FIRE DEPARTMENT COMMUNICATIONS MANUAL A BASIC GUIDE TO SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND 
EQUIPMENT 

FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY 
UNITED STATES FIRE ADMINISTRATION 

FIRE DEPARTMENT COMMUNICATIONS MANUAL A BASIC GUIDE TO SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND 
EQUIPMENT 

FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY 
UNITED STATES FIRE ADMINISTRATION 

Contents 

1. INTRODUCTION 1-1 
Scope and Target Audience 1-2 
How to Use the Manual 1-3
Methodology 1-3 

2. MANAGING A COMMUNICATIONS CENTER 2-1 
Alternative Organizational Forms 2-2 
Manual Versus Computer-Assisted Operations 2-6 
Public Safety Answering Point 2-8 
Monitoring Unit Status 2-10 
Record keeping 2-13 
External Relations 2-15 
Personnel Policies and Organization 2-17 
Civilian or Firefighter Personnel 2-26 
Training 2-28 

3. PLANNING A COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 3-1 
What is a Communications System? 3-1 
Hardware Components 3-2 
Human Elements 3-15 
Analyzing Current Performance 3-16 
Establishing System Requirements 3-18 
Planning for Maintenance 3-22 
Planning Facility Space 3-25 
Planning for Security and Safety 3-25 
Developing Specifications 3-30 
Obtaining Licenses 3-32 

4. OPERATING PROCEDURES 4-1 
Communications Plan 4-1 
Communications Authority 4-3 
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPS) 4-4
Response Policy 4-5 
Communications Center Operations 4-9 
Communications with Fire Stations 4-10
Communications with Units En Route 4-11 
Communications with Units On Scene 4-12
Move-ups 4-13
Major Disaster Operations 4-14
Mutual Aid and Mutual Response Operations 4-18
Unit and Personnel Identification 4-21
Establishing and Maintaining Databases 4-25 
Maintenance of Resource Documents 4-29 

5. ONSCENE COMMUNICATIONS 5-1 
Elements of Effective Onscene Communications 5-2 
Fireground Decisionmaking 5-5 
Fireground Communication Philosophy 5-6 
Incident Operations 5-10 
Terminating an Incident 5-21 
Postincident Operations 5-23 

6. COMMUNICATIONS HARDWARE 6-1 
Characteristics of Radio Signals 6-1 
Mobility of Senders and Receivers 6-8 
Receivers 6-13 
Transmitters 6-18 
Transceivers 6-21 
Antennas 6-23 
Other Radio System Components 6-31 
Power Supplies 6-38 
Ancillary Communications Equipment 6-40 
Environmental Considerations 6-46 

7. FUTURE TECHNOLOGY 7-1 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS 

APPENDIX A Sample Policies and Procedures 
APPENDIX B Sample Job Descriptions 
APPENDIX C Fireground Command Communications Vehicle 
APPENDIX D Related National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standards 
APPENDIX E Related National Fire Academy (NFA) Student Manuals to Content n this 
Manual 
APPENDIX F Deviations in NFA Student Manuals From Content in This Manual 
APPENDIX G Index 

1. Introduction 

Communications is a crucial and rapidly evolving element of fire service 
operations. Increased sophistication of equipment, incident command systems, and 
radio frequency congestion are among the forces stimulating change, and making 
it more essential than ever for fire officers to have a good understanding of 
communications systems and policies. 

Communications and communications systems also are critical to safe and 
effective fireground performance. Lapses in communications and radio 
difficulties have been implicated in numerous firefighter deaths across the 
nation. Limited budgets are forcing fire departments to resort to more frequent 
mutual aid, which requires communication among agencies that may not operate on 
the same frequency. 1 

Computer-aided dispatch systems are becoming increasingly popular. Once found 
only in the largest departments, fire departments serving communities of 100,000 
population and below are now adopting these systems. County dispatch centers 
serving volunteer or combination departments also are installing these systems. 
Planning for and working with these systems requires fire service communications 
managers to be familiar with the concepts and technologies behind them. 

Other communications technology is changing rapidly too, with portable facsimile 
machines, automatic vehicle location, computer-aided dispatch, push-button 
vehicle statusing, more compact and powerful computer hardware, and more 
sophisticated software available. National standards for communications are 
changing as well. All of the above changes require the fire service to keep 
abreast of communications technologies more than ever before. 

1 Chip Darius. "A Key to Interagency Communication," 9-1-1 Magazine, January/ 
February 1991, p. 20. 

l -l 

Scope and Target Audience 

This manual is written as an introduction to a variety of fire department 
communications topics. It is intended to provide a wide fire service audience 
with a minimum level of familiarity with communications basics: hardware issues, 
policy and procedures issues, and human resource issues. It attempts to provide 
some background on all major aspects of communications for the fire service, 
with the exception of call receiving systems (9-1-1, municipal street boxes, 
etc.). 

The manual is designed to be useful for a wide range of purposes, from 
developing specifications for new equipment to development of a department-wide 
radio system to familiarizing a novice with the basics of fire department 
communications. 

In addition to the hardware of wires, radios, and computers, the manual 
addresses the policies and planning processes that must be undertaken to 
effectively use the hardware to achieve the desired result. Management of 
communications through standard operating procedures and policies also is 
discussed. 

This manual is not a substitute for the numerous technical references in the 
field, but rather is intended to provide enough detail to give the reader some 
understanding of the concepts, and the ability to ask some of the right 
questions when a system or procedure is being designed or implemented. Examples 
of fire departments using various communication systems are cited throughout the 
text. A bibliography provides a range of existing literature to get more 
detailed information. 

This manual is not aimed at the expert. It is written in nontechnical language 
and is intended primarily for use by those newly responsible for planning, 
operating, or improving communications systems within their fire department or 
agency, and others interested in understanding more about fire department 
communications. 

1-2 

How to Use the Manual 

The manual is designed to be used as a reference rather than read cover to 
cover. Each section can be read separately as the need arises. For design of a 
new system or a review of your department's operations, an entire chapter or 
several chapters might be necessary. There is some overlap among chapters to 
make them more stand-alone, and considerable cross-referencing. 
Many topics could have been placed in more than one chapter, and it is suggested 
that readers scan the entire report to find topics of interests. 

Methodology 

This manual was developed mostly by fire service chief officers who had 
extensive experience in developing and/ or managing fire department 
communications systems. It is written from their viewpoint rather than that of 
engineers. 

To supplement their personal knowledge, visits were made to five fire 
departments reported to have excellent communications systems and procedures. 
(These are cited repeatedly as examples in the text, including photos of their 
equipment.) The five fire departments were Dallas, Texas; Huntington Beach, 
California; Montgomery County, Pennsylvania; Palm Beach, Florida; and Phoenix, 
Arizona. 

1-3 

2. Managing A Communications Center 

The communications center, often also called the dispatch center, is the nerve 
center of fire department operations and usually the first point of contact the 
public has with its fire/ rescue agency. It is also the hub of fire department 
communications. 

For the purposes of this manual, the communications center or CC is defined as 
the place where calls for service are received from the public and information 
is transmitted to the appropriate units or stations. These two functions are in 
two separate locations in some communities. Beyond these basic functions, the 
communications center records information on times and durations of incidents, 
and serves as the primary location for management of routine emergencies, 
including processing calls for additional units or resources. 

The communications center must manage and allocate the fire and rescue resources 
of the fire department or jurisdiction in a way that ensures that the proper 
resources are dispatched in a quick, efficient, and professional manner to 
emergency incidents. The CC also provides support to field operations personnel 
and units in carrying out many routine tasks and responses to nonemergency 
incidents. Given its important role, it is critical that the CC be managed in a 
way that gains the confidence of the public and the department served. 

The CC usually is run by a local government agency, either the fire department, 
police department, or public safety agency. The communications center may serve 
one organization or many, depending on the size of its staff, the number of 
responses it must dispatch and monitor, and interjurisdictional agreements that 
have been made. The most common arrangements are for larger career fire 
departments to dispatch their own units and for smaller departments to share 
dispatching services, often at the county level. There is a wide variety of 
sharing arrangements. 

2-1 

Alternative Organizational Forms 

The organizational form and types of personnel employed in operation and 
management of communications centers vary widely throughout the United States. 
Regardless of which organization manages the communications center or whether 
its employees are firefighters, civilians, or police officers, the most 
important factor in the success of a communications center is the reliance on 
good procedures and management, with an emphasis on serving the public and field 
units. 

Small and Medium Size Communications Centers -Highly technical communications 
operations are expensive, even in their most basic form. The workload determines 
whether the small-to-medium size communications center can justify the expense 
of sophisticated communications equipment. 

County-wide or area-wide communications centers allow the pooling of resources 
from many small departments to provide a higher level of service and access to 
more sophisticated equipment than is possible for each department working on its 
own. In addition, the combined workload may more fully use existing personnel or 
be sufficient to justify hiring more personnel (and thereby provide more backup 
for each participating department). 

Small volunteer fire departments sometimes employ civilian dispatchers by 
providing living quarters in return for their dispatching services. The living 
quarters may be in a department-owned house adjacent to the station. A volunteer 
fire department or small fire district also may pay some compensation to this 
family-type operation. The drawbacks of this arrangement are obvious. If the 
person, or family, wants to have a night out, or a vacation, someone must come 
into the house to take over the dispatching, or at least monitor the calls. 

A variation on the family-type arrangement is employment of a "handyman" by the 
volunteer fire department or the fire district. Often the maintenance person 
performs routine 

2-2 

repairs to the fire station, station equipment, and fire apparatus, while also 
answering the telephone and listening for calls for service that might arise 
from the radio. If there is a call for service, the maintenance person is 
trained to activate whatever kind of fire department notification systems there 
might be. Once the firefighters are responding, the maintenance person operates 
the base station radio, provides information about location and how to get to 
the scene, and provides whatever support is needed after the units arrive at the 
scene. 

While arrangements such as these are still practiced, they generally are being 
phased out and replaced with consolidated communications centers that can 
provide a greater degree of reliability. 

In small career or combination departments, a common practice is to assign one 
of the onduty firefighters to a certain time on what is called the watch desk. 
The duty of the firefighter is to answer phone calls, route the calls to the 
chiefs office, if necessary, and to dispatch the stations (typically one or two) 
to calls for service. 

Where firefighters work the dispatch desk in shifts, it is important to make 
sure that communications-related information is passed on properly. Smaller fire 
departments often monitor automatic fire alarm systems in the communications 
room. If a fire protection system goes into test or repair during one person's 
watch, failure to pass on this kind of information can easily result in an 
unnecessary response of equipment. A status or announcement board can be used to 
post this type of information, 

Combined Communications Centers -Combined fire/ rescue/ police communications 
centers and combined regional communications centers are growing in popularity 
for many reasons, but mainly because of the high cost of maintaining independent 
fire/ rescue and police CCs. In some small communities a combined center is 
implemented by using the one or two police dispatchers on duty at the police 
department to process the small number of fire-department-related emergency 
calls received daily, say four or five calls a day. (Police calls tend 

2-3 

to greatly outnumber fire calls in most jurisdictions.) A typical organization 
chart is shown in Exhibit 2-1. 

When the police control the dispatch center, the fire chief must make certain 
that the police communications managers understand the difference between fire 
dispatches and police dispatches. Emphasis must be given to ensuring that 
dispatching personnel understand the need for prompt processing of fire and EMS 
calls. Procedures should be established to assure adequate support for the fire 
mission, even during police emergencies. Also, it is common for interpersonal 
difficulties to arise when nonemergency communications are needed by the fire 
department. 

The main drawback to a police-controlled system from the fire/ EMS viewpoint is 
that it is difficult to require desired performance from police personnel not 
working under the fire chiefs direction. In order for this type of system to 
work, there must be understanding and cooperation between the police and fire 
chief and commitment from their supervisor within government. 

One way to alleviate concerns about uneven support of police and fire functions 
is to place communications in a separate agency which services both the police 
and fire departments. This arrangement requires that the manager of the 
communications center be responsive to both agencies while reporting to one 
supervisor. 

Another alternative that often works extremely well is to consolidate fire and 
EMS communications at the county level or with other fire/ EMS communications 
from other jurisdictions. This often allows better coordination of mutual aid 
and also the use of Emergency Medical Dispatchers (EMDs) --dispatchers trained 
to provide emergency medical advice by phone. 

2-4 

Organizational Chart 
Exhibit 2-1. Combined Communications Center 

Manual Versus Computer-Assisted Operations 

A communications center may be run entirely manually, or with Computer-Assisted 
Dispatch (CAD), or a combination of manual and computer-assisted dispatch. 

Manual --Manual operation still remains the most prevalent type of CC operation 
in the United States, although there is a strong movement toward installing CAD 
systems in smaller and smaller departments. Even in CCs with manual operations, 
it is rare that there is not some use of computers, e. g., for displaying "run 
cards," even if there is no full CAD system. 

CAD-equipped CCs must maintain some type of manual backup system for operation 
when the CAD system is "down." Consequently, manual skills and files must be 
maintained in all CCs, and CC personnel must periodically be trained on the use 
of these skills even in a CAD-equipped system. 

CAD --Computer-Assisted Dispatch systems have been a great enhancement to CC 
operations since their inception in the 1970s. The early apprehensions that the 
pride CC personnel had in their skills and knowledge as dispatchers would be 
lost under a CAD system proved to be unfounded. Actually the reverse has 
occurred, since today's dispatcher is more important than ever before. EMS calls 
have come to dominate the emergency call workload, and the ability of the 
dispatcher to determine what is going on at the scene and to give advice is 
crucial, In addition, as mentioned above, the skills and knowledge of the 
traditional manual dispatcher still must be maintained as a backup. 

One of the early decisions that has to be made by departments making the 
transition to CAD is whether to develop and maintain their own system or to 
purchase a tailored or ready-made system from a CAD vendor. In the past, some 
departments chose to develop and maintain their own system mainly because it was 
supported by their jurisdiction's mainframe computer, and there were very few 
CAD vendors. 

2-6 

In the 1980s, with the further acceptance of CAD systems and their increased 
sophistication, most departments moving to CAD opted to purchase from vendors 
and have the system maintained by support personnel. 

In general, although offering great speed and capacity, many CAD systems are 
patterned after the manual systems they replace. This allows for an easy 
transfer from manual to CAD and back to manual when necessary. 

The heart of any CAD system is the geo file on which it is based. The geo file 
is the computer file comprised of the street and address network of the 
community served. A geo file in a CAD system can be likened to a paper map and 
the dispatcher's knowledge of the map and the community, as they relate to unit 
alarm boundaries. 

When a decision is made to purchase a CAD system it should be well planned, with 
input from all agencies involved, especially from the dispatchers who will 
operate the system. Often the dispatcher is overlooked in this important aspect 
of system development. 

Some of the advantages of a CAD system are the speed with which dispatch 
recommendations are made to the dispatchers; more accurate assignment of 
appropriate units to specific-type incidents at reported locations; improved 
dispatcher access to critical information, hazards, etc., regarding a specific 
location; and enhanced recordkeeping capabilities. 

2-7 

For cities or communications centers serving populations of less than 100,000, 
there are many personal-computer-based CAD programs that can easily handle the 
dispatching demands. At the same time, application of these programs in a 
personal computer requires attention to the database and keeping the database 
updated. It is recommended that one person be designated to perform that task. 
That person also should be responsible for its accuracy. 

Public Safety Answering Point 

The term Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP) is used to define the primary 
location at which requests for fire/ rescue and police are received from 9-1-1 
and other services. In some large jurisdictions, there may be more than one PSAP 
for operational or political reasons. Typical of this approach is an independent 
city PSAP within a county that has its own PSAP. 

The PSAP may or may not be the point at which a dispatch is made. This depends 
on the organization of the public safety communications dispatch operation. The 
PSAP may dispatch fire/ rescue and police, i. e., be a "combined" dispatch 
center. Other modes in which a PSAP may operate are as follows: 

Receives the initial request and transfers the person making the request to the 
appropriate fire/ rescue or police agency. 

Receives the initial request, processes the information, and transfers the 
information (not the calls) to the appropriate tire/ rescue or police agency. A 
drawback to this type operation is that it denies the agency that is responsible 
for the actual dispatch of units the ability to talk with the reporting person. 

Receives the initial request, processes the information for one agency (fire/ 
rescue or police), dispatches its units and transfers the caller to the other 
agency to 

2-8 

further process and to dispatch it. This type of operation is referred to as a 
Secondary PSAP. 

The agency responsible for the dispatch should have the opportunity to talk 
directly to the reporting person so that no important information is "lost." 

Because they usually receive the majority of calls for service, the police 
department or local law enforcement agency serves as the PSAP more frequently 
than does the fire/ rescue department. 

Basic 9-1-1 --The concept of 9-1-1 was born during the late 1930s in Great 
Britain where the telephone number "999" was used to summon police, fire, and 
medical services. During World War II, the efficiency of this system was 
recognized by American military personnel stationed in England. As they returned 
from the war and entered civilian life as firefighters and police officers, they 
brought with them the concept of a universal three-digit telephone number to 
summon help in an emergency. 

In 1956, the National Association of Fire Chiefs, now the International 
Association of Fire Chiefs, formally recommended that a universal telephone 
number be established in the United States for summoning fire, police, and 
medical services in an emergency. In 1968, led by AT& T, all telephone companies 
in the United States provided the number 9-1-1 to any community desiring to 
establish it. 

The database that the local telephone company uses for recording the location of 
each assigned telephone number is used to direct a 9-1-1 call to the appropriate 
Public Safety Answering Point in the area. Upon receipt of a basic 9-1-1 call at 
the CC, the call-taker must obtain from the caller the location of the 
emergency. 

2-9 

If the location of the emergency is not in the PSAP's jurisdiction, the PSAP is 
responsible for efficient transfer of that call to the appropriate PSAP. 

Enhanced 9-1-1 -- As with Basic 9-1-1, an Enhanced 9-1-1 system directs the call 
to the appropriate PSAP. However, the call-taker is provided with a small screen 
that shows the telephone number from which the call is being received. (This 
feature is commonly referred to as Automatic Number Identification or ANI). The 
call-taker also is provided with the occupant's 
name, location (address), including apartment number, suite number, business 
name, and possibly other information. (This feature is referred to as Automatic 
Location Information or ALI.) The call-taker then must confirm the location of 
the incident being reported in relation to the caller's location. It is critical 
that the address given by the Enhanced 9-1-1 be verified. In some cases, the 
billing address may appear, causing a response to the wrong location. As with 
basic 9-1-1, if the location reported is not in the jurisdiction for which the 
PSAP is responsible, procedures should be followed for the efficient transfer of 
that call to the appropriate PSAP. 

Monitoring Unit Status 

The knowledge and maintenance of a department's fire and rescue unit status is a 
vital function of the CC. The status of units, particularly a unit's 
availability for an assignment, must be known at all times by the dispatcher. 

In most cases, information concerning a unit's status has to be provided by the 
unit to the CC by personnel assigned to or responsible for a unit. The CC then 
is responsible for unit status keeping. There are two ways that this can be 
achieved: manually or electronically. 

Manual status keeping usually involves the dispatcher flipping a switch, turning 
a knob, pressing a button, or writing things down to track unit status. This 
action is based on some type of notification and/ or action initiated by a unit 
or station and received via radio or telephone, 

2-10 

such as a unit advising of its arrival on scene or a unit reporting an incident 
it has encountered while en route somewhere. 

