closely with them to ensure
that you thoroughly understand the requirements, both administrative and
academic, that participants will need to satisfy in order to receive credit.
Detailed and clear instructions regarding all aspects of educational credit should
be sent to all participants along with their confirmation package. 

Select participants. Depending on the training requirements, participants may
simply register, apply to attend, or may be required to attend due to
professional standards/requirements or simply a supervisor's request. The
impetus for attendance can be a major determining factor in how the participant
feels about attending the training (e.g., coerced, thrilled, etc.) and how to
market the training.

Identify any special needs of participants and/or faculty. It is the role of the
coordinator to become aware of any special needs of participants or faculty
that will require accommodation during the training program. This information
can be carefully elicited through the use of a registration form that encourages
participants to list any special needs, and by personal communication with
participants and faculty prior to the training program. When individuals express
their special needs via a registration form, always contact them personally to
discuss the specifics of the need(s) and ensure that you understand exactly what
it will take to meet them. Special needs are as varied as are individuals, and
almost all can be met as long as the coordinator becomes aware of them.
Although the ultimate coordinator meets the special needs of all participants and
faculty as a function of the participant-centered training process, it is important
to remember that the ADA imposes legal requirements that must be met, in
most training situations, with respect to individuals with disabilities.
Arrangements for interpreters for deaf participants or special dietary needs for
individuals with allergies or physical ailments, or ensuring the accessibility of
facilities for individuals with disabilities can be easily accomplished as long as
the coordinator is aware of the needs in advance.

If a participant does not, for some reason, disclose a special need or
accommodation before arriving on site, you must address that need as quickly
and comprehensively as circumstances at that time will allow. Since most
special needs must be arranged in advance, this underscores the need for
personal communication with all participants well in advance of their arrival.

Communicate/coordinate with participants. One of the best ways to start a
training program off on the right foot is to be accessible and reliable for training
participants prior to the program. Once the first contact is made with
participants, the tone is set. Your objective as a coordinator is to establish a
credible and trustworthy relationship well before the participants arrive.

Once participants are confirmed for the training, they should receive an
attractive and comprehensive package of information regarding the facilities,
meals, dress code, schedules, what to bring, surrounding areas, and any other
information they may reasonably need in order to be fully prepared to begin the
training. If at all possible, you should communicate with each participant in
person, by telephone or e-mail, approximately two weeks before the start of
the training to ask about their arrangements and any special needs or questions
they might have about the training or logistical issues. If calling or e-mailing each
participant is not feasible, use a welcoming letter encouraging them to call or e-
mail with any questions or concerns.

Select/invite faculty. Selection criteria for faculty are determined by the training
objectives and goals as well as by the planning committee. Faculty should
receive a formal letter of invitation as well as all pertinent information about the
training facility, accommodations, travel arrangements, etc. All expectations
about faculty members' contributions to the curriculum and training should be
clearly spelled out. Request a copy of their one-page vitae for introductions.
Again, personal contact by telephone is important if possible, and you should
make your contact information, including telephone and e-mail address
available and accessible.

Coordinate with faculty. A primary function of the coordinator is to ensure that
any trainers' needs for their presentations, facilitation, etc. are met before they
arrive at the training. It is a good idea to send a checklist of potential teaching
aids (see list of teaching aids in Chapter 6, Ultimate Presentation), such as:

o Tear sheets and multicolored markers with wide felt tips.

o Data projector equipment.

o VCR.

o Overhead projector.


o Any special items for a planned interactive activity (construction paper,
poster boards, etc.). 

Just giving trainers the opportunity to inform you of their training needs helps to
ensure that they are thinking about what they will need before they arrive. It is
particularly important to be sure that any materials they may want reproduced
for participants are taken care of before the training begins. Another item to
check with faculty is whether they wish to use music and whether they will need
an audio tape/CD player.

If the training program involves many faculty members with a variety of slides
and participant handouts, it's a good idea to obtain electronic versions of these
in order to add a unified look. A uniform background on "powerpoint" slides,
and matching "headers" and "footers" on both curricula and handouts, offers the
appearance of a streamlined and coordinated approach.

Coordinate with facilities staff. One important rule to keep in mind with regard
to coordinating arrangements with facilities staff is--the squeaky wheel gets the
grease! It is crucial, of course, to develop good and pleasant working
relationships with facilities staff members, but it is equally crucial to stay in touch
with staff so that your arrangements are not inadvertently rearranged for you
due to unexpected or last minute changes at the training facility. Your best bet
against this happening is to develop a strong working relationship with one
primary contact at the facility and make sure he or she understands the
underlying needs, objectives and goals of your training. Developing and
maintaining an on-site ally are crucial components for success. 

Liaison with program sponsor(s). Serving as the liaison with the program
sponsors is typically a responsibility of the program coordinator. Again, ethical
program coordination is the primary objective: keep the program sponsor
apprised of all developments and ensure that the goals and objectives of the
training are clearly understood and being met by all parties.

Schedule technical equipment and staff. Technical equipment, such as data
projectors, VCRs, and microphones, must be scheduled well in advance to
ensure its availability, as well as the availability of any necessary technical staff.
This may require coordination with different personnel (e.g., a university with a
separate media department) and budgetary considerations; so it is important to
ascertain the appropriate contact as soon as possible. It is important to ensure
that all technical equipment meets any ADA requirements that may be in place
(e.g., television monitors must have the capacity to read close-captioned
videos).


Develop training schedule and agenda. Schedule and agenda development
should be coordinated with the trainers and sponsors of the training program,
incorporating the underlying goals and objectives of the training. The schedule
should be based on adult learning principles, and therefore it is critical that the
coordinator ensure that trainers rotate presentation formats. In fact, it's a good
idea for coordinators to attend training programs periodically to remember what
it's like to be at the mercy of a training schedule! Breaks for participants are
very important, especially after sessions that are emotionally intense or
otherwise taxing. To the degree possible, after-lunch sessions should be
interactive and engaging, as participants begin to tire at this point. Try to stay
within a typical workday schedule and maximize opportunities for participants
to network with each other. "Topic" tables during meals and opportunities for
optional evening get-togethers are appreciated by many participants.

Since there is a tendency to cram too many topics and too much information
into one day, the coordinator and planning team should prioritize topics. In
addition, the ideal training schedule should not exceed six hours a day, allowing
for an additional 75 minutes for lunch and 30 minutes for breaks.

Purchase/acquire training supplies/resources. This includes everything you will
need on-site (all training aids, participant prizes, refreshments, etc.) such as:

o AV equipment.

o Tear sheets.

o Masking tape and other office supplies, such as scissors, stapler, pens, etc.

o Construction paper, glue, glitter, or any supplies for projects the students
may do.

o Markers (at least four different colors; water-based for use on tear sheets).

o Overhead transparencies and pens (these are particularly helpful for large
audiences, where it may be difficult to see writing on tear sheets).

o Post-it notes for students to post inquiries, requests, etc.

o Audio tape/CD player and music for breaks, sessions.

o Prizes for participants--silly/funny items and/or items that have meaning in
their profession, e.g., victim services posters, videotapes, etc. 


o Candy for participants (great during breaks).

o Camera and sufficient film (post pictures of the training while it is going on--
get double prints and let students take pictures they want).

o Sufficient copies of everything you will be handing out to participants during
the training, including resource materials and daily/overall evaluations.

See Appendix B.1, Presentation "Tools of the Trade" for a comprehensive list
of training aids.

Oversee evaluation process. Evaluations, daily, overall, and follow-up, must be
developed by the training team in accordance with the goals, learning
modalities, and learning objectives of the program. All evaluation forms should
be copied and ready for handing out on-site. Its helpful to use a different color
paper for each day's evaluation forms so they can be easily sorted and
organized. Remind participants throughout the training that evaluation forms are
a major and essential method for obtaining feedback on the training and/or
recommendations for change. Make sure that participants have adequate time
to complete their evaluations and know where to put them when they are
finished.

ON-SITE COORDINATION

Although the program coordinator and other staff have been working and
planning for participants' maximum learning and comfort for the past three to
twelve months (or more), this activity has not been very apparent to the arriving
participants. What is extremely apparent is the level of organization that exists
when the participants arrive at the meeting room on the day of the training. As
Smith and Delahaye (1987) point out:

Although most program participants are unaware of or indifferent to what went
into planning a program, they are usually immediately cognizant of the details
related to its on-site coordination; and they form opinions about the program
based on those details.

Until now the program coordinator has focused on preparing for the training.
Now it is time to ensure that all preparations have been successfully completed
and every precaution has been taken to keep things running smoothly during the
training. As Knowles (1980) points out, "I am convinced that what happens in
the first hour or so of any learning activity (course, seminar, workshop, institute,
tutorial, etc.) largely determines how productive the remaining hours will be."


Although it is to be expected that something will probably go wrong (remember
Murphy's Law!), it is important to do everything possible to ensure that the
participants enter a learning climate that is organized, energetic, fully
participant-centered and ready for them. 

On-site coordination can be exhilarating, fun, and also challenging. It is the
coordinator's primary responsibility to serve as a reliable support to the
participants and training team in all three of the areas of need identified above:
education/learning, physical, emotional. Even with the best of preparation,
expect the unexpected. Air conditioning systems break down, faculty members
have last minute emergencies and cancel, A/V equipment malfunctions. Such
happenings are all in a day's work for the ultimate coordinator. A positive and
upbeat attitude will accomplish more than any amount of agonizing over
unforeseen events and/or problems. The coordinator must remain outcome-
oriented and tend to such events as quickly and positively as possible. The
mindset of the coordinator in the face of unexpected events will directly affect
the experience of the participants; know that you set an example and make an
invaluable contribution to the learning environment when you handle any and all
training "glitches" with grace, dignity, diplomacy, speed, and humor.

Major on-site tasks for the coordinator include:

o Prepare final checklist of all arrangements.

o Give final and clear staff assignments.

o Complete registration materials.

o Set up participant resource table.

o Meet and greet participants.

o Conduct orientation for participants. 

o Attend to all on-site needs throughout training. 

o Monitor learning environment and participant "moods." 

o Thank participants, faculty, and staff.

o Develop a plan to respond to inquiries for follow-on information and
resources.


It is also good to keep in mind that the coordinator should and can enjoy the
training. Being organized and staying on top of things should help you arrive at
the training fully prepared for just about anything. The importance of arriving
well rested cannot be overestimated.

Prepare final checklist of all arrangements. As much as possible, everything that
can be in place prior to the arrival of the participants should be. The following
checklist includes items that should be finalized anywhere from one to seven
days prior to the training program:

------------------------

Final Checklist for Participant-Centered Programs

Items to be Checked: Points to be Considered for Each Item

Facilities (meeting rooms for large and small-group sessions, meal areas, break
areas, breakout rooms):
o All facilities are accessible to persons with disabilities.
o Lighting is adequate.
o Ventilation is good.
o Temperature is comfortable.
o Layout of room (arrangement of tables and chairs, placement of equipment) is
what was requested.

Meals and breaks:
o Menus reflect what was requested, and vegetarian and kosher options are
available for every meal.
o Final count of people for each meal and break is done.
o Exact times for meals and breaks are established.

Sleeping accommodations:
o Reservations are in order for both participants and staff.
o Rooms are clean, comfortable, and secure.

Trainers and Program Staff:
o All staff have a clear understanding of their roles and tasks.
o All presenters, facilitators, and instructors are accounted for.

Equipment:
o The correct equipment is placed in the correct rooms.
o All equipment is working properly.
o Backup parts and equipment are available and easily accessible.

Materials/Resources:
o All items are complete and ready.
o The number of copies allows for ten more copies than the number of
participants).
o The materials are arranged in order of use, or by day.

Travel:
o Transportation needs are provided for (travel to the site, on-siteparking for
participants and staff, etc.)
o Responsibility for assisting participants and/or program presenters with
transportation is assigned.
o Transportation needs, and for whom, is determined.

Program Schedule/Agenda:
o People have been assigned responsibilities for keeping theactivities on time.
o Methods for keeping on schedule have been agreed upon.

On-site Registration:
o Procedures are clear and participant-friendly.
o Available registration times are posted and have beencommunicated to
participants.
o Nametags and other registration materials are ready and arranged
alphabetically.
o Staff/trainers are available one hour prior to registration.

Message Availability:
o Procedures for participants receiving emergency messages whilein training
have been established.
o An emergency contact telephone number has been given to all participants
prior to their arrival.
o A staff person has been assigned responsibility for being the contact person
for emergency messages.
o Every participant has provided an emergency contact number at home to the
coordinator.

------------------------

Give final and clear staff assignments. Staff assignments should be made
regarding everything that needs to take place during the training program, from
handing out evaluation forms to daily announcements to staying on schedule,
etc. Literally anything and everything that needs to be handled by a staff
member should be assigned beforehand to eliminate the possibility of confusion
or disorganization.

Complete registration materials. All registration materials, including folders,
schedules, and nametags, should be neatly laid out and ready for participants to
pick up at least one hour before the training begins. A staff member should be
on hand to talk with participants as they pick up their materials and to answer
any questions. Nametags and name plates should be alphabetized for easy
access. The nametags should also feature large print that is easily read from a
distance of ten feet.

Set up participant resource table. Many training programs utilize one or more
resource tables with current information, research, and publications pertinent to
the professional affiliation of the participants. It is also useful to provide a
table(s) for participants to leave materials about their own programs or other
relevant resources.

Meet and greet participants. If possible, the coordinator (as well as other
trainers and staff) should personally meet and greet each participant individually.
Inquire about their arrival, registration process, any difficulties they may have
experienced, etc. Many participants feel anxious prior to the beginning of a
training program. This is an excellent opportunity to begin breaking the ice,
getting to know the participants, and introducing them to each other.

Conduct orientation for participants. When opening a training, the coordinator
or other trainer usually conducts a short orientation about what the participants
can expect during their stay. This should cover logistical matters, meals,
expectations of students and faculty, schedule issues and/or changes, and any
other concerns. It should be as interactive and participant-centered as possible
so that information flows in both directions. This is the first group opportunity to
illustrate the training team's desire to meet the learning needs and expectations
of the participants. It is good to keep the orientation session upbeat, fun, and
short. Let the participants know that you are available at all times and interested
in any feedback, comments, questions, or concerns they may have at any time. 

Attend to all on-site needs throughout training. This task sounds relatively
simple, doesn't it? As coordinator, think of yourself as the host of a very large
and complex party. All questions about everything from why the salad bar does
not include anchovies, to where the overhead transparencies are for the
Tuesday morning session, to why there are not extra blankets in the
sleeping/hotel rooms, will probably be directed to you. Remember: All
questions and inquiries are equally important and should be promptly and
thoroughly investigated and resolved. Your preparation should have eliminated
as much last minute confusion as possible. Yet no training program runs
perfectly, and you can never anticipate all needs, particularly those of the
participants on-site. You must be genuinely interested in responding and
attending to the concerns of all participants and faculty; if you are not interested
(or are perceived as not being interested), the maximum effectiveness of the
learning environment may be compromised. Program coordinators should be
available on-site and accessible at all times during the training.

Monitor learning environment and participant moods. Coordinators must
constantly monitor the learning environment to ensure that conditions are
optimum. Is the temperature comfortable and consistent? Are participants
comfortable with the seating arrangements? Are the refreshments delivered on
time for breaks and is the quantity sufficient? Are speakers able to be heard
clearly? Is all the equipment working properly? This is not only a last-minute
check, but also a constant re-checking to ensure no glitches develop.

It is also crucial to monitor participants' reactions to the program. Circulate
during breaks and ask for feedback. Do participants have any concerns that
need to be addressed through a group process that you can bring to the
attention of other faculty members? Are there any participants who are having
trouble with the material or perhaps reacting to some difficult or emotionally
intense session?

Let participants know you are there for them to handle any kind of feedback
they may have, positive or negative. The learning environment and mood is a
dynamic process--it is not something to be established at the beginning of a
training and then forgotten. All potential problems can be handled, in one way
or another, as long as the coordinator and entire training team remains
participant-centered and aware.

Thank participants, faculty, and staff. As part of the formal closing (more fully
discussed in Chapter 8), honor the participants by acknowledging and thanking
them for their participation and commitment during the training process. Where
applicable, they should receive special certificates, with their individual names,
for successfully completing the training program, signed by the program and
organizational sponsors. Do not forget to thank staff and faculty for their
invaluable contributions with a special token of appreciation or small gift. It is
crucial to acknowledge the hard work and personal investment by all parties to
the training as a form of closure.

Develop a plan to respond to inquiries for follow-on information and resources.
Prepare a sign-up sheet for participants to fill out if they wish to be put on future
mailing lists and/or request additional or ongoing resources. Announce to
participants that the sheet is available for sign-up throughout the training as well
as where it will be located.

POSTTRAINING COORDINATION

Since the primary focus of this chapter is on the process of coordination and
how it affects the quality of adult learning that takes place during a training
program, the emphasis on post-training coordination is minimal except to point
out the importance of some essential factors.

Faculty debriefing. It is helpful to conduct a quick, on-site faculty debriefing to
determine which training techniques and processes were effective, and which
need improvement. A simple debriefing approach called "Alpha-Delta" can
provide a "snapshot" of faculty assessments. Two-column charts can be
prepared in advance, with the debriefing/evaluation topic on top, and "alpha"
(things that went well) and "delta" (things that need improvement) in each of the
columns. Typical topics for faculty debriefing include:

o Content of training program.

o Faculty (which requires a group commitment to honesty and open
communication).

o Curriculum and resource materials.

o Schedule and time allotments for different subjects.

o Training techniques.

A summary report of the debriefing outcomes should be prepared and provided
to all faculty. (See Appendix B.2, "Alpha-Delta" Faculty or Participant
Debriefing.)

Closing down the training. Coordinators must ensure that all items are packed
up and all equipment that remains on-site is there and in the same condition it
was when the training began. Make contact with any facilities personnel to
thank them for their assistance as well as for final instructions regarding billing
matters and/or equipment return. Make sure that all evaluations are collected
and carefully packed up and returned so that the evaluation results can be
properly recorded and summarized in an overall evaluation report for the
program for the program sponsors and presenters. Finally, go home and take a
well-deserved rest!

Preparation of the evaluation report. One of the most essential elements for
improving, refining, and further developing a training is the evaluation. The
evaluation report should reflect the feedback of participants as literally as
possible and be made as comprehensible and readable as possible for program
sponsors, faculty, and staff. Follow-up evaluations should also be conducted
with participants three to six months after the training has concluded to inquire
about the impact the training has had upon them personally and professionally,
and whether the learning objectives were successfully achieved and maintained. 

Follow-up communication with participants. All participants should have
received a list of the students and faculty with all appropriate contact
information (name, agency, mailing address, telephone, fax, e-mail, and Web
site) so that they can communicate with one another after the training has
concluded. The coordinator should send a letter to all participants thanking
them again for their participation and perhaps enclosing a memento from the
training, such as a certificate of completion (if not already received) or
photograph of the participant taking part in the training program. Let students
know that you are interested in all outcomes (what they do with the training they
received) and would like to hear about ways they put their new knowledge to
use, as well as any additional feedback they might have.

A three- to six-month follow-up evaluation should be conducted so that the
program sponsor, planning committee, and training team can learn specific ways
that the training was useful and beneficial to participants, as well as any changes
that should be made.

The Ultimate Coordinator Is All Things to All People!

The ultimate coordinator is, indeed, all things to all people, particularly during
the training program. Although this philosophy cannot be carried out on a daily
basis without exacting a major physical and emotional toll, it can and should be
maintained by the coordinator during the training program. As much as possible
and within human limits, program coordinators must be prepared to do
everything within their power to keep the show running smoothly and to ensure
that all conditions are in place, and kept that way, to allow for maximum adult
learning.

References

Apps, J. W. 1991. Mastering the Teaching of Adults. Malabar, FL: Krieger
Publishing.

Boyle, P. G. 1981. Planning Better Programs. New York: McGraw-Hill.


Caffarella, R. 1994. Planning Programs for Adult Learners. A Practical Guide
for Educators, Trainers and Staff Developers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Publishers, 1994. 

Finkel, C. 1984. "Where Learning Happens." Training and Development
Journal, 38 (4): 32-36.

Knowles, M. S. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education. New York:
Cambridge University Press.

Munson, L. S. 1992. How to Conduct Training Seminars, 2nd ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Nadler, L. and Z. Nadler. 1987. The Comprehensive Guide to Successful
Conferences and Institutes. San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers.

Smith, B. J. and B. L. Delahaye. 1987. How to Be an Effective Trainer, 2nd
ed. New York: Wiley.