Electronic status keeping usually involves the crew hitting a button in the cab 
of the fire apparatus, which sends an electronic signal via radio that causes 
the unit status to change on a map, status board, computer screen, etc. A signal 
also may be sent electronically when a unit leaves the station, by tripping a 
pressure-sensitive mat or electronic eye, or again by hitting a button in the 
cab or station. 

CAD systems provide a screen depicting the status of a department' s resources, 
often including a computerized map showing the resources in relation to the 
areas covered. This is a valuable asset to the dispatcher when determining when 
it is necessary to relocate units to cover vacant stations in time of multiple 
incidents or a major emergency. 

Many CCs use a large status/ map board to allow all CC personnel to view unit 
status. These status or map boards usually identify the status of units by using 
different colored lights. Other CCs just use a status board showing units in or 
out of service. The status boards used by the Town of Palm Beach, Florida, and 
Dallas, Texas, are shown in Exhibits 2-2 and 2-3, respectively. 

Many fire departments have established a set of unit status designations to 
reflect a unit's disposition. For example, they may define status to be "out-of-
service" (completely unable to respond), "available in delayed mode" (such as 
for units engaged in training evolutions), or "available by request only" (such 
as for units in formal training classes that are available for working fires). 
Other types of status are "in station, " "en route," and "at scene" (at an 
incident). 

The CC supervisors need to ensure that unit status is kept up to the moment if 
not handled automatically. 

2-11 

Exhibit 2-2. Palm Beach, Florida Status Board. 
Exhibit 2-3. Details of the Dallas Fire Department Status Board. 

2-12 

Recordkeeping 

Every communications center must have a method for documenting its 
communications activities, including personnel on duty, calls received, alerts, 
dispatches, pages, acknowledgements, arrivals on the scene, requests for 
resources, incident status, etc. This information is necessary to comply with 
various local, state, and federal reporting requirements. 

Fire records and communications also have legal significance, and can be called 
for in legal proceedings regarding fire and arson investigation, service 
complaints, and civil legal proceedings such as insurance litigation and product 
liability cases. The security and integrity of dispatch records should be 
maintained through administrative and hardware/ software controls. Steps must be 
taken to assure that computerized reports cannot be altered or generated after 
the fact without proper authorization (such as when the probable cause of fire 
is changed after further investigation). 

The CC manager should establish the method of recordkeeping, the information to 
be maintained, and the method of storage, retrieval, and release of information. 
This should be done in consultation with the jurisdiction's legal staff and fire 
department, including the fire marshal, 
Ideally, this would be done as part of a department-wide data needs assessment, 
which would identify the data elements needed and the best form for retrieval. 

Incident Records --One of the most basic records kept by every fire department 
is a log of all incidents. The log may be kept manually or by computer, or using 
a combination of the two. In some departments the dispatchers jot notes as calls 
come in and dispatches are made, and then type up incident logs or enter the 
data in a computer. Much of the incident data are generated automatically when 
CAD systems are used. Typically, the incident data are provided to the person 
filling out the incident report, often the company officer from the first-
responding unit. 

2-13 

In other departments, the incident information flows the other way. The officer 
sends data on the incident to the computer or a person who merges that data with 
the CAD-system-generated data. 

Fire departments should attempt to keep their incident reports compatible with 
their state incident reporting system and the National Fire Incident Reporting 
System (NFIRS) administered by the US. Fire Administration. 

Increasingly, fire departments also are using data generated in the CC as the 
basis for making decisions on staffing levels, station locations, and in 
targeting fire prevention activity. It is essential that this information be 
kept accurately and in retrievable format-preferably in computer retrieval 
format-for later use. 

Records of Verbal Communications --Accurate records of verbal communications to 
and from the CC must be maintained. Most fire departments use tape recorders to 
document all radio traffic on all frequencies normally used by the department 
and on telephone communications with the dispatch center. Incoming emergency 
lines and tie lines to other agencies should all be connected to a recording 
system. Depending on state law, an audible "beep" signal may have to be provided 
on phone lines used by the public that are recorded. 

Multiple-track, time-logging tape recorders are available for simultaneous 
recording of several channels. These units usually feature backup capability to 
prevent missed communications during changing of tape or in the event of a 
mechanical failure of one of the recording units. 

There is a wide variance in the amount of time that fire departments store tapes 
before taping over them. It is recommended that tapes be retained at least 30 
days for routine operations. In the case of unusual events such as fatal fires, 
apparatus accidents, injuries to firefighters, or extra alarm fires, tapes might 
be retained indefinitely. 

2-14 

Cassette duplicates of radio traffic are an excellent training aid and useful in 
postincident analysis. 

Control of Computer Software and Files --The use of computers in the CC 
environment is increasing rapidly and is a valuable resource in the maintenance 
of records of all types. The security of this resource must be maintained. 
Attention must be given to whom is provided access to this information. There 
are many ways in which this can be achieved and the CC manager should work with 
the vendor of such equipment and other personnel on the jurisdiction's computer 
staff to establish the level of security desired. This security need extends to 
the recordkeeping software and software associated with computer-aided dispatch 
(CAD). Security is especially important for files that list streets and 
addresses in relation to unit assignment. These files, often called geo files, 
are particularly sensitive when they are shared with other agencies of the 
government which may have a legitimate need to change the geo file without 
having a full appreciation of the effect of the change on the CC's operation. 

External Relations 

Another important part of managing a communications center is interfacing with 
many groups external to the fire department. 

Interfacing with Alarm Companies --Alarm companies are the source of many calls 
received at the CC. In most cases the alarm company serves as a monitoring 
agency for automatic detection systems. When it receives an alarm, it will call 
the CC via telephone and provide information as to the location of the alarm 
received, including building, floor, zone, occupancy, etc., and the type of 
alarm. The CC then will make the appropriate dispatch based on the information 
provided and established procedure. Often, unpublished telephone numbers in the 
CC are dedicated for the sole use of alarm companies. 

2-15 

In an effort to curtail the number of accidental or false alarms received from 
alarm companies, many jurisdictions have established charges or fines for false 
alarms above a set number. Many jurisdictions also require certification of 
installers of alarm systems and testing of installations, such as in Portland, 
Oregon, where false alarms have been reduced to a minor problem. It is important 
that CCs maintain a dialogue with the alarm companies that serve the 
jurisdiction so that problems can be addressed. The CC also should provide 
reports on problem buildings to fire prevention or operations personnel 
responsible for such issues. 

Some jurisdictions are enacting regulations that require the alarm company to 
provide a computer link to the CC's CAD system. This allows the alarm company to 
enter alarms received at its monitoring point directly into the CC's CAD system 
as an alarm to be dispatched in accordance with an established procedure, and 
the information that is required to be provided. 
As more buildings become alarm equipped, it is important that the fire 
department be proactive and not let problems develop that could have been 
addressed earlier. This approach will not lessen the number of alarms received 
from the alarm company but will allow for a more rapid transmittal of the alarm 
from the alarm company to the CC. 

Relations with the News Media and Public --Notwithstanding the fact that the 
tire department may have a public information officer, the reality is that the 
CC often is the first fire department office contacted by the media when 
inquiring about a specific incident or about the department's fire and rescue 
activity level in general. Reporters frequently call CCs to find out if anything 
interesting is going on. 

The CC should have a clear and uniform policy as to what type of information is 
to be released. This policy should be shared with the media so that media 
representatives will know how to contact the CC (a specific telephone number, 
who to ask for, and what type of information is to be released). A clear 
understanding of the policy will reduce the possibility of conflict and allow 
the media and the CC to understand each other's needs. 

2-16 

A list of the department's public information officers and their telephone and 
pager numbers should be kept handy for the dispatchers. 

Some tire departments have installed a telephone answering machine as a means of 
providing information to the media. In this type of system, information 
concerning recent or ongoing incidents is placed on an answering machine. This 
is a way to provide information without tying up CC personnel. Fire departments 
equipped with "voice mail" can use it in a similar manner. If done properly, the 
taped message can be carried by the broadcast media. 

Emergency and Nonemergency Telephone Numbers --The seven-digit or 9-1-1 fire/ 
rescue emergency reporting number for the fire department should be published in 
local telephone directories and in a variety of other places, such as on 
department letterhead, telephone stickers, and in department vehicles. A public 
information program should emphasize the importance of using the emergency 
number only for genuine emergencies. 2 A nonemergency number also should be 
provided to the public to reduce unnecessary calls to the emergency number. In 
addition, the government section of the telephone directory should list the 
direct numbers for the public to use to reach specific offices of the 
department, such as administration or fire prevention. Because a station may be 
vacant at the time of an emergency call, it is not advisable to list individual 
fire station telephone numbers. The public should be discouraged from calling a 
specific station to report a fire or request EMS. 

Personnel Policies and Organization 

Nothing is more important to the effective operation of a fire/ rescue CC than 
the people who staff it, from the manager to the newest employee. Many times an 
agency CC and its personnel are given "stepchild" status, with the focus going 
to other segments of a department. A 

2 The United States Fire Administration provides a public education campaign kit 
on this subject called Make the Right Call. 

2-17 

fire agency should give the same attention to the personnel policies and 
procedures of the CC that it does to its fire prevention, fire suppression, and 
other divisions. 

The internal organization of the CC should, in many ways, be similar to that of 
a fire company and, administratively, be equal to that of a fire battalion or 
division. This type of organization allows for good management practices to be 
used and for the CC to be viewed and, in fact, be on par with other major 
elements of the department( s) served. 

To attract and retain high-quality personnel is a difficult goal to achieve but 
well worth the effort. Attention must be paid to recruitment, selection, and 
work schedules. 

Staffing --There is no recognized standard formula that addresses the number of 
onduty CC personnel required based on the number of emergency/ nonemergency 
calls received, dispatches made, radio channels used, etc. To make staffing more 
complex, the normal level of CC activity often is punctuated by major incidents 
such as thunderstorms, ice storms, large fires, or multiple-traffic accidents, 
which produce intense periods of activity. 

The CC needs to be staffed with sufficient personnel to meet both the demands of 
the normal level of activity and the level of activity associated with 
frequently occurring "peak" periods. Unlike fire and rescue incidents where the 
incident commander can request more units from the CC and have them arrive in 
minutes, most CCs do not have backup help available fast enough to make a 
difference, except in long-duration incidents. Consequently, there should be 
enough personnel on duty at the CC to handle all but the most unusual level of 
activity. 3 

3 The Insurance Services Office (ISO) Fire Suppression Rating Schedule also 
addresses staffing and equipping of communications centers. 

2-18 

The following functions need to be staffed: 

A Supervisor to oversee the CC's operations and to give direction; Call-takers. 
The number of call-takers depends on the number of emergency reporting lines, 
the call volume, and whether the CC is a primary or secondary Public Safety 
Answering Point; Primary/ Dispatch radio channel dispatcher( s); and Incident 
Command radio channel dispatcher( s). Depending on the size and complexity of 
the CC's operation, more than one of the above functions may be handled by the 
same person. 

Recruitment/ Selection --Selecting the right employee is as difficult and 
important to the operation of the CC as it is to the operation of a major 
corporation. Before any CC employee is hired, the qualities and attributes being 
sought must be defined (see the following section for examples). The CC manager 
should work closely with the jurisdiction's personnel department to develop an 
appropriate recruitment strategy. A typical position announcement is contained 
in Exhibit 2-4. A typical CC entry-level position description is included in 
Appendix B. 

2-19 

Exhibit 2-4. Sample Position Description 

City of Hunington Beach Class Specification 

Title: Fire Controller 

Duties Summary: To receive calls, analyze and prioritize emergency requests for 
assistance, and dispatch fire and paramedic according to established policies 
and procedures. 

Example of Duties: Receives emergency calls, analyzes and prioritizes emergency 
requests for assistance, and dispatches fire and paramedic units according to 
established polices and procedures; gathers vital information from calling 
parties and uses a computer-aided dispatch system to determine the best 
utilization of resources; provides emergency medical dispatch information to 
calling parties; transmits dispatch information by radio and by voice and data 
telecommunications circuits/ paths; maintains communications with field units 
and monitors radio and data transmissions; monitors availability status of fire 
department resources and makes recommendations for temporary/ permanent changes 
to deployment standards; responsible for ensuring the working conditions of 
communications equipment by means of scheduled tests and procures repair service 
for malfunctioning equipment; loads, maintains and updates a variety of business 
and emergency computer and/ or manual files; monitors equipment for other city/ 
county agencies as required. Performs other duties as assigned. 

Knowledge, Skills, Abilities & Personal Attributes: Knowledge of the principles, 
practices, and procedures of fire and emergency medical communications; 
geographic knowledge of the area served by the Net 6 communication center; 
better than average verbal skills, good english grammer and spelling skills; 
must be able to quickly analyze situations, make decisions, prioritize actions, 
and coordinate activities; must be able to project voice over the radio and 
speak clearly and distinctly; must be able to work under stress and have ability 
to remain calm in emergency situations. 

Minimum Qualifications: One year of public safety (fire police) EMS radio 
dispatching Experience; must be able to type 30 words per minute; must have some 
experience working with computers; must be able to work varying shifts, days of 
the week, holidays, and overtime shifts; Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) 
certification is desireable at time of employment or ability to obtain within 
the first year of employment; may be required to pass a background chack and 
psychological testing; must have eyesight correctable to 20/ 30 in both eyes and 
cannot be colorblind. 

2-20 

The placement of the recruitment announcements is very important. For newspaper 
classified sections, it may prove better to place recruitment ads under "public 
safety" or "government," than under "dispatcher" or "clerical." If placed under 
"dispatcher" the ad should elaborate on the emergency public safety nature of 
the position, The dispatcher's job is largely unknown and/ or misunderstood by 
the public, and every effort should be made to portray the position in the most 
accurate way. 

If the CC is staffed by sworn firefighters, the same attention should be given 
to their selection as that given to civilian recruits. Being a firefighter does 
not, in itself, make someone a good dispatcher. The same talents and interest 
level are necessary in sworn (uniformed) personnel as in nonsworn (civilian) 
personnel. 

Many jurisdictions have asked local television stations or newspapers to run 
feature articles on the operation of the CC. If the CC is staffed by civilian 
personnel, this strategy serves to expose the real-life nature of the job and 
can spark the interest of potential applicants who may never have considered 
such a position. 

The Manager --The management and leadership style of the CC manager can have a 
major impact on the CC's efficiency. The CC manager may be a sworn fire 
department officer or a civilian. Regardless of background, the CC manager 
should have the authority to establish the policies and procedures that will 
allow the CC to carry out its responsibilities to the department and the public. 
The CC manager should have good management skills, knowledge and understanding 
of the role of the CC, a desire for the position, and a commitment to an 
extended assignment. 

2-21 

More specifically, the CC manager should possess the following characteristics: 

Knowledge and experience in dispatch operations. 

Understanding of the mission, goals, and objectives of the department. 

Understanding of the present and emerging technologies available to enhance the 
communications capabilities of the department. 

The ability to identify when changes in procedures and technologies are 
necessary and to articulate how they can benefit the department. 

The ability to deal with the public and address complaints received in an 
effective manner. 

Respect for the fire department management team and, in turn, the ability to 
command their respect. 

The ability to develop clear, comprehensive standard operating procedures.

Understanding of the pressures and stress experienced by dispatchers. 

In addition, the CC manager should have the following types of good management 
skills: 

Excellent interpersonal skills. 

Good oral and written communications skills. 

2-22 

An understanding of the needs of CC personnel regarding job satisfaction and 
recognition. 

Demonstrated integrity and fairness 

An openness toward change and progress. 

Good short-and long-range planning ability, both technical and fiscal. 

An understanding of the department's budget process and the ability to advance 
the needs of the CC in that process. 

Shift Supervisors --The CC shift supervisors usually are the people with direct 
oversight of the daily operation of the CC. Consequently, they will have a great 
deal of responsibility and should be given the authority to match their 
responsibilities. CC supervisors usually are promoted or assigned from the ranks 
of the CC's dispatchers. A CC supervisor should possess the following 
characteristics: 

Extensive knowledge of the policies and procedures of the CC and the fire 
department. 

The ability to train and to explain the complex and changing nature of fire/ 
rescue communications, so that those supervised have a clear understanding of 
their duties. 

The means to gain the confidence of the fire department's personnel in areas of 
judgment, knowledge, and professionalism. 

2-23 

The ability to deal effectively with the public, government officials, media, 
and all sections of the fire department, including operations, tire prevention, 
and support services. 

Understanding of the technical operation of the CC's equipment, so that problems 
can be identified and corrective actions can be taken. 

The ability to motivate employees and recognize them for commendable 
performance. 

An even temperament and balanced approach in dealing with citizens, CC 
personnel, and fire department personnel. 

Dispatchers --The CC dispatchers (or telecommunicators) are the heart of the 
CC's operation and the people most vital to its operations. Great care must be 
taken in the recruitment and selection of dispatchers. A CC dispatcher should be 
highly motivated, emotionally mature, and have a strong desire to serve the 
public and the fire department. The characteristics of good CC dispatchers are 
as follows: 

The ability to stay "cool" under pressure and maintain professional decorum. If 
the dispatcher "loses it," it does not bode well for the incident and for those 
who depend on the dispatcher. 

Good diction and speech pattern so that they can be effective communicators. 

The ability to hear several conversations or messages at one time, concentrate 
on one conversation, and process that information effectively. 

Understanding of their role and responsibilities to the citizens, CC, and fire 
department. 

2-24 

Appropriate level of empathy with the public in their time of need. 

Positive attitude towards citizens, the CC, and the fire department. 

The desire to feel satisfaction in helping people during a time of need. 

The self-confidence to act appropriately in an emergency, transmit confidence, 
and have a calming influence on an incident. 

Knowledge of when and how to take charge of a situation and the ability to do so 
in a firm, professional, and nonoffensive manner. 

The ability to anticipate what may be requested next based on what's being heard 
and what's happening. 

The ability to adjust to varying levels of activity, from no active incidents to 
having all units committed and large mutual aid forces assisting during a 
disaster. 

The ability to hear a message, interpret it, and repeat it without losing any of 
its meaning. 

The ability to pass a "criminal history check" and a polygraph examination, as 
permitted by local laws. 

The ability to pass a medical examination that includes a hearing test and sight 
test (in accordance with applicable laws such as the Americans with Disabilities 
Act). 

2-25 

Work Schedule --As in fire suppression, the work schedules for CC personnel vary 
widely. There is no perfect schedule. Some CC personnel may be governed by 
provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which affects overtime pay. 
Information concerning the FLSA can be obtained from your jurisdiction's 
personnel department or the U. S. Department of Labor. 

In CCs staffed by nonsworn personnel, the trend has been away from the rotating 
schedule in which an employee works a week on the day shift, a week on the 
midnight shift, then a week on the evening shift, or a combination thereof. 
There are many reasons for this trend, but the most common is the burden of the 
shift change on the employee. CCs that still use a rotating shift have, in many 
cases, lengthened the time between rotation to be months, and, in some 
instances, use a yearly rotation. A schedule that uses fixed shifts with 
rotating days off is becoming more popular. Under this schedule personnel are 
assigned to work as part of the same team on a permanent basis. 

In CCs staffed by sworn personnel (firefighters), the shift sometimes is the 
same as for personnel assigned to suppression units. This is often because of 
contractual agreement or organizational/ personal preference. For those 
jurisdictions opting for this approach, consideration must be given to employee 
effectiveness on shifts that extend beyond 12 hours. Some departments use 24-
hour shifts with nap periods in the evening, but there are still questions about 
the effectiveness of personnel on such long shifts. 4 

Civilian or Firefighter Personnel 

Both civilian and firefighter personnel have been used successfully in dispatch 
centers. Sometimes the civilian employees wear uniforms, but they are not 
considered "sworn" or 

4 Presently, there is no central source of information concerning shift 
schedules relating to CC operations and considering FLSA requirements. The 
Association of Public Safety Communications Officials International, Inc. (APCO) 
was planning, at the time this manual was being written, to undertake a project 
with the goal of developing a computer software package that will allow for the 
design of work schedules based on personnel, organizational, and FLSA criteria. 

2-26 

"uniformed" members of the department. The most frequently stated advantage of 
using civilian personnel is that they (nonsworn personnel) tend to be less 
expensive (considering salary, benefits, and equipment) to employ. Second, by 
using civilian personnel, longevity in the communications center may be greater 
than for uniformed personnel, who may transfer into other units after a few 
years. 

Civilians have been used as dispatchers in departments of all sizes. Where they 
are used, the following practices should be considered: 

Good hiring and selection processes should be used (the job is demanding and not 
everyone can fill it). 

The salary of the nonsworn dispatcher should be commensurate with the demanding 
and important nature of the position. 

A formal and extensive training program should be used. 

Training should be provided to CC personnel on the operation of the department( 
s) served by the CC. 

A career ladder should be developed to allow CC personnel to view their job as a 
career and to afford them the ability to advance from dispatcher to higher 
levels, preferably that of manager. 

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) should be developed to provide clear 
guidance to the dispatcher. 

An employee evaluation program should be used to keep employees apprised of 
their performance. 

2-27 

The main advantage of using firefighters as opposed to civilians is that they 
are familiar with fire department operations and tend to have EMT certification, 
which enables them to use their knowledge in making decisions not covered by the 
standard guidelines for dispatch. Locations of structures, knowledge of response 
routes, and firsthand knowledge of operational concerns can give the uniformed 
firefighter the ability to anticipate requests for assistance from the field. 
Another advantage is shorter training time; they already have been trained in 
firefighting operations and have been successfully screened. They require 
training only in communications equipment and procedures. 

The use of uniformed personnel can allow more discretion to be given to the 
dispatcher, for example, in adding units to a standard response in the event of 
a suspected major incident. The firefighter/ EMT also may handle EMS calls with 
more awareness of the caller's problem and how to treat it. Yet with proper 
training and procedures, experienced civilians have shown that they can perform 
as well as uniformed personnel. 

Training 

Communications operator training is evolving from the older on-the-job training 
concept to a more formalized training system. In the past, fire departments 
paired new dispatchers with more experienced dispatchers to learn the system. 
The level of training was based solely on what the senior dispatcher thought was 
important. Often some vital element of the new dispatcher's training was 
overlooked until a mistake was made. 

Today, most fire departments have formalized programs for training new 
dispatchers. While on-the-job training is still the major portion of these 
programs, now clear training objectives are delineated within written training 
courses. Lesson plans are developed for each segment of the course. These plans 
spell out the desired results and performance levels. Tests are prepared to 
determine when the student is ready to advance to the next step. This formalized 
training plan allows the student to logically progress through the training 
program to the final objective: becoming a competent member of the 
communications team. Exhibit 2-5 shows the 

2-28 

Dallas, Texas, Fire Department dispatcher training console. Dallas uses sworn 
firefighters as dispatchers and provides an extensive training program before 
assignment to a dispatching shift. 

Exhibit 2-5. Dallas Fire Department Communications Center Training Console. The 
console allows realistic training without having to tie up an operational 
console. 

Excellent dispatcher training is available from the Association of Public Safety 
Communications Officials International, Inc. (APCO) 5 for dispatchers and call-
takers for fire, emergency medical services, and law enforcement. Many fire 
departments develop their own guidelines for training their personnel. 

5 Nasser, Joseph Y., 80-Hour Telecommunicator Training Course, APCO, 1987, First 
Ed. 

2-29 

The subjects covered in good dispatcher courses can be placed in four broad 
categories: 

1. Communications skills. 
2. Departmental procedures. 
3. Equipment use. 
4. Interpersonal communications and understanding. 

The material covered in these categories is summarized in the table below. 

Table 2-1. Elements of Dispatcher Training 

Communications Skills Includes the ability to listen intently, speak clearly and 
accurately, not jump to conclusions, and obtain the correct information. 

Departmental Procedures Includes basic types of fire incidents, emergency 
medical incidents, responses to other emergencies, administrative notifications, 
and interagency communications. 

Equipment Use Covers the gamut from telephones to sophisticated computer 
systems. Today's dispatcher must be skilled in the use of the latest 
communications equipment available to his or her department. 

Interpersonal Communications and Understanding Addresses the need to be aware of 
the community. Differences in verbal mannerisms can prevent accurate information 
from being communicated. 

Communications Skills --APCO has defined communications as the transmission of 
an idea from one mind to another, with understanding. Communication skills for 
dispatchers include the techniques of writing, reading, speaking, and listening. 

2-30 

Key skills for the call-taker/ dispatcher include 

identifying yourself and determining to whom you are speaking; 
listening closely to what the caller or speaker is saying; 
asking questions in a logical order so as to receive pertinent information; 
never assuming an answer; 
remembering to be brief during questions and answers since time is of the 
essence; 
recording the information accurately so that it can be retrieved; 
speaking calmly and with a clear voice, not rushing your words; and remembering 
that the dispatcher/ call-taker speaks with the voice of authority for the 
department. 

Departmental Procedures --Departmental communication procedures cover the broad 
spectrum of what a fire department does and how it accomplishes those tasks. 
Each department has developed written or implied policies regarding how it 
conducts business. Each of these policies should have corresponding written 
communications procedures. An example of a well-developed communication policy 
and procedure manual is that of the Huntington Beach, California Fire 
Department. Huntington Beach has divided its policies into six general areas: 

administrative 
communications 
equipment 
operations 

2-31 

responses 
training 

Administrative policy provides written procedures for incident number 
assignment, chief officer notifications, outside agency notifications, 
organizational charts, and administrative lines of authority. 

Communications policy contains procedures for dispatching units, mutual aid 
responses, receipt of emergency reports by field companies, 9-1-1 calls, 
definitions, use of clear text, and general radio protocols. 

Equipment deals with equipment out of service, apparatus identification, and 
standard terminology for equipment. 

Operations policy covers fire company coverage, alerting stations and personnel, 
emergency medical responses, hazardous materials incidents, helicopter 
operations, and mutual aid responses. 

Response policy sets procedures for the number and type of units sent to each 
type of emergency, including structure fires, requests for ambulance service, 
animal calls, flooding conditions, and nonemergency service requests. The policy 
includes everything from ordering tow trucks to requests for public utilities' 
response. 

Training policy specifies interagency training, a master training plan, and 
continuing education for all members of the department. 

The Phoenix, Arizona Fire Department has a similar set of policies regarding 
operations, dispatching, administrative responsibilities, and training. As in 
many other major departments, Phoenix has developed an additional procedure for 
emergency medical dispatching. This 

2-32 

procedure requires the use of Emergency Medical Technician (EMT)-trained 
personnel to dispatch all medical calls within its dispatch center. 

Emergency medical calls dominate the workload in many CCs today. The emergency 
medical system is composed of several levels of care, ranging from first-
responder to Basic Life Support (BLS) to Advanced Life Support (ALS) using 
paramedics. With the presence of different levels of medical skills, decisions 
often must be made regarding what level of skill is needed for each call, since 
many departments are unable to provide the highest level of medical response 
(ALS) to all EMS incidents. Strict procedures are needed to govern the level of 
response and coordination with other agencies, such as private ambulance 
services. 

Dispatchers should provide medical self-help instruction to the caller until 
emergency units arrive. Guidelines for giving self-help instructions must be 
clear, simple, and succinct enough to be given quickly over the telephone. Each 
of the guidelines should be developed and reviewed by the authorized medical 
authority responsible for the overall EMS program. In many departments all 
dispatchers are firefighters trained as EMTs; these personnel often are referred 
to as Emergency Medical Dispatchers (EMDs). 6 

The new call-taker/ dispatcher must be completely familiar with these 
operational policies and procedures before becoming a full member of the 
communications team. The training program should include all of the department's 
policies and procedures that relate to communications. 

Equipment Use --To the new dispatcher, the modem communications center can seem 
like the "mission control" for space shuttle flights. The large array of 
sophisticated electronic equipment can intimidate the new trainee. 

6 Richard Keller and Jamiel Yameen. "EMD in the Fire Service," Fire Chief; May 
1992, p. 46. 

2-33 

A well-planned training program will cover each element of the overall equipment 
system in turn and have training segments that build on one another. The 
Huntington Beach Fire Department begins with basic telephone call-taker 
techniques and simple computer commands, then adds telephone operations. Once 
the trainee has mastered these functions, along with the corresponding 
procedures, he or she can begin functioning as a call-taker and is ready for the 
next phase of training. 

Exhibit 2-6. Los Angeles County's Command and Control Facility. 

2-34 

The next phase of training deals with more complex computer commands and moves 
into the use of radio equipment. The final phase covers trouble-shooting and 
maintenance of computers, recorders, and printers. By separating the complex 
equipment systems into simpler individual elements, Huntington Beach has 
developed a successful training program. Many other departments have similar 
programs. 

Interpersonal Communications --Much of what a call-taker/ dispatcher says to the 
public would be classified as formal communications. If care is not taken, the 
impression given can be impersonal and somewhat cold, the "voice of authority." 
Skill in interpersonal communications allows a dispatcher to step beyond that 
formal level and understand the communication skills, attitudes, values, and 
experiences of the other person. 

APCO's Basic Course presents this view of interpersonal communications: 
Telecommunicators must be aware of the fact that interpersonal communications is 
the framework upon which all communication transactions are built... Behavioral 
scientists tell us that less than ten percent of all communication is done 
verbally, while most understanding is achieved by means such as facial 
expression, voice inflection, body gestures and so forth. Given this, the 
process is made much more difficult for the telecommunicator, who is limited to 
the use of radio, mobile data transmission, teletype, telephone, etc. Basic 
comprehension of the principle of interpersonal communication is therefore a 
prerequisite to effective telecommunications. (APCO, Basic Telecommunicator 
Course, 2nd Ed., 1992.) 

That is, interpersonal communications normally includes more than just verbal 
exchanges. Tone of voice, body posture, and eye contact all are part of everyday 
communications. Turn off the sound on a television and watch the actors. The 
silent body 

2-35 

messages will stand out delivering the story line. Unfortunately, emergency 
communicators usually don't have the luxury of using all of these elements that 
make up interpersonal communications. Their communications are limited to what 
is spoken or heard. A trained emergency communicator knows that listening 
skills, a clear, calm, authoritative voice, and appropriate questioning skills 
are critical for successful communications. A raised voice or argumentative 
posture will quickly exacerbate the emergency situation. 

Having limited the emergency communicator to listening and speaking for 
gathering and distributing information, that person's self-discipline becomes 
critical to the success of the operation. A dispatcher cannot become lazy or lax 
in gathering and disseminating information. The operator must ask logical 
questions, listen carefully while not making assumptions, reach accurate 
conclusions, and deliver clear instructions. An emergency communications 
operator's error can cause the loss of human life. 

The emergency communications operator, as the coordinating link for the 
department, also must not let personality differences interfere with the smooth 
flow of information. Each individual has his or her own personality traits. 
People react differently to each person's personality. The operator must 
maintain an unbiased, professional attitude toward all the people with whom he 
or she communicates. 

Further, many fire departments serve a population that is becoming more diverse, 
with growing numbers of new immigrants who have different cultural or ethnic 
philosophies and difficulty with the English language. Some of these people may 
come from regions of the world in which asking for help from authorities is 
considered unwise. Some fear some kind of punishment. Many are concerned with 
service charges. Communications centers must deal with these differences and the 
new trainee needs to be made sensitive to the potential problems and have 
instructions on how to handle these situations. 

In areas with large non-English-speaking populations, translation capability 
should be established to facilitate accurate reporting of emergencies. 
Nationwide dial-up translation 

2-36 

services are available from telephone companies. Some cities with large foreign-
speaking populations use bilingual dispatchers, or train dispatchers in some 
basics of the local languages. 

Monitoring --The final element of a training program should be monitoring the 
service provided. The best-written training program will eventually fail if 
quality assurance isn't maintained. The development of a quality assurance 
program to verify that the appropriate level of assistance is sent to each call 
should be an integral part of any training program. 

Many other issues and details of managing communications centers are presented 
in Chapters 3 and 4. 

2-37 

3. Planning A Communications System 

Fire department communications within the United States may well have its roots 
with the "town crier" of the 1700s. Quite often one of his duties was to watch 
for fires and sound the alarm calling the citizens to form a bucket brigade to 
extinguish the blaze. 7 This simple solution is an example of analyzing a 
communication problem and developing a plan to manage the situation. While the 
Communications Center, discussed in the previous chapter, is the hub of modern 
fire department communications, there are many other components and facets to 
consider. 

What is a Communications System? 

The passing of information from one person to another, with understanding, is 
the fundamental purpose of any communications system. A fire department 
communications system is a series of elements that allows a department to 
exchange information from different sources and generate timely actions that 
allow the department to meet its responsibilities. Every element that plays a 
role in the exchange of information is part of the system. 

A fire department communications system has three major tasks or purposes. The 
first is to establish communications between the public and the department for 
receiving requests for assistance or information. The second purpose is to 
determine the level of response and communicate that information to the 
appropriate resources. The third purpose is to provide effective communications 
among the individual resources and the communications center so as to facilitate 
the successful resolution of the incident. 

Each of these tasks must be done accurately and within acceptable timeframes. 
The acceptable timeframe may vary with the working environment. For example, 
within the vast 

7 NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 14th Ed. 

3-1 

wilderness areas protected by federal and state fire agencies, the required 
timeframe for receiving a call and dispatching resources may be hours rather 
than the seconds or minutes expected for the metropolitan fire department. 

Any analysis of fire department communication systems must begin with a basic 
understanding of its three main purposes. The analysis should develop acceptable 
criteria for accomplishing each element. Future demands for service should be 
identified. Current systems should be measured against the current and 
anticipated workload to see if the criteria can be met. This analysis will 
identify whether there is a need to change procedures or components. 

Hardware Components 

The components of a communications system include the people and the hardware. 
Basic fire communications relies on the audible and the visible, what one hears 
and sees, and how one speaks. Hardware affects how this communication can be 
accomplished. Fireground communication can take advantage of other senses, but 
these must be "translated" into speech in order to be transmitted to others. 

This section discusses some of the major hardware elements and options in a 
modern fire department communications system. The next section briefly discusses 
the human element (which is discussed at length in Chapter 5). The reader who is 
not familiar with the basic components of a radio system may wish to read 
Chapter 6, Communications Hardware, first. 

Radio Elements-An analysis of a fire communications plan or system must include 
an understanding of the available hardware systems that can be used to meet the 
department's objective of effective communications. One of the major aspects of 
fire department communications is the use of the radio frequency spectrum to 
carry messages (both verbal and 

3-2 

digital). Base stations, mobile radios, and portable radios are the essential 
radio components of virtually all fire department communications systems. 

Radio signals and visible light have much in common. They both are electro-
magnetic fields which oscillate at very high rates (frequencies). However, they 
occupy different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum-different frequency 
ranges. Radio signals oscillate at a rate much lower than that of visible 
light., The oscillation rate is measured in terms of cycles per second (cps). 
Radio frequencies oscillate at millions of cycles per second. At one time this 
rate was called megacycles. However, to honor a German physicist, Heinrich 
Hertz, the scientific community replaced cycles per second with the term Hertz. 
Therefore, the units of measurement went from Megacycles (MC) to Megahertz 
(MHz)-a million cycles per second. 

For years, fire department radios made use of the frequencies clustered in the 
"low band," around 33 to 46 MHz, and the "high band" of 150 to 174 MHz. Both of 
these bands provide excellent coverage for most fire departments. 

However, there is a limited amount of expansion available within a given radio 
frequency range, and fire service radio is no exception. When a department needs 
additional frequencies to meet expanding communications requirements, it may 
find that no frequencies are available in the bandwidth (low, high, or UHF) of 
its existing equipment. Many departments have had to move their radio 
communications to the 450 to 500 MHz frequencies to find additional 
communications channels. These ultra high frequency channels do not have the 
range of the low or high band frequencies and quite often require higher output 
transmitters or the use of repeaters to have the same coverage as the low or 
high band frequencies. 

In many areas of the country, particularly in metropolitan areas, even the 450 
to 500 Mhz frequencies have all been committed and yet the demand for additional 
channels continues. As a result, many departments now look to the 800 MHz range 
for additional frequencies. 

3-3 

The majority of fire communications systems include at least one fixed station 
base transceiver and some number of mobile and portable radios (transceivers). 
Most of these systems operate on one frequency, that is, the transmit frequency 
is the same as the receive frequency. 

Exhibit 3-1. Transmitter Sections & Receiver Sections of All Transceivers on 
Same Frequency, Freq. A. 

Repeater Systems --At the next level of complexity in radio systems are 
"repeating systems." They have at least one fixed station base transmitter and 
some number of mobile and portable radios, and use two frequencies as shown in 
Exhibit 3-2. Base to mobile transmits on Frequency A and is received on 
Frequency A. Mobile or portable to base transmits on Frequency B and is received 
on Frequency B; base then retransmits the input from Frequency B on Frequency A, 
so that all other mobiles and portables can monitor both sides of conversation. 
An even higher level of sophistication for what is still considered a 
conventional radio system is the use of many satellite receivers and multiple 
repeating transmitters, all operating off a single dispatch console or 
communications center. 

3-4 

Exhibit 3-2. Repeater System. 

Trunking Systems --The age of computer-aided communications gave birth to a 
relatively new concept in radio communications, trunking systems. Trunking may 
be new to the business of fire communications system management, but as an 
engineering concept, it is not new. The telephone industry has used the concept 
of trunking for years, for almost the exact same reason trunking is used in 
radio communications management: the dwindling availability of hard wire and 
microwave channels between various geographic parts of the country. The Federal 
Communications Commission (FCC) opened the 800 MHz band to emergency providers 
with the stipulation that the use of this band be principally for trunked 
systems. 

The technical details of trunking can be obtained from any reliable, experienced 
radio communications equipment and systems manufacturer. In layman's terms it is 
something like this. 

3-5 

An uncluttered, available frequency spectrum is becoming rare. In conventional 
radio communications system and frequency spectrum management, users with like 
interests were, and are, clumped together, one next to the other, in small bands 
of the spectrum. Each agency is assigned its own operating frequency, or set of 
frequencies. In many situations, because of operational needs, some agencies are 
assigned more than one frequency, or even pairs of frequencies. This is a clean, 
clear-cut way of keeping one user out of the way of other users, provided all 
users keep their radio communications transmitted signals nice and clean. 

At the same time, there is a certain amount of inefficiency inherent in the 
"single channel-single user" method of spectrum resource management. The channel 
often lies dormant, with no radio transmissions taking place most of the time. 

Consider the two following examples. A small rural community in the heartland of 
the United States serves a population of 20,000. A frequency in the 154 MHz 
region is assigned to the fire department; another is supplied to the police 
department; another to the public works department. Three frequencies are 
assigned to 20,000 people. The fire department makes perhaps one or two 
emergency responses daily. These responses involve critical transmissions on the 
fire frequency. Likewise the police department. frequency is quiet much of the 
time. The public works frequency is moderately busy during the workday. After 
normal work hours and at night, the frequencies are quiet. 