Vosko, R. S. 1991. "Where We Learn Shapes Our Learning." In R. Hiemstra,
ed., "Creating Environments for Effective Adult Learning." New Directions for
Adult and Continuing Education, (50), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

----------------------------

Chapter 3. Ultimate Adult Learning

Historical Roots of Adult Learning Principles

Since the 1970s, adult learning theory has offered a framework for educators
and trainers whose job it is to train adults. Malcolm S. Knowles (1973) was
among the first proponents of this approach. In his book, The Adult Learner: A
Neglected Species, he resurrected the word "andragogy" a term popular in
German education circles in the early 1800s, and used it to label his attempt to
create a unified theory of adult learning. Knowles' contentions were based on
four assumptions: 

1. As they mature, adults tend to prefer self-direction. The role of the instructor
is to engage in a process of inquiry, analysis, and decision-making with adult
learners, rather than to transmit knowledge.

2. Adults' experiences are a rich resource for learning. Active participation in
planned experiences--such as discussions or problem solving exercises, an
analysis of those experiences, and their application to work or life situations--
should be the core methodology for training adults. Adults learn and retain
information more easily if they can relate it to their reservoir of past
experiences.

3. Adults are aware of specific learning needs generated by real-life events such
as marriage, divorce, parenting, taking a new job, losing a job, and so on. Adult
learners' needs and interests are the starting points and serve as guideposts for
training activities. 

4. Adults are competency-based learners, meaning that they want to learn a
skill or acquire knowledge that they can apply pragmatically to their immediate
circumstances. Life or work-related situations present a more appropriate
framework for adult learning than academic or theoretical approaches.

Robert W. Pike (1989), an internationally recognized expert in human
resources development and author of the book Creative Training Techniques,
has conducted thousands of adult training seminars. His principles of adult
learning, referred to as "Pike's Laws of Adult Learning," have built upon the
original philosophy to provide similar guidance for trainers:

Law 1: Adults are babies with big bodies. It is accepted that babies enjoy
learning through experience, because every exploration is a new experience. As
children grow, educators traditionally reduce the amount of learning through
experience to the point that few courses in secondary and higher education
devote significant time to experiential education. It is now recognized that adult
learning is enhanced by hands-on experience that involves adults in the learning
process. In addition, adults bring a wealth of experience that must be
acknowledged and respected in the training setting.

Law 2: People do not argue with their own data. Succinctly put, people are
more likely to believe something fervently if they arrive at the idea themselves.
Thus, when training adults, presenting structured activities that generate the
students' ideas, concepts, or techniques will facilitate learning more effectively
than simply giving adults information to remember.

Law 3: Learning is directly proportional to the amount of fun you are having.
Humor is an important tool for coping with stress and anxiety, and can be
effective in promoting a comfortable learning environment. If you are involved in
the learning process and understand how it will enable you to do your job or
other chosen task better, you can experience the sheer joy of learning.


Law 4: Learning has not taken place until behavior has changed. It is not what
you know, but what you do that counts. The ability to apply new material is a
good measure of whether learning has taken place. Experiences that provide an
opportunity for successfully practicing a new skill will increase the likelihood of
retention and on-the-job application.

Adult Learning and the Ultimate Educator

DESIGN AND DELIVER TRAINING FIRMLY GROUNDED ON
PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING

For more than two decades, adult learning theory has served as the framework
for training adults. The idea that adults as learners require different educational
strategies than children was first voiced fifty years ago when Irving Lorge
(1947), writing about effective methods in adult education, suggested that to
reach the adult learner, you have to teach to what adults want. He stated that
adults have "wants" in the following four areas:

1. To gain something.

2. To be something.

3. To do something.

4. To save something.

Eduard Lindeman, also writing in the 1940s, proposed that adults learn best
when they are actively involved in determining what, how, and when they learn.
Since the 1970s, several authors and training experts have expanded upon the
original concepts presented as adult learning theory.

Ultimate instruction, as used here, means helping adults to learn and involves far
more than lecturing or presenting information. It involves instructing for results--
powerful, highly effective instruction that results in applicable learning for adult
participants. The material presented here is intended as a guide for both new
and experienced trainers and educators. The reader is encouraged to adapt
these ideas and techniques freely and to modify them as necessary to
compliment his or her unique style of instruction. You, too, can become an
ultimate educator.

KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULTS AND CHILDREN AS
LEARNERS


Adults differ from children as learners. An adult has assumed responsibility for
himself/herself and others. Adults differ specifically in self-concept, experience,
readiness to learn, time perspective, and orientation to learning. Traditional
teaching applied to children is "jug and mug" with the big jug (the teacher) filling
up the little mugs (the students). Students are asked to pay attention and have
few opportunities to make use of their own experience (Klatt 1999). 

The following chart identifies some key differences between children and adults
as learners:

------------------------

Child and Adult Learning Characteristics

Children

o Rely on others to decide what is important to be learned
o Accept the information being presented at face value.
o Expect what they are learning to be useful in their long-term future.
o Have little or no experience upon which to draw, are relatively "blank slates."
o Little ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource to teacher or fellow
classmates.

Adults

o Decide for themselves what is important to be learned.
o Need to validate the information based on their beliefs and values.
o Expect what they are learning to be immediately useful.
o Have substantial experience upon which to draw. May have fixed viewpoints.
o Significant ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource to the trainer and
fellow learners.

------------------------

INSTRUCTION BASED ON FIVE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ADULT
LEARNING

Leadership
Experience
Appeal
Respect
Novel Styles

Often, peoples' expectations about the role of an instructor and beliefs about
how adults learn are derived from personal experience in a college lecture hall
or a job training program or from studying classical learning theories. However,
learning in adult human beings seems to be a more complex phenomenon than
some of the classical theories suggest. Three principles that provide the
foundation for adult learning today can be summarized as follows:

1. The adult learner is primarily in charge of his or her own learning. Remember
that instructors do not have the power to implant ideas or to transfer skills
directly to the learner. They can only suggest and guide.

2. An instructor's primary responsibility is to do a good job of managing the
process through which adults learn.

3. The learners are encouraged to use their own judgment and decision-making
capabilities.

Instructors are leaders, not dictators. They do have responsibility to make
decisions, provide guidance, and be a resource for the students' learning.
Although instructors often view themselves as the ultimate authority on the
subject matter, it is still up to the learners to determine whether the ideas
presented in the session should be incorporated into their work or personal
lives. Despite the primary role of the learner, instruction is not a passive, laid-
back, go-with-the-flow process for the instructor. As the facilitator and catalyst
for participants' learning, the instructor makes it possible for learning to happen
by designing and performing all the activities that the learning processes
requires.

In their research on adult learning, Sullivan, Wircenski, Arnold, and Sarkees
(1990) assert that the establishment of a positive learning climate hinges on
understanding the characteristics of adult learners who will be participating in
the instructional process. They report the dynamics of the instructional process
are very much dependent on the instructor having a clear understanding of the
participants. Sullivan et. al. cited applicable characteristics of relevance,
motivation, participation, variety, positive feedback, personal concerns, and
uniqueness.

Principle 1: Leadership. The adult learner enters the training or educational
environment with a deep need to be self-directing and to take a leadership role
in his or her learning. The psychological definition of "adult" is one who has
achieved a self-concept of being in charge of his or her own decisions and living
with the consequences; this carries over into the instructional setting. Thus,
instructors can help learners acquire new knowledge and develop new skills,
but they cannot do the learning for learners.

Although adults may be completely self directing in most (if not all) aspects of
their lives, some can fall back to their conditioning in school and college and put
on their hats of dependency, fold their arms, sit back, and say "teach me" when
they enter a program labeled "education" or "training." (This is especially true
when adults enter a "training room" set up "classroom style.") To resolve the
"dependency" problem, adult educators have developed strategies for helping
adults make a quick transition from seeing themselves as dependent learners to
becoming self-directed learners. Adult educators, in the development of a
learning environment, define the process through which learning takes place.
For example:

o The instructor guides the learners in determining the relevance of the learning
for their own lives and work; whereas,

o The learners are encouraged to use their own leadership, judgment, and
decision-making capabilities.

To reinforce the notion of learner responsibility in the instructional process, a
variety of activities can be used to obtain information from participants
regarding what they want to get out of the session and to ensure a match
between instructor and participant objectives.

Information should be gathered from participants prior to the session to assess
participants' skill levels, prior training, education, and professional experience
and interest in, need for, and expectations for the session. This can be done
through an application form, learning contracts, a mail (electronic or paper)
survey of registered participants, or a brief telephone interview if the number of
participants is small. This information can be used to organize instructional
objectives, sequence content, and design-reinforcing activities.

During an introductory section, participants can be asked to write down their
most important goal for the session, and then be asked to share their
expectations. Students are asked to put their comments regarding goals on a
wall chart labeled "expectations" or "learning goals." Instructors can also ask
participants to list the skills, experience, and positive characteristics they bring
to the learning environment. This process honors participants, identifies
participant resources for the group, and provides additional assessment data.
The instructor can read goals from the sheet periodically throughout the session
and indicate when a section is particularly designed to meet that learner's need,
thereby reinforcing learner investment in the session.

The ultimate educator remains alert to the first principle of adult learning: Adults
enter the learning environment with a deep need to be self-directing and take a
leadership role in his or her learning.

Principle 2: Experience. The word "experience" holds two meanings for the
ultimate educator. Experience is the accumulated knowledge an individual
arrives with at the session, as well as an individual's active participation in
events or activities during the session.

Adults bring to a learning situation a background of experience that is a rich
resource for themselves and for others. In adult education, there is a greater
emphasis on the use of experiential learning techniques (discussion methods,
case studies, problem-solving exercises) that tap into the accumulated
knowledge and skills of the learners and techniques such as simulation exercises
and field experiences that provide learners with experiences from which they
can learn by analyzing them. A rich, adult-focused instructional approach takes
into account the experiences and knowledge that adults bring to the session. It
then expands upon and refines this prior knowledge by connecting it to new
learning, making the instruction relevant to important issues and tasks in the
adults' lives.

In discussing what all learners have in common, Robert F. Mager (1992) stated
that the more you know about participants, the better you can tailor instruction
to meet their needs. He provided the following list of key points concerning
experience:

o Everyone comes to the learning situation with a lifetime of experience,
regardless of age.

o The lifetime experiences of each learner are different from those of others.

o Lifetime experiences also includes misconceptions, biases, prejudices, and
preferences. In other words, some of what people think they know is actually
wrong.

It is also important to recognize that the experience that adults possess is
significantly different in quality from that of youths:

o Few youths have had the experience of being full-time workers, spouses,
parents, voting citizens, organizational leaders, or other adult roles.
Accordingly, adults have a different perspective on experience: it is their chief
source of self-identity.

o To youths, experience is something that happens to them, whereas adults
define themselves in terms of their unique experiences.

o An adult's experience is who he or she is. So if an adult's experience is not
respected and valued, it cannot be used as a resource for learning. Adults
experience this omission as a rejection of their experience and as a rejection of
them as persons, which negatively affects learning.

Few individuals prefer to just sit back and listen to a teacher or trainer go on
and on about the topic. The effective instructor keeps this point in mind and
designs learning experiences that actively involve adults with various levels of
experience in the instructional process. This entails practice activities such as
discussion, hands-on work, or projects for each of the concepts that the
instructor wants the participants to master.

Concentration is also an important issue. Humans can only consciously think
about one thing at a time. It is essential to provide learning environments that
help learners concentrate on their learning tasks. Contents, formats, and
sequences must be interesting to compete with other attention-demanding
thoughts and environmental intrusions (McLagen 1978).

Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985) found that adults have a broader base of
experience to which new ideas and skills can be attached; furthermore, a
broader experience base allows adults to incorporate new ideas and skills with
much richer and fuller meaning than do youths. The more clearly defined the
relationship between the old and the new (through discussion and reflection),
the deeper and more permanent the learning will be. For example:

o On-the-job training, small group discussions, case study work, or even
computer-based training all embrace the concept that participation helps
increase involvement in the learning process and retention of the knowledge.

Information that goes into the participant's memory will likely be remembered if
learners practice remembering the information soon after they process it.
Therefore, it is important to provide opportunities in the session for review and
remembering by means of activities like written summaries, application
exercises, and discussions (Zemke and Zemke 1995).

Studies show that over a period of three days, learning retention is as follows:

o 10% of what you read.

o 20% of what you hear.


o 30% of what you see.

o 50% of what you see and hear.

o 70% of what you say.

o 90% of what you say as you do (e.g., orally work out a problem) (Pike
1989).

The ultimate educator knows that experience is a rich resource for adult
learning and therefore actively involves adults in the learning process.

Principle 3: Appeal. Appeal is the power of attracting or arousing interest.
Adult learners are motivated to learn when they have a need to know. They
want to know how the instruction will help them and often ask themselves the
following questions:

o What's in it for me?

o Why do I need this information?

o How will I benefit from it?

o How can I make use of it in a practical, real way?

o How will it help me be a better person or professional?

Training and development expert Robert F. Mager (1992) brings this point
home with his first two rules of training:

o Rule #1: Training is appropriate only when two conditions are present:
--There is something that one or more people do not know how to do.
--They need to be able to do it.

o Rule #2: If they already know how, more training won't help.

Adult orientation to learning is centered on life or work. Therefore, the
appropriate frameworks for organizing adult learning are life and/or work-
related situations, not academic or theoretical subjects. Meaningful learning can
be intrinsically motivating.

The key to using adult's "natural" motivation to learn is tapping into their most
teachable moments: those points in their lives when they believe they need to
learn something new or different (Zemke & Zemke 1995).

Sometimes, adults enter the learning environment with little interest or
motivation. Many genuinely want to improve their job performance or to learn
new knowledge and skills in order to move up the career ladder. Their
motivation can diminish if the instructor fails to direct and encourage this or
other interests and motivations.

Trainers can help learners develop an early and appropriate "mental set" for
learning programs by overviewing the course objectives, describing upcoming
activities, and helping them see the future advantages of the instruction to them
and their work (McLagen 1978). Introductory exercises early in the session
can help establish the mental set. For example, an exercise titled "hopes and
fears" allows participates the opportunity to express their learning goals and
concerns. In this exercise, participants are instructed to write down on tear
sheets their hopes (goals and desires) and fears (concerns and specific issues
about the instructional session), individually or in small groups. The instructor
then uses this information to ensure that instructional objectives are on the mark
and that the instructor is sensitive to individual participants.

Motivation can be improved and channeled by the instructor who provides
clear instructional goals and learning activities that encourage and support
strong learner interest. To best capitalize on this high level of learner interest, the
instructor should explore ways by which the needs of each learner can be
incorporated into the training sessions. This would include:

o The use of challenging and exciting learning experiences.

o Learning activities that are self-paced and tailored to individual rates of
learning.

Five Ways to Squelch Motivation

o Have little personal contact.

o Get participants in a passive mood and keep them there.

o Assume the class will apply what is taught; do not bother with examples.

o Be alert to criticize.

o Make them feel stupid for asking questions in class (Pike 1992).


Studies show that part of an adult's preparation to learn is determining the
benefits of the learning, as well as the disadvantages of not learning. Allen
Tough (1972) found that adults would expend considerable time and energy
exploring the benefits of learning something, and what the costs would be of not
learning it before they would be willing to invest time and energy in learning it.

Therefore, a key principle in adult learning is that the ultimate educator needs to
develop an appeal, a "need to know" in the learners--to make a case for the
value in their life performance of learning what is offered. At the minimum, this
case should be made through testimony from the experience of the instructor or
a successful practitioner; at the maximum, by providing real or simulated
experiences through which the learners experience the benefits of knowing and
the costs of not knowing.

Principle 4: Respect. The word respect here is defined as "esteem." The
instructor of adults must show deferential regard for the learner by
acknowledging an adult learner's experience and creating a climate in the
learning setting that conveys respect.

People are more open to learning if they feel respected. If they feel that they are
being talked down to, patronized, or otherwise denigrated, their energy is
diverted from learning to dealing with these feelings. The following suggestions
are offered as ways in which the instructor can help foster a comfortable,
productive learning climate through the attitude that he or she projects:

o Show respect for the learner's individuality and experience.

o Be sensitive to the language you use so that learners are not inadvertently
offended.

o Be open to different perspectives.

o Adopt a caring attitude and show it.

o Treat the learners as individuals rather than as a group of people who are all
alike.

o Support all learner comments by acknowledging the "rightness" that is in each
comment and each person.

o Take the learning process seriously because it is serious and important
(McLagen 1978).


Establish a learning climate of:

o Mutual respect.

o Collaboration rather than competition.

o Support rather than judgment.

o Mutual trust.

o Fun.

Adult learners respond to reinforcements. Although adult learners are usually
self-directed, they do need to receive reinforcement. Most people are like dry
sponges waiting for a drop of appreciation. Instructors should take every
opportunity to demonstrate appreciation in the classroom.

Sullivan, Wircenski, Arnold, and Sarkees (1990) write that the need for
positive feedback is a characteristic of the adult learner. Like most learners,
adults prefer to know how their efforts measure up when compared with the
objectives of the instructional program. Adults have a tendency to "vote with
their feet"; that is, if they find the program to be a negative experience, they will
find some reason to drop out of the program before its completion.

The ultimate educator honors adult learners' individuality and experience and
creates a safe, respectful, and participant-centered environment for learning to
take place.

Principle 5: Novel Styles. The last principle refers to individual or novel styles
that characterize learners. Novel styles are defined as different, unique learning
styles and preferences. Generally, most adults prefer to be treated as individuals
who are unique and have particular differences. The instructor must keep in
mind that although adults have common characteristics as learners, adults also
have individual differences and most adults have preferred methods for learning.
Adult learners respond better when new material is presented through a variety
of instructional methods, appealing to their different learning preferences. 

No matter how well planned a program is, individual differences among
participants often make it necessary to make some adjustments during the
program. Flexibility can be incorporated into programs, but such flexibility must
be grounded in an understanding of how learners may differ. When developing
an instructional program, the instructor must take into consideration the novel
styles of learning that each adult brings to the session. The following section
discusses a variety of approaches to learning style.

Learning Style

Most adult learners have developed a preference for learning that is rooted in
childhood learning patterns. To understand and address adult learners, it is
important to understand differences in children's development and learning. As
children develop, their ability to process information is affected by their own
individual strengths and weaknesses and the environment in which they grow
and learn. Individual differences in children's interests, aptitudes, abilities, and
achievement can be quite pronounced. For example, some children have an
especially strong auditory memory that enables them to remember what they
hear with little effort, while others may be less skilled. This can be seen in
differences in following verbal directions given by a teacher or coach, or in the
ability to learn the words to a new song. Some children have an especially keen
eye for noticing detail in pictures or a design in a pattern. This can be seen in
differences in speed in recognizing letters of the alphabet or understanding
principles of geometry. Some children are very talented artists from the first
moment they are given crayons or other tools to draw, while others develop
such a skill through structured learning opportunities at school and at home.

Behavioral characteristics can also affect learning in children. Children may
have a short attention span or be easily distracted by sounds or movement
around them, while others can stay with a task for a lengthy period of time,
regardless of what might be going on around them. Some children appear more
"emotionally mature," which can translate into greater patience, ability to
cooperate, or a higher tolerance for frustration, while others become upset
quickly if a task is frustrating. Some children have a "need to move" or be more
active than is typical for their age group; others simply have more stamina, and
so on.

In addition, stimulation and opportunity can affect ability and achievement. If a
child is deprived of opportunities to move, explore, touch, grasp, and/or
interact with sound and speech, long-term learning ability is diminished.
Furthermore, without opportunities to use once learned skills, the ability to
perform tasks is often lost and must be relearned.

It must be emphasized that adult learning theory is based in the notion that we
are not "just teaching grown-up children." It must be recognized that a person's
aptitudes and abilities are shaped by individual differences and early learning
experiences and continue to be influenced by experience and training
throughout adulthood. In fact, many adults seek jobs that consistently give them
opportunities to display special talents and rely upon their preferred learning
style.

ADULT LEARNING STYLES

(Portions of the following section were excerpted with modification from
National District Attorneys Advocacy Center, Train the Trainers Workshop,
1999.)

In adult learning theory, several approaches to learning style have been
developed and are prominently used in training and educational programs.
These include learning styles based on the senses that are involved in processing
information; theories of intelligence, including emotional intelligence and
"multiple intelligences"; and preferences for learning conditions, i.e., the
environment in which learning takes place. In order to provide a framework for
a discussion on adult learning style differences, each of these approaches is
briefly discussed.

Auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners. Differing aptitudes, abilities, and
experiences have caused individuals to develop a preference for sending and
receiving information through one sense over another. Most often people prefer
auditory or visual input; however, some people have a preference for
kinesthetic learning, i.e. learning that involves movement. A preference for one
type of learning over another may be seen in the following ways:

o Visual learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Graphic illustrations such as bar
graphs or crosstabs to explain data; color codes to highlight salient information;
maps to find their way on the subway or while driving in a new city; written
material to study new concepts; wall charts that display points to be
remembered; written outlines; drawings or designs to illustrate overhead
presentations; sitting "up close" in a presentation in order to see the presenter's
face, gestures, or visuals; taking notes during a lecture; instructors to repeat
verbal directions.

o Auditory learners prefer, enjoy, or require: A verbal presentation of new
information, such as a lecture; group discussions to hear other points of view or
practices; fast-paced verbal exchanges of ideas; a good joke or story that they
can repeat for others; verbal cues or pneumonic devices to help them
remember information; music at the beginning or during transitions in a training
setting; words to accompany a cartoon; oral reports of working groups.

o Kinesthetic learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Movement, such as rocking or
shaking a leg during a lecture; hands-on experience to learn a task; gestures
while making a point; role play exercises over discussion groups; shaking hands
when meeting or greeting people; trying new things without a lengthy
explanation of the activity; frequent breaks; regular opportunities to change
seating or room arrangement; "just doing it" rather than talking about it.

While it is thought that people have developed a preference for or have greater
skill in processing one type of input over others, most people simultaneously
process information through multiple senses. In fact, the retention of learned
material is enhanced if the learner is asked to process information using more
than one sense. Presentations that are multisensory (using visual and auditory
components) in combination with interactive activities will increase learning and
retention for most adults.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

(Portions of the following section were excerpted with modification from
National District Attorneys Advocacy Center, Train the Trainers Workshop,
1999.)

Intelligence has long been considered a key factor in predicting and evaluating
learning. Educators have developed a variety of teaching strategies to
accommodate varying levels of intelligence, most of which have been based on
a traditional Western approach to intelligence. Theories of adult intelligence
have evolved considerably in recent decades. The traditional constructs of IQ
(intelligence quotient) derived from verbal and nonverbal intelligence have been
expanded to include EQ (emotional quotient, suggesting that emotional maturity
and ability contribute significantly to achievement), as well as theories of
"multiple intelligences." Howard Gardner (1982), a proponent of "multiple
intelligences" theory, suggests that educators do people a disservice by thinking
of intelligence levels in traditionally narrow dimensions that relate most
significantly to academic achievement. Gardner proposes seven broader
dimensions of intelligences:

o Verbal and linguistic. Ability to deal with words and language, both written
and spoken.

o Logical and mathematical. Ability to do inductive and deductive thinking,
numbers, abstract patterns, and reasoning ability.

o Musical. Ability to recognize tonal patterns, pitch, melody, rhythms, and
tone.

o Kinesthetic. Ability to use the body skillfully.


o Visual and spatial. Ability to observe and process visual stimuli and visualize
or create visual images.

o Interpersonal. Ability to develop and maintain relationships and understand,
communicate, and work with other people.

o Intrapersonal. Understanding of self and one's own feelings, values, and
purpose.

Many instructors have found applications for this new way of defining
intelligence or aptitude. In general, the instructors have utilized this theory to
support the notion that instruction should entail far more than a verbal/linguistic
presentation of ideas, and include experiential opportunities that enable people
with varying types of "intelligence" to be successful.

Learning Environment Conditions Affect Learning

The physical environment in which instruction takes place and the structure of
the activities in the course can also affect learning positively or negatively.
People react differently to such factors as room temperature, arrangement of
the room (e.g., closeness of seats), time of day (early morning versus late in the
day), brightness of the lighting, and sound (e.g., noise distractions from nearby
construction or talking among participants). In addition, adults differ with regard
to whether they prefer to work alone or in groups. Sharon Fisher (1989) has
combined all of these factors to depict the various types of preferences that
adults may have when they enter the learning environment:

------------------------

Adult Preferences Regarding a Learning Environment

Physical Factors

o Learning Setting:
-- Noise Level
--Lighting
--Temperature
--Structure
--Time of Day

Emotional Factors
o Social Needs:
--Learn Alone
--Learn with Others

o Motivation:
--Extrinsic
--Intrinsic

Learning Factors
o Learning Styles:
--Auditory
--Visual
--Kinesthetic

------------------------

An instructor must recognize that adults' preferences in these areas may affect
their responsiveness in the session. Efforts should be made to accommodate
differences by providing a variety of learning activities in which participants may
feel comfortable.

The ultimate educator delivers instruction in a stimulating, rich, and diverse
environment through a variety of instructional methods to appeal to adult
participants' learning styles and preferences.

The Ultimate Educator Is an Adult Learning Expert!

Adult learning theory is grounded in the notion that adults are in charge of and
need to be active participants in their learning. Adults bring a wide range of
experiences and perspectives to any instructional setting, and are most likely to
be motivated when they see a connection between the learning objectives and
activities and their own work or life. Adults also bring preferences for how they
learn as well as varying aptitudes and abilities. Ultimate educators provide
opportunities for adults to use what they already know and apply what they are
learning in the instructional setting.

References

Gardner, H. 1982. Art, Mind and Brain. New York: Basic Books.

Klatt, B. 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook: A
Comprehensive Guide to Leading Successful Workshops & Training Programs.
New York: McGraw-Hill.

Knowles, M. 1973. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston,
TX: Gulf Publishing Company.

Lorge, I. 1947. Effective Methods in Adult Education: Report of the
Southern Regional Workshop for Agricultural Extension Specialists. Raleigh,
NC: North Carolina State College.

Mager, R. F. 1992. What Every Manager Should Know about Training.
Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company.

McLagen, P. A. 1978. Helping Others Learn: Designing Programs for Adults.
MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

National District Attorneys Advocacy Center. 1999. Train the Trainers
Workshop. Columbia, SC. 

Pike, R. W. 1989. Creative Training Techniques Handbook. Minneapolis, MN:
Lakewood Books.

Tough, A. 1972. Adult Learning Projects. Ontario: Institute for Studies in
Education. 

Zemke, R. and S. Zemke. June 1995. "Adult Learning What Do We Know
for Sure?" Training.

----------------------------

Chapter 4. Ultimate Style and Skill

Introduction

Beginning with your first academic experiences, you have recognized
differences among teachers--some were great; some put students to sleep.
Many years later, with a greater focus on improving your own abilities, you
attended training sessions, observed and rated the instructors, and questioned
whether or not you would be able to replicate the actions and styles that you
felt were most effective. You observed and studied all types of trainers,
educators, and facilitators; afterward you said, "I can do that, but I can't do
that!" The more the instructor seemed like you, the more comfortable and
confident you felt in trying out new innovative techniques.

What you experienced was a "style identity crisis." You compared and
contrasted your own personal style and abilities with those of the instructor.
You wondered if you measured up. You questioned whether you could change
to become more dynamic and effective. 

The ultimate educator is a risk taker, willing to try out new techniques that push
the envelope, and willing to accept the challenge to become the "best of the
best." This chapter can help you assess your skills and polish your style so you
can become an ultimate educator! 

Style Stereotypes

Before you assess your own style, take a look at some styles you may
recognize. Maybe you will see yourself in these pages!

Behind each of the following styles is an assumption that may affect the learners
in a negative way and impede their learning. Although the assumptions behind
the styles are exaggerated, they reveal the implications of the style and may help
you become more aware of the impact of a style that you have adopted or
thought was effective.

THE SCHOLARLY PROFESSOR

"Listen to me, take good notes, you learn by paying attention to me. I am the
expert--you will be tested on what I say."

The professor uses lecture as the primary method of delivery. Written tests are
the most common type of assessment. Contact with students is minimal; he or
she arrives just before the session and leaves immediately after. The training is
instructor-centered; what the instructor says is important. 

The professor style implies that the trainer's approval, not the learners'
subsequent performance, is the goal of learning. Students' thoughts and opinions
are not important.

THE CLOWN

"I'll make you laugh and entertain you. I have a story and joke for all occasions!
You may not learn anything, but you'll like me and have a great time!"

The clown tells jokes and entertaining stories. Training success is measured by
"smiles," not performance. The clown is everyone's friend; impression is
important. The training is instructor-centered; the instructor wants you to like
him/her. The clown is often a very popular trainer; participants are satisfied and
may, at first, not notice that actual learning was limited or nonexistent.


The clown style implies that "entertainment" is the goal of training--learning is
not important. 

THE TECHNO TRAINER

"The technological wizardry will captivate you! With videos, presentation
software, and other high-tech gadgets, I will cover everything you need to
know. I hope the power doesn't go out!"

The techno-trainer takes a back seat to the technology. The trainer relies on the
technology to accomplish the training. Testing is based solely on information
delivered by technology. Contact with participants is minimal, and not
necessary. Students are not actively involved in the learning process. If the
technology fails, the training fails! 

The techno style implies that the trainer's role is simply to provide information,
not to help participants learn.

THE CHEERLEADER

"I'll fire you up! You'll be inspired, motivated, eager to go out and conquer the
world! Give me a "T"; give me an "R"; give me an "A"; give me an "I"; give me
an "N"; give me an "E"; give me an "R"--what's that spell? TRAINER!"

The cheerleader relies on high energy and inspirational exercises to move
participants to action. Training success is measured by the level of excitement
generated by the instructor. Contact with participants is extreme. Learning and
subsequent performance are less important than participant excitement (that
eventually fades). The trainer depends on diffuse excitement versus directed
motivation based on learner desire and need.

The cheerleader style implies that excitement will lead to performance. 

THE DRILL INSTRUCTOR

"Do you hear me, trainee? You will listen to me, do what I say, and keep quiet!
I don't care what you think or feel; it's what I think and feel that's important!
Got that, trainee?"

The drill instructor is in total control of the learning environment--the trainer's
goals are the only goals considered. The trainer believes that he/she must "whip"
participants into shape. Training success is measured by the participants' ability
to replicate the instructor's actions to his or her satisfaction. Repetition is the
primary teaching strategy. Participants are made to feel stupid when asking
questions or demonstrating performance that is less than satisfactory. 

The drill instructor style implies that the participant is a moron, incapable of
independent thought or action.

While the above styles were exaggerated, the implications are clear. Do you
see your style in these descriptions? What does your style "say" to participants?

(The preceding training styles are adapted from F. Margolis and C. Bell,
Instructing for Results.)

Communication Style

Your dominant communication style also affects your training effectiveness.
John Bledsoe (1976) outlined four communication styles based on Carl Jung's
psychological types: intuitor, thinker, feeler, and sensor (more fully described in
the following chart). 

Every trainer and participant uses a blend of the four behavioral styles. Despite
using a blend or mix, each person relies most heavily on a primary or dominant
style. While no style should be considered good or bad, trainers should identify
their own style and be able to identify the styles of training participants. With
this awareness, you can adjust your style to communicate most effectively with
participants.

What is your communication style? Study the following chart and see if you can
identify your primary style. 

------------------------

Training Styles and Characteristics

Primary Communicating Styles

Intuitor
o Typical Telephone Behavior: Wordy but aloof. Impersonal. Goes off on
tangents. Not mindful of your time or his/her time.
o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Imagination in selection of new wave
furnishings and decor. Round conference tables, inspiration-pads on walls,
offbeat periodicals. Citations for idealistic work, community service and pet
causes.
o Typical Style of Dress: Hard to predict. May be like an absent-minded
professor. More into ideas than image. May be too wrapped up in future goals
to think about daily appearance. Alternately, may have imaginative self-concept
that may reflect in clothes from stunning to outlandish.
o Associated Characteristics: 
Effective                                         
--Original 
--Imaginative   
--Creative   
--Broad gauged  
--Charismatic   
--Idealistic   
--Intellectually tenacious
--Ideological
Ineffective 
--Unrealistic
--"Far-out"
--Fantasy
--Scattered
--Devious
--Out-of-touch
--Dogmatic
--Impractical

Thinker
o Typical Telephone Behavior: Business-like, but lackluster. Little voice
inflection. Ticks off specifics. Ordered, measured manner. Sometimes suggests
ground-rules for phone conversation, i.e., "Shall we begin with your agenda or
mine?"
o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Correct and nondistracting.
Furnishings that are tasteful but conventional. Charts for business use, reports,
and reference works nearby. Few touches of informality and color.
o Typical Style of Dress: Conservative "proper." Unassuming, understated.
Dress invariably appropriate to circumstance. Business-like in office; well
tailored, correct in nonwork atmosphere. Color-coordinated, but not colorful.
o Associated Characteristics: 
Effective                                         
--Effective communicator
--Deliberate
--Prudent 
--Weighs alternatives   
--Stabilizing 
--Objective  
--Rational   
--Analytical   
Ineffective  
--Verbose
--Indecisive
--Over-cautious
--Over analyzes
--Nondynamic
 Controlling
 Over-serious
--Rigid

Feeler
o Typical Telephone Behavior: Warm and friendly, sometimes seemingly too
much so. Does not seem to distinguish between business and personal calls in
the sense that he/she is likely to be quite informal. Interjects humor, personal
associations, questions about one's well being, etc. Likes to gossip. Talks
incessantly. Feels rude if hangs up fast.
o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Personalizes surroundings; makes
office informal and somewhat "homey." Likes warm colors, antiques, big, live
plants, mementos, snapshots rather than formal photographs of family. Papers
and files, etc., are likely to be messy on the surface, organized underneath in a
personal way that only he/she can understand.
o Typical Style of Dress: Dress is more according to own mood than to suit
others' expectations. Likes colorful, informal clothes. Often has sentimental,
favorite articles of clothing. Sometimes shows a hankering for old-fashioned
touches or "costume" effects.
o Associated Characteristics:
Effective                                         
--Spontaneous   
--Persuasive  
--Empathetic  
--Grasps traditional values
--Probing 
--Introspective   
--Draws out feelings 
--Loyal  
Ineffective 
--Impulsive
--Manipulative
--Over personalizes
--Sentimental
--Postponing
--Guilt-ridden
--Stirs-up conflict
--Subjective
     
Sensor
o Typical Telephone Behavior: Abrupt. Staccato. Gets to the point; expects
others to do the same. Interrupts. Needs to control the conversation.
o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Generates atmosphere of hard-
charging clutter. Mementos, if any, connote action: heads of animals hunted,
golf trophies, mounted fish, racing prints. Desk is likely to be big, messy. Too
busy to be neat; too action-oriented to be concerned with image unless she/he
has a strong thinker back-up style.
o Typical Style of Dress: Informal, simple, functional clothes are not the order
of the day. Wants to be neat but not fancy. Tends to categorize; everyday or
dress-up. If sensors see the occasion as being "special," they throw simplicity to
the winds; their competitive zeal then rises to the surface and they may
"outclass" everyone.
o Associated Characteristics: 
Effective                                         
--Pragmatic
--Assertive
--Directional, results-oriented
--Objective
--Competitive
--Confident
Ineffective
--Does not see long-range
--Status-seeking
--Self-involved
--Acts first, then thinks
--Lacks trust in others
--Domineering, arrogant

------------------------

As the above table illustrates, it can be fun to stereotype and exaggerate
descriptions of training and communicating styles. However, it is important to
become and remain aware of how your style may affect your students' learning
process. The next section explores specific skills that constitute the trainer's
repertoire and gives you an opportunity to assess your skills and develop a plan
of improvement. 

Trainer Skill Assessment


What makes a good trainer? "Train the trainer" literature looks at this question
in a variety of different ways from "presage and process variables" to "stand-up
skills." Some experts focus on what instructors must do to provide effective
instruction. Other experts look at leadership, presenting, facilitating, and other
"stand up" skills important for successful instruction. This section begins with a
look at what differentiates a "successful" trainer from the pack and finishes with
an examination of specific skills for effective instruction. 

SUCCESSFUL INSTRUCTORS

o Students fully understand what is expected of them.

o Objectives are clearly stated.

o Instruction is based on learner needs and wants.

o Students are given the opportunity to practice.

o Students are given immediate feedback.

o Students are treated with respect.

o Students are the most important people in the classroom.

o Students are valued.

Frank O'Meara (1996) provides ten rules for novice trainers to assist them in
getting off on the right foot as trainers. His rules are also a reminder to veteran
trainers to keep their attention focused where it belongs--on the learners. These
rules will not make you an instant successful trainer, but may help you avoid
some training pitfalls.

1. Change your shoes. Imagine yourself as a member of your audience, see the
subject from your learners' point of view.

2. Get your act together. Know your stuff.

3. Loosen up. Hang loose and smile.

4. Un-complicate it. Express your ideas in the simplest possible language.

5. Put it on ice. Motivate your participants to make them feel it is their program.


6. Vary your pitch. Be comfortable with several different teaching techniques so
as to maintain and renew interest and participation during the day.

7. Let George do it. Until they tell you, show you, and do it themselves, they
have not acquired the knowledge or mastered the skill you want them to learn.

8. Play it again, Sam. Repetition is the mother of learning.

9. Accentuate the positive. Be patient and positive in trying to ensure each
individual's comprehension and proficiency.

10. Get a receipt. The point of your training session is to make sure participants
know what they are supposed to know.

Bruce Klatt (1999) writes that while most people think of "delivery skills" such
as presenting, leadership, and facilitating as the most important factors to
consider when assessing trainers, they are not as important as a trainer's
background, experience, attitude, and development. He asserts that the basics
of workshop leader success are:

o Be technically competent in your field.

o Bring who you are to what you do as a workshop leader.

o Be informed and care about your participants.

o Continuously develop yourself and your workshop or training program.

Also writing about workshop leadership, Garry Mitchell (1993) says like it or
not, the trainer/educator is the authority figure during the session. The learners
give you this power. He states that the trainer must assume it; you have no
choice!

Mitchell lists ten leadership roles critical to successful instruction:

1. Setting the agenda and keeping track of time.

2. Maintaining training objectives.

3. Protecting the rights of all participants.

4. Listening.


5. Summarizing the material.

6. Reviewing.

7. Focusing the attention of the group.

8. Handling challenges to your authority.

9. Involving silent members.

10. Providing a modus operandi (be decisive, never apologize, avoid
confrontation, move in and solve problems as soon as they become apparent).

How many of the behaviors of successful instructors do you demonstrate in
your training sessions? Recognizing the actions "successful" instructors take to
deliver effective training is helpful as you look to add to your bag of training
tricks. Some specific instructor skills and behaviors important for effective
teaching are identified in the following section.

TRAINER SKILLS

Caldwell and Marcel (1985) surveyed trainers to identify the behaviors or
characteristics that they considered essential to effective teaching. The survey
results were organized into trainer evaluation forms for "presage" and "process"
variables.

Presage variables are the characteristics that an instructor brings to the teaching
situation. They influence the learning process but are not as much a part of the
instructor's performance as process variables. Assess yourself on presage
variables, i.e. what do you bring to your training sessions?

o Knowledge of subject matter.

o Good speaking ability.

o Enthusiasm, positive attitude.

o Well prepared, good organization.

o Depth of understanding.

o Poise, confidence.


Process variables. Behaviors that are evident and easily observed in the actual
presentation of a lesson are process variables. Assess yourself on process
variables:

o Keeps control of class (does not allow students to get off the subject; adapts
instruction to the level of the class; flexible, etc.).

o Gives feedback and positive reinforcement.

o Is fair and impartial (nonjudgmental, open, accepting, etc.).

o Communicates at the students' level (using language and examples
appropriate to the level of the class.).

o Involves students in the lesson (through questions, problem solving,
simulations, etc.).

o Shows interest in each learner.

o Is an attentive and responsive listener.

o Has clear objectives.

Richard Miller (1974) summarized student surveys on the characteristics of
effective teaching. The results of eight surveys are listed below to serve as
yardsticks to measure your teaching behaviors.