On the other hand, a large metropolitan community, with approximately 1,000,000 
people, has the same individual public safety and service agencies. Each can be 
assigned a single frequency, maybe two each, or perhaps even a repeater pair for 
each. Nevertheless, the vastly different ratio of population to "used frequency 
spectrum" and "actual transmission time" on these frequencies becomes obvious 
when compared to the rural community described above. 

3-6 

Certainly the second case is a more efficient use of radio frequency resources 
compared to the first case. Yet, efficiency is not as high as it might be. What 
if any transmitter and receiver could be used by any of the agencies, depending 
on which channel equipment is available? 

Consider another situation, where there are six frequencies available. Six 
agencies wish to cover a moderately large area. Repeaters are required to 
perform this technical task, In a conventional system, with a frequency assigned 
to each of the six agencies, unfortunately 12 frequencies would be necessary, 
and they aren't available. Certainly all can't have the luxury of repeater pairs 
in a conventional configuration. Is it possible to provide repeater service to 
six agencies with the resources of six frequencies, and upgrade system 
performance? 

Insofar as the user is concerned, the frequency being used is not important, 
only the "communicating." Consider now a computer-managed radio system. Assume 
one of the frequencies is assigned to constant transmission of data to every 
receiver in the field, and reception of data from every transmitter in the 
field. All the field equipment would "know" what the main system controller is 
"thinking about," and the main system controller would know whether every field 
unit is available and whether it is transmitting or receiving, just to mention a 
few critical pieces of information. The data, sent on a "control frequency," are 
continuously telling all the receivers in the system what frequency they should 
be listening to and telling all transmitters the frequency on which they should 
be transmitting. 

Assume that the fire department field radios are all assigned one common code 
and that a different code is assigned for all public works radios. The computer 
manager monitors all the communications by each agency. It also monitors the 
traffic on each of the repeater pairs available in the system. If public works 
makes a transmission and Channel A is available, the public works transmissions 
go onto Channel A as managed by the computer manager. If police wish to 
communicate at the same time, they are placed on Channel B. If fire transmits, 
this agency is sent to Channel C. This now places all the available channels in 
service. Along comes 

3-7 

a fourth city agency. A transmission is made. It just so happens, at the time, 
that there is a lull in the transmissions on Channel B. The computer places the 
fourth agency on Channel B. Communications take place. Later, when trying to 
make another transmission, the computer senses that Channel C is not in use and 
places the fourth agency on Channel C. The user is unaware that there has been a 
change in frequency, because all transmitters and receivers in the field are 
directed automatically to the proper channel by the computer manager. 

Let's carry this one step further. Assume the public works department wishes to 
work with the fire department for an hour or so. Upon computer command, as 
requested by the dispatcher or the user, the codes of the public works and fire 
department are managed by the controller so "conversation" can take place. 
Suddenly, it is as if they are all one happy family. Individual field radios can 
be programmed to speak privately with some other individual radio, All these 
tasks are accomplished by the computer manager. 

In many areas, several agencies have cooperated to share in trunking systems 
that make available a greater number of channels for reuse. The Huntington 
Beach, California, Fire Department uses the Orange County 800 MHz trunking 
system for both voice and data transmissions. One of the advantages to this 
county-wide system is the ability of any department on the system to communicate 
with any agency on the system. The available channels on this system could not 
have been obtained with conventional systems. 

The examples above are but a sample of the features that are being added 
constantly to trunking systems. One of the principal reasons these features are 
in flux is that the system operation is managed principally by computer 
software. Many of the applications of trunking systems are yet to be discovered. 
When the opportunity arises or necessity requires that a new radio system be 
considered, the manager might temporarily mentally cast off current radio system 
practices and consider how the agency would like to operate a communications 
system since so much more is now possible with the advent of trunking system 
technology. 

3-8 

Mobile Data Systems --The increasing demand for more and better communications 
while still meeting the basic objective of rapid dispatch has caused many 
departments to turn to digital communications. A verbal dispatch to multiple 
units using conventional radio methods may take as much as one minute for 
broadcast and acknowledgement. That same dispatch can be done digitally in less 
than five seconds. 8 One digital radio channel can handle roughly ten times as 
many messages as a conventional voice frequency. 9 

A key element of these digital systems is the mobile data terminal (MDT). These 
terminals are usually installed in each apparatus and have the capability to 
transmit and receive text (alphanumeric messages). A typical unit has a keyboard 
for typing messages, a small video screen for displaying messages, and a series 
of buttons for indicating unit status. 

When a mobile data system is tied to a modern computer-aided dispatch system, 
the time of dispatch, from receipt of the call to automatic acknowledgement from 
the responding units, can be less than one minute. 

The written message of the MDT also alleviates the problem of the spoken message 
being misunderstood (such as transposing address numbers). For those departments 
with heavy voice traffic, the MDT system is an excellent tool for reducing 
traffic to just the tactical needs of commanding incidents. 

8 Performance tests, Los Angeles County Fire Department, 1991. 
9 Ibid. 

3-9 

Exhibit 3-3. Mockup of Los Angeles City Fire Department mobile communications 
equipment. The MDT display and keyboard are at bottom of cabinet; automatic 
vehicle locator and radio control are at top. 

Microwave Links --Another radio element for many systems is the microwave link. 
For departments that have to use remote base station sites or require several 
channels to each fire station, microwave links normally are used. 

A microwave link bundles together several radio channels, both voice and/ or 
data, and retransmits them at very high speed from one point to another. The 
link acts like a "freeway" with multiple lanes that allow the messages to travel 
faster than on individual "side streets." Once the message reaches the end of 
the link, it separates and follows its own course. The 

3-10 

microwave link allows for multiple messages to be transported at very high speed 
between two fixed points. 

Cellular Telephones --Many fire departments have installed cellular telephones 
to augment their main communications system. An example of how cellular 
telephones can assist departments was evidenced in the Whittier earthquake of 
1988 in Southern California. Regular telephone service was disrupted and 
emergency radio channels were overtaxed by tactical operations. The Los Angeles 
County Fire Department had installed cellular telephones in all of its command 
vehicles. The field commanders were able to use their cellular telephones to 
reach the department's command center, thus providing timely information that 
allowed the department to assess the extent of the damage. It may even be 
worthwhile to keep a cellular line open between the incident and the CC to 
prevent having the lines tied up by the media or public. It may be wise to also 
establish cellular phone numbers for outgoing and incoming cellular calls. 

Another advantage of cellular telephones is that they can help the fire chief or 
command officer to be more productive by giving him or her access to the 
telephone system while in his/ her vehicle. The chief can handle administrative 
duties quickly without having to wait to reach the office. 

Hard-fines --Many departments use what are called "hard-line" systems to 
communicate with remote sites such as fire stations or other communications 
centers. The hard-line may be municipal alarm lines or leased telephone lines 
dedicated to the department, as opposed to radio links. The lines can be used to 
send messages to a teletype machine or to transmit voice announcements over a 
speaker system. 

Today, much of the fire service still uses some form of a hard-line system to 
dispatch units from fire stations. Although the teletype machines are quickly 
fading into history, personal computers and printers are taking their place. The 
hard-line system can be a very practical method for communications between fixed 
points. 

3-11 

The Huntington Beach Fire Department has developed a Wide Area Network (WAN) for 
the exclusive use of the fire department using a hard-line system that links 
personal computers and printers in each fire station along with "voice-over" 
capability. Dispatches are transmitted to the fire stations via the hard-line 
system and printed out using the PC and printer. A short voice dispatch also is 
given over the same system. Units responding can acknowledge either over the 
station system or on MDTs in the apparatus. 

The WAN offers the additional capability for the fire stations to electronically 
complete their various reports and transmit them to a central computer. This 
provides quicker and more accurate fire reports and statistics. The WAN begins 
the process of uniting the whole department electronically, allowing its members 
to share information quickly and easily. Fiber optic cable is fast replacing 
wire as a means for linking computers in a WAN. 10 

Fax --Fax machines are another frequently used element in fire department 
communications. Besides their use in routine office work, fax machines are 
sometimes used to supplement radio and hard-line voice communications. In one 
department, for example, the fax is used to send the address received from an 
extended 9-1-1 system at a police-run communications center to the fire dispatch 
office. 

Pagers --There has been an explosion in the use of pagers in emergency services. 
These are devices worn on belts or elsewhere and are triggered by radio or 
telephone systems to alert the wearer that someone wants to speak to him/ her or 
to pass on a message. Pagers vary from transmitting a live radio message to 
showing a single telephone number to call back, to having a screen with 
alphanumeric messages. They may alert the wearer by a tone or vibration or by 
simply turning on and broadcasting. They are enormously useful for tracking down 
everyone from the chief to volunteers, and getting key messages heard. 

l0 Frank Christen. "Fiber for the Fire Service," Firehouse, April 1991, p. 70. 

3-12 

Computers --Twenty-five years ago, nearly every fire department in the country 
had a manual dispatch system. Calls were received and addresses looked up on 
some form of manual card system. Resources were identified from chalkboards or 
paper tickets, and dispatches were made over voice radio frequencies. In the 
early 1970s, some of the larger departments began to develop computer programs 
to assist them with an ever-increasing demand for services. These early systems 
were often clumsy and not very "user friendly," but they did begin to 
automatically process some of the previous manual functions. 

The modern computerized dispatch systems are information processors that use 
automated data processing to assist personnel in dispatching emergency units to 
incidents. They include ancillary systems that maintain status information, 
generate management reports, and supervise communications subsystems. The 
combination of modern computer dispatch systems with new radio technology can 
save critical minutes in the dispatch process. 

The Huntington Beach, California, Fire Department now has a modern computer-
aided dispatch system (CAD). Calls for assistance are received via an enhanced 
9-1-1 system which transfers the address automatically to the CAD. The address 
is displayed on the operator's (call-taker's) monitor; the computer has already 
verified the address and given the dispatch zone. The system also will notify 
the operator of any other incidents in the same area. If the caller is reporting 
an incident that is not directly at his or her address, the operator can display 
the incident on an electronic map showing nearby streets and landmarks. 

3-13 

Exhibit 3-4. Huntington Beach, California, CAD System installed in the 1970s. 
The system has since been replaced. 

Once the type of incident is identified, the information is automatically 
transferred to the dispatcher, along with the appropriate available resources 
recommended to be dispatched. The call-taker can remain on the line with the 
caller to give prearrival instructions, if necessary. The dispatcher transmits 
the dispatch to the recommended units by both automatic digital message to the 
MDTs and with a short verbal voice dispatch. The MDT system digitally tells the 
CAD that the message has been delivered. An audible/ visible signal is received 
at the MDT indicating a message has been sent to that unit. Status changes are 
processed digitally between the MDT system and the CAD. All transactions are 
recorded with time and actions taken. 

The CAD, along with the MDT system, is saving valuable minutes on each incident. 
It also is providing accurate statistics so that the department's management can 
see response patterns to use for future planning. Another plus is that it 
reduces radio traffic. 

3-14 

Exhibit 3-5. Los Angeles County CAD System display monitors at a Tactical Radio 
Operator Console. 

Human Elements 

The best hardware in the world will not be effective unless there are competent 
people to operate it. The equation for a successful communications system 
includes hardware, trained personnel, and standard operating procedures. In 
addition to selecting and training personnel, as discussed in Chapter 2, the 
planning for a communications system must consider the types of verbal messages 
that will be permitted, and the procedures for the style of verbal discourse to 
be allowed. 

Each profession tends to develop its own verbal shortcuts for conversing with 
fellow professionals. This professional jargon can present a serious handicap in 
the emergency communications field. Verbal shortcuts can lead to 
misunderstanding between the parties that are attempting to communicate. A 
trained dispatcher must understand the importance of clear speech without 
shortcuts. 

3-15 

The Association of Public Safety Communication Officials International Inc. 
(APCO) recommends that departments adopt a "clear text" format for emergency 
communications. A clear text format does not allow jargon or codes but instead 
requires the communicators to use simple commands and responses that can be 
easily understood. Such a system helps eliminate the potential for verbal errors 
and eliminates the need for memorization of numerous codes. 11 (The familiar l0-
codes used by police and fire agencies, and other aspects of verbal 
communications, are discussed further in Chapter 5.) 

Analyzing Current Performance 

When analyzing communications performance, each fire department must develop 
criteria that define acceptable performance for each aspect of the 
communications system. The same criteria need to be specified for planning a 
future system. The categories of criteria may be as follows. 

Acceptable timeframe from receipt of call to acknowledgement of dispatch by 
responding units. 

Adequate communication channels for tactical operations. 

The requirement for using communications protocols. 

The communications requirements for multiple incidents. 

A plan for graceful degradation of the overall communications system when 
component systems fail. 

11 Codes are used successfully by many departments. For a defense of 10-codes, 
see W. W. Varedoe, "Standardizing Communications," 9-l-l Magazine, January/ 
February 1991, p. 30. 

3-16 

A complete tracking of all resources. 

Once a department has identified its criteria, it then can measure its current 
system against them. Does the system meet the department's objectives for 
current demands and future growth? 

Many departments may find that their current system, although not the latest 
technology, meets the communications needs of the department. Some departments 
have fallen prey to continually trying to keep up with the latest communications 
trends. Unfortunately, the latest technology tends to become obsolete soon after 
it is installed. It is more important for the system to meet the needs of the 
department than to always try to have the newest technology. Responsible 
spending requires the fire department to separate its wants from its needs. 

Interference with Other Systems --Departments sometimes forget that they do not 
operate in a vacuum. Their communications system must coexist with other 
systems, both internal and external to the department. The possibility of 
interference with or from other systems must be considered in advance as part of 
the licensing process and in planning new systems. 

As an example, a large West Coast fire department installed a complex new 
communications system to meet its increasing demands for service. At the same 
time the corresponding law enforcement agency was installing its own separate 
communications system. They shared transmitter sites and had worked out 
interference problems at those locations but had gone their own separate ways on 
each system. When the systems were brought online it was discovered that mobile 
units parked next to each other created interference to the other units when 
transmitting. 

3-17 

The lesson here is that departments planning new systems must analyze the effect 
of that system on all communications users in their area. As more frequencies 
are used in a concentrated location, the greater the chance that some frequency 
interference will occur. 

In many areas of the country, fire departments share radio frequencies with 
other fire agencies and EMS providers. As demand for services has increased, 
many departments find themselves competing for air time with other system users 
on the same frequency. These others can be planned users, such as the other 
departments in a county-wide communication system, or they can be unplanned 
users, such as agencies in other communities whose transmissions cause 
interference. 

To change a frequency is usually very expensive for an agency, yet the 
interference may prevent the department from meeting its delivery standards. 
There must be a coordinated approach to frequency use if all of the users in an 
area are to meet their communications needs. An area-wide communications plan is 
highly desirable for reducing interference problems. 

Establishing System Requirements 

Planning fire service and public safety communications systems is an extremely 
critical function for several reasons. The most obvious reason is that the 
communications system is a vital element of a public safety organization because 
if the communications system fails to operate effectively, the organization may 
not be able to function and deliver its services. In addition, modern 
communications systems are very expensive and complex, requiring extended lead 
times to obtain new equipment or to correct design errors that may occur because 
of poor planning. Poor planning of communications systems has resulted in 
multimillion-dollar mistakes and nonfunctional systems, and has led to personal 
embarrassment and ruined careers among planners. In some cases an error in 
planning can cost lives. 

3-18 

Effective communications planning requires a thorough knowledge of the functions 
of the organization as they are today and as they are likely to be in the 
future. It also requires thinking out the manner in which communications must 
support the organization, and the rapidly changing technology of public safety 
communications. One of the challenges is to make some essential decisions on 
technological options and to decide on a system design and configuration. It is 
possible, in the changing technological environment, to chase after state-of-
the-art systems to the point that a final design cannot be selected and agreed 
upon. The effective planner will "freeze" the design process at a point where it 
is feasible to proceed with purchase, installation, and implementation, while 
keeping a capability to incorporate future advances and opportunities that will 
improve and extend the effective life cycle for the communications system. 

Projecting Future Demand --Projecting future communications system requirements 
begins with predicting an overall activity level for the system. This can be 
projected most directly from consideration of the population to be served and 
the number of incidents that are generated on a per capita basis, considering 
present levels and past trends to identify the probable activity level. For 
example, a population of 1,000,000 might be estimated to generate 100,000 calls 
per year. If the projected population 10 years in the future is 1.2 million, a 
first approximation of the activity level in 10 years would be 120,000 
incidents. This could be modified by adding an activity level increase of two 
percent per year, based on past experience over and above population growth. 
This would increase the projected activity level to 132,400 incidents. 
Refinement to the projection can be made based on the estimated changing mix in 
population by age group and income group, and the past or projected call rate 
for each of these groups. 

In projecting a future activity level, it is important to base projections on a 
"steady state" activity level. A system that has seen a significant change in 
service delivery often experiences a major growth in activity per capita over a 
two-to five-year period, then levels out. Projecting trends to continue for 5 to 
10 years into the future can cause gross errors. However, an emergency 
communications system cannot be planned simply on an "average" workload. The 

3-19 

workload will vary with seasons of the year, days of the week, hours of the day, 
climatic conditions, special events, and other factors. An effective system will 
have the ability to handle peak predictable workload, without compromising on 
accuracy or the time to process priority traffic, although some degradation of 
the processing time for nonpriority traffic is usually acceptable. It is next to 
impossible to predict or plan for an absolute peak activity level because there 
are circumstances that present the possibility of overwhelming any system in an 
absolute worst-case situation. 

By studying the relationships between annual activity levels and peak day and 
hour activity levels, it is possible to project design activity levels for a 
system for 5, 10 or even 20 years into the future. The accuracy of those 
projections can have a tremendous impact on the design of a new system. 

One of the most important factors in design of a new system is to define 
acceptable or desirable service levels for some date in the future. The normal 
projection range for new communications systems is 10 years, based on the rate 
of change of current communications technologies. For some major components, 
such as the overall size of a communications center, a 20-year projection may be 
appropriate. Projecting a service level for a date in the future means that the 
system will be designed to handle an anticipated workload or activity level with 
certain performance characteristics at that future date. 

The performance level can be described by factors such as the throughput of 
transactions and time performance specifications. For example, a 9-1-1 center 
may project a maximum call volume of 600 calls per hour, or 10 calls per minute, 
with every call being answered by the third ring and not more than one percent 
of the callers receiving a busy signal. Accuracy of routing and handling calls 
also may be specified. 

Given all of these inputs, plus the information that each operator spends an 
average of, say, 52 seconds handling a call, it would be possible to design a 
system to meet those criteria. It 

3-20 

also would be possible to predict the effects of a system change on the overall 
design, such as a change in procedures that would allow the operators to handle 
a call in 30 seconds instead of 52 seconds. 

Other components of a system can be planned based on projected service levels 
and workloads. One function of the radio network may be to track the status of 
units. Using voice transmissions to advise a dispatcher when units are in or out 
of quarters, responding to calls, arriving at the scene, and available for 
another call may add up to a rate of 30 transmissions per minute during a peak 
period. This could occupy three radio channels and three radio operators. The 
introduction of digital technology could allow all of these messages to be 
transmitted and entered into a CAD system with 100 percent accuracy, with no 
radio operator and reserve capacity on a single radio channel. 