------------------------

Characteristics of Good Teaching

Bousfield (61 Students, University of Connecticut)
o Fairness
o Mastery of subject
o Interesting presentation of material
o Well organized material
o Cleanness of exposition
o Interest to students
o Helpfulness
o Ability to direct discussion
o Sincerity
o Keenness of intellect


Clinton (177 students, Oregon State University)
o Knowledge of subject
o Pleasing personality
o Neatness in appearance and work
o Fairness
o Kind and sympathetic
o Keen sense of humor
o Interest in profession
o Interesting presentation
o Alertness and broad-mindedness
o Knowledge of methods

Deshpande (674 students rating 32 engineering teachers)
o Motivation
o Rapport
o Structure
o Clarity
o Content mastery
o Overload (too much work)
o Evaluation procedure
o Use of teaching aids
o Instructional skills
o Teaching styles

French (Students at University of Washington)
o Interprets ideas clearly
o Develops student interest
o Develops skills of thinking
o Broadens interests
o Stresses important materials
o Good pedagogical methods
o Motivates to do best work
o Knowledge of subject
o Conveys new viewpoints
o Clear explanation

Gadzella (443 students, Washington State University)
o Knowledge of subject
o Interest in subject
o Well prepared
o Uses appropriate vocabulary

Perry (1,493 students, faculty, and alumni, University of Toledo)
o Well prepared for class
o Sincere in interest in subject
o Knowledge of subject
o Effective teaching methods
o Tests for understanding
o Fair in evaluation
o Effective communication
o Encourages independent thought
o Course organized logically
o Motivates students

Pogue (307 students, Philander-Smith College)
o Knowledge of subject
o Fair evaluator
o Explains clearly

Hildebrand (138 students, University of California, Davis)
o Dynamic and energetic person
o Explains clearly
o Interesting presentation
o Enjoys teaching
o Interest in students
o Friendly toward students
o Encourages class discussion
o Discusses other points of view

------------------------

The above information should be utilized to take a critical look at your style,
skills, and abilities. The next two trainer assessment tools can help you get
feedback on your training strengths and weaknesses. Next time you conduct a
training session, distribute the evaluation forms to observers. The feedback you
receive will help you polish your instructional skills.

The first assessment tool encompasses most aspects of a trainer's performance.
Eight areas of skill can be assessed: content, design, methods, leadership,
participation, adult learning, visuals, and time. Some of the skills are physical,
others involve process, and others relate to workshop design. (See Appendix
D.1, Trainer's Performance Assessment.)

The second tool assesses your lesson delivery in several key areas including
checking for student understanding, participation, time management, lesson
objectives, and others. This assessment tool is used during the Practicum
section of this training. (See Appendix D.2, Instructor Assessment Lesson
Delivery.)

The Ultimate Educator Has Ultimate Style!

This chapter has reviewed various instructor styles. You have had a chance to
read what the experts say about successful instructors. You have reviewed
student ideas of effective teaching and considered your own skills and abilities.
Now it is time to contract for change . . . use the Instructor Assessment Lesson
Delivery form (Appendix D.2) to identify your strengths and weaknesses and
develop a plan for improvement.

References

Bledsoe, J. L. March 1976. "Understanding Trainee Communication Styles:
Different Strokes for Different Folks." Training Magazine.

Caldwell, R. M. and M. Marcel. January 1985. "Evaluating Trainers: In
Search of the Perfect Method." Training Magazine.

Klatt, B. 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Margolis, F. and C. Bell. 1986. Instructing for Results. Minneapolis, MN:
Lakewood Publications.

Miller, R. I. 1974. Developing Programs for Faculty Evaluation. New York:
Jossey-Boss.

Mitchell, G. 1993. The Trainers Handbook, 2nd ed. New York: American
Management Association.

O'Meara, F. 1996. "The Pedagogue Is Decalogue." In D. Zielinski, ed.,
Delivering Training: Mastery in the Classroom, Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood
Books.

----------------------------

Chapter 5. Ultimate Facilitation

Introduction

The word "facilitation" carries a variety of meanings based on the context in
which it is used. The most common definition of "facilitate" is "to make easier--
to move forward." Given this definition, what is facilitation in the context of the
training environment?

A facilitator's role depends on the function of the group. It is the facilitator's
responsibility to help the group to meet its goals and objectives. Groups
convene for a variety of purposes with facilitators at the helm to provide
structure and direction. It is not uncommon to be part of a setting where a
facilitator guides a group toward a particular purpose. Facilitators are called
upon to provide information (traditional teacher role) and skill instruction
(traditional trainer role), facilitate change (traditional therapist role), and guide
decision making (traditional organization role).

While the function of groups calls for specific actions on the part of facilitators,
a facilitator's role goes well beyond the group function resting on a set of basic
skills. This chapter focuses on basic facilitation skills as they relate primarily to a
specific type of facilitator: the content expert as facilitator, a unique combination
of teacher and trainer, the Ultimate Facilitator. You will explore responsive
behaviors and general skills, including more specific skills in the areas
of coordination, presentation, and facilitation important for Ultimate Facilitators.

PARTICIPANT EXPECTATIONS 

Participants often place high expectations on the abilities of facilitators. While it
could be argued that the standard role of the facilitator calls for neutrality while
supporting group values of democracy, cooperation, and shared responsibility,
the reality is that participants in the training environment expect the facilitator to
meet all their needs--from physical comfort and camaraderie to actual
realization of their learning goals. Here is where the facilitator employs the
magic to direct while being nondirective, to control while being noncontrolling,
and to assist participants in learning the material without doing the learning for
them. Be assured, the group will hold you accountable!

Doing Your Homework

A general rule often stated in training circles is that it takes approximately eight
hours of preparation time for each hour of actual delivery time of a new training
program or session. Preparation time will obviously vary, depending on the
trainer's experience; level of expertise and previous conduct of the same or
similar trainings; and familiarity with and knowledge about the expertise level of
the participants. Whether this is time spent in preparing a lesson plan or
assessing your participants, every bit of energy and every second spent in
preparation will return benefits two-fold during the training session.

KEY HOMEWORK ELEMENTS

o Know the goal. While knowing the goals and objectives of the session are
critical to the development of the lesson plan, facilitators often inherit a lesson
plan they had no part in developing. Being clear on the goals of any training
session is critical--as a guide and a contract.

o Know your participants. Information concerning participants' needs and
knowledge assists the facilitator during training development and delivery.
Learning strategies and the level of instruction can be designed and modified for
specific learning styles. Remember, a principle of adult learning holds that adults
are a rich resource for knowledge and experience; knowing your participants
gives you the ability to tap that resource.

o Design the lessons. Lesson design elements (however formally structured as a
lesson plan) describe the standard way in which the instruction should be the
same. In other words, the formal lesson plan contains the "content," the
parameters of knowledge necessary to accomplish the learning goal(s). The
teaching strategies you choose to deliver the lesson plan describe how you will
be different: the way you will "reach" your participants, the "process" of training.
While a lesson plan (content) often remains the same from each training
situation to the next, the process must be matched to the participants and
session goals as well as to the unique style of the instructor.

o Develop learning materials. Learning materials help the facilitator to meet
training goals. Quality, well-structured learning materials (such as specific,
content-tailored in-class exercises) reinforce learning and send the message that
the facilitator values the participant.

Responsive Behaviors

. . . it's the quality of teachers' interactions that determine the degree of warmth-
-trust--rapport--openness--psychological safety in the classroom . . . --Khan
& Weiss (1973) 

Facilitators should strive to create an environment for maximum learning to
occur. Basically, it is the way facilitators respond to participants that creates a
healthy learning environment. In the educational arena, it has been found that
the manner in which teachers respond to students has great influence on the
students' behaviors. The same can be said of facilitators--their responsive
behaviors exert influence on participant self-esteem, attitude, achievement,
desire to learn, and rapport.

Responsive behaviors are those actions undertaken by the facilitator after a
participant responds to a facilitator's question or instruction. Four distinctive
responsive behaviors are listed below, all of which require instructors to listen
to participants:

Silence. Facilitators are often afraid of silence during training sessions. It has
been demonstrated, however, that the length of a pause following a question
has impact on the length and thoughtfulness of the learner's response. Short
pauses following questions often result in brief or one-word participant
responses. However, the willingness of facilitators to allow longer pauses after
questions facilitates whole sentences and complete thoughts and encourages
speculation. Longer pauses place the responsibility for thinking on participants
instead of on the facilitator.

Accepting. Nonjudgmental and nonevaluative accepting behavior on the part of
the facilitator contributes to establishment of a safe, nonthreatening learning
environment. It is important to recognize the messages you send verbally and
nonverbally to participants. A simple "good" response to one participant
followed by "okay" to another sends "value" messages. Your body language
also sends powerful messages. A few value messages (both praise and
criticism) can limit the learning potential of the group.

Here are some examples of useful acceptance behavior:

o Passive acceptance. Receiving without value judgment. "Um-hum." "Okay."
Writing the answer on a tear-sheet. "I understand."

o Active acceptance. Demonstrates an understanding. Paraphrasing,
rephrasing, reflecting, and summarizing are examples of active acceptance.

o Empathic acceptance. Acceptance of feelings in addition to ideas. Facilitators
can demonstrate empathy when they express similar feelings from their own
experience.

Clarifying. Clarifying is inviting the participant to become more specific or
requesting the participant to elaborate or rephrase the idea. The intent is to help
the facilitator better understand the participant's thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. Clarifying informs participants that their ideas are worthy of
exploration and consideration; you honor the participant while attempting to
gain an understanding.


Facilitating data. The facilitator makes it possible for participants to process and
acquire information. If the facilitator perceives a need for data or participants
request data, the facilitator must meet that need in some way, even if it means
getting back to the participants at a later time. Facilitating data can take place in
a variety of ways, by providing: (1) direct feedback; (2) equipment and
materials; (3) primary and secondary sources of information; and (4) surveying
the group for information.

General Skills

In any training situation, a facilitator uses a set of general skills to provide a
learning environment conducive to the accomplishment of training goals.
Although the tasks of setting the learning climate, motivation, maintaining
commitment, and closure are often not discussed as facilitation skills, they may
in fact be the most useful for success. It is important to recognize that while a
great deal of energy and time goes into session preparation and training
delivery, as much energy must go into the support of the session and its
participants.

The general skills of setting the learning environment, motivation, maintaining
commitment, and closure pave the way for realization of several training goals:
participant comfort, building positive training expectations, enthusiasm,
respectful relationships, and expectations of success following training.

Setting the learning environment. The first steps in preparing the learning
environment occur well before the training session. Knowing the training goal
and participants, designing the lesson, and developing learning materials
contribute to the setting of the learning environment; specifically, these
homework elements set the learning parameters.

With parameters established, how do facilitators create " successful" learning
environments? The following exercise provides an opportunity to explore the
elements of such a learning environment.

o Hotel Exercise. Think about the experience of arriving at a hotel in another
city. Beginning with your arrival at the hotel and eventually entering your hotel
room, what "environmental" factors did you notice/consider? 

To list a few:

--Location of hotel (quality of area, access to resources).

--Behavior of staff (attentiveness, friendliness, helpfulness).


--Hotel room (cleanliness, decor, comfort, smells, sounds, feeling impression,
room temperature, "goodies," restroom).

All of these factors contribute to your qualitative expectation of your overall
hotel stay. It can be suggested that the attention one pays to the arrival of a
hotel room is very similar to a participant's arrival at a training situation and
expectation of training to follow!

Some very basic behaviors can help facilitators create a healthy learning
environment. As a whole these actions can establish an atmosphere of good
will, trust, creativity, and cooperation, which in the long run will help you meet
training goals and survive training disasters.

o Preparing the room. Prepare the training environment to create positive
impressions of the training to follow. Room set-up (visuals, physical layout,
training materials, refreshments, music) can go a long way in setting the stage.

o Greeting the participants. Arrive early; leave late. Make yourself available to
participants. If possible, greet participants as they arrive--this also helps with
remembering names and relationships later.

o Making introductions. In some manner, depending on group size, make
introductions. Introduce yourself; establish credibility while demonstrating
warmth and humanness. Through participant introductions recognize each
individual and the knowledge/experience he or she brings to the training.

o Setting ground rules/schedules. Participants expect you to take care of them
during your time as their facilitator. Although they may not admit it, most
participants appreciate structure and rules, particularly to insure that you meet
your commitments to them. Your discussion of rules and schedules can
encourage harmonious working relationships, build enthusiasm, and build
commitment. These ground rules and schedules are a contract between you and
the participants; don't establish any rules/procedures you aren't willing to follow
yourself. Time frames are important--start on time, end on time (and always
seek permission from participants when agreed-upon time schedules are not
met).

Traditional ground rules might include:

o No idea is a bad idea.

o It is important for everyone to participate, and it is helpful if individuals don't
over-participate at the expense of others.

o No arguments!

o If instructions for activities are not clear, participants will ask for clarification.

o Breaks (a few long breaks or a lot of short breaks), and participants can
inform faculty when they are desperate for one.

o If the agreed-upon schedule needs to be adapted, participants will be asked
for their input.

Addressing mental health issues. Often, topics addressed in victim- or justice-
related training sessions can produce vicarious trauma, particularly if any
participants have victimization experiences. A good facilitator should announce
at the beginning of the training that if any participants experience stress as a
result of the topics to be addressed, they can leave the room without question,
and they can seek support from faculty who are designated to provide
assistance.

Motivation. Many participants do not attend training voluntarily; it is the role of
the facilitator to encourage a "want to" attitude. Even if the knowledge or skill to
be acquired is a requirement of the job, every facilitator should strive for "want
to" versus "have to" attitudes. Encouraging participants to want to involve
themselves in learning can take place at several points in the training process.
Prior to training, participants can be encouraged to involve themselves through
"pretraining" information that outlines the agenda highlights and anticipated
benefits and outcomes of the training. During the introduction, the facilitator can
again reinforce these items while demonstrating enthusiasm and sharing a few
"success" stories. In lesson design, the facilitator's choice of teaching strategies
can make training a vital, exciting process. Specific techniques can assist the
facilitator in motivating participants: 

o Focus on results: sample goals, significance of goal attainment, examples of
goal attainment.

o Enhance the importance in learning: support from experts, support of
management.

o Focus on assurance of success: expectation of success, peer assurance of
success.

o Highlight the process of training: building expectations about process (the
exciting things to come).

o Encourage group support.

o Nurture individual participants.

Probably your most powerful motivator is your reputation as a quality
facilitator!

Commitment. Often the initial burst of enthusiasm at the beginning of a training
session begins to fade as the session progresses. A variety of techniques can be
used to rekindle enthusiasm:

o Place energetic "commitment" activities in the lesson design.

o Summarize progress during the session (enthusiasm and motivation).

o Refocus participants on course goals and the value of the goals.

o Conduct exercises that get participants up and moving around.

o Conduct group activities that "mix and match" participants so they are
exposed to a variety of input from their colleagues.

o Encourage and validate continued participant involvement.

o Demonstrate concern for the group and each individual.

o Restore energy and good feelings.

Closure. Closing the session probably garners the least attention of any
component of the training process. Closing activities are routinely minimized or
eliminated in the interest of time. Brief, well-structured closing activities can
have a powerful impact on participants as they complete the session and also
when they return to the "real world." Closing activities should:

o Provide closure to session. Closing activities signal the end of the training
session.

o Tie up loose ends. Often sessions come to an end with unresolved issues,
"put off" tasks, etc., which call for resolution. Closing activities allow the
facilitator to address and make recommendations in these areas.


o Summarize the highlights. The closing provides an opportunity for the
facilitator to pull it all together. The facilitator succinctly integrates all that has
occurred during the session and relates the experience to participants' everyday
life and/or occupation.

o Suggest appropriate follow-up. The facilitator may suggest where participants
can go to get additional information/instruction, and attend follow-up activities
that reinforce and assess the learning of the completed training session.

o Provide for transition. What is the link back to everyday life? What are
participants going to do with the learning acquired during the training session?
Closing activities can be structured to invite participants to explore their goals
and consider their practical application to their jobs and personal lives.

COORDINATION SKILLS

Coordination skills are those used by facilitators during the training session to
provide information, and guide the learning process. While coordination may
not be as challenging as presentation or facilitation, it is probably the most
demanding and time intensive, and may be viewed as the major role of
facilitator/trainer.

The coordination role of facilitators requires:

o Constant "checking in" with participants to ensure that training objectives are
being met.

o Physically moving around the room to listen to and guide specific learning
activities.

o Getting feedback from individual participants during breaks as to the
effectiveness of the training activities and processes.

o Providing guidance to other faculty members based upon feedback from
participants.

Presenting the agenda and resource materials. The agenda is the written
contract between the facilitator and participants. It outlines content and time
frame commitments. Presenting the agenda often represents the first sustained
opportunity to interact with participants. It sets the stage, sets the tone, and
gives a glimpse of things to come. While presenting the agenda, facilitators
should do the following:


o Focus and maintain attention.

o Set the tone, encourage participation.

o Emphasize key points.

o Create clarity.

o Provide the opportunity to ask "Is there anything here that's missing that you
think I should address?".

A brief review of resource materials is helpful, particularly in training programs
where time does not permit in-depth coverage of the training topics. A "bonding
with your binder" overview lets participants know that myriad resources are
available to them for reference both during the training session and after.
Facilitators should also be diligent about orally referencing the relevant resource
materials for each segment of the training program.

Facilitators should also seek validation from participants that the agenda and
resource materials meet their needs.

Introducing activities. An effective introduction of a learning activity prepares
participants emotionally and cognitively by focusing them on the ideas, skills,
and attitudes central to that activity. Goals and purposes of the activity must be
clearly linked to the overall training goal. The following steps are important to
successful activity introduction:

o State the purpose and goals.

o Suggest the value.

o Clarify participant responsibilities.

o Build positive expectations.

Giving instructions/directions. Instructions/directions should be structured in a
way that encourages participants to focus their time and energy on carrying out
the training activity rather than trying to understand the instructions. Written
instructions can be a valuable tool. The following steps are important in giving
instructions:

o Select the mode (verbal, written, handout, overhead transparency).


o Connect with prior learning if relevant.

o Set specific constraints/time frames.

o Confirm understanding, and/or provide opportunities for further clarification.

Establishing activity groups. The process of establishing activity groups involves
arranging participants in groups appropriate in size and composition for efficient
completion of learning activities. Activity groups promote the acquisition of
interpersonal and cooperative skills and can enrich the learning environment by
giving participants access to the knowledge and skills of other participants. The
following should be taken into consideration when establishing groups:

o Size of groups. The number of trainers to assist, the total number of
participants, and the type of activity determine the size of activity groups. In
general, larger groups are recommended for activities that stress group
interaction and exchange. If focus is on individual contribution, smaller groups
are usually indicated. Often, groups of six to ten individuals are good for
brainstorming, discussion, and decision making. Problem solving is often more
successful in smaller groups of two to five participants.

o Composition of groups. Most often, diversity is the key to the group
product. Group divisions can also be used by facilitators to break up "cliques,"
deal with problem participants, and insure a distribution of knowledge and skills
throughout the group.

Techniques for dividing groups. A number of techniques can be utilized to
divide groups:

o Placing stickers (i.e., dots, stars, etc.) on participants' name tags that
differentiate groups.

o Divide the participants into two groups: those with less than five years
experience, and those with more than five years experience. Then take three
from each side to form teams of six (this also helps address "the learning curve"
and provides opportunities for more experienced participants to share their
insights with less experienced colleagues).

o Divide the participants by profession (i.e., law enforcement, victim services,
corrections), then either keep them in "like" groups or mix-and-match
participants, depending on the learning activity.

o Provide a candy--such as Tootsie Pops--to participants, and divide them by
the color of the candy.

o A fun group division approach is to give each participant a piece of paper
with a "physical activity" listed on it, such as:

--Winking.
--"High-fiving."
--Snapping fingers.
--Flapping their arms like a chicken.
--Clapping their hands.
--Twirling in circles.

Then, play a lively song (such as "Hit the Road, Jack!") and ask participants to
do their physical activity, and group together with other participants who are
doing the same. This is an energizing approach to group division, and especially
appropriate after lunch or late in the training day.

Arranging for participant reports. Participant reports are often the group
product or outcome of a group facilitation. If any segment of a session is going
to "destroy" time frames, it is most often "group reports run amok!" Valuable
group contributions can rapidly deteriorate unless carefully structured and
guided by the facilitator. Facilitators must specifically delineate the structure and
length of the report and determine the reporter. Reports must represent a brief
summary of the group's work (not individual work). Time frames must be
relatively rigid and efforts should be made not to duplicate information reported
by other groups.

If the facilitator wants to engage as many participants as possible, it is helpful to
ask groups to designate a "recorder" (who records the group's data on tear
sheets) and a "reporter" (who delivers the data to the full group). Both positions
can be voluntary, or designated by the facilitator (for example, the "recorder" is
the participant with the birthday closest to today, and the "reporter" is the
participant with the birthday farthest away from today--or the participants who
traveled the least and furthest to the training venue). In all cases, recording and
reporting should be voluntary, so those who fit the "requirements" should
always be allowed to solicit another volunteer.

It is essential to process group reports in "round robin" fashion, i.e., one group
reports one or two findings and then selects another group to process their
findings, until all groups have had a chance to speak.

Monitoring group activities. Circulating the training room, unobtrusively, during
group activities serves several functions: It allows facilitators to observe and
confirm group activities, to correct and guide, to provide materials/information if
necessary and, most importantly, to maintain contact with participants.

PRESENTATION SKILLS

Presentation skills are those used by facilitators during the training session to
provide the concepts, principles, models, and skills (the content of training) that
participants are expected to learn. Presenting is the traditional role of teachers,
instructors, and trainers. It is the presenter role that conjures up stereotypic
images of teachers and professors standing behind a podium in front of the class
lecturing to students. In training that is participant-centered, the presenting role
is limited in use and utilized in conjunction with coordinating and facilitating to
assist and guide participants as they learn. Several skills are critical to effective
presenting, including:

Communication. Communication is a two-way process by which trainers make
participants aware of the content of training. A two-way process requires
trainers to arrange presentations so that there are opportunities for participants
to speak, and for trainers to listen. Communication provides for a sharing of
ideas and interpretations and to reach agreements about meanings.

Structuring. Structuring the presentation involves arranging the parts of the
presentation so that participants can readily assimilate the content. Structuring
also means adjusting the structure during a presentation to meet the needs of
learners.

Most trainers arrange their presentations in three main parts: introduction,
instruction, and conclusion.

o Introduction. Suggests a context for the information to be presented and
relates to other knowledge of participants and to earlier portions of the training
session.

o Instruction. The central portion of the presentation. Key points are
determined and sequenced, and supporting details are identified. The number of
key points should be kept at a minimum. Clear transitions should be made
between key topics or ideas.

o Conclusion. The conclusion should help participants retain what they have
learned and complete internal processing of the information. The conclusion
should include two elements: the review and the summary. The review offers a
condensed version of the presentation; it focuses on information, skills, and
procedures (content review). The summary focuses on the results of the
presentation and participant participation (process summary).

Body language. Body language is any outwardly visible expression by
facilitators that can positively affect participant efforts to learn. Body language
includes facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, postures, and physical
positioning in the training environment. Participants are aware of your
movements and will attribute meaning (positive and negative) to these
movements. Body language can help your presentation in several ways: It can
support your vocal presentation; certain movements (nods, smiles, hand
gestures) help to create rapport with participants; and body movements can
also contribute to maintaining participants' attention.

Providing feedback. Providing feedback is the process facilitators use to give
special information to participants that enables them to verify and, as necessary,
modify their understanding of ideas and adjust responses or performances in
learning activities. Using this process requires facilitators to be alert to
participant behaviors that indicate a need for feedback, and to be creative in
devising means of giving feedback that is appropriate to participants and to the
learning environment.

Some special preparation prior to your presentation will help you provide
feedback to participants. First, remind yourself of the learning objectives.
Second, review the major points in your presentation and determine where
participants may need feedback. Finally, review participant characteristics for
clues to the type of feedback that would be most useful for them.

FACILITATION SKILLS 

Facilitation skills are those used during the training session to help participants
explore, develop, and assess ideas and feelings in the context of learning
activities. Using these skills, facilitators guide and promote learning. In this role,
facilitators actively participate in learning activities, as well as the process of
clarifying purposes, drawing out ideas, encouraging full involvement, and asking
key questions. Facilitating is probably the trainer's most important and
challenging role.

One of the most important facilitation skills is the ability to delegate. Facilitation
requires 100 percent of one's energy and focus and, as such, can be exhausting.
Facilitators can seek support and assistance for all learning activities from other
facilitators, faculty, and even participants, as needed.

Establishing/maintaining cohesiveness and cooperation. The establishment and
maintenance of cohesiveness and cooperation are processes trainers use to
ensure that learning activities requiring participants to work in groups will be
carried out effectively. This process requires trainers to make clear to
participants the significance of close cooperation for learning in a group context.
It also requires trainers to minimize conflict, divisiveness, and competition, and
maximize concern, support, and carrying out cohesiveness and cooperation
tasks successfully. This requires you to use a variety of skills, including the
following:

o Clarifying goals and constraints.

o Creating a harmonious atmosphere.

o Securing an agreement on the basis for group work.

o Providing clear and concise instructions.

o Structuring group discussions.

o Using body language.

o Controlling participant/facilitator reaction to reactions.

o "Checking in" periodically with other faculty and participants to ensure
continued cohesiveness.

Soliciting participant knowledge/expertise. The solicitation of participants'
knowledge and expertise is a process by which facilitators encourage
participants working together in groups to share their knowledge and their
skills. Through this process, the facilitator publicly acknowledges the expertise
of each participant and seeks to induce every participant to contribute relevant
portions of that expertise to group discussions.

To make the solicitation process effective, you will need to use all your
interpersonal relations skills, as well as your communication skills, to help create
an atmosphere in which participants will feel free to speak out at appropriate
times. In addition, you will need to acknowledge and encourage the following:

o Participant expertise.

o Use of eliciting questions.

o Participants asking eliciting questions of others.


Encouraging participation. Encouraging participation is the process used by
facilitators to help ensure that every participant has an opportunity to engage
profitably in group learning activities. Encouraging members of groups to
participate freely and equitably is particularly important to the success of
learning activities. You should try to make full use of the information you have
about participants and use a variety of the following skills and devices to
encourage participation:

o Use application questions--ones that focus on soliciting information about the
utility of application of skills, knowledge, and attitudes.

o Handle serial monologues/dialogues.

o Deal with real or imagined deficiencies in knowledge and understanding.

o Deal with frustration arising from faulty reasoning.

o Deal with negative feelings.

Remaining unaligned during activities. Establishing and maintaining a free and
unaligned relationship to your participants are not always easy tasks. To resist
pressures to align and, at the same time, to maintain the harmony and
cohesiveness of your group, you will need to make effective use of your
communication and interpersonal skills. You will also need to use your skills in
re-directing and returning questions. In addition, other tasks are important,
including the following:

o Establishing your role as facilitator.

o Acknowledging participant responses.

o Using "I" messages.

o Using summaries to maintain nonalignment.

o Actively seeking feedback from other faculty and participants.

The Ultimate Facilitator Is a Master Magician!

As you can see, behind the bells, whistles, smoke, and illusion is a facilitator
using some very basic communication and interpersonal skills! As you gain
experience in facilitating groups, you will learn to trust an inner sense of
direction in determining the best action in a particular situation based on your
understanding of peoples' needs, both as individuals and as part of a larger
group. You need to combine experience, feedback, observation, and reflection
in order to develop competence. You will discover that experience is the most
effective training tool!

----------------------------

Chapter 6. Ultimate Presentation

Introduction

So you have to give a presentation . . . .

The thought of presenting a lecture, speech, or workshop can be intimidating to
some and exhilarating to others. Presenters' perceptions of their own
capabilities and knowledge base ultimately contribute to their comfort level. The
many components involved in preparing for a presentation have a significant
influence on the outcome. Perhaps most significantly, presenters must be
comfortable with a style that suits both them and their audience.

The five core concepts of a strong presentation are represented in the age-old
refrain to a favorite nursery rhyme: "E-I-E-I-O."

1. Engage participants from the moment they enter the training venue to the time
they depart.

2. Interact with participants to avoid a one-way transfer of knowledge and to
assess the level at which they are grasping the concepts that are being
presented.

3. Educate participants with current and cutting-edge information and
resources.

4. Involve students in the learning process through experiential activities and
exercises.

5. Organize the presentation so that the flow of information and the tone of the
presentation are consistent.

The Role of the Presenter/Trainer

It is the responsibility of the presenter/trainer to lead the training session and to
facilitate participants' interactions that will lend positively to their overall learning
experience. While organization and control are necessary components of
presentation, they must be tempered with a flexibility that respects students'
expectations and needs and reflects an understanding of the importance of a
comfortable, friendly learning environment.

A strong presenter ensures that key training topics are addressed while, at the
same time, being willing to tackle issues that arise from interactions with
participants.

Teaching Versus Training

Presentations offered in the field of victim services usually encompass styles and
outcomes most associated with training. In some cases, such as the National
Victim Assistance Academy, university-style teaching via lectures is combined
with training styles and techniques.

Training focuses on the learners, with an emphasis on their needs. In training
venues, the presenter fills the role of facilitator, providing guidance through an
interactive learning design to help students incorporate information into their
personal frame of reference and discover ways to apply it in practical ways to
their work and lives.

The primary differences between teaching and training are best summarized by
renowned adult learning theorist M. S. Knowles (1980) in the following table.

------------------------

Primary Differences Between Teaching and Training

Teaching

o Underlying Philosophy: 
--Knowledge is passed from the teacher to the learner.
--Organizations are improved through technical advances.
--Teacher-oriented 

o Assessment of Needs for and Results of Education: Looks only at
observable, measurable behavior.

o Learning Objectives:
--Usually insist on measurable and precise behavioral objectives.
--Emphasize acquiring information.


o Content: Often used for technical knowledge and skills; psychomotor skills;
languages; mathematics; and science.

o Learning Methods: 
--Tend to be subject-oriented in structuring the content and mechanical in
devising instructional methods.
--Use programmed learning, lecture, and audio/visual. 

Training

o Underlying Philosophy:
--Knowledge is discovered through mutual investigation of problems and
issues.
--Organizations are improved through developing the resources and self-
directing capabilities of learners.
--Learner-oriented

o Assessment of Needs for and Results of Education: Looks at attitude as well
as behavior.

o Learning Objectives: 
--Tailor degree of precision in objectives to the task or skill being learned.
--Emphasize interpersonal and self-directing competencies.

o Content: Appropriate for interpersonal and technical skills requiring some
degree of analysis and judgment; managerial skills; the arts and humanities.

o Learning Methods: 
--Tend to orient the structure of the content to the learner, the problem, and the
situation.
--Use discovery learning methods.

------------------------

Training Preparation

ADVANCE PREPARATION

Regardless of whether a presentation is a 30-minute speech or a two-day
training session, it is critical that the presenter be prepared for the experience.
Lack of preparation is always obvious, and reflects poorly on both the
presenter and sponsors of the program. Thoughtful, coordinated preparation
almost always results in a presentation that is informative and engaging.


There are five critical considerations for advance preparation:

Audience. It is essential to know who the primary audience is. In the discipline
of victim services, audience members can include the following:

o Crime victims.

o Community- and system-based victim service providers.

o Criminal and juvenile justice professionals.

o Allied professionals (such as mental health, faith community, educators,
academia, etc.)

o Public policy makers and elected officials.

o Members of the community.

o Volunteers.

Often, an audience is comprised of a combination of the above groups, each of
which may have its own goals and expectations for the presentation. In
identifying the types of audience members, presenters can formulate both their
content and style to increase participants' comfort and to maximize the potential
for participant training.

While it is helpful to know participants' affiliations, it is equally essential to have
a basic understanding of their familiarity with the presentation topic, level(s) of
knowledge, and possible expectations:

o Are they seeking a high level, introductory overview of the topic, or more
specific, practical "hands-on" knowledge?

o How will participants utilize the knowledge they gain from the presentation?

o Will the knowledge that is gained through the presentation be utilized on an
individual or agency basis, or is collaboration an ultimate goal?

o Will the presentation seek to offer new perspectives, or change existing
ones? Both?

o Is there a "learning curve" among participants and, if so, how can it be
effectively utilized by the presenter?

o What are participants' rationale for attending the training program? Are they:

--Vacationers (consider this a "day off" from the grind of work)?
--Hostages (were told to attend and do not want to be here)?
--Happy campers (participants who are pleased to attend and eager to
participate)?

(Note: Presenters can orally ask about participants' rationale, using these
categories in a humorous manner that provides important insights into
participants' motivation or lack thereof.)

Politics among participants. Two victim advocates often reflect upon a shared
training experience in which they thought they had "advance preparation" down
to a science. After arriving and setting up the room for a two-day training
session, participants began to arrive and move their name plates around. One
casually explained that "It's not a good idea for certain people in this session to
sit next to each other; we could have some problems."

Advance preparation requires that a presenter have advance knowledge and
understanding of any "political land mines" among participants and sponsors.
These might include:

o Differing perspectives among individuals and agencies attending the
presentation.

o Personality conflicts between/among individuals.

o Recent or pending legislation relevant to the presentation topic that might
invoke heated discussions.

o "Turf issues" that create barriers to collaboration.

o Participants who have the reputation for dominating training sessions with
opinions and hyperbole.

o Any other types of issues that can create conflict among audience members.

An understanding of politics among participants can result in several distinct
approaches for the presenter, who can:

o Avoid any "red flag" topics in the presentation.


o Covertly address the issues at the root of personal and professional politics
(to give audience members an opportunity to reflect upon things that are causing
divisiveness among them).

o Use humor to address the basic nature of human conflict, i.e., "Aren't we
lucky that we work in a discipline where everybody gets along all the time, and
we all see eye to eye?"

o Incorporate conflict resolution topics and techniques into his or her
presentation, and encourage participants to confront and manage conflict, rather
than to avoid or negate it.

Current events. Prior to conducting a training program, presenters should make
a diligent effort to be knowledgeable about current events. These might include:

o Recently enacted laws that have an impact on participants and their jobs.

o High profile cases that may create underlying tensions among participants.

o Innovative new program approaches that the training programs' sponsors or
participants are funding or supporting.

Such activities can be identified through advance conversations with the training
program's sponsors, or by reviewing the past week's (or month's) newspapers
(which are readily available on news media's Web sites).

Physical environment. Often, presenters have little or no control over the
physical environment of the training venue:

o The most difficult room set-up in which to effectively train is the traditional
"theater style" seating without tables, in which participants all face the presenter,
but also face the back of their colleagues' heads.

o Traditional theater seating can be improved by moving rows of chairs into an
inverted "V" so that participants' seats are angled toward the front, with a
center aisle dividing the apex of the "V."

o The ideal presentation room set-up to enhance group interactions and
activities is groupings of square, rectangular, or round tables--angled toward
the front of the room--that seat four to eight participants.

It is helpful for presenters to have a table set up at the front of the room to
accommodate presentation materials, such as overhead transparencies and
participant handouts. A resource table in the back of the room near the door is
also a good idea so that presenters and participants can leave materials for
students to take, as they choose.

Rooms should always be set up with an entrance/exit door in the back of the
room, so that participants can come and go without disrupting the presentation.
The participant registration table can be placed outside the training room near
the entrance/exit door.

Presentation agenda and topics. There is no such thing as "too much
information" in preparing to give a presentation. 

In planning a presentation, there must be strong collaboration between the
presenter and the sponsor(s) of the program. It is crucial to match the needs
and goals of the audience with the skills and knowledge of the presenter.
Without advance collaboration, a "disconnect" between the presenter's goals
and the sponsors' goals is likely to occur.

The following questions are helpful in ascertaining the sponsor's goals for the
presentation, as well as expected outcomes:

o Have the participants received any adequate training on this topic?

o Will there be a "learning curve" among participants, i.e., some more
knowledgeable than others? If there is, can the experience and expertise of
some participants be utilized in a positive manner to educate other participants?

o How will the information gained from the presentation be used by the
participants? (Expectations of students and sponsors are sometimes quite
different.)

o What are the practical applications and outcomes that the sponsor would like
to result from the knowledge gained?

o Are there specific skills that the sponsor would like his/her participants to
gain from attending this session?

o What are the most critical topics that the sponsor would like the presenter to
address? What about topics that are important, but less critical to the sponsor's
expected outcomes?

o Are there any existing barriers that might detrimentally affect the learning
environment (e.g., participant conflicts, participants being "forced" to attend the
session, poor physical environment)?

o What types of presentation techniques would be most beneficial to the
participants?

--Lecture?
--Individual exercises?
--Small group exercises?
--Use of audio/visual aids?
--A combination of the above?

ON-SITE PREPARATION

When participants first arrive at a presentation venue, they should be
immediately engaged by the presenter and by the physical environment. They
should be visually enthralled by the learning environment. They should be able
to look around and say to themselves, "This looks like it is going to be an
engaging and interactive presentation."

Some creative ideas for on-site preparation include:

Use of visuals. There are many different types of visuals that can enhance a
presentation venue:

o Tear sheet pads that include colorful messages such as "Good Morning!" and
"Welcome to the _______ Program." 

o Tear sheet paper posted on walls that include:

--"Expectations." To record participant expectations of the presentation prior to
beginning the session. Presenters should clarify exactly which "expectations"
can be met through the session, and offer referrals for further information about
topics that cannot be addressed within the time frame. "Expectations" should be
maintained in full view throughout the session to help ensure that they are met.

--Resource sheets. Presenters should offer students additional materials that
can be obtained through clearinghouses, Web sites, and other resources. Two
to four tear sheets posted on the wall entitled "Additional Resources" or "Extra
Stuff" can be filled as the presentation progresses.

--"Parking Lot." A tear sheet with a picture of a car, for example, provides a
space for participants to post questions or ideas that arise throughout the
session, without interrupting the flow of the session. Presenters can also use the
"parking lot" to post questions and topics students raise that can be addressed
at a later time. Parking lot topics can either be written in felt pen on the tear
sheet, or placed there using Post-it notes that are provided to participants. It is
important for presenters to ensure that parking lot topics are addressed, either
personally to the participant who identified it, or to the group as a whole.

o Posters. Myriad posters that depict victims' rights and issues are readily
available and can be placed on walls around the room (for black-and-white
posters, it is a good idea to create a backing of colored construction paper).
The resource guides published by the Victims' Assistance Legal Organization
(VALOR) and National Center for Victims of Crime (NCVC) for National
Crime Victims' Rights Week each year are excellent resources for victim-
related posters. Such visuals serve to make an immediate connection with the
audience and topic.

o Overhead transparencies. A "welcome" slide with the title of the
presentation, humorous and relevant cartoon, inspirational saying, or other
artwork can be displayed on the projector screen when participants arrive, as
well as during breaks.

Refreshments. Water, coffee, tea, sodas, and morning/afternoon snacks are
important to participants as well as presenters. Small candies placed on tables
are usually met with gratitude from weary students.

"Prize box." A box or bag decorated with felt markers to indicate
"FABULOUS PRIZES" catches participants' eyes, and gets them thinking
about if/how they could get whatever is in the box. Inexpensive prizes can be
found at the local dollar store; candy bars make good prizes, as well as items
from victim service and justice organizations or conference resource arenas
(such as buttons, bookmarks, t-shirts, notepads, etc.)

Interpersonal interactions. Participants should also be greeted upon arrival by
the presenter(s). This requires plenty of advance preparation (including planning
to arrive at least 30 minutes before the designated starting time) so that when
participants arrive, the presenter is prepared to personally meet them.

Some presenters find it difficult to personally meet and greet students prior to
the presentation. While this process takes practice to perfect, it is helpful to
create an immediate "bond" between the presenter and participants.

Some examples of personal greetings include:


o "Good morning, I'm ________ and I'll be spending the next two days with
you. What agency/organization are you from? Could you tell me a little about
your work?"

o "Hi, my name is ______ and I'll be your presenter today. I'm really happy to
be here, and I'm glad you can join us for what should be a great learning
experience."

o "My name's ______ and I'll be spending the next two hours with you. That's
a great tie--where did you get it?"

o "I'm so glad you all invited me to join you here today. I'm _________. And
you are [read the participant's name tag]. Can you tell me a little about yourself
and the work you do?"

Use of music. An audio tape/CD player with tapes or CDs is a great tool for
livening up the training environment. Music can be played that reflects the
theme(s) of the program (for example, "We Can Work It Out" for a session on
collaboration; "Respect" for a session on burnout and stress). For longer
sessions, students can be asked to bring their favorite tape or CD to share their
music with others.

Anatomy of a Presentation

The "anatomy of a presentation" describes its scope and the activities that
enhance the learning process. While there are a variety of components
applicable to different presentations, for the purposes of presentations related
to victims' rights and services, twelve key elements are essential:

1. Introduction of the presenter. Presenters should have three types of vita that
summarize their accomplishments:

o A three-to-four sentence overview of professional accomplishments, written
in a manner that is conducive to introductions (i.e., how the presenter wants to
be introduced).

o A one-page summary of accomplishments that are specific to the training
topic (e.g., general victim assistance, restorative justice emphasis, mental health
emphasis, etc.).

o The traditional, complete vitae that highlights the presenter's professional
history. 

The first format should be utilized for introductions; the second for conference
or training program announcements; and the third to provide an historical
summary of the presenter's overall accomplishments.