Each change in an operating system may result in a significant change in 
workload, staffing requirements, system accuracy, and overall capacity. A major 
communications system may have one radio channel and one position dedicated to 
paging individuals with emergency and nonemergency messages. A plan to install a 
digital message system could allow outside callers to make nonemergency pages 
and allow an operator to send a major incident notification to 25 individuals 
with a single keyboard transaction, using the excess capacity of the radio 
channel that is set aside for digital transmissions. These changes can be 
incorporated into a system plan and the improvements in operational efficiency 
can be projected against future workloads and service levels. One of the major 
challenges in planning is to keep up with changing technologies and to maintain 
the ability to upgrade systems to take advantage of the advances. 12 

12 One of the most popular planning cycles for public safety agencies is a five-
year planning system. This involves a detailed plan for the next five years, 
which is updated annually to keep five years of current detailed plans in focus, 
followed by a projection for the 6th through 10th years, which is necessarily 
less precise. Every five years a major plan revision cycle is conducted. 

3-21 

Planning for Maintenance 

The specified communications performance standards will only be as viable as the 
level to which they are maintained. Planning a communications system therefore 
needs to address how the various elements of the system-people skills and 
software as well as procedures and hardware-will be maintained, not just how 
they will function on day one. Each of these elements of the system must have a 
maintenance or quality assurance program if the system is to be successful. 

Types of Maintenance --A set of formal, written procedures constitutes the plan 
by which a department operates its dispatch and communications system. It 
includes the types of equipment to be dispatched to different types of 
incidents, how units are controlled, how emergency calls are handled, which 
frequencies are assigned, how units are to communicate with each other and with 
the communications center, and how communications and notifications to other 
agencies are handled. (The procedures are discussed further in Chapter 4.) The 
manuals that describe these procedures must be updated as practices change. 

Many departments incorporate dispatch and communications procedures into 
software programs that make automatic recommendations and notifications to 
departmental personnel. For example, the computer may select a candidate 
complement of equipment to be sent based on the address of the occupancy where a 
fire is reported. All of these software programs require ongoing review and 
updating to maintain their integrity and keep them current. The procedures and 
software need to match existing practices if they are to remain successful. 

In addition to maintaining the capability of the software and procedures, it is 
important to maintain the capability of the personnel. Some form of training and 
quality assurance is vital if communications personnel are to maintain their 
professional skills. The Phoenix Fire Department uses one of its communications 
supervisors as a full-time quality assurance trainer. Each month he/ she 
randomly selects 21 calls by selected type for review. Seven of these calls are 
then screened for a training session that includes both dispatchers and field 
personnel. 

3-22 

Discussions are held on both the strengths and weaknesses of each call, and 
personnel identify new procedures to improve the system. The trainer also 
reviews all major incidents and prepares reports for incident critiques. This 
kind of program monitors daily operations and spots trouble areas quickly. 

Communications hardware can be one of the most expensive purchases a fire 
department will make, and is the most obvious aspect of communications that 
requires maintenance. Equipment failure can shut down the communications system, 
or reduce its capability. 

There are four approaches to achieving hardware dependability. The first 
approach is to use reliable hardware components in the first place. A second 
approach is to use a system design that provides some form of backup for 
critical areas that could bring the system down, A hardware system should not 
have a single source that can take the total system out of service; a failure 
should leave some part of the system still operable so that some form of 
communications is still available. A third approach is to use high levels of 
redundancy at the module and functional levels, similar to the redundancy used 
with spaceborne computers that must operate for long periods of time with no 
maintenance. This level of redundancy can be expensive but offers very high 
reliability. The fourth approach is adequate, ongoing systems maintenance that 
is both preventive and repair oriented. 

Organizing for Maintenance --The organizational approach to maintaining 
procedures, software, personnel skills, and hardware generally falls into one of 
three general categories: 1) Create and maintain an internal staff to provide 
maintenance; 2) "Contract out" maintenance to private vendors; and 3) Develop a 
combination of outside vendors and internal staff for overall maintenance of the 
system. 

A large metropolitan department such as Phoenix's quite often will hire and 
maintain a large maintenance staff. There is enough work to justify programmers, 
radio repair personnel, electronic technicians, and full-time trainers for 
system dependability. A suburban department 

3-23 

such as Huntington Beach will selectively decide whether to contract outside or 
use internal staff. Quite often, personnel can be shared with other local 
agencies. Some small departments will contract all hardware and software 
maintenance to private vendors. Nonetheless, a center serving multiple small 
departments, such as Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, has the resources to 
operate its own radio shops. 

Every department needs to control its own written procedures and personnel 
quality assurance. There are some excellent sample programs available for those 
departments that want help in this area. 

Exhibit 3-6. Montgomery County, Pennsylvania's radio repair shop. 

3-24 

Planning Facility Space 

Communications centers must have appropriate space in which to operate. The 
environment must be reasonably comfortable and quiet to allow the dispatchers 
and call-takers to concentrate and hear well. It also must be designed to allow 
the communicators to have ready physical access to all controls and equipment 
they need, and to communicate with each other visually, manually, or in other 
ways as needed. 

The space must allow for some growth in functions or activity levels and for 
storage of records. 

Security and safety also must be built in to the facility design-including fire 
protection. l3 

NFPA 1221, Standardfor the Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Public Fire 
Service Communication Systems, is a good reference on communication facility 
design and protection. 

Planning for Security and Safety 

A fire department can build the finest communications system available yet have 
it fail if its security and safety are not adequate. Security and safety for an 
emergency communications system mean more than building a fortress. It means 
protecting the system from all threatening elements, including natural and man-
made hazards, and should be a basic consideration in planning a communications 
system. 

13 One large city has its fire communications on the fourth floor of an 
unsprinklered building. 

3-25 

Protection from human intrusion is often based on stopping deliberate attempts 
at vandalism or sabotage. Yet one of the major distractions for a communications 
center can be unauthorized, well-meaning departmental personnel intruding on 
operations. A security system must address both of these situations. 

Many security systems handle security for the human element but ignore the 
threat from nature. Plans must be made to prevent damage from tire, earthquake, 
tornados, and hurricanes. The community counts on the CC operating in these 
circumstances. 

The Los Angeles County Fire Department's new state-of-the-art communications 
center exemplifies how security can be considered in planning. This center also 
demonstrates that a facility need not be a concrete "bunker" to be secure. 
Because of the distances involved and the complexity of telephone and microwave 
systems, the building has to stand alone without a major backup facility. Each 
element that might affect the operation of the building was analyzed and 
security measures were taken or backup systems developed. 

The first consideration was designing the building and its internal systems to 
withstand a major earthquake and function through and after a seismic event. The 
building was built on rubber "base isolators" that absorb the seismic shock. All 
utilities and communication lines had to have flexible connections that would 
not break during an earthquake. Structurally, the building was built to one and 
a half times the building code requirements, 

3-26 

Exhibit 3-7. L. A. County Command and Control Facility. 

Exhibit 3-8. Detail of corner of L. A. County Command and Control facility. 
This corner (and the entire facility) is suspended on flexible base isolators. 

3-27 

Exhibit 3-9. Base isolator for the L. A. County CC. 

The building is fully sprinklered and has alarm detectors for heat, smoke, and 
moisture. All major equipment systems have sensors that notify an alarm console 
at the supervisor's position of any equipment failure. The building has two 
separate diesel power generators in case the public utility power fails. 
Telephone lines are routed into three separate feeds to prevent the total loss 
of telephones by a cable being cut. Separate redundant paths also were developed 
for radio communications. 

To handle the human element of security, the building has electronic locks on 
all outside doors and on all critical rooms inside the building. This door 
access system is computer controlled and limits access to those personnel 
authorized for a particular area. The system records all entries and sets off an 
alarm at the supervisor's console if unauthorized entry is attempted. 

Remote video cameras are mounted in each major equipment room and on the outside 
of the building. The dispatch supervisor has a 360-degree scan capability of the 
outside area around the building and full views of all equipment rooms plus the 
front door of the building. Security fences surround the parking lot and 
building. 

3-28 

To keep well-intentioned departmental personnel from interfering with emergency 
operations, large viewing windows were installed looking into the dispatch and 
emergency operations rooms, thus allowing people to view the process without 
interrupting operations. 

Remote Site Security --Most communications systems have more than one site 
within the system. These may include dispatch centers, microwave transmitter/ 
repeater sites, backup communications centers, and command centers. Each site 
within the system must be analyzed as to its security when developing an overall 
systems security program. 

Remote transmitter/ repeater sites offer the most opportunity for vandalism 
because of their remoteness and because they are unmanned. In addition, they are 
vulnerable to natural forces. 

The construction of a remote site often takes the form of a reverse prison, 
keeping people out rather than in. High security fences with deep concrete 
footings, cement block buildings, and steel doors are common. These structures 
normally are equipped with emergency power generators and alarm systems for 
smoke, heat, moisture, equipment failure, and unauthorized entry. The antenna 
tower should be certified by its manufacturer to withstand the highest recorded 
wind for the area. Lightning protection is a must. These remote sites also 
usually have some form of intrusion alarm. 

Communications Security --Communications security can be the most difficult part 
of protecting a communication system, particularly if the department has 
numerous mobile and handheld radios. Illegal use of emergency radios plagues 
many major departments. It is difficult to eliminate this practice completely, 
but strong policies and procedures requiring departmental personnel to secure 
radio equipment from theft or misuse will help. Many large departments have 
tracking equipment to help locate missing equipment being used illegally. The 
best cure is prevention-developing security measures for field equipment. 

3-29 

Developing Specifications 

Once a department has completed an analysis of its communications needs, the 
next step is the preparation of specifications to meet the identified needs. 
Specifications are the guidelines that allow vendors to understand a 
department's needs and to meet those needs adequately. If specifications are not 
clear, the resulting procurement will be difficult and probably unsatisfactory. 

There are two levels of specifications to consider: specifications to help 
design and develop part or all of a communications system, and specifications 
for individual hardware and software components. 

System Specifications --The system specifications are usually contained within a 
"statement of work" (SOW). The SOW should have clear statements of the 
department's expectations, acceptable levels of performance, timeframes for 
completion, and provisions for training. The specifications should state clearly 
that prospective vendors must address the requirements; alternatives should be 
presented as options for the department's consideration. 

An example of items that might be included individually or in combination in a 
SOW are as follows. 

Specify and design a facility to house a communications system. 
Design and implement a computer-aided dispatch system. 
Design and implement a data/ voice communications system. 
Design and engineer a combination of existing and new components for support 
systems. 

3-30 

Provide an analysis of principal interfaces and a matrix for their intra/ 
interoperability issues. 

Unless there is some specific need to match existing hardware or software, 
specifications of particular equipment should not be given so as not to limit 
the vendor's creativity or the department's choices. Allow the vendors to offer 
the best available system without unnecessary constraints. 

Equipment Specifications --Whereas system specifications are more general in 
nature and address functional needs, equipment specifications can often be much 
more precise. This is particularly true when the equipment must be compatible 
with existing hardware and systems. In this case the specification should be 
precise as to all elements necessary for the hardware to work within the system. 
For example, the specifications for a portable radio might include the following 
criteria: 

VHF, high band, 148 MHz, 14 channels, 5 watts RF power. 

Built-in microphone and speaker, leather case with swivel belt loop and T-strap, 
large NiCd battery, time-out timer, helical-wound rubber flex antenna. 

Large connector( s) for external antenna, microphone, and speaker. 

Volume/ on-off and channel select knobs large enough to be operated by a person 
wearing firefighter protective gloves. 

Capable of being operated in mobile chargers. 

A clear specification makes for satisfied customers and merchants, Vendors will 
sell fire departments what they asked for in their specifications, not what the 
department thought it was getting. 

3-31 

Obtaining Licenses 14 

In addition to having the right personnel with the right training and 
appropriate hardware, software and facilities, a communications system must 
obtain the licenses needed to conduct radio operations. 

There are several common types of radio station licenses required in the public 
safety sector. One necessary license is for fixed station applications, which 
applies to the radio equipment that does not move from place to place during its 
use. 15 Another necessary license is for mobile equipment applications, which 
relates to radio transmitting equipment installed in vehicles or carried from 
place to place. 

Soon after radio technology came into existence and the first radio 
transmissions occurred, it became evident that control and coordination of radio 
transmissions and radio transmitters was a necessity. Since radio signals do not 
respect political boundaries, it likewise became evident that international 
agreements would be needed to place some kind of control on radio transmissions. 
Eventually, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) became the voice of the 
U. S. government in these matters. 

The radio frequency spectrum is a precious natural resource. It is in the 
interest of the community that the owner of a transmitter be responsible for 
proper operation of the device. Specifically, it is the responsibility of the 
transmitter owner to make sure the transmitter signal is "clean" and does not 
transmit spurious, or "dirty," signals on other people's frequencies. Further, 
the nature of the use of the radio frequency spectrum becomes critical when the 
priorities of frequency allocation are reviewed. For example, the use of radio 
spectrum for public safety 

14 This section is generally based on Fire Service Radio Communications, Chapter 
2, Pennwell Publishing Co., 1989. 

15 See Chapter 6 for a further discussion of fixed station equipment. 

3-32 

purposes overshadows the use of spectrum for model aircraft control, or, for 
that matter, routine governmental functions such as collection of money from 
parking meters. 

In order to obtain a license, a fire department must go through the following 
steps: technical analysis of proposed system performance; frequency 
coordination; application for license; approval of license; and implementation 
of the process, as discussed in the following sections. The technical analysis 
shows the operating characteristics of the system in terms of frequencies used, 
frequencies that are spuriously generated, and their strength and spatial 
distribution. 

Some larger municipalities or counties have engineers and technicians on staff 
who can undertake the technical analysis, but more often, professional 
communications consultants are used to design the system, provide the analysis, 
and otherwise assist in obtaining a license. If this is the selected route, 
require the consultant to demonstrate competency and experience before entering 
into an agreement. 

Frequency Coordination --The proposed use of the radio system is then examined 
to see whether it is in accordance with legally designated and agreed-upon "use 
guidelines," and does not interfere with other users. Voice communications may 
be used only on certain frequencies. Other frequencies are set aside for 
handling data. It is rare that voice transmissions and data transmissions are 
allowed on the same radio frequency. 

A new radio system must not interfere with existing users on the same frequency 
or close-by frequencies. It is the responsibility of the frequency coordination 
agency to review the proposed coverage (radiation pattern) of the radio signal 
after it leaves the transmitting antenna to make certain that existing users 
nearby will not experience interference. Two or more radio transmitters can 
operate successfully on the same frequency if they are geographically far enough 
apart. On the other hand, having different transmit frequencies does not 
preclude interference if users are located too close to one other. The 
considerations and calculations involved in determining whether interference is 
likely are very complex. 

3-33 

A review also must be made to determine whether the agency applying for use of a 
specific frequency may operate on that frequency. Police operations are not 
allowed on frequencies allocated for fire operations. The converse also is true. 
At the same time, certain frequencies are designated as local government 
frequencies. These frequencies are set aside to provide a common operating 
channel for all phases of government, including fire, police, and 
public works. 

The International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) is recognized by the 
government as the general coordinator of fire service and EMS radio frequency 
matters. However, it is virtually impossible for the IAFC to determine whether 
the technical details of each radio system proposal in the nation are 
appropriate. The IAFC therefore concentrates principally on maintaining the fire 
service and EMS interest in currently allocated radio spectrum and fighting for 
the interest of the fire and EMS service in obtaining additional spectrum as it 
becomes available. 

In most states, the detailed frequency coordination occurs at the state level. 
The relevant state agency usually is identified as the State Communications 
Coordinator, Division of Communications, or a similarly titled agency. The need 
for a detailed performance analysis is more critical in a large metropolitan 
area such as New York City, than in rural areas, such as remote parts of 
Montana, but radio systems in both areas must be coordinated nonetheless. 

While a fire department could undertake the coordination with the state agency 
directly, it is usually preferable to ask a potential communications system 
contractor if it will perform the frequency coordination and licensing as part 
of the purchasing effort. Usually the contractor can and will do that. 
Contractors have advantages over the neophyte license applicant in that they go 
through the process constantly, all over the country, and have the contacts 
necessary to expedite license approval. If there is some reservation about using 
the equipment contractor, contact the IAFC, and ask for the name and address of 
the frequency coordinating agency in the area. Between the manufacturer and the 
IAFC, the information is available. 

3-34 

FCC License Application --The license application is made to, and approved by, 
the Federal Communications Commission following frequency coordination with the 
state. Under ordinary conditions, the FCC will not look favorably upon an 
application for a public safety license that has not been through frequency 
coordination. Approval from a coordinating agency is one of the first things the 
FCC reviewers look for. 

The information required for a fixed station license application usually 
includes the following. 

1. Location of the transmitter in terms of latitude and longitude. 
2. Power output from the transmitter, i. e., the effective radiated power from 
the transmitter and the antenna system combined. 
3. Antenna height. 
4. The owner of the transmitting and antenna equipment. 
5. Other technical and business-oriented questions. 

Approval is predicated on availability of frequencies in the area, relative need 
of the petitioning agency for the radio frequency compared to other needs in the 
area, and quality of the application. Attention to completion of forms and 
correctness of format is highly important. If any information is missing, 
rejection is virtually guaranteed. 

While not commonly considered a step in the license application process, the 
rapid disappearance of available radio frequency spectrum brought on by 
increased service demand and new technology has caused an additional step to 
become very important: use the frequencies or lose the frequencies. The 
applicant must build and use the radio system to retain approval. The concept of 
securing frequencies and not using them immediately, but, rather, holding them 
for future use is no longer acceptable to the FCC. 

3-35 

Renewal of Licenses --Licenses have expiration dates. It is the responsibility 
of the licensee to make sure that the licenses are renewed in a timely fashion. 
One cannot wait until one month before the expiration date. It is necessary to 
start working on renewal at least six months before the expiration date. The 
renewal process is much simpler than the initial application. Systems that 
contain many frequencies, such as trunking systems, may cause the renewal 
process to be more complicated and time consuming than it is for simpler 
systems. 

The fire agency should be prepared to report the number of radios operating on 
the system and to justify the number of radio transmitters to be authorized 
under the licensing provisions. Likewise, one must be prepared to document the 
number of transmissions made, their approximate length, and the percentage of 
air-time used. The contractor who provided the system is a good source of advice 
on how to go about preparing for renewal. A good practice would be to begin 
preparing for renewal as soon as the license is issued. 

3-36 

4. Operating Procedures 

The latest equipment and software, and the finest communications specialists 
cannot make an emergency communications system work unless a satisfactory set of 
operating procedures, the "ground rules" for departmental communications, is 
practiced. All of the "players" must be familiar with and adhere to the 
departmental communications procedures if the system is to be effective. Some 
aspects of operating procedures were discussed in the previous two chapters, 
since they are interwoven with managing a communications center and planning 
communications. For example, a key aspect of operating procedures is 
recordkeeping and another is security, both of which were discussed earlier. 
This chapter continues with other key areas for which operating procedures must 
be established, after discussing the need for a communications plan. 

Communications Plan 

Fire Chief Alan Brunacini, in his book Fire Command, lists the communications 
function as one of the three major tireground command elements. This element 
serves as the link between the incident commander and his/ her subordinates and 
also with the outside world. It can be the incident commander's best friend or 
worst enemy. 

Incident commanders are only as effective as the communications links that allow 
them to request resources and deploy them to the incident. On major emergencies 
involving large numbers of individual resources, multiple agencies, and extended 
time periods, a communications plan is a must. 

The two basic communications principles for major incidents are to, first, 
establish a two-way flow of information between the scene of operations and the 
communications center and, second, to afford the incident commander access to 
tactical and support resources. 

4-l 

A communications plan is a prescribed strategy for establishing the required 
communications for an incident, beginning with the dispatch of that incident and 
progressing through the operation to its conclusion. A communications plan must 
address the needs of the incident commander to communicate with subordinate 
resources and with the communications center. Although technology has created 
complications -the multitude of available frequencies and equipment used in the 
fire service -it also has offered solutions such as cellular telephones and 
multiple-frequency radios. 

A plan should address the potential problems before a major incident ever 
occurs. By anticipating the incident commander's needs during a major emergency, 
an agency can prepare in advance to meet those needs. Unfortunately, many 
departments wait until an incident occurs before addressing the communications 
requirements. 

An agency should identify its communications needs for all types of emergencies. 
It then should review its available communications resources and potential 
alternatives to meet those needs. A plan should be developed to use the best 
alternatives and to provide backups and additional alternatives. Finally, the 
agency needs to train personnel and practice implementation of its 
communications plan. 

Ideally, a basic communications plan should provide for a dispatch channel, a 
command channel, and least one tactical frequency. At a minimum, the performance 
of these functions must be planned. 

An enhanced communications plan would include a command frequency monitored by 
the incident commander, division supervisors, and the communications center. 
This link is for command decisions and life-threatening situations. The tactical 
operations should be on a separate channel. If mutual aid departments are going 
to be involved, multi-channel radios for first-line units may be necessary. The 
use of cellular telephones can alleviate congestion on the command channel and 
enhance the communications flow between the incident commander, 

4-2 

logistics, staging, and the communications center. The importance of a 
communications plan is to get prepared before an incident happens. 

Since major incidents are rare for most fire departments, case studies such as 
the USFA Major Fire Report series can be reviewed to identify potential problems 
and so1utions. 16 

Communications Authority 

The judgment of both the dispatch and emergency response personnel is an 
integral part of the decision process for handling emergencies. They must 
consider both information received and the potential outcome of the incident. 
Clear lines of responsibility and authority must be established and enforced as 
part of a communications policy. 

A clear communication policy originates in the fire chiefs office. Ultimately, 
the fire chief must determine the type of communications system his or her 
department will have. It will only be as effective as he or she directs it to 
be. Clear policies followed by reinforcement will result in an effective 
communications system. The fire chief needs to establish policy for each area of 
responsibility and for the types of communications plans the department will 
use. 

Communications Management --The overall responsibility for communications 
management should be clearly stated in departmental policy. The coordination and 
control of frequencies should remain with the communications center. Status of 
resources and assignment to incidents also should remain with the communications 
center for smoothness of operation. Resources assigned to incidents should 
remain under the authority of the incident commander. The communications center 
and the incident commander need to work together in managing the 

16 Order form available from the National Fire Data Center, United States Fire 
Administration, 16825 South Seton Avenue, Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727. 

4-3 

communications and resources needed. Responsibility for ordering mutual aid or 
move-up companies should be worked out in advance. 

Field Operations --Communications needs to be the incident commander's best 
friend, according to Chief Brunacini. The incident commander must have access to 
both the communications center and his/ her assigned resources. All radio 
traffic between the communications center and the incident should be funneled 
through the Incident Commander or assigned staff. There must be one reporting 
and order point. 

If frequencies are available, an incident should be given a separate tactical 
frequency if there are more than a predetermined number of units assigned or if 
there are multiple simultaneous incidents. 17 Clear fireground communications 
will help save lives and enhance the overall operation. Departmental policy 
should direct units to limit transmissions to pertinent information. The 
incident commander must enforce effective communications discipline as 
prescribed in department policy. All units should have a clear understanding of 
the command structure and have clear instructions as to their reporting 
authority. 

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPS) 

The effective functioning of tire department units and personnel for emergency 
operations requires clear, decisive action. Standard Operating Procedures are 
uniform procedures to be employed to meet various situations. They fix 
responsibility for each function and list its associated duties for the proper 
individuals or units. SOPS make it easier for firefighters and officers to blend 
in smoothly as they are assigned to different units. All personnel are aware of 
who has the responsibility for an action and how that action will be carried 
out. 

l7 Los Angeles County assigns a tactical frequency when five or more units are 
assigned to an incident. Other departments routinely assign additional 
frequencies on working fires or similar incidents. 

4-4 

SOPs usually define what function is required, who is responsible, what 
equipment is needed, and the steps to be followed. They also may include safety 
precautions or additional items to consider if the situation changes, and they 
must address communications. 

SOP Manuals --The Phoenix Fire Department has developed extensive written SOPs 
for most of its operational functions, including communications. These SOPs 
address the communications center's general operations, incident call-taker 
procedures, dispatcher operations, tactical radio and medic operations, 
supervisor functions and responsibilities, and administrative functions and 
responsibilities. 

The department also issues SOPs to field personnel covering command procedures, 
standard company responsibilities and procedures, incident communications, 
tactical communications and responsibilities for major incidents, and guidelines 
for various special types of incidents. Each SOP has a strong communications 
element attached. 

Computer-Based SOPs --Huntington Beach, California, has a series of written SOPs 
but also built some of the communications center's operating procedures into its 
system's software. Certain actions by the call-taker require specific responses 
before the transaction can be completed. The software follows a predetermined 
logical pattern that assists the call-taker with completing the emergency 
request. 

Huntington Beach also computerized its emergency medical dispatch procedures. 
Each answer to the set questions presented to the call-taker by the software 
moves the call-taker through a decision tree. The call-taker doesn't have to 
memorize written procedures. The computer reacts to specific inputs and directs 
the person through the procedure. 

Response Policy 

Every fire department needs to develop a matrix that shows the level of 
resources that are to be sent to various types of incidents, such as shown in 
Table 4-1. There are a number of 

4-5 

factors involved in choosing what to send, including what there is to burn, life 
hazard, frequency of a particular type of incident, climatic and geographic 
conditions, and the community's expectation of what the fire department should 
do. This matrix of responses to alarms must be readily available to the 
communications operator and its use should be consistent. 

Additional matrices are needed for second, third, and higher-level alarms, and 
ground rules established for requesting special units or simply more units, and 
for allowable deviations from the normal response, The terminology used must be 
understood by all who communicate, so that a request for a second alarm means 
the same thing to the dispatcher and to the battalion chief. Where multiple 
departments work together under mutual aid or automatic response agreements, 
they all must agree on the jargon of responses. 

Table 4-1. Sample Response Matrix for Fire Calls (First Alarm) 

Reported Type of Incident Engines Truck/Ladders Chiefs Water Tenders * (Tankers) 

Outside Rubbish Fire 1 1 
Automatic Alarms 
Residential 1 1 1 1 
Commercial/ institutional 2 1 1 

Structure Fire 
One-or Two-Family Dwelling 3 1 1 2 
Large structure 4 2 2 3 

* in nonhydrant areas only 

Firefighting Response --Rural, suburban, and urban fire departments face similar 
yet very different problems when addressing the level of resources to send to 
responses. Distance and availability of water affect the type and level of 
resources required. Rural departments often 

4-6 

require water tenders (tankers) to meet the same extinguishing requirements that 
an urban department can meet with its municipal water system. 

The urban department faces the problem of clustered occupancies that increase 
exposures and constitute a higher life hazard. A major commercial response for 
an urban department might include four engine companies and two ladder trucks, 
along with two chief officers on a first alarm. Yet a small suburban or rural 
department might not have two ladder truck companies and will have to provide 
the equipment for truck company operations with other types of resources, or 
with mutual aid or other arrangements. Each department must evaluate its 
potential fire hazard and determine the most effective resources it can provide 
to meet the need. 

In contrast to the typical response matrix in Table 4-1, the Los Angeles County 
Fire Department, which serves a diverse area that includes rural, suburban, and 
urban areas, all with wildland interfaces, has developed the response 
assignments shown in Table 4-2. A larger assignment is given to a brush fire 
than to a home fire. It is not because the brush fire threat is greater, but 
that it takes more personnel to control. These two examples are part of a matrix 
that identifies 55 separate levels of response to alarms in Los Angeles County. 

Table 4-2. Examples of Los Angeles County's First-Alarm Response Assignments 

To A Residential Fire To A Brush Fire 

3 engine companies 
1 truck company 
1 paramedic squad 
1 battalion chief 
5 engine companies 
1 water tender 
4 hand crews 
2 crew superintendents 
2 helicopters 
1 dozer 
1 battalion chief 

Emergency Medical Service --Originally, fire departments approached the EMS 
incident like other emergency requests, taking the worst case to determine the 
resources needed. Using cardiac arrest as an example, many departments 
determined that five to six people were 

4-7 

required to handle these kinds of incidents: two people for CPR, paramedics for 
advanced intervention (such as IVs), and support personnel to take and record 
vital signs and carry equipment. 

As the demand for services has increased, many departments faced the decision of 
adding additional resources or changing their response patterns. Two new 
approaches have been developed. The first is the use of communications personnel 
to give prearrival first aid instructions to the caller and to triage the calls. 
Many fire departments staff one or more of their dispatch positions with EMT-
trained people who provide first aid instructions. These instructions are based 
upon guidelines and predetermined questions that have been reviewed and approved 
by the appropriate supervising medical authorities. These medically trained 
dispatchers are referred to as Emergency Medical Dispatchers (EMDs). 

A second approach is to use a "tiered" response to EMS calls. Many incidents do 
not require an Advanced Life Support (ALS) unit and can be handled by Basic Life 
Support (BLS) trained personnel. A series of questions are asked of the caller 
to determine the level of response required. The responses to these questions 
help the call-taker to determine the severity of the emergency. As with the 
prearrival instructions, this kind of program must be reviewed and approved by 
the appropriate medical authorities. 

Other Services --Most fire departments handle other types of requests in 
addition to fires and emergency medical incidents. Flood conditions, hazardous 
materials spills, and building collapses are examples. Each of these kinds of 
incidents requires a predetermined level of response or a hierarchy of 
responses. A department must analyze the potential effort required, and the 
threat to life or property, then evaluate available resources to determine the 
appropriate response level. These response levels should be incorporated into 
the response matrix available to the dispatcher. 

4-8 

Communications Center Operations 

The communications center is the hub of fire department communications and also 
the starting point in the communications associated with each incident (see 
Chapter 2). Dispatch operations must be characterized by accuracy, timeliness, 
and thoroughness. An inaccurate address will cause a response to the wrong 
place, jeopardizing both the victim and the department. Slowdowns in the 
communications procedure have a critical effect in both life-threatening and 
property-damaging situations. The lack of thorough instructions to responding 
units can unnecessarily harm both the victims and the field personnel. 

People new to emergency telecommunications may not understand the importance of 
gaining all pertinent information from the caller, not just the address and 
general problem. Failure to obtain all the vital information can cause the 
dispatch of inappropriate resources, or none at all, to the incident. 

Sequence of Responsibility --The communications for an incident usually starts 
with a call handled by the call-taker. The primary responsibility of an incident 
call-taker is to determine, without delay, the nature and location of the 
emergency and the source of the call. A call-taker makes the initial 
determination of the type of response based on the information from the caller. 

Requirements for different types of incidents can be planned, as discussed in 
the preceding section. The set of units selected for dispatch should meet the 
established plan unless there are extenuating circumstances. This can be 
accomplished with a computer-aided dispatch system that maintains status and 
automatically recommends units for dispatch, or by using a manual system of 
status and a response matrix. 

The dispatcher (person responsible for actual notification of units) is 
responsible for verifying the suggested unit dispatch from the CAD and modifying 
the dispatch based upon 

4-9 

additional information or circumstances. The dispatcher transmits the call to 
all units assigned to the incident and verifies receipt of the alarm from the 
assigned units. 

The tactical radio operator handles all communications among units assigned to 
an incident and the communications center. 

As noted earlier, the three functions of call-taker, dispatcher, and tactical 
radio operator may be staffed by just one person in small departments and by 
dozens of people each in major metropolitan departments or combined 
communications centers. 

Communications with Fire Stations 

The methods used to notify personnel in fire stations of both emergency 
incidents and administrative bulletins have changed dramatically over the years. 

Dispatches --Old emergency alarm systems used a central alarm that went to all 
stations giving a box number or typed message. Each station would have to check 
to see if the alarm was in its response area. Initially, only the company 
officer knew what type of response the unit had and then would have to relay 
that information to the rest of the company. 

New alert systems use microwave, radio, telephone, or departmental lines to 
transmit alarms to the fire stations, These systems provide a voice announcement 
over loudspeakers, activate lights and doors, and print the response information 
on printers. Digital systems also can indicate the units dispatched to each 
responding unit via onboard MDTs or personal laptop computers. 

Acknowledgement back from the station is by voice or digital transmission. 
Current methods are intended to inform all members of the company of the type 
and location of the response so they can begin to prepare themselves for that 
particular type of incident. Locations 

4-10 

can be checked quickly as the company officer completes acknowledgement. The 
whole operation becomes smoother when everyone is informed. 

Administrative Communications --The new alarm channels offer the ability to send 
administrative messages over the same system, an effective method of sending and 
receiving administrative messages. There is a drawback, though, to this use. In 
1980, Phoenix installed its digital communications system for emergency traffic 
and status keeping. As the years passed, additional administrative functions 
were assigned to the system. Unfortunately, this additional nonemergency 
workload began to slow down the emergency operating system. The lesson to 
remember is that the primary purpose of the system is emergency communications. 
If administrative traffic is going to interfere with emergency operations a 
separate system should be installed for administrative functions or the total 
capacity of the system must be expanded. 

Many departments have solved their administrative message needs by using 
personal computers and modems that are activated by a dial-up telephone system. 
Several departments have installed wide area networks tying their fire stations 
together with the administrative headquarters. The cost of such systems has 
dropped significantly in recent years. 

Communications with Units En Route 

While responding, companies should communicate with one another if radio traffic 
permits. Effective communications during this period can set the stage for 
effective action. Company officers should review any predetermined tactical 
information. New digital systems using MDTs have the capability to 
electronically store such information for immediate retrieval 
by all responding units. The tactical radio operator of the CC should relay any 
additional information gained from subsequent calls or from central files 
maintained within the communications center. 

4-11 

Communications with Units On Scene 

Communications discipline for field operations requires a predetermined 
communications procedure that clearly delineates areas of responsibility. The 
Phoenix Fire Department has a field communications operating procedure that 
specifies responsibilities and action steps. 

It begins with an "onscene" report, such as "Engine 78 at the 1320 North Eastern 
Avenue, commercial two-story structure with light smoke showing from rear. Let 
all units continue." Once the first field unit or the incident commander has 
made a more complete sizeup, he or she needs to report more details on 
conditions, structure type, and actions being taken, along with an estimate of 
how long it will take to contain the situation. 

All communications with the communications center should go through the incident 
commander. A report is made to the CC if most or all of the units are to be 
committed. This begins a process of notifications and move-ups. For large fires, 
"command" declares a staging area. All units arriving in staging report their 
identity to "command" or to the staging officer via a tactical channel or face 
to face. Sector officers are encouraged to use nonradio methods to communicate 
with assigned companies to reduce radio traffic. Only "command" can return 
companies, or declare "under control," or "all clear." 

The term "Emergency Traffic" is used by any unit encountering an immediate 
perilous situation, and it receives the highest priority from dispatch, command, 
and all operating units. 

Phoenix also provides guidelines on "Good Field Radio Procedure." It directs 
field units to be brief and specific, and to know what they are going to say 
before keying the radio. The speaker should be task and company oriented: orders 
received should clearly describe the specific task which is assigned to the 
company. Assignments should indicate a clear plan of action and the objective to 
be accomplished. Further guidelines cover use of accurate pronunciation, well-
timed, clear speech and steady pace, control of emotions, and prioritizing 

4-12 

messages and pausing between consecutive messages. (Chapter 5 goes into more 
detail on field communications procedures and policies.) 

Move-ups 

The communications center supervisor often is responsible for relocating units 
to maintain the best available coverage for the department. Sometimes this is 
left to the dispatcher, and sometimes it is done under the direction of fire 
operations officers. If left to the CC's direction, the CC should begin "move-
up" coverage after reviewing the incident commander's 
report of conditions and receiving an estimate of time that the units will be 
committed to the incident. To assist the supervisor, management should have 
predetermined critical coverage stations. For large incidents that drain the 
total resources of the department, mutual aid move-up programs may need to be 
implemented with neighboring departments or by call-backs of off-duty personnel. 
In some departments, e. g., Portland, Oregon, the uniformed fire prevention 
force or reserves are called to form backup companies, often using pagers to 
reach them. 

Before a move-up plan is implemented, the department should analyze its 
different types of resources and identify potential move-up companies. This list 
should be by type and location. There are two methods to approach this task. For 
small and medium size departments, a predetermined list can be developed by 
considering coverage and incident patterns, travel distances, high-risk areas, 
and apparatus type. 

For larger departments, an algorithm can be developed using the CAD's status-
keeping ability to recommend move-up coverage. The supervisor still must play a 
vital role in these computerized systems as multiple alarms or unusual 
circumstances can cause the preprogrammed system to make inappropriate 
recommendations. 

4-13 

The CC should plan the method by which vacant fire stations will be "filled" by 
incorporating a "move-up" procedure for mutual aid units. Questions to be 
answered include 

Can the filling unit gain entrance to the station being filled (are doors locked 
by key or code system)? Can the filling unit physically tit into the station 
(are the doors large enough)?; and 

How will the filling unit be dispatched? Do personnel have map books or a local 
escort to provide them directions to incidents? 

Major Disaster Operations 

The ability of a CC to handle major disasters is related to its ability to 
handle routine daily activity. If the CC staff are well trained, there are good 
operating procedures in place, and proper planning has occurred, disaster 
operations should be not much more than an extension of what is done on a daily 
basis. CC personnel should be well trained in their role as an intricate part of 
the department's Incident Command System. However, communications is 
consistently identified as a major problem in disaster response. 18 Planning and 
training are the keys to success. 

18 Jiri Nehnevajsa. Emergency Preparedness: Reports and Reflections of Local and 
County Emergency Managers, Federal Emergency Management Agency, March 1990 
(completed under cooperative agreement #EMW-K-1024). 

4-14 

Exhibit 4-1. Physical equipment for long-term operations does not have to be 
elaborate. Here, the Central Net Communications Center (Huntington Beach, 
California) has outfitted one room for use as an operating center for major 
incidents. 

CC representatives should be involved in the disaster planning process, so that 
they know in advance what may be expected of them and thus react accordingly. 
Plans should be developed to address outages resulting from a natural disaster. 
These plans should include local, state, and federal disaster management 
agencies and should provide for the means of restoring electrical, telephone, 
and water resources. It also is advisable to conduct routine tests of all 
disaster procedures to familiarize all personnel with the procedures and their 
role in the disaster operations. 

4-15 

Exhibit 4-2. Separate boards are provided for each jurisdiction to track 
incidents, resources, and frequencies in use. The board illustrated includes 
magnetic markers for each piece of equipment controlled through the 
communications center. 

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has initiated the Telephone 
Service Priority program. This program provides a method and priority for 
restoration of emergency telephone communications that are disrupted by a major 
emergency. 

A means also should be established to rapidly increase the number of onduty CC 
personnel in a disaster to ensure adequate staffing. The CC should have a plan 
that allows the work schedule to be modified to make efficient use of personnel 
resources and provide adequate time off. This plan also should provide for meals 
to be available and arrangements should be made in advance to berth personnel. 
In a disaster operation, however, the need for and value of returning personnel 
to their families during time off should not be overlooked. 