2. Introduction of participants. Participant introduction exercises will vary,
depending upon the size of the group. Various approaches include:

o Asking participants to "stand and rise" based upon their professional
affiliation, i.e., victim services, law enforcement, prosecution, courts,
corrections, community members (making sure to add "any group I am
missing?" to the icebreaker). This allows participants to identify with a smaller
group of professionals who share their affiliation, as well as become aware of
the diversity and richness of professional experience present at the training.

o For larger groups (over 50) and where time allows, dividing the group into
teams of ten, and asking them to "process": participants' first names,
professional affiliation, and years of victim services' experience (which are
added up for the report-out). Then, asking each team to identify "three things
they bring to the training program" and "three things they hope to take away
from the training program." Each team selects a spokesperson to do a "rapid
report out" to the larger group. This allows all participants to be introduced, in
effect, to the larger group, as well as the opportunity for members of the smaller
groups to get to know some basic information about each other.

3. Overview of the topic or lesson plan. The presenter can offer a brief
summary of his/her learning goals and objectives, and indicate "This is where I
plan to go today. Would everyone like to go there with me?" This encourages a
"statement of learning objectives" from both the presenter and participants.

4. Expectations. This brief exercise can be combined with participant
introductions (time permitting), and provides students with an opportunity to
describe what they hope to get out of the presentation. The "expectations"
process also allows the presenter to clarify which expectations can be met
through the presentation, placing others in the "parking lot" for further reference
to additional resources.

5. Icebreakers. These individual or group exercises are intended to immediately
engage participants. Icebreakers use new insights, humor, or quick, interactive
activities to introduce the topics in an interpersonal manner. Examples of
icebreakers include:

o In a session on victims' rights, participants can be asked to move around the
room next to signs that describe the five core victims' rights (notification,
participation, protection, restitution, and input) to "the right that they think is
most difficult to implement in their jurisdiction." Each of the five groups is then
asked to define two-to-three reasons why that right is most difficult to
implement, with group responses processed back to the plenary group.

o In the beginning of a session on burnout and stress, participants can be
provided with a work sheet with two columns: (1) The Three Greatest
Stressors in My Personal and Professional Life and (2) Three Positive Ways I
Cope With Stress. The "stressors" can be processed out to develop a
comprehensive list of stressors common to victim service providers, with the
responses about coping utilized later in the session to address stress
management.

o Utilizing "benefits" and "barriers" worksheets (see Appendix B.3), the
presenter can ask participants--as individuals--to identify the benefits of and
barriers to (whatever the topic is). They can process their input in small groups,
with brief "round robin" reports to the full group.

6. The "hook." It is important to "grab participants' attention" from the very
beginning of a presentation, and draw them into the learning process. Examples
of hooks include surprising new statistics; descriptions of promising practices
that positively change the way business is conducted; or a provocative question
that opens up discussion and debate among participants, such as "In your
opinion, what is the most significant accomplishment of America's victims' rights
discipline?"

7. Main ideas or concepts. These are directly related to the session's lesson
plan and/or goals and objectives. Main ideas or concepts should be considered
in the context of this question: "What are the key points that I want participants
to leave the session with?" They can be presented through a variety of
approaches, including the following:

o Facts. Verifiable or proven assertions or observations about reality.

o Definitions. Explanations of terms.

o Testimonials. Opinions or views from a respected authority.

o Statistics. Research-based overviews of an idea.

o Narratives. Stories that demonstrate the impact of an idea.

o Case studies. Actual events to point out the reality of an idea.


o Comparisons. Distinctions of ideas in relation to other.

o Promising practices. Descriptions of approaches to the delivery of victim
services that appear to be, or have been evaluated to be, successful.

8. Participant activities. These include individual, small group, and full group
exercises designed to promote subjective thinking and interactive discussions
relevant to the main topics. Participant activities can be planned in advance of
the presentation (with prepared worksheets and exercise guidelines provided to
participants), or created on-the-spot to emphasize a critical issue or point.
Clear guidelines on activities and time lines should be provided, either orally or
in writing. Examples of participant activities are included in Appendix B,
Presentation/Facilitation Exercises and Aids.

9. Action planning. This process, which involves using the information gained
from the presentation to plan for positive change in the future, can be brief or
extensive, depending upon time constraints and program goals and objectives.
At the least, action planning should encourage participants to consider the
following:

o What are three things I can personally do differently as a result of this
presentation?

o What are three things my agency can do differently as a result of what I
learned from this presentation.

Several action planning formats are included in Appendix A, Participant
Worksheets.

10. Closing. The process of closing all presentations should also be considered
a "genesis"--the beginning of the practical applications of what has been
experienced, shared, and learned through the presentation. For example,
presenters can offer a challenge to participants, or summarize the presentation
with a favorite anecdote or quotation. An essential component of the closing is
to thank participants for attending and sharing their insights, and validating that
their input contributes to improved presentations in the future for the trainer.
(Refer to Chapter 8 for additional information about closing.)

11. Evaluation. Participants should be given time to assess the quality of the
presentation and presenter, and to offer their suggestions as to how the
presentation can be improved. Evaluations offer presenters helpful guidance to
improve their presentation style and content in the future. (Refer to Chapter 8
for additional information about evaluation.)

12. Follow-on. If presenters offer additional resources to participants, it is
essential to honor commitments in a timely manner. The use of both e-mail and
prepared resource/information packages on frequently-presented topics helps
facilitate effective follow-on, and reinforces the learning experience beyond the
on-site environment of the presentation.

The anatomy of the human body can also be used as a basis for understanding
the anatomy of a presentation. Consider the following:

o Head. Presenters should be prepared with facts based upon research and
practice that hold practical applications for their students.

o Neck. "Sticking your neck out" means going the extra mile to engage all
students, encouraging and validating their participation, and being flexible
enough to meet their specific needs while still covering the major topics included
in the lesson plan.

o Heart. When presenting victim-related topics, presenters have many
opportunities to reach students' hearts. Vignettes and stories based upon both
the painful and the positive experiences of crime victims and service providers
can build important emotional connections to the subjects at hand.

o Hands. A "hands-on" approach to presentation engages and involves
students through verbal interactions and individual and group activities, and
provides plenty of opportunities for feedback about the topic(s) being
presented.

o Stomach. "It takes guts" to tackle many of the complicated and challenging
issues related to crime and victimization. A good presenter must be prepared to
tackle highly emotional issues as well as students' reactions to difficult topics.

o Legs. Presenters should offer information and resources that "have legs," i.e.,
that can be taken from the training venue and applied in practical ways to
participants' lives and jobs. Students should also be referred to additional
resources where they can continue to enhance their knowledge and capabilities.

Communication Skills and Styles

There is an endless array of communication styles among presenters, who must
find a style that suits their knowledge, personality, and professional experience.
There are five "theories" related to the development of strong communication
skills:

1. Nobody is born a great communicator. Communication skills reflect a
culmination of one's life experiences as well as personal and professional
interactions with others.

2. Communication style is unique. Good presenters pick up ideas and tips from
other presenters whose styles they admire, but personalize them to their own
frame of reference.

3. Communication equates to connection with the topic(s), the audience, and
the professions that are affected by the presentation. It is the presenter's most
essential tool to develop a bond of mutual trust and respect.

4. The development of good communication skills takes time. It is a journey,
not a destination. The road to good communication skills challenges presenters
with both fast thoroughfares and roadblocks that contribute to a style that is
uniquely theirs.

5. All presenters have strengths and weaknesses. The goal of all presenters
should be to build upon their strengths and eliminate or mitigate their
weaknesses through commitment and practice. Practice, indeed, makes
perfect!

COMMUNICATION STRENGTHS

Respect for the audience. While a presenter is usually expected to bring a new
and different level of expertise to the audience, it is critical to publicly recognize
the audience's knowledge and commitment to the topic so as to honor the
richness and diversity of its experience. Advance preparation can contribute to
this goal: If a presenter knows accomplishments and activities of participants or
their communities, this should be validated early on in the process. Validation
that "victim assistance is difficult work that takes a special kind of person" is
also important. Reflections on the many historical accomplishments of the
victims' rights discipline relevant to the training topic(s) are helpful--particularly
those related to the jurisdiction in which the training program is being held. And
acknowledgment of the contributions of diversity to the disciplines of justice and
victim assistance (diversity by gender, culture, geography, age, and political
persuasions, among others) serves to validate the importance of differing
perspectives and views.

Orientation to the physical space. Presenters should make time to "bond" with
their physical environment. It is helpful to determine what volume of voice is
needed to reach the back of the room; whether there is a table for slides and
audio-visual aids; whether the presenter can easily move around among
participants; and whether the walls are thick or thin to help avoid interruptions
from outside the room.

Humility. When a presenter is introduced (often as an "expert" in the
presentation topic), it is a good idea to offer background information about how
one's success came to be. Examples include:

o "My years of service to crime victims would be meaningless without the
inspiration and guidance I have received from those whom I seek to help. Their
strength as survivors gives me strength to hopefully represent their interests and
needs to you here today."

o "I have never in my life given a presentation without getting so much in return.
You are here to learn from me, yet the lessons I will gain from you will help me
so much in the future."

o "Isn't it funny how you are never considered an 'expert' until you travel
outside of your own community? Each of you here today possesses expertise
that can help us all learn together, and I hope you are willing to share your
knowledge with me, and with the other participants."

Comfort with the topic. The adage "practice makes perfect" directly applies to
communication skills and styles. A good presenter reaches a "comfort zone"
only when he or she truly knows the topic, and is able to convey it without
being glued to notes or slides. "Practice" can be derived from consistent
presentations of a topic, or plenty of practice in advance of presenting a new
topic.

Rhythm. One can consider the rhythm of the ocean as a good guide for
"presentation rhythm." The calm and quiet sea can, with enough current, turn
into gentle undulations that build into strong and powerful waves. In
presentations, there is a time for quiet, a time for building up energy, and a time
for unleashing a wave of spirit and enthusiasm. Presentation rhythm must adapt
itself to a presenter's individual style, and to the tenor of the audience.

Engaging the audience. A presenter can be either a distant icon or an active
participant in the learning process. Strong communication skills require
extensive interaction with the audience--asking questions, validating responses,
physically moving around the participants, and engaging participants in
interactive exercises that tap their knowledge and experience.

"Eyes wide open." Keeping an eye on participants and their reactions, levels of
engagement, and lack of either is a critical tool for presenters. The "body
language" of participants can be very telling as to how they are reacting to the
material, and it's important to be aware of--and respond to--any nuances or
reactions that may ultimately affect the quality of the training program.

"Mixing it up." A combination of presentation techniques and styles contributes
to successful training programs. There is a time to be serious and a time to be
humorous; a time to lecture with a research foundation, and a time to diverge
from lecture and use experiential tools such as victims' experience; and a time to
stick to a lesson plan, and a time to diverge in order to meet participants' needs.

Connecting to the cutting edge. Information that is new and thought provoking
always engages an audience. The "Staying on the Cutting Edge" section of this
chapter offers a variety of resources that help keep presenters abreast of the
latest developments in victim assistance, criminal and juvenile justice, public
safety, and allied professional concerns.

Being "prepared to punt." The best laid plans can sometimes go awry. A
fundamental skill of training is the capacity to be "fluid and flexible," that is, to
be prepared to diverge from original training plans and schedule if participants'
reactions indicate a need to do so. Participants' needs are much more important
than the needs of a trainer to maintain a rigid schedule.

COMMUNICATION WEAKNESSES

Inflexibility. If there is one weakness in lesson plans, it is their capacity to tie a
presenter to a predetermined set of goals and values. Rigidity constricts the
learning process. The learning experience should be fluid and flexible to
accommodate participants' expectations and needs.

"All about me." Perhaps the greatest communication weakness is for a
presenter to be too self-focused. The concepts of "me" and "my" should be
banished from a presenter's toolbox. The bottom line is: "It's not about the
presenter; it's all about the audience."

Knowledge without experience. While presentation of research-based
information is vital to victim service professionals, it is critical to make the
research "come alive" with real-life stories and experiences. If the presenter has
none to offer, it is likely that participants do. Thus, it is important to engage
participants in discussions to interpret research findings to the reality of crime
victims and victim assistance professionals.

Lack of preparation. Presenters who are unprepared can fool neither
themselves nor their audience. It is better to turn down presentation assignments
that cannot be completed with knowledge, enthusiasm, and precision.

Lack of rest. When a presenter is tired, it sets a tiring pace for the entire
session. A good night's rest preceding the presentation, avoidance of alcohol or
too many stimulants such as coffee and cigarettes, a light breakfast, and quiet
time planned before the actual presentation all combat this potential pitfall.

"Podium clutching." This concept describes presenters who grip the lectern and
use it as a shield, while failing to grip the audience. "Podium clutchers" tend to
lecture, be rigid, and avoid interaction with the audience. Continual practice as
a presenter will remove the physical and emotional barriers that a podium
represents, and allow the presenter to be and appear relaxed and comfortable
with the topics.

Inappropriate emulation. Presenters often know a colleague whose presentation
style they admire and wish to emulate. However, each presenter is unique, and
his or her style must reflect a distinctive approach that is comfortable. Attempts
to replicate somebody else's style and approach to presentation take away
from one's personal strengths and characteristics. While imitation is, indeed, the
sincerest form of flattery, it can also lead to a presentation style that is neither
comfortable nor consistent for a trainer.

COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Typically, there are five core components associated with good communication:

Appearance. While presenters cannot easily change the way they look, they
can ensure that they always look their best. It is important to determine the
ambiance of the presentation venue; presenters should always dress in a manner
that reflects the audience's comfort level. For example, keynote speeches
usually require business attire. More informal presentations--particularly those
that encompass multiple days--allow for business casual attire, i.e., slacks and
comfortable shoes. It is essential to coordinate attire with the sponsors of the
presentation to fit the tenor of the event.

Personal hygiene is essential for all presentations. Clean and pressed clothes,
neat hair, brushed teeth (and fresh breath!), and limited physical distractions
(such as too much jewelry or change that jingles in one's pockets) all contribute
to a positive appearance. 

Speaking. Six elements affect the style of a presenter's speaking skills:

o Voice. It should always be natural and clearly heard by every listener.

o Volume. The loudness of one's voice is affected by background noise and
proximity to the audience. In order to increase volume, one must breathe
correctly. It helps to inhale by expanding the diaphragm, located at the base of
the rib cage. Breathing deeply and regulating the release of air from the lungs
help modulate the volume of one's voice. The more force one exerts, the louder
the voice becomes. Presenters should also request microphones for larger
training venues, and test them out prior to the training program.

o Articulation. A presenter's "sound production" can make or break a
presentation. An unavoidable impediment (such as a lisp or stammer) should be
downplayed if possible. Words should be enunciated clearly, especially those
with more than two syllables.

o Pronunciation. Correctly stressing syllables makes a presenter's words clear
and easier to understand. A standard dictionary is an excellent reference for
ensuring correct pronunciation of difficult words.

o Rate. Inexperienced speakers--or those who are nervous--tend to talk too
fast. It's helpful to pause between sentences. Presenters should not fear silence;
listeners need time to digest ideas. However, if a presenter speaks too slowly,
the participants may become bored. 

An effective presentation technique is to vary the speed of the words. Stories or
information that a presenter is familiar with often come across better when
spoken a bit more quickly at a higher volume. Likewise, particularly moving
anecdotes can be delivered in a slow and more quiet voice.

o Pitch. The height and depth of sounds made in presentations are similar to
musical notes. Presenters should try to vary their pitch to animate words and
emphasize ideas. For example, the pitch of one's voice can be raised at the end
of a question. Monotone speaking voices (all words spoken at the same pitch)
tend to bore audiences (Seymour 1987).

Listening. The listening skills that are so essential to the success and
effectiveness of victim service professionals in working with victims should be
incorporated into presentation skills. Just as a presenter hopes his or her
audience listens and understands the key concepts being taught, it is very
important to return the courtesy of respectful listening to one's students.

Because of the often fast pace of presentations, it is helpful to seek confirmation
about what participants have said. Summarizing and repeating participants'
comments or questions can ensure that the presenter has truly heard the key
components of what they are saying or asking. In larger training venues, this
approach also helps to ensure that other participants hear and understand the
comment or question.

Validating. When participants are engaged and they speak up and offer
opinions or ask questions, their effort should be rewarded with validation from
the speaker. Validation expresses appreciation for the input, and confirms that
the input is valuable and appreciated. Some common validation techniques for
presenters include:

o Responding by using the participant's first name (this is why nametags and
name plates are so important).

o Using affirming phrases such as: "I appreciate your point of view." "Thanks
for bringing up that important point." "That's a really good interpretation of this
concept." "You know, I've never thought of that before. Thanks for pointing it
out."

o "Bouncing off" a participant's input by posing it as a question for the full
audience: "Juanita brings up a good point about the need for separate waiting
rooms in courthouses. What do the rest of you think about her idea?"

o Giving a "fabulous prize" for particularly innovative or humorous input from a
participant.

Body language. Body language is an important element of presentation. A
presenter's nonverbal communication portrays a great deal about him or her to
the audience.

The following guidelines are helpful in linking body language to positive
communication with the participants:

o Eye contact. Presenters should always look around the room and include all
participants in their periphery. If a presenter is nervous, it helps to look slightly
above participants' heads. If there are "friendly faces" in the audience, they
should be concentrated on for validation.

o Physical gestures. Gestures can be used to emphasize important points. They
keep listeners attentive by giving them a visual focal point. Only meaningful,
appropriate gestures should be used; otherwise, they become distractions.

o Facial expressions. Listeners usually focus on the presenter's face. Facial
mannerisms help them understand the meaning behind the presenter's words. A
"frozen face" loses the audience's attention. In addition, the presenter's honesty
and enthusiasm are conveyed in his or her face.

In addition, there are nonverbal and verbal actions that can detrimentally affect
one's presentation:

o Voice: quiver, monotone, stammer, awkward pauses.

o Mouth: swallowing, clearing the throat, "um"; sighing.

o Face: twitching, "deadpan expression," rolling eyes, staring.

o Arms: rigid, tense, waving, fidgeting.

o Body: swaying, pacing, grabbing the podium, flailing the arms, tossing hair,
scratching any body part.

(The preceding section is excerpted from A. Seymour, Developing a Speakers'
Bureau, National Center for Victims of Crime.)

Dealing with "Problem Participants"

In an ideal world, every participant would be excited to learn, glad to be
involved in the learning experience, committed to being a "team player," and
eager to please the instructor. However, not all participants fit this description;
some students view training as a nightmare from which they hope they will soon
awake.

Sometimes problem behaviors can be identified early on in the presentation by
ultimate presentation skills that:

o Establish "ground rules" posted on a tear sheet: everyone should participate;
nobody should over-participate; interrupting others is not acceptable behavior;
and the instructor is given permission to address what is perceived as disruptive
behavior.

o Identifying the participants' motivation (or lack thereof) for attending the
training program (see "Training Preparation" in this chapter: "vacationers";
"hostages"; and "happy campers.")

o Recognize that problem behaviors affect the overall learning process for all
participants; be willing to and capable of confronting them.


There are typically five types of participants that pose challenges to both the
instructor and the learning process:

1. Dominators: Attempt to take control of the learning environment away from
the instructor.

2. Hostages: Do not want to be at the training, and make sure that everyone
knows this fact.

3. Arguers: Will argue with the presenter and other participants simply for the
sake of argument.

4. Distractors: Have difficulty remaining focused on the learning process and, as
a result, engage in behavior that distracts from the training program.

5. Class clowns: Take every opportunity to tell jokes and make others laugh,
regardless of the serious nature of the topic.

The following charts examine the types of "problem behaviors" described
above, as well as potential responses from an ultimate presenter.

------------------------

The Dominator

o Possible Behaviors
--Raises his/her hand in response to every presenter question or probe.
--Interrupts other participants.
--Knows everything about everything, and wants to make sure everyone in the
room knows it.

o Possible Responses
--"I'll get back to you once others have had a chance to respond."
--"Let's give everyone a chance to finish sharing his or her ideas."
--At break: "You seem really engaged in this topic. Would you help me process
out our next group exercise?" - and/or - 
--"I want to make sure everyone has a chance to be involved, so you can help
me by jotting down your thoughts on the index cards I provided and giving
them to me, so I can make sure your issues--as well as others' issues--are
addressed.