4-16 

Other important aspects of planning communicationsfor major disaster operations 
are as follows. 

Maintain an extensive list of agencies, firms, and personnel that may need to be 
notified regarding the disaster or whose services may be needed. These may 
include highway or public works departments, state agencies, and private 
contractors. 19 When necessary, establish contracts in advance with firms whose 
services may be needed, to expedite the delivery of service if required. 
Military installations located in the disaster area are an excellent source of 
personnel and specialized equipment such as that needed for construction, food 
dispensing, and auxiliary electric power. 

Predetermine the method( s) of communications that will be used by the various 
assisting agencies to communicate with the fire/ rescue CC. 

For jurisdictions that may be affected by weather-related disasters such as 
hurricanes, tornados, and ice storms, the CC should have a stock of replacement 
base station transmit/ receive antennas. This will allow downed antennas to be 
restored more quickly, particularly considering that in weather emergencies 
other radio antennas also may be downed and many different companies and 
agencies will be seeking replacement antennas that may be difficult to purchase, 
have delivered, and install. Also, ensure that extra portable radio batteries 
are available so that field operations are not diminished as the disaster 
continues and batteries are in need of recharging. 

The fire department and the CC should have a plan for field units to conduct an 
area-wide survey of a natural disaster area to report to the CC the extent of 
damages. 

19 As an example, the acquisition of heavy construction equipment was 
facilitated in the Kansas City, Missouri, disaster in 1981 when an elevated 
skywalk in a hotel fell and pinned many people. Onscene and communications 
center personnel were able to clearly define the type of equipment needed by 
referring to a reference book that had pictured the types of construction 
equipment available in the area. The CC obtained the equipment using contact 
persons and telephone numbers identified in advance. 

4-17 

Emergency vehicle fuel sources must be determined in advance, including how fuel 
can be pumped if there is no electricity. 

Critical Incident Stress Debriefings (CISD) should be considered for CC 
personnel as well as field personnel. Often CC personnel are overlooked in this 
regard. They have the daily stress of dealing with emergencies and seldom have 
the benefit of learning the outcome of those incidents or of being recognized 
for their contribution to incident resolution. 

The above list is illustrative of the type of planning that should take place to 
ensure that major disaster operations are conducted with the same efficiency 
with which the CC operates on a daily basis. 

Mutual Aid and Mutual Response Operations 

Mutual aid operations can be defined as one or more fire/ rescue departments 
assisting a jurisdictionin the mitigation of an incident or multiple incidents. 
Mutual aid operations usually are governed by a previously agreed upon plan 
contained in a formal written "mutual aid agreement." This agreement may be 
general or specific. If not covered in the mutual aid agreement itself, there 
should be a companion document developed jointly by the departments involved, 
concerning the operational aspects of the agreement, including communications. 

The FCC has reserved three frequencies in the 154 MHz spectrum for mutual aid 
operations: 154.265, 154.280, and 154.295 MHz. Use of these frequencies is 
coordinated by the International Municipal Signal Association (IMSA), 20 by 
agreement with the FCC. 

20 ISMA's mailing address is ISMA Frequency Coordination, P. O. Box 1513, 
Providence, RI 02901 (40l/ 738-2220). 

4-18 

The FCC also has reserved five frequencies in the 800 MHz spectrum for use by 
fire and rescue departments. These frequencies are a national calling channel of 
866.0125 MHz, and four tactical channels: 821.5125, 822.0125, 822.5125, and 
823.0125 MHz. These frequencies (800 Megahertz +) are coordinated by APCO, by 
agreement with the FCC. 

Other concerns in preparing for mutual aid communications include The way in 
which units that are party to the agreement will be physically marked to 
provide for easy and uniform identification. This includes the size, color, and 
placement of identification numbers on the unit. (See "Unit Identifiers" below.) 

The jurisdiction that will provide the communications control of the operation. 
This should include who has the authority to take control, and under what 
circumstances the responding mutual aid units come under the control of the CC 
of the jurisdiction requesting the mutual aid. 

The pro words used to identify the unit and/ or CC transmitting, such as 
"Central Control to Medic 7-1" or "Centerville Engine 3 to Dispatch." 21 

The uniform terminology that will be used to identify the jurisdiction or 
department and the type of unit. As an example, a "ladder tower" in one 
jurisdiction should be identified the same way in all jurisdictions 
participating in the mutual aid agreement. This lessens confusion and allows all 
involved to understand what is needed and requested, and what type of apparatus 
is being referred to. 

21 Pro words are the first words used when transmitting a message via radio. 

4-19 

The metropolitan Washington, DC area has developed a Fire Mutual Aid Radio 
System (FMARS) manual that addresses these issues. 22 

Mutual response operations differ from mutual aid operations in that they are 
the result of agreements between jurisdictions or departments that allow the 
closest units, regardless of jurisdiction or department, to be routinely 
dispatched based only on the type of incident and location, without requests 
having to be made for assistance. This type of operation can be a highly cost-
effective way of providing fire and rescue coverage. 

Exhibit 4-3. Members of several departments in a Mutual Response System in 
Orange County, California, participate in a regular training exercise. 

22 The manual is available from the Metropolitan Washington Council of 
Governments (Public Safety Section), 777 North Capitol Street, N. E., Suite 300, 
Washington, DC 20002-4201, (202/ 962-3200). 

4-20 

Many of the same communications considerations for mutual aid operations are 
applicable to mutual response operations. The communications operations should 
be clearly defined in a written agreement. The mutual response operations 
agreement also should provide for incident record management: how and by whom 
the incident records are to be maintained. 23 

Unit and Personnel Identification 

Every vehicle and every individual needs to have a visible identifier to aid in 
deployment and safety. Apparatus identifiers also are used often in written and 
verbal communications. 

Identification of Units --Historically, fire departments identified apparatus 
according to the time the units were placed into service. The first engine 
company of a department would be known as Engine Company 1. The same held true 
for ladder or truck companies. Quite often the same fire station will have truck 
and engine companies with different identifiers. 

Many departments now are developing apparatus numbering systems that identify 
where a piece of apparatus is located, especially where units from different 
departments often work together. In Orange County, California, for example, all 
fire departments have agreed to a uniform unit identification system in which 
the first letter represents the city or department. The second letter identifies 
the type of equipment. The first number identifies the battalion and the last 
number is the individual unit. Huntington Beach Engine 5 in Battalion 4 has an 
identifier of HE-45 with a call sign of "Huntington Engine Forty-Five." All 
units have large identifying plaques on the side doors and in front on engines 
and trucks. 

23 In the area of northern Virginia the fire and rescue departments of the City 
of Alexandria, Arlington County, and Fairfax County have jointly participated in 
a MRO agreement since 1975, to the mutual benefit of all. Information concerning 
this MRO agreement can be obtained by contacting those departments. MRO 
agreements also are widely used in California, Maryland, and Florida. 

4-21 

Exhibit 4-4. Identification on the front of an engine. The letters stand for 
Newport Beach. The system is shared by regular aid partners. 

Huntington Beach and the other departments of Orange County have very active 
mutual aid and initial action plans. Their numbering system allows the 
fireground incident commander and the communications center to quickly identify 
pieces of equipment. This is particularly helpful when specialized equipment or 
apparatus is involved. 

Los Angeles County Fire Department uses a slightly different scheme in which 
letter identifiers are used consistently throughout the county for different 
types of equipment, as shown in Table 4-3. 

4-22 

Table 4-3. Los Angeles County-Letter 

Identifiers for Fire/ Rescue Equipment 

E E ngine company 
T T ruck company 
S S paramedic squad 
F F oam unit 
DU D eluge U nit 
BC B attalion C hief 
AC A ssistant C hief 
DC D eputy C hief 
AU A ir U nit 
LU L ight U nit 
TF T ask F orce 
H H elicopter 

Each apparatus or piece of special equipment should have clear large 
identification markings on all sides (including the rear) and on the top. The 
characters should be on a background that contrasts with them. At a minimum, 
markings should appear on the driver and the passenger sides, and be visible 
from 300 feet. Markings on the roof should be large enough to permit units to be 
identified by helicopter and be visible from 300 feet. The identification 
markings should be visible at night (they can be manufactured from reflecting 
tape). While it often is appropriate and attractive to enhance the apparatus 
with graphic pictures or other embellishments, they should not detract from a 
clear and easy recognition of the unit's identity at a fire or emergency 
operation. 

4-23 

Exhibit 4-5. Identification on the top of a ladder truck in Arlington, Virginia. 

Identification of Personnel --Identifiers for personnel also are important and 
should be incorporated into the standard operating procedures. Turnout clothing 
should serve as an identification tool. In areas where many fire departments 
interact consistently, the name of the department should be clearly indicated on 
turnout clothing. In addition, where turnout clothing is not shared by 
firefighters, the name of the wearer should be clearly indicated, 

It also is a generally accepted practice to use the fire helmet as a personnel 
identification tool for fireground tracking and safety. The fire helmet should 
be clearly labeled with the wearer's assigned unit and rank or position. Colors 
should be standard throughout the department. Ideally, colors should be 
standardized for departments that work together frequently, 

A system which permits a rapid but secure means of changing the unit 
identification for an individual should be in place in each department. This 
flexible identification system will permit members to be properly identified 
when working temporarily with another unit, 

4-24 

Exhibit 4-6. The Seattle Fire Officer (standing) is wearing a removable, 
reflective helmet front marked "TRG" indicating his assignment to the Training 
Division. Removable fronts are used to properly identify personnel on temporary 
assignment. Extra fronts are kept with each unit. 

Establishing and Maintaining Databases 

Another major area for which operating procedures are needed is the 
establishment and maintenance of the databases that the communications center 
draws upon. The development, and especially the maintenance and security of the 
databases used in communications, are crucial areas to address. 

One form of database deals with response area maps, street names, block numbers, 
cross streets, common place names, and landmarks. Another database is a response 
matrix recommending the type and number of resources to be sent to different 
types of emergencies at different locations. Another database may list other 
available resources. Some of the key 

4-25 

types of files common to many fire department dispatch operations are discussed 
below and in the section on response policy. 

Response Area Physical Characteristics --Every fire department's jurisdictional 
description begins with the physical characteristics of the land it occupies, 
such as the hills, canyons, and rivers that affect the department's ability to 
deliver emergency services. For Southern California it may be the canyons and 
hillsides of the urban interface with wildland areas. New York City begins with 
the rivers and waterfronts that define its areas. To these characteristics of 
land are added streets, bridges, and buildings. Streets are named and numbers 
are given to the buildings so that individual parcels can be identified and 
located. 

To provide a common format for dealing with these geographic features, the U. S. 
Census Bureau developed, in 1980, the "Dual Independent Map Encoding" (DIME) 
file that standardized street name spelling, directions, and nonstreet features. 
It also includes the latitude and longitude for each intersection and landmark. 

The sequel to this file is the Census Bureau's "Topologically Integrated 
Geographic Encoding and Referencing" (TIGER) file. 24 This new file adds shape 
points that can define topography along with streets, addresses, and latitude 
and longitude. These files are available for all metropolitan areas of the 
United States. Many departments have used these files as a basis for developing 
their own "Geofile." Both files lend themselves to geographic encoding, and the 
TIGER file can be used for mapping purposes. If a department is considering the 
use of Automated Vehicle Location (AVL) the use of a map base that contains 
these features is required. 

Street Files --A typical street file contains an alphabetical listing of streets 
by name and type, block numbers with corresponding cross streets, landmarks, map 
coordinates, and an 

24 A catalog of U. S. Bureau of Census publications is available from the Bureau 
of Census OPD Publications Unit, 1201 East 10th Street, Jefferson, Indiana 
47132, or by calling your regional Census Bureau office. 

4-26 

identifier as to dispatch zone. In larger jurisdictions, the file also may 
contain political subdivisions, law enforcement responsibility, and ambulance 
coverage. The file could include nonstreet features such as railroads and 
waterways. 

Building and Hazard Files --The collection, classification, and storage of 
information about target hazards has been the subject of considerable attention 
in the past. Recent experience and technological innovations suggest renewed 
attention to this topic. 25 Information obtained in preincident planning should 
include information about the following four elements: (1) environment, (2) 
occupants, (3) operating features (and hazardous materials stored), and (4) fire 
protection features. 

The description of the environment includes the nature and location of a hazard 
and its exposures. It includes the height and area of a building, its 
construction type, its location, street setbacks, proximity to other buildings 
and wildland interface areas, utility connections, street and site access, and 
similar features. 

The occupant information may include telephone number, location, age, physical 
and mental capabilities, familiarity with the structure, functions performed, 
and relationship between the occupants. This information helps assess the nature 
and magnitude of the life hazards of a given occupancy. 

The operating features of the occupancy include the quantity of stock, existence 
of conveyors or material-handling equipment, high-rack storage, automated 
storage and handling equipment, and similar features. Also, the presence of 
guard dogs or other dangerous security measures should be noted. 

25 See W F Jenaway, (1986), Pre-Emergency Planning, Ashland, MA: International 
Society of Fire Service . . Instructors. In July 1990, the NFPA established a 
subcommittee project on warehouse preincident planning under the supervision of 
the Fire Service Training Committee. This action followed expressions of 
concerns by the insurance industry about fire department response to large-loss 
warehouse fires, in particular the Sherwin Williams Warehouse fire in Dayton, 
Ohio in May 1987. 

4-27 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration in 1988 established Hazard 
Communications Standards that require hazard information to be transmitted to 
affected employers and employees. As part of this standard, Material Safety Data 
Sheets (MSDSs) must be provided by the manufacturers. Information contained in 
these MSDSs can be a vital resource to incident commanders on hazardous 
materials emergencies. Under provisions of Title III of the Superfund Amendments 
and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA), the MSDSs must be submitted to a 
designated government entity. Fire departments are often recipients of these 
MSDSs. 

The size of these MSDS files can be enormous and the department will need to 
develop a method of highlighting the vital emergency information for the 
incident commander. This may be as simple as notebooks or as complicated as 
electronic data sent digitally via MDTs to the emergency responders. Accurate 
maintenance of the file will be paramount if the information is to be of value. 

The fire protection features of an occupancy are also of critical concern. Fire 
protection systems, whether active or passive, are the fire department's first 
line of defense when combatting a fire. One of the first priorities after 
assessing the life hazard at an incident should be supporting the installed fire 
protection. Connecting to automatic sprinkler or standpipe systems, assessing 
fire door operation, opening roof vents, and similar operations can greatly 
reduce the spread of fire and perhaps limit the life hazards presented by a 
fire. 

Many building files will contain preplanned firefighting objectives that specify 
the size and number of lines required, location of standpipes, and access to the 
building. A drawing of the site is desirable. 

The above information should be tied into the dispatch system and should 
automatically be brought to the dispatcher's attention when an address is 
entered for dispatch. The communications center should notify the units that 
additional information is available; it is not necessary that this information 
be transmitted each time a response is required by location. 

4-28 

Maintenance of Resource Documents 

Each of the procedures listed in this chapter requires some form of 
documentation. Communications operations can be significantly affected by either 
the lack of documentation or by poor documentation. 

Responsibility --The responsibility for maintaining communications resource 
documents usually is a joint effort by management, field, and dispatch 
personnel. Management must determine the guidelines and communicate them to all 
personnel. Management also should be responsible for informing dispatch of 
recommended response levels and staffing levels. Field operations personnel 
should continually update the communications center on any short-or long-term 
special conditions affecting their ability to respond. Communications center 
personnel should be responsible for recording changes and maintaining the status 
of all of their resource documents. Usually a supervisor has responsibility for 
permanent or long-term changes and communication operators handle short-term or 
temporary changes such as temporary street closures, units on routine move-up, 
and drills, 

Each person must clearly understand his or her role in maintaining resource 
records. The department should have clear written guidelines and followup 
procedures that verify that record maintenance is being done. 

Timeliness --Documentation of dispatcher information is of little value if not 
kept up to date. New streets need to be entered into the system as development 
starts, not weeks or months after occupancy has taken place. Delayed changes in 
response levels may send inappropriate resources to incidents. It is critical 
that responsible personnel understand the urgency of maintaining resource 
documents. 

4-29 

Accuracy --Inaccurate documents are worthless and can be very damaging. For 
example, the northern area of the Los Angeles County Fire Department's 
jurisdiction has two streets called Avenue 140 West and Avenue 140 East. These 
are two parallel streets running north and south 28 miles apart. They have many 
of the same cross streets. An error in dispatch documentation or selection can 
mean a response that is 28 miles off. 

A common error is the inaccurate listing of building numbers for dead-end 
streets. With the wrong listing, units may respond to the wrong block and not 
have quick access to the correct location. These kinds of errors will delay 
responses. The need for accurate records is essential for emergency operations. 

4-30 

5. Onscene Communications 

Like other facets of emergency scene operations, successful emergency scene 
communications are based on planning and preparation before the incident occurs. 
This includes not only selecting and coordinating the use of hardware and 
procedures for communications, but also an appreciation of the nature of fire 
and emergency incident decisionmaking and the role communications plays in it. 
26 

Fireground operations are demanding and of necessity must be tightly controlled, 
Likewise, fireground communication procedures must be tightly controlled. To do 
this effectively requires that all personnel responding to, operating at, and 
communicating with fireground personnel know, agree upon, and use only one 
standard set of rules for communication. The rules must be established prior to 
the response, must be written down, and must have someone responsible for 
enforcing them. These rules and procedures describe the priority hierarchy of 
transmissions, what transmissions are prohibited, the length and substance of 
transmissions, and any other factors that will enhance or detract from effective 
communications. 

The plans and actions taken prior to fire or emergency operations are critical. 
For fire departments to communicate effectively, it is necessary that all 
parties involved understand the content and meaning of the words, gestures, and 
signals, both visible and audible. 

This chapter therefore starts with several sections on issues to be onsidered in 
planning for onscene operations and then discusses communications issues 
pertinent to each phase of an incident. It elaborates on the material of the 
preceding chapters. 

26 See the following publications for information about the incident command 
system: Command and Control of Fire Department Operations at Catastrophic 
Disasters: Student Manual. Emmitsburg, MD: National Fire Academy; Field 
Operations Guide (1983), (ICS 420-1): Incident Command System Publication, 
Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection Publications; and, National Interagency Incident 
Management System (1983), Incident Command System, Stillwater, OK: Fire 
Protection Publications. 

5-1 

For the purpose of this discussion, it will be assumed that the Incident Command 
System is the principal command and control system in use for emergency 
incidents. 

Elements of Effective Onscene Communications 

Ensuring that a message is received and understood by the intended parties is 
obviously a crucial part of communications. Besides the hardware, it is 
necessary to consider encoding, noise, feedback, and discipline. 

Encoding --Fireground verbal communications often have been encoded to increase 
efficiency by reducing the number of words transmitted through the use of an 
agreed-upon code. Codes also increase privacy by making it harder for 
eavesdroppers to understand the message. Unfortunately, codes can confuse the 
intended receivers, too. 

The most commonly used codes in fire communications are the " 10 codes." The 10 
codes make up a set of numbers that corresponds to predefined messages. Each 
number is preceded by the number "10." For example "10-4" is used to acknowledge 
receipt of a message. The number 4 refers to the encrypted message "received and 
understood," and the number 10 is a prefix which acts as an alert to the message 
which will immediately follow it. 

The 10 codes may be used incorrectly or be misunderstood. Difficulties in using 
them include the commitment of time required to learn them and the problem of 
reliably remembering the less-used codes. 