The Hostage


o Possible Behaviors
--Identifies unwillingness to be present during the introduction/icebreaker.
--Sits with arms crossed, and fails to participate in any individual or group
exercise.

o Possible Responses
--"For those of you who were 'ordered' to attend this program, I hope by the
end of this session you will feel glad to have attended."
--At break: "Your regret at being here is really clear to me. Is there anything I
can do to make this experience more enjoyable for you, and for the other
participants" - and/or - 
--"What topics can I address that might be useful to you in your work?" -
and/or- 
--Ignore the participant, and encourage others who bring up that person's
"hostage" behavior (at break) to do likewise.

The Arguer

o Possible Behaviors
--Questions every fact and statistic presented.
--Argues with other participants' about their input and/or responses.
--Mutters to self (or out loud) about how "stupid" or "ridiculous" the training
program and/or instructor are.

o Possible Responses
--Know your facts, and be prepared to back them up with citations and
references.
--Clarify to the group that "there are clearly different opinions on this subject"
and variety is what makes our field interesting.
--At break: "I'm sorry you think this training may be a waste of your time. Is
there anything I can do to make it more worthwhile?" - and/or - 
--"Some folks are telling me that your angst makes them uncomfortable. Any
ideas on what we can do about that?" - and/or - 
--"Your outbursts are making me, as well as your fellow participants,
uncomfortable. Is there anything I can do to help you resolve your issues, or
would you feel better just leaving?"

The Distractor

o Possible Behaviors
--Continually talks to other participants while the instructor--or others--are
talking.
--Files fingernails or picks at cuticles while yawning and stretching.
--Has rude or inappropriate responses to the instructor or other participants.

o Possible Responses
--"Oh, you look like you have an idea. Is there anything you'd like to share with
the group?"
--"Boy, can I relate to your yawns . . . I only got five hours sleep last night! Any
ideas on how I can rev this training program to keep us both interested?"
--"That is not appropriate for us to discuss at this time. Why don't you see me
at break. "

The Class Clown

o Possible Behaviors
--Makes a joke about everything.
--Is a "smart aleck" in every interaction with the instructor and/or other
participants.

o Possible Responses
--At break: "You're a riot! Can you help me facilitate the next game/learning
exercise and infuse some fun into it?"
--"There's a time for humor in this program, but it's coming a bit later. Can you
hold your responses until then?" - and/or - 
--At break: "This is a pretty serious topic, and there are some folks who are
uncomfortable with humorous interjections. Can you help me start off the next
session with a joke or two, and then get back to the topic?"

When dealing with "problem participants," an instructor's ability to "punt" will be
utilized as never before. It's important to remember that bad behaviors should
be addressed--privately with emphasis, or publicly with a light touch of humor--
so that control of the learning environment is not turned over to the problem
participant, and that disruptions are limited or eliminated.

Training Aids

Audio/visual training aids can greatly enhance the presentation process.
Essentially, there are eleven training aids that are relevant to presentations about
victim- and justice-related issues:

1. Presentation slides. Numerous presentation software packages exist that can
enhance a speaker's audio/visual presentation. Presenters can utilize
standardized templates or create their own; a wide variety of colors and
background adds visual impact to the range of slides one can create. Presenters
must be careful to avoid cramming too much information onto presentation
slides. In addition, participant pages that correspond with the slides--and
include space for participant notes--can easily be generated with most software
packages.

2. Tear sheet pads. In using tear sheets, the following points should be
remembered:

o Make sure there is enough paper before you begin.

o Before starting your session, make sure the tear sheet pad stand is stable and
that enough working markers are available.

o Have several, thick colored markers (thinner markers are difficult to view
from a distance).

o Never use red ink, except for underlining/emphasis! It is difficult to see at a
distance.

o Alternate two colored pens on each tear sheet (i.e. green/blue, black/purple.)

o When switching topics, also switch the two colors of pens you are using.

o Use as few words as possible--always print.

o Make your letters two inches high.

o Leave two inches between lines.

o Utilize the top two-thirds of the pad.

o Underscore key points by using lines, stars, underlining, boxes, and color.

o Use a pencil to record additional information related to the key points on the
tear sheet. You will be able to read them, but they will not be visible to the
participants.

o Recruit a volunteer to help hang completed sheets on the wall so as to not
interrupt the training process. Have pre-cut strips of tape ready to facilitate this.

o Tape pages on the wall to reinforce learning.

o Better yet, obtain tear sheet pads that have adhesive on them, which simplify
the process of hanging individual sheets on the wall.

o If tear sheets are prepared and hung prior to the actual exercise or training
activity, the information can be "hidden until needed" by taping the bottom of
the tear sheet slightly above the top (i.e. flipping it up to conceal the
information).

3. Overhead transparencies. For larger groups, tear sheets may not be visible
to all participants. A good alternative is clean overhead transparency film that
can be filled with information--similar to tear sheets--with transparency
markers.

4. Cartoons. Comic pages in newspapers, editorial cartoons, and cartoons
from magazines provide endless opportunities for humorous depictions of issues
related to victim assistance, public safety, and related topics. Ensure that proper
credit is listed for cartoons used and that humor is appropriate to the subject
and audience. Cartoons should be blown up to fill an 8 x 11 overhead
transparency slide. They can be utilized as training aids and displayed on the
overhead projector during breaks. It is always a good idea to bring paper
copies of popular cartoons; many students request them for their own use.

5. Quotations. Inspirational quotations can be used judiciously to emphasize
key points, as well as to link themes to some of the world's great thinkers.
Quotations books are readily available in book stores and on the Internet (by
utilizing a search engine with the word "quotations"). Good quotations also
abound as a result of presentations; make sure to keep records in a file folder
of usable quotations. Good presenters maintain a "tickler" file with their
notations of quotations. It is important to always ensure proper attribution for
quotations.

6. News articles. News headlines, articles, and photos can provide dramatic
visuals for presentations. It is a good idea to enlarge them before copying them
onto overhead transparencies. As with quotations, proper attribution is
essential.

7. Current research statistics and tables. Many of the data generated by the
U.S. Department of Justice--which are available in paper formats from the
NCJRS, OVC, and other clearinghouses, as well as electronically via the
Internet--provide sound research for presentations, as well as audio/visual aids.
The quality of the graphic design in Justice Department publications is excellent,
and simply needs to be enlarged for overhead transparencies.

8. Videotapes. There are myriad videotapes that are applicable to presentations
for victim services, criminal and juvenile justice, and allied professionals. OVC,
for example, has produced excellent videotapes (available free from OVCRC)
on "Mental Health Needs of Victims" and "News Media Coverage of Crime".
It is a good idea for presenters to maintain a video library, and to request
copies of videotapes they have viewed that can be helpful for presentation
purposes. The quality of videotapes is key; tapes recorded beyond "third
generation" are usually grainy and difficult to view. Ensure the video monitor
can read encoded videotapes for closed captioning.

9. Victim-related posters. For the past 15 years, resource materials developed
for victim-related commemorative weeks, as well as state and local victim
awareness initiatives, have included wonderful posters that depict various
themes related to victim sensitivity and victims' rights. Posters can be utilized as
visuals on the walls of presentation venues, as well as copied onto overhead
transparencies. It is usually a good idea to use a color copier or copy on a
lighter mode to ensure clarity.

10. "Victim Vignettes." The "power of the personal story" cannot be
overestimated in helping people understand the significance of victims' rights
and services. Victims' personal stories, both painful and positive, add
tremendous value and emotion to any criminal justice or victim-related
presentation. It is essential to secure permission to utilize victims' personal
stories for public venues, and protect victims' confidentiality upon request (in
cases where they would like their stories to be told without direct attribution).

11. Participant handouts. Any individual handouts for participants can be "color
coded" on the paper they are printed on to provide easy accessability. It is
crucial that any training resources that are distributed to participants are
provided either before the training program, or during the breaks. The "flurry of
paper" that would otherwise occur can be very distracting to the learning
process.

(See Appendix B.1, Presentation "Tools of the Trade," for a comprehensive list
of training aids.)

"Staying on the Cutting Edge"

The tasks associated with effective presentations require that trainers "stay on
the cutting edge." Maintaining current files and resources about crime and
victimization, victim assistance and victims' rights, criminal and juvenile justice,
and public safety is critical to offering audiences the most timely, accurate
information available.

Some general guidelines for maintaining up-to-date information include:

o Avoid using anything over five years old. Unless utilized for comparison
purposes, i.e., to demonstrate the decrease in the violent crime rate from 1989
to 1999, it is probably obsolete.

o Always attribute the source of material. Plagiarism is a crime. In both written
and oral presentations, presenters must always cite sources for the information
they are offering to their audiences.

o It is helpful to have hanging file folders, into which new resources can be
placed with ease. Presenters should review the topics that they are most
frequently requested to address, and maintain file folders that mirror these
issues. Additional files for quotations, cartoons, and other training aids should
also be developed.

o While national statistics and data are informative for most audiences, it is
helpful to personalize them to the state or local level. National trends are not
always replicated locally, and audiences tend to relate better to data that are
significant to them, and to their jurisdictions. 

RESOURCES FOR MAINTAINING THE CUTTING EDGE

Justice Department Clearinghouses. Within the Office of Justice Programs, the
National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) offers information and
resources on a variety of topics including crime, drugs, delinquency and
victimization through six clearinghouses:

o National Institute of Justice: (800) 851-3420

o Office for Victims of Crime: (800) 627-6872

o Office of Juvenile Justice Delinquency and Prevention: (800) 638-8736

o Bureau of Justice Statistics: (800) 732-3277

o Bureau of Justice Assistance: (800) 688-4252

o Office of National Drug Control Policy: (800) 666-3332

The many resources available through the clearinghouses are beneficial to
presenters who seek to keep current on key topics. In addition, registering with
NCJRS provides an excellent resource for trainers who seek additional
information about topics related to crime and victimization. Readers can sign up
for material to be automatically sent based on various categories of interest.

World Wide Web. The power and scope of the Internet have many positive
implications for presenters. Data and resources that a decade ago would have
taken weeks or months to secure are readily available in electronic formats 24
hours a day, seven days a week. Many victim-related Web sites are hyper-
linked to other similar sites to facilitate rapid access to related information.
Knowledge of how to use search engines simplifies research on the Web. In
addition, Web surfers should always try to affirm the veracity of information
derived from the Internet and provide proper attribution for resources that are
utilized for presentations. A comprehensive list of victim- and justice-related
Web sites appears in the National Crime Victims' Rights Week Resource
Guide, published and updated by VALOR with support from OVC, and is
included in Appendix G.2.

Electronic list-servs. This increasingly popular mode of electronically sharing
current information about crime and victimization--as well as generating action
on key public policy issues--offers timely (and often daily) updates on important
topics. Most list-serves offer free membership, which can be accessed by
providing one's name and e-mail address at Web sites that sponsor list-serves.

Toll-free telephone numbers. The roster of approximately 20 national toll-free
information and referral numbers relevant to crime and victimization is updated
annually each year in the National Crime Victims' Rights Week Resource
Guide, and can be a useful tool in maintaining the cutting edge because they link
victim service providers and justice professionals to vital resources available at
both the national level and in communities across the country. (See Appendix
G.1.)

Journals. A substantial body of research relevant to crime and victimization is
published regularly in journals. While more of this information is becoming
available in electronic format through the Internet, many journals are published
for subscribers only. However, some journals are available free from libraries
and can be requested through inter-library loans.

Books. Thousands of titles have been published in the area of crime and
victimization. They are available at many book stores, on-line via the Internet,
and at book sales sponsored at conferences.

Agency newsletters. There are nearly 200 national newsletters that address
current cutting edge issues of crime and victimization, available in both paper
and electronic formats. In addition, state and local victim assistance and
criminal/juvenile justice newsletters often highlight current data and trends that
are jurisdiction-specific.

The news media. Timely information about crime and victimization (research
findings, government statistics, coverage of actual cases, etc.) can be found in
both print and electronic media. Most news media also sponsor Web sites that
facilitate easy electronic access.

Conferences. Excellent resources are available from seminars and workshops
at conferences. A good technique is to visit workshop rooms during conference
breaks to pick up resource materials that were presented. In addition, many
conferences sponsor resource tables or arenas where good information is
available free to conference participants.

STANDARDIZING PARTICIPANT RESOURCES

A good presenter should seek to "plant seeds" in participants that can be
cultivated to grow and flourish beyond the presentation venue. In the field of
victim services, such resources focus on being able to obtain continuing
education for personal and professional growth as well as being able to offer
information and referrals to crime victims.

Presenters should collaborate with allied professionals to develop current and
cutting edge resources that can be utilized for participant resources. When a
great reference document is discovered, it should be shared with others. For
example, an informal network of justice and victim assistance professionals
regularly share current information and referral resources that are retained in a
permanent resource file and utilized for participant handouts. 

Standardized participant resources can include copies of slides of key
presentations (three to a page with lines for participants to take notes) that are
directly related to, or an adjunct to, the key topics addressed by the presenter. 

In addition, there are excellent resources for providing information and referrals
for crime victims, service providers, criminal and juvenile justice professionals,
and allied professionals. Many are included in each year's National Crime
Victims' Rights Week Resource Guide. These include:

o The roster of toll-free information and referral numbers for victim information
and referrals.

o A list of Web sites relevant to victim assistance and criminal/juvenile justice,
including federal and state agencies and nonprofit organizations.


o U.S. Department of Justice National Criminal Justice Reference Service
(NCJRS) registration form (which includes registration for the Office for
Victims of Crime Resource Center).

o "Resources on Crime and Victimization" available free from the NCJRS
(which includes ordering numbers).

o National Victim Assistance and Criminal/Juvenile Justice Organizations
(which includes addresses, telephone and fax numbers, e-mail addresses, and
Web site addresses).

o Annual "Crime Victims' Rights and Crime Prevention Commemorative
Calendar."

o List of INFOLINK Bulletins available free from the National Center for
Victims of Crime (800-FYI-CALL).

Participant resource packages should include a cover page with the title and
date of the presentation, as well as a "table of contents" with page numbers for
easy reference by presenters during the training session.

References

Knowles, M. S. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From
Pedagogy to Andragogy. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Seymour, A. 1987. Developing a Speakers' Bureau. Fort Worth, TX: National
Center for Victim of Crime.

----------------------------

Chapter 7. Ultimate Lesson Development and Design

Introduction

The development of lesson plans is closely linked to preparing for a
presentation. The more a trainer knows about his or her audience--including
their individual and collective experiences and expectations--the easier it is to
develop a lesson plan to meet their needs.

In some cases (such as the National Victim Assistance Academy), lesson plans
must also correspond with a written text. It is essential to identify the most
important information a presenter should offer, based upon the topic, amount of
time allotted for the presentation, and his or her knowledge of the audience.

Lesson plans are designed to give structure to the training or learning
environment. They serve as an overall guide to accomplish the presenter's
training goals and objectives, yet should be flexible enough to also
accommodate students' expectations and needs.

The development of lesson plans serves two important goals:

1. To help the instructor or facilitator prepare, plan and present information in a
manner that is organized and interesting.

2. To help students learn in a structured environment that understands and
respects their experiences, and guides them toward learning goals and
objectives that impart new knowledge and skills.

In developing lesson plans, the instructor:

o Identifies the focal points for developing the training strategy.

o Creates a framework for the instructional resources that must be developed.

o Provides the foundation to evaluate what participants have learned.

o Establishes criteria for self-assessment to measure the effectiveness of both
the instructor, as well as the instructional process.

o Creates a learning process and environment that are structured and
consistent.

While lesson plans offer an important framework for instruction, they should not
be carved in stone. When utilized as a tool for training in the field of victim
services, lesson plans cannot be rigid, and must adapt to specific training
challenges. The following list describes essential considerations that a trainer
should keep in mind when developing lesson plans:

o The expectations of the students. For what purpose(s) are they attending the
training program?

o Potential trauma reactions to the content of the lesson. Some crime-related
topics can produce trauma reactions in victims, and secondary trauma reactions
in service providers. Instructors should address the issue of potential "trauma
triggers" at the beginning of each learning session to help students understand
possible reactions they may have, and offer a pathway for validation and
assistance.

o Current events directly related to the topic(s) included in the lesson plan. In
particular, when a high profile crime occurs in conjunction with a training
program, flexibility in structured lesson plans is necessary. For example, a
trainer was addressing victim sensitivity and victim trauma issues with 50
probation officers as the mass tragedy at Columbine High School in Littleton,
Colorado, was unfolding. On the second day of the training program, the trainer
provided the students with a lengthy opportunity to discuss the horrific crime
and related it back to the lesson plan topic of victim trauma. The participant
evaluations reflected considerable gratitude for this flexibility.

Background Information

While lesson plans are often structured to reflect specific curricula or resource
materials, they should also be designed, whenever possible, to address:

o Type of audience.

--How many participants will there be?
--What are the range and levels of professional and volunteer experiences
among the training participants?
--What degree of diversity is there among the participants?
--Do participants work together in any capacity?

o Knowledge base of audience.

--Does the audience have any knowledge about the subjects for which they will
receive training? If so, what is the general level of knowledge? 
--Is there a "learning curve" among audience participants? (This can work to
the presenter's advantage, allowing him/her to utilize the knowledge and
experiences of more advanced students to facilitate the learning experience.)

o Expectations of audience and sponsors.

--As a result of the training experience, what do the participants and training
sponsors hope to gain? (Note: The expectations and goals of the training
sponsors should be determined and incorporated well in advance of developing
the lesson plan.)
--Can these expectations be matched to the learning goals and objectives in the
lesson plan? 


o Duration.

--Lesson plans should be structured within specific time frames. Often, the
objectives and content of the plan directly relate to the length of time allotted for
the training program.
--In the discipline of victim services, it is helpful to develop lesson plans for a
topic that can be taught in different time segments. Typically, these might
include:

----30 minute speech presentation.
----90-120 minute workshop.
----Half-day session (3 to 4 hours).
----Full day session (6 to 7 hours).
----Multiday sessions.

o Understanding the exact duration of a training session helps the presenter to
predetermine the most important information that can be provided within the
time frame allotted. Lesson plans can be tailored either to condense and
highlight information or to expand into the content and learning activities in a
more detailed fashion.

Materials Required

The "List of Training Aids" included in Chapter 6 offers an overall summary of
resources that can enhance the training process. In addition, the "Instructional
Activities" (see below) further define materials that are needed to facilitate a
positive learning environment.

In developing a list of materials required, it is helpful to determine in advance of
the training session exactly who is responsible for providing them. For example,
the training sponsor can assume responsibility for audio/visual equipment, while
the trainer should develop and provide materials relevant to instructional
activities. The presenter should inform the program coordinator about any on-
site needs he/she has.

Learning Goals and Objectives

In developing lesson plans, learning goals and objectives keep the instructor
focused, and augment the cohesive structure of the learning environment. 

Goals are "macro statements" about the reality an instructor is trying to create.
Goals take a while to get to. They are long term, e.g., teaching participants
techniques for becoming more effective adult trainers. Finally, goals need to be
realistic and specific (Marshall Developing Goals 1999).

A learning objective is a "micro statement" that provides a detailed and
measurable description of what learners will be able to do after they have
participated in a training session. Objectives should not focus on what learners
do during the training process but, rather, what the expected outcomes are of
that training process. 

It is important to remember that the more objectives one seeks to accomplish,
the less time the instructor can spend on providing information and resources
relevant to the successful completion of each objective. In other words, a
lesson plan should limit the number of objectives to fit the duration of the
session, experience of participants, and desired outcomes of the training
sponsor and participants.

Objectives should be designed to help the instructor or trainer assess the
participants' levels of knowledge and skills. They should be concise, clear,
action-oriented, and measurable:

o A good way to begin the development of an objective is as follows: "As a
result of this learning experience, the student(s) will be able to . . ."

o Statements of objectives that follow the opening statement cited above
should be no longer than one sentence.

o Statements of objectives should always begin with an active (as opposed to
passive) verb. For example, "As a result of this learning experience, the
student(s) will be able to (1) describe the five core rights for victims of crime
and (2) cite an example of one law that implements a core victim's right in this
jurisdiction."

o Statements such as "gain knowledge," "understand (certain things)," and
"expand levels of expertise" are not valuable objectives, as they are vague and
unmeasurable.

Once the first draft of objectives has been developed, it can be placed in
context of the lesson plan by determining:

o Can these objectives be adequately accomplished in the time allotted?

o What guidance from the instructor (or from other participants) will the
participants need to accomplish each objective?


o Are there specific resources that the participants will need--or be able to
reference--to perform tasks related to each objective?

o Will the objectives require follow-on training, technical assistance, or other
resources to ensure that they are accomplished?

The answers to the four simple questions above offer guidance to instructors
that may result in revising the original objectives. Finally, criteria for measuring
successful completion of objectives should be developed.

To achieve learning objectives, the presenter must develop and design specific
instructional activities that are tailored to the experience level and needs of the
participants.

Instructional Activities

In general, there are four types of instructional activities that can be
incorporated into lesson plans:

1. Preassigned individual activities. Participant activities assigned in advance of
a training program offer an immediate and personalized linkage to the session.
The participant must think in advance about the topic(s) to be addressed and,
as such, think about his or her expectations of the training experience. For
example, in a session about victims' rights laws, students could be asked to
bring an example of a specific victims' rights law in their state, and be prepared
to briefly discuss the impact (if any) that it has had on victims' rights and
services.

Preassigned activities can also be fun assignments to incorporate into training
icebreakers. For example, at many of the sites for the National Victim
Assistance Academy, students are asked to bring and wear a hat the represents
their agency, community, or state, with prizes awarded for the most creative
hats. This small but significant activity creates an immediate bond among
participants.

2. On-site individual activities. In order to avoid "group think"--where students'
ideas and opinions are formed by the collective group, rather than by each
student--individual activities provide each participant with the opportunity to
consider and possibly express his or her individual opinion. Such learning
activities can be facilitated through the use of individual worksheets or specific
assignments. In addition, individual activities can be further processed in small
groups or a plenary session.


In training environments that incorporate focused group discussions, individual
activities and worksheets serve the additional purpose of providing a record of
individual students' perspectives. When written records are a component of a
training session, these worksheets can provide important information that may
not otherwise be processed through small or plenary group activities.

3. Small group activities. The individual experiences and attitudes of each
participant can contribute to excellent small group activities that determine
"common ground," as well as differing perspectives among participants. Small
group activities should be designed to be structured and highly interactive, and
to have a clearly stated expectation and outcome. Such activities can be further
processed in the full group.

For example, in order to help criminal and juvenile justice officials understand
the importance of victim impact statements, an instructor can create a case
scenario of an offense involving both adult and juvenile offenders. After reading
the scenario, students work in small groups to complete a victim impact
statement, based upon their unique perspectives. The content of the small
groups' victim impact statements are then processed (read to the full group) by
the instructor, who points out the wide variations in individuals' reactions to
traumatic events and specific needs that aid victims in reconstructing their lives
in the aftermath of a crime.

4. Full group (plenary learning environment). The traditional lecture or
presentation of structured curricula is conducted in a plenary format.
Audio/visual aids are helpful to structure the full group learning environment. In
addition, it can be interspersed with individual and small group activities that, as
noted above, can be processed by the plenary group.

Evaluation/Assessment

Based upon their effectiveness in a training environment, lesson plans should be
reviewed and revised, as needed. The instructor or presenter can rely upon
participant evaluations for their assessment of the structure of the lesson. In
addition, answers to the following questions can combine with participant
evaluations to further evaluate the effectiveness of the lesson plan:

o Is the scope and content of the lesson plan clear and appropriate for the
intended audience?

o Are the goals and objectives clearly stated in both the lesson plan, and the
actual training session?


o Can the lesson plan accommodate flexibility, dependent upon students'
expectations and needs?

o Does the lesson proceed in an organized fashion?

o Are the activities appropriate for the time frame allotted for the lesson?

o Are the lesson's content and learning activities delineated clearly enough that
another trainer could follow the plan?

o Does the body of the lesson detail a time plan?

o Have transitions been clearly identified and are they appropriate? Do
transitions occur smoothly during the presentation?

o Are the individual differences among potential students/audiences considered
in the lesson activities?

o Is an effective closure (ending to the lesson) planned?

o Is time allotted for an adequate closure at the end of the presentation?

o Do the lesson activities clearly lead to the attainment of the lesson goals and
objectives?

o Is the lesson appropriate and engaging for the stated audience (Keeler
1998)?

Putting It Together: Lesson Plan Principles and Preparation

The Department of Education Technology at San Diego State University offers
the following guide to preparing lesson plans, based upon the "events of
instruction" developed by Robert Mills Gagne, co-author of Conditions of
Learning Training Application, published in 1995 (Marshall Guide 1999):

------------------------

Lesson Plan Principles

Principle 

o Motivation
--Designed to: Get and keep the learner's attention.
--Examples of: Novelty, arouse uncertainty, cite model, establish relevance,
raise confidence, establish reward, establish credibility.

o Objectives
--Designed to: Focus the learner's attention.
--Examples of: State formal objectives, state informal objectives .

o Prerequisites
--Designed to: Link prior knowledge or experience.
--Examples of: Cite previous learning, use analogy.

o Information presentation
--Designed to: Convey information.
--Examples of: Provide overview, provide background, give definition,
examples, demonstration, rhetorical questioning, discussion, analogy, summary.

o Practice and feedback
--Designed to: Let learners try out their new knowledge.
--Examples of: Drill, individual practices, guided practice, group feedback, peer
feedback, delayed feedback, role play, vicarious practice, simulation.

o Testing
--Designed to: Find out how well the learners are doing.
--Examples of: Student self-test, pretest, posttest.

o Others
--Designed to: Complete the learning process.
--Examples of: Remediation, enrichment, administration, social, break,
rearrange classroom.

------------------------

Follow-up Activities

A range of follow-up activities can be incorporated into the structure of a lesson
plan. However, there are some unexpected activities that may result from the
unique perspectives of the students, and how they contribute to the overall
learning environment.

Examples of follow-up activities can include the following:

o Providing students with information about how to obtain additional resources
relevant to the training topic (such as pertinent Web sites, toll-free information
centers, etc.).

o Closing the training session with an individual exercise/worksheet that
encourages students to consider "what I can do differently" and "what my
agency can do differently" to assist victims of crime, as a result of what students
learned from the training session.

o Providing students with a brief summary report of the training proceedings,
with emphasis on action items developed by the participants.

o Providing students with stamped postcards on which they can write their
name and mailing address on one side, and their "three main objectives" in
utilizing the information they learned at the training program in their work or
lives. The instructor can mail the postcards six to eight weeks following the
training program.

o Inviting students to contact the instructor(s) by telephone, e-mail, or fax if
they have any questions, or need further information.

Follow-up activities provide important, ongoing linkages to the training session,
as well as continuity to guide participants along the route from "student" to
"practitioner."

References

Keeler, C. updated 6 August 1998. "Secondary Social Studies Methods
Taught by Christy Keeler." Christy Keeler Home Page.
<http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~christyk/ssm/lpeval.html>.

Marshall, J. 20 September 1999. Guide to Preparing Lesson Plans. San
Diego State University, CA:
<http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses.EDTEC532/assignments/lpprinciples.html>.

Marshall, J. 7 October 1999. Developing Goals and Objectives. San Diego
State University, CA:
<http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses.EDTEC532/jobaids/Design/goals.html>.

----------------------------

Chapter 8. Ultimate Closing and Evaluation

Introduction


The closing of the training session probably garners the least attention of any
component of the training process. Closing activities are routinely minimized or
eliminated in the interest of time; instructors hustle to finish the session, and
participants streak out of the room!

Brief, well-structured closing activities can have a powerful impact on the
participants as they complete the training experience and again when they return
to their respective agencies. Closing activities provide closure to instruction, tie
up loose ends, summarize the highlights of training, challenge participants to
practically apply what they have learned, suggest appropriate follow-up, and
make transitions.

Evaluation of the training experience is unfortunately often viewed as a
"bothersome" task that takes place at the end of a session. Evaluation of the
trainer, learning, and environment is most often a "have-to," rushed task
dreaded by participants and trainers alike! Evaluation, like other closing
activities, is a valuable component to the training session for both the participant
and trainer.

Ultimate educators use closing and evaluation activities to enhance or
summarize learning, measure results, improve performance for trainers and
participants, and aid in the transfer of learning to the workplace and personal
life. The following sections explore topics of closing sessions and workshops
and evaluation.

Ending an Individual Session

The critical components of ending individual sessions are reviewing and
summarizing. Klatt (1999) lists seven steps for ending a session:

1. Acknowledge the existence of any "loose ends" or unfinished business. Tell
the group when and how "loose ends" will be addressed.

2. Discuss the "whereas" and the "therefore." The "whereas" looks back and is
a brief summary of what has occurred thus far. The "therefore" looks forward
and involves planning how, when, and under what circumstances new learning
will be used.

3. Provide a brief overview of what is coming in the next session and suggest
"why" the group will find this valuable.

4. Review assignments for the next session (if any).


5. Recognize the group's efforts and successes thus far.

6. Gather formal or informal feedback.

7. Based on participant feedback, contract with the group for adjustments in
workshop outcomes, process, content, or style.

Here are a few "session ending" activities that can assist you in effectively
ending individual workshop sessions:

o "Stringy" ball review. A stringy-type, soft rubber ball can be found in most
toy stores. During this activity, the trainer asks participants to state something
they learned in the session. The trainer tosses out the ball to a participant; the
participant responds to the question and then tosses the ball to another person.
The trainer summarizes the feedback and makes closing statements.

o Index card review. At the end of a session, pass out 3 x 5 index cards. Ask
participants to respond to specific questions concerning session content and/or
training process. Three to five minutes at the end of the session are usually
sufficient for this activity. Collect the cards and use the information to plan for
the next session.

o Klatt's (1999) One Minute Feedback and End of Session Feedback forms.
Print questions on 3 x 5 cards for use as session evaluations.

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Feedback Forms

One Minute Feedback

So far, I am finding this workshop to be (circle your response) . . . 

o Interesting  1  2  3  4  5  Uninteresting

o Too fast  1  2  3  4  5  Too slow

o Too easy  1  2  3  4  5  Too difficult

o Relevant  1  2  3  4  5  Irrelevant

o Organized  1  2  3  4  5  Disorganized


o Relaxed  1   2  3  4  5  Tense

Please provide a brief comment for improving this workshop:

------------------------

End of Session Feedback

o I was most energized today when . . .

o I was least interested today when . . .

o Suggestions for improving this workshop . . .

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Ending the Workshop

One of the most difficult segments of an effective training workshop is bringing
effective closure. It is a time to recap the highlights of what happened, reinforce
learning, and encourage the participants to take action. The end of a workshop
needs to not only bring a necessary sense of completion but also signal the
commencement of a time when participants will begin to apply the learnings to
real life.

This valuable component is frequently glossed over due to lack of time; yet
participants need time to reflect on what they have learned, celebrate each
other (the group can become a support system), and plan how they will turn the
learning into action.

Pike (1989) states that closing allows for affirmation and celebration, allows
action planning, and ties things together.

CLOSURE

Closure activities fall into seven categories:

1. Looking back and planning ahead: Probably the most traditional closing
activities, these summarize the content, review expectations, and provide an
opportunity for action planning.

2. Sharing positive feedback: Participants focus on each other and provide
feedback.

3. Fabulous prizes: Fun ways to celebrate the participants.
 
4. Coming home: Preparation for re-entry back at the home-front.

5. Staying in touch: Mechanisms to help participants stay in contact after the
session.

6. Saying goodbye: Methods to say goodbye nonverbally or via closing
ceremonies.

7. Following up: Activities to provide participants with additional ideas and
reinforce what was learned in the session.

Looking back and planning ahead. The most common method is a verbal
review by the instructor during which expectations, objectives, and process are
summarized. If this method is used, it is critical for the instructor to "revisit"
opening participant expectations and session objectives, and clearly identify
what was or was not accomplished during the training program.

A simple tear-sheet exercise can quickly summarize the workshop. Put up two
tear-sheets with the headings "What's hot?" and "What's not?" Ask participants
to think about the overall workshop (including expectations, objectives,
environment, trainer, and participants) and respond to the questions verbally.
This exercise provides a quick review of the session although it does not look
ahead.

Other exercises:

o Letter to the boss. Pass out paper and envelopes. Ask participants to
compose a letter to their boss. Include in the letter the most important skills,
concepts, or issues they have learned; specific behavior or skills they plan to
implement upon returning to work; additional training they feel they need to do
their job better; and an expression of appreciation for time off to attend the
workshop. Ask volunteers to share highlights of their letters. Variation: write to
spouse, friend, parent, or child.

o Personal learning goals. This exercise can be used if participants were asked
to identify personal learning goals at the beginning of the workshop or prior to
coming. At the end of the workshop, arrange the participants in a circle and ask
them to tell the group what their goals were; how successful they were in
reaching their goals (on a scale of one to five); reasons they did or did not reach
their goals; and whether or not they were satisfied with the goals they set for
themselves and why (or why not).

o I learned and I plan to . . . Prepare a card or handout with the following
unfinished statements: "I learned that I . . ."; "I re-learned that I . . ."; "I
discovered that I . . ."; "I noticed that I . . ."; "I was surprised that I . . ."; "I am
disappointed that I . . ."; and "I plan to . . ." Ask participants to complete these
statements. Ask some of them to share their statements; if there are more than
20 participants, this activity could be completed in small groups.

Sharing positive feedback. Allow participants an opportunity to share positive
feedback about each other and the instructor. Tossing around the soft/stringy
ball is one method to accomplish this important task; here are some others:

o Full plate. Pass paper plates out to participants along with a strip of masking
tape. Ask each participant to take a pencil or pen. Have participants assist each
other in attaching the paper plates to each other's backs. People circulate and
write positive affirmations, observations, or feedback about each person on his
or her plate.

o Brown bagging it. Sometime during the workshop, give participants a small
paper lunch bag. Have participants personalize their bag. Ask participants to
write notes to each other and place them in the bags. Participants cannot read
the contents of their bags until they are going home or are at home. Variation:
use paper cups.

Fabulous prizes. Fabulous prizes are a fun method to energize, reward, and
celebrate participants. Throughout the workshop and especially at closing,
cheap fun prizes can be "awarded" to participants for accomplishments, witty
sayings, winning contests, etc. Prizes at the closing of a session can be used to
honor exceptional contributions to the training experience.

Coming home. When people have been away from their respective agencies for
two or more days, they might need assistance in re-entry. You may want to
spend a few moments talking about how they are going to share what they have
learned with colleagues and friends back home.

Staying in touch. When participants leave a training experience, it is often to
return to a "business as usual" routine. Staying-in-touch activities remind them of
the training experience and can serve to re-energize and motivate. Here are a
couple of examples:

o Name exchange. Prepare copies of an information sheet with headings for
name, address, e-mail, and phone and fax numbers. Include space for three
additional statements: "Remember me as/for . . ." (participants write down what
they would like to be remembered for); "I need . . ." (write down some
resource or area that needs resolving); and, "I can give . . ." (remind other
participants of resources you can provide). 

o Paper airplanes. The instructor discusses the importance of staying in touch.
Pass out colored construction paper to participants; ask them to write their
name, address, and phone number in the center of the paper; participants build
paper airplanes under the guidance of a volunteer instructor; when finished, they
simultaneously toss the planes in the air. Participants pick up an airplane and are
instructed to telephone, e-mail, or write the person named on their plane within
ninety days, discussing how they have incorporated ideas/skills learned in the
training at their workplace.

Saying goodbye. Even if not in a formal way, make sure participants have
sufficient time to say their good-byes to the instructor and fellow participants. It
is helpful if, following a training session, the instructor(s) open the exit doors and
stand there as participants leave, shaking their hands and offering words of both
thanks and encouragement.

Following up. Following up activities reinforce what was learned in the
workshop and renew determination to reach set goals. Formal follow-up
surveys are discussed in the following evaluation section. Here is a sample
exercise:

o Letter or postcard to self. Have participants address an envelope or
postcard to themselves; ask them to write about the changes they want to make
as a result of what they have learned. They should also include their most
important goal. Have them put the letter in the envelope and seal it. The
instructor collects the letters and mails them to participants 30 days after the
program ends.

Evaluation

Evaluation tools are used to measure current results and to improve future
results. While formal written instruments are often viewed by instructors and
participants alike as a nuisance, if properly developed and implemented, they
can be invaluable.

Training expert Robert W. Pike (1989) writes that evaluation is not:

o Data for data's sake. Do not collect information just to have it.


o Punitive. Evaluation is done to measure and improve the effectiveness of
training, not to reward those who achieve and punish those who do not.

o Egocentric. Evaluation is not done to massage anyone's ego.

o Smile sheets. Whether or not people liked the program is a very small part of
evaluation.

o One time. Trainers must continually measure the effectiveness of what they
do.

o Complex. Effective evaluation does not have to be complex.

o The realm of scientists and statisticians. Evaluation is meant to be a tool to
improve results over time, not a full employment strategy for those with a Ph.D.
in math or statistics.

Additionally, Pike states that besides being a process that helps measure the
effectiveness of training, evaluation should be a number of other things as well:

o Exciting. It helps you see in a concrete way that what you are doing is
making a difference.

o Rewarding. It allows participants and other stakeholders to see that the
training they have attended has made a positive difference to themselves and the
workplace.

o On-going. The environment that trainers work in is ever shifting and
changing. Evaluation is an ongoing way to insure that the training being
delivered is in touch with current needs and reality.

o A way of assigning accountability for the learning. If evaluations measure not
only what participants have learned and the skills they can demonstrate, but
also the environment within which they apply these things on the job and the
support systems that enable them to use the training, then trainers have total
accountability for learning and application.

o A change tool. Training is one method of helping people retool to meet
changing challenges and opportunities.

o Part of the organization's "Early Warning System." It develops awareness of
shifts that can affect the organization.


Sandra Merwin (1992) provides the following definition of evaluation:

Evaluation is the means used to determine the worth or value of the training.

Effective evaluations can reveal:

o If learning took place.

o Participants' entry level.

o If the training objectives were met.

o If the facilities met participants' needs.

o If the facilities met the instructor's needs.

o If the trainer fulfilled his or her job requirements.

o How participants plan to use information.

o Training effectiveness.

o Areas that need improvement in the training.

o Future training needs for participants.

There are several methods you can use to measure your training impact
including pre- and post-tests, participant/trainer evaluations, self-evaluations,
work statements, and follow-up evaluations. In Appendix C, Sample Evaluation
Forms, are examples of the following types of evaluations that you may wish to
use in your training sessions.

o Post-workshop evaluation. At the end of a training session, participants are
thinking about "getting on the road" and heading home. Because most
participants are thinking about leaving the session on time, it is important to
have a well-prepared post-workshop evaluation. From the instructor's
perspective, the evaluation needs to provide the data necessary to improve
future training. A successful post-workshop evaluation form needs to satisfy
both the participant and trainer by being brief and able to be completed quickly
as well as gathering many types of information (Merwin 1992). (See Appendix
C.1, Sample Participant Evaluation Form.)

o Post-workshop instructor evaluation. The evaluation by the session leader
asks the trainer to assess workshop elements: the participants, the trainer, the
content, and the environment. A complete evaluation system would include
trainer assessments in the evaluation package. (See Appendix C.2, Sample
Evaluation by Trainer.)

o Follow-up survey. Follow-up surveys given to participants several months
after the workshop provide information on what was valuable for on-the-job
application, what did/did not work when participants applied learning, and what
they suggest for future training sessions. (See Appendices C.3, Follow-up
Evaluation and C.4, Training Follow-up Survey for two samples.)

For longer sessions (one day or more), it is helpful to include written
instructions with the participant evaluations of logistics and sessions. A sample
evaluation package is included in Appendix C.5, Participant Evaluation.

Regardless of the type of evaluation used, it is helpful to offer "incentives" to
participants for turning in evaluation forms, which are often ignored or lost. A
simple technique is to have a "double roll" of raffle tickets; when evaluation are
turned in, the participant receives a ticket. After the session (or the next
morning, for multi-day sessions), the presenter draws from the raffle tickets for
a "fabulous prize" to the winner. This technique has been known to result in 100
percent participation in daily evaluations!

Additionally, in training programs that involve more than one
instructor/facilitator, it is helpful to conduct a brief evaluation of the session from
the leaders' perspective. The "alpha-delta" faculty debriefing process is
highlighted in Chapter 2.

Ultimate Educators Close Workshops with Style and Class and Gather the
Information Necessary to Provide Even Better Training in the Future!

This chapter discussed the importance of effective closing of both individual
sessions and the entire workshop. Effective closing activities and formal
evaluations provide ultimate educators with the data to improve performance in
the future. How will you close your next session? Be creative, make it
memorable!

References

Klatt, B. 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Merwin, S. 1992. Evaluation: 10 Significant Ways for Measuring & Improving
Training Impact. MN: Resources for Organizations Incorporated.

Pike, R. W. 1989. Creative Training Techniques Workbook. MN: Resources
for Organizations. In S. Merwin, Evaluation: 10 Significant Ways for Measuring
& Improving Training Impact, MN: Resources for Organizations Incorporated,
1992.