Generally, the 10 codes are not appropriate for areas where many different fire 
departments must interact, where the turnover rate of members of the department 
is high, or where the response personnel are not clearly defined and known 
beforehand. As previously discussed, national organizations such as APCO now 
recommend the use of plain text, although 10 codes and other encryption systems 
are successfully used in many departments. 

5-2 

Reducing Noise --Anything which can interfere with a sender's message before it 
arrives at the person receiving it is considered noise. Noise may be induced by 
the equipment or environment used to communicate the message. Since emergency 
scenes are, by definition, uncontrolled environments, sources of potential noise 
must be anticipated and controlled before an incident if possible. That means 
identifying equipment which can operate efficiently and effectively in a wide 
range of environments. Furthermore, it means adopting and using an incident 
management system which controls the sender's and receiver's environment. Though 
not noise in a strict sense, limiting the number of persons sending and 
receiving messages in any 
communication system is essential to ensuring that each sender and receiver gets 
an adequate opportunity to be heard and understood. The incident command system 
also is an ideal vehicle for ensuring this. 

Improving Feedback --For effective tireground communication, not only must the 
receiver understand the message transmitted by the sender, but the sender has to 
know that the message was received and understood. Feedback is a way of 
communicating that understanding from the receiver back to the sender. 

Procedures for letting the sender know that a message was received and 
understood are a part of communications that needs to be planned in advance. 
Like the message itself, feedback need not be verbal. In fact, the message and 
the feedback may not be in a common format. As an example, consider an order 
from the roof sector to cut a vertical ventilation, opening to allow smoke and 
hot gases to escape a building with a deep-seated, smoky fire. Although the 
truck company officer directing firefighters on the roof may acknowledge his or 
her superior's instructions, the true test that the message was understood will 
come when changes occur in the avenue and character of smoke escaping the 
building. On the other hand, ordered actions do not always produce expected 
results, so feedback on the receipt and understanding of orders can be 
essential. 

Fireground Communications Discipline --Officers and firefighters should be aware 
of the importance of interpersonal and radio communications discipline. The 
communications 

5-3 

network is extremely active at times, and a failure to exercise proper 
communications discipline may affect operations negatively. In critical 
situations, improper radio procedures could affect the safety of the operating 
force. Officers and firefighters using the radio must be alert to avoid improper 
or untimely transmissions which interfere with effective or critical 
communications. 27 Particular care should be exercised to avoid the following 
breaches of radio discipline: 

Units with nonemergency transmissions breaking into radio traffic. Units should 
not transmit routine traffic until the air is clear. 

Units transmitting unnecessarily long and detailed messages. Lengthy messages 
should be transmitted by telephone or face to face. 

Units calling the dispatcher to determine if they are assigned or should 
respond. If a unit has kept the dispatchers apprised of its status and 
availability, it is not necessary to prompt them or encourage them to dispatch 
the unit. Dispatchers will assign available units, including those which are 
available by radio. 

Units failing to monitor the radio and acknowledge transmissions as promptly as 
radio traffic allows. (Chief officers should be alert to radio traffic, improper 
use, and delayed communications responses. They should assure that 
unsatisfactory transmissions are investigated and are the subject of appropriate 
corrective action.) 

Radio users speaking prior to or simultaneously with depressing the microphone 
button. This practice causes the first part of the message to be clipped. Users 
should wait a moment after the microphone has been keyed before speaking. 

27 At the World Trade Center fire and bombing incident in 1993, several hundred 
firefighters were crowded onto one of three channels used, causing a major 
problem in on-air discipline. 

5-4 

Fireground Decisionmaking 

Understanding the role of communications in incident management requires an 
awareness of decisionmaking methods and the flow of information on the 
fireground. Thinking about the nature of fireground decisionmaking is useful as 
one plans the specifics. 

Use of Mental Model --Research conducted by Klein and Calderwood (1985) found 
that the nature of previous personal experience appears to be a critical factor 
in the decisionmaking process of fire department incident commanders. 28 The 
basis for their time-critical decisions often is the ability to recognize a 
situation as a paradigm and match it with a plausible solution based on 
experience. 29 They call this "recognition-primed decisionmaking." This finding 
contradicts traditional decisionmaking models which assume that decisions are 
based on a functional analysis of available alternatives, followed by the 
selection of a best-fit solution based on its effectiveness or efficiency. 
Recognition-primed decisionmaking 
highlights the importance of experience. Rapid communication of the facts of the 
situation to the incident commander is crucial in forming the "paradigm" and 
selecting the "solution." 

Situational Awareness --Klein and Calderwood also theorized that the ability to 
develop a sense of a situation and formulate a paradigm to aid decisionmaking 
was based on the ability to develop what they referred to as "situational 
awareness." Such awareness is difficult to establish in the real-time, large-
scale, high-pressure world of an emergency, and thus they theorized that 
incident commanders must develop an ability to filter and focus their attention 
on the critical details about an incident. Their research led them to believe 
that the only way to deal with the complexity of an emergency incident 
effectively was to decentralize 

28 See G. A. Klein, R. Calderwood, and A. Clinton-Cirocco, (1985), Rapid 
Decision Making on the Fireground, (TR-85-46-12), Alexandria, VA: U. S. Army 
Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. 

29 Klein and Calderwood (1985) use the term paradigm to refer to a situational 
model or representation of an incident management scenario from past experience. 
The model may have been formed as an experience at a past incident or developed 
through training. 

5-5 

control of the details. This is precisely what the ICS does. By maintaining the 
cohesiveness of the company, task force, and battalion units of the fire 
department, incident commanders can deal more effectively with a large number of 
resources by maintaining span of control. The ICS simply gives the incident 
commander the ability to do this without sacrificing unity of command, and his 
or her control over the management of the incident. 

Fireground Communication Philosophy 

The importance of communications to achieve situational awareness and to 
implement command and control makes it essential that fire service professionals 
understand what needs to be communicated, who at an emergency scene communicates 
with whom, and which way information must flow. 

What is Communicated? --The so-called navigation analogy is a particularly apt 
way of describing what must be communicated to achieve effective incident 
control. To discover how to get someplace, we first must know where we are, and 
then where we wish to be. Knowing how to get somewhere, regardless of how 
elegant and concise the directions may be, is irrelevant without some knowledge 
of where we begin and where we want to be. All of your knowledge about the 
streets and buildings of your city and years of experience fighting fires are 
useless until you find out where the fire is.
30 

30 Until the advent of enhanced 9-l-l systems, such information had to be 
obtained, not simply verified, every time an emergency call was received. Now 
dispatchers can save valuable seconds, and concentrate on other details such as 
ensuring that all the occupants have evacuated and determining if any hazardous 
materials are involved. 

5-6 

Like the navigation example, communication at fires and emergencies is task-
oriented. We start with an emergency and we orient all actions toward 
controlling that incident as quickly as possible, with the least cost to people 
and property. Therefore, after the initial dispatch, emergency scene 
communications focus on how to do something-for example, fight a fire or control 
a hazardous materials release-and the progress made to accomplish that 
objective. To accomplish this the incident commander must have a clear 
understanding of what the current situation is (situational awareness) and must 
have formulated a clear and concise strategy for dealing with it. Establishing 
control in the midst of the turmoil and confusion of a fire or 
emergency scene is a primary function of communications. 

These types of information then are the focus of most emergency scene 
communications: (1) orders or instructions for accomplishing the control or 
mitigation of the incident, (2) reports on progress, and 3) requests for 
resources to achieve control or mitigation of the incident. Orders and 
instructions in the task-oriented world of fire and emergency scene operations 
are messages which command or instruct responders to perform tasks or implement 
tactics consistent with the incident control strategy selected by the incident 
commander. Effective orders and instructions are clear, concise, and direct. 

However, issuing orders and instructions is not enough to ensure effective 
communication. Orders must be issued to subordinates capable of responding to 
them. Therefore, to ensure that fire and emergency scene communication is 
effective, a feedback mechanism must exist. Subordinate commanders must have a 
means available to report their progress and request resources to accomplish 
their tasks to ensure effective communication, and in turn, effective incident 
control. By keeping this communication back-channel open, the incident commander 
is not only informed about the nature of the incident and the needs of 
subordinates, but is equipped with the capability to anticipate future 
developments and adapt the incident control strategy accordingly. 

Who Communicates With Whom? --The principal communicators at any fire or 
emergency scene are the decisionmakers charged with responsibility for 
developing strategies 

5-7 

and implementing tactics to control the scene. The proliferation of 
communication hardware makes communication among all emergency scene personnel 
more effective, and some fire departments are now issuing communications 
hardware such as mobile or portable radios or telephones to more members. 
However, one of the principal means of controlling who communicates verbally 
with whom at an emergency scene has been to control the assignment of portable 
radios and other communications devices. The mere presence of radios in the 
hands of emergency responders encourages increased communication, since these 
devices enable people to overcome the noise in the communication environment 
more readily than the unaided human voice. The communications roles of each 
person on the fireground need to be 
spelled out and practiced in training to keep communications from turning into 
noise, 

Direction of Communication --As important as what or who is communicating is 
their place in the structure of the incident management system and the nature of 
their communications. Communication between decisionmakers about the tactics and 
strategies used to control an incident creates an environment where most formal 
communication about a fire or emergency is vertical, that is, up and down the 
chain-of-command between commanders and subordinates. However, the larger and 
more complex an incident becomes, the more horizontal communication becomes. 
This results in part from the necessity to limit inputs-filter information-
coming to the incident commander. 

Decisions that do not affect overall incident strategy should be handled at the 
lowest possible level, and only major elements which require integration among 
major incident command functions should be channeled back to the incident 
commander. Ideally, communications among emergency responders at the task 
implementation level should be primarily horizontal and with their immediate 
superior. 

Incident Command and Control --The term C 3 I is used to describe the four 
elements of a military command and control system: command, control, 
communications, and intelligence. The concept also applies to the fireground 
incident command system. 

5-8 

Considering the roles of command, control, and intelligence at fires is another 
useful model to help understand communications requirements at emergency scenes. 

Command is the authority to direct the operation. The incident commander (IC) in 
the Incident Command System is the person responsible for making decisions and 
issuing orders about how to control the incident. Lines of authority must be 
understood for communications to be effective, and vice versa. The IC decides 
what resources are needed and how they will be deployed. He or she determines 
who will oversee subordinate or support functions, and delegates responsibility 
for these functions. Nonetheless, the IC remains the individual vested with 
primary responsibility for the outcome of the incident. Although the Incident 
Command System makes no assumptions about the rank of the person in charge of 
the incident, most fire departments see that only experienced officers assume 
incident command responsibilities. 

To effectively control the fireground requires that all personnel responding to, 
operating, at and communicating with fireground personnel know, agree upon, and 
use only one standard set of rules for communication. The rules must be 
established prior to the response, be written down, and have someone responsible 
for enforcing them. These rules and procedures outline what the priority of 
transmissions is, what transmissions are prohibited, the length and substance of 
transmission, and any other factors that will enhance, or detract from, 
effective communications. 

Intelligence is the gathering or distribution of information about an incident 
or that information itself. Prior to the occurrence of an incident, intelligence 
gathering usually takes the form of prefire plans. However, many fire 
departments are finding other sources of information helpful in assessing 
incidents. With the advent of computers, mobile data terminals, mobile facsimile 
machines, cellular telephones, and sophisticated management information systems, 
information about a given property or scenario can take many forms. Past event 
histories, inspection records, the Arson Information Management System (AIMS) 
data, property tax records, and building permit records are just a few of the 
data sources available to fire departments. Once an incident is underway, the 
gathering and distribution of 

5-9 

"intelligence" becomes the critical factor in maintaining the situational 
awareness of the incident commander. 

Incident Operations 

Perhaps the best way to illustrate the above concepts of the communications 
philosophy is to consider emergency scene operations in chronological order from 
the time an emergency call is dispatched to the time the incident is terminated. 

Notification and Initiation of Response --Earlier chapters dealt extensively 
with the operation of communications centers and dispatching. This discussion of 
incident operations starts with the dispatch-the order to emergency forces to 
respond. It must be received and acknowledged. At a minimum, the dispatch 
instructions must contain the location of the incident. Beyond that, additional 
information may provide helpful, even crucial details but still remains 
subordinate to the location of the incident itself. 

Communication En Route --It has been said that sizeup begins the moment an alarm 
is received, as a firefighter's or fire officer's mind becomes focused on the 
incident once the dispatch is received. Preparation for action actually begins 
even before an incident is dispatched, in the form of preincident or prefire 
plans. 31 

Prefire incident plans may be kept in the responding vehicles, relayed verbally 
by the dispatcher, transmitted in hard copy to the vehicle, or communicated by a 
combination of these 

31 A good example of how this preparation affects incident management occurred 
at the Sherwin Williams Paint Warehouse fire in Dayton, Ohio, May 27, 1987, 
which resulted in a multimillion dollar loss. (See Sherwin Williams Paint 
Warehouse Fire/ 1087. Report 009 in the Major Fire Investigation Program, United 
States Fire Administration, Emmitsburg, MD.) The tire chief reported that the 
principal reason for not aggressively attacking the fire was a concern about 
contaminating the city's primary supply of drinking water, a large aquifer 
directly beneath the warehouse. In consultation with the city's water department 
director, the chief had assessed the environmental exposure from firefighting 
water runoff at the warehouse long before he received notice that the warehouse 
was burning. Initial reports of the advanced nature of the fire, and progress 
reports en route confirming that the fire had fully involved the 180,000-square-
foot building, simply reinforced his decision not to apply water to the burning 
volatile organic compounds inside the facility. 

5-10 

methods. Preincident plans also exist in the minds of the officer and crew, 
Armed with these plans, incident commanders and responders are better prepared 
to assess the risks posed by a fire or emergency. For example, firefighters 
arriving at a shopping mall during the holiday shopping season with smoke 
showing from the roof of an anchor store should know from a preincident plan 
whether the building 

is well isolated from adjacent buildings; 
is of noncombustible construction; 
has occupants representing a wide cross-section of the population; 
may have, at certain times of the year, a larger-than-normal quantity of 
merchandise on hand, and an increased number of shoppers and staff; 
and has (or does not have) automatic sprinklers, standpipes, smoke detection, 
and smoke control systems. 

Based on this information, one of the IC's first priorities may be to ensure 
that the fire alarm system is sounding and that occupants are heeding it. 
Ordering the support of automatic sprinkler and standpipe systems and assessing 
the operation of any smoke control system also may be planned as the responding 
apparatus are en route. 

In addition to verbal information relayed from the dispatcher, observation en 
route may provide important clues about the nature of an incident. For example, 
traffic congestion en route to an automobile accident call usually indicates 
that the call is legitimate and may be obstructing the thoroughfare. Likewise, a 
large smoke plume or "loom-up" on the horizon usually indicates that the fire 
call you are responding to is the real thing. When the observed conditions en 
route translate into an action plan, or will significantly affect the decisions 
of the first-arriving companies, this information must be relayed to all 
responding units. 

Communication Upon Arrival --Up to this point, nearly all communication has 
flowed from the dispatch center toward the responding units and the initial 
incident 

5-11 

commander. From this point on, communications from the incident commander back 
to the dispatcher and out to the other responders will become the focus. The 
arrival of the first unit at the emergency scene serves as the benchmark for 
this communications transition. The dispatcher must be notified by the first 
unit as it arrives on the scene. From then on, the incident commander is the 
focal point for communications. All communications from that time forward should 
be directed through the incident commander, unless he or she delegates 
otherwise. 

After the first company arrives, an assessment of conditions (sizeup) must be 
made immediately. This assessment integrates the information already in hand 
with the observed conditions upon arrival, to formulate the initial incident 
control strategy. The incident commander must quickly take note of the same 
elements found in the pre-incident plan: the environment, occupants, operating 
features, and fire protection features. This information then must be relayed to 
subsequently arriving units and the dispatcher via the initial report. 

The initial report is critical because it sets the stage for the actions of each 
subsequently arriving company, and prepares the dispatcher for requests for 
additional services or the redeployment of resources. A good initial report 
raises the situational awareness of all responders and the dispatcher. It should 
include the following five elements: 

1. Fire progress (e. g., nothing showing, smoke showing, fire showing, "working 
fire"). 
2. Fire location (e. g., basement, rear of the building, second floor windows, 
roof, Quadrant D -Side 2). 
3. Building information (e. g., six-story brick and steel mercantile building, 
single-family wood-frame residence, three-story ordinary construction garden 
apartment).
4. Occupant behavior (e. g., occupants are evacuating, people at the windows). 
5. Command post location and officer-in-charge (e. g., front of the building or 
Side 1, Lt. Gallagher in charge).

5-12 

Some departments include one additional piece of information in the initial 
report-the capability assessment--in which the IC informs the responding 
companies and the dispatcher of his or her confidence that the incident can be 
controlled with the resources and personnel assigned. If conditions upon arrival 
indicate that control is unlikely or impossible with the assigned complement of 
personnel and resources, additional resources should be requested in sufficient 
quantity and capability to assure operational success. 

Establishing a Command Post --The initial incident commander must establish a 
command post. The location chosen for the command post may dramatically affect 
incident command and control by the way it aids or impairs communications. Once 
established, the command post becomes the hub of the communications network at 
the emergency scene. A good command post location must facilitate effective 
communications by giving the incident commander access to the incident 
environment without overwhelming his or her situational awareness. Generally 
speaking, the larger and more complex the incident, the further the command post 
should be from the actual incident site. At a small or routine incident, the IC 
should have good visual access to the scene to receive feedback on the progress 
or effectiveness of his or her incident management strategies. A good rule of 
thumb for ensuring this type of visual contact is for the first-arriving unit to 
pull past the scene as it approaches. The initial command post is usually 
established where this first company sets up for initial operations. This 
approach ensures that the first-arriving officer has seen what is happening on 
three sides of the incident scene. 

5-13 

Exhibit 5-1. The chief officer and aide operate a command post for a small 
highrise fire. Note the position of the cellular phone and radio microphone for 
smooth operation in concert with the work surface. 

However, this approach may be imprudent or impractical at some types of 
emergencies. Sometimes the terrain, street network, weather, or the nature of 
the incident itself leave the IC with no choice about how to approach the 
incident, and therefore, little choice about where to set up the initial command 
post. 

Subsequently arriving officers may elect or be required to assume command of the 
incident. Upon their arrival, the command post may be relocated to a site which 
remains accessible to the scene but ensures adequate insulation from it. The new 
command post should be clearly established and identified. Signs, flags, lights, 
and special vehicles are a few of the ways a command post can be distinguished 
at the incident scene. (Design criteria for command vehicles are discussed in 
Appendix C.) 

5-14 

The new location of the command post must be clearly announced to all companies 
operating at or assigned to the incident. This ensures that nonverbal 
communication remains effective. Furthermore, this ensures that those who must 
conduct face-to-face communication with the IC can locate him or her without 
delay. 

Tactical Communications --As stated earlier, much of the communication at 
emergency scenes is task oriented. Directing a fire attack will primarily 
involve communication between the incident commander and subordinate officers, 
and the companies and crews fighting the fire. Most messages will consist of 
orders and instructions to perform tasks for controlling the fire; reports about 
the conditions and progress encountered; and requests for additional resources 
to fulfill assigned tasks. 

These communications must be clear, concise, and timely to ensure that 
communications fully support the incident command and control function. Much of 
the communications will involve intelligence about the nature of the incident, 
which increases the situational awareness of the IC and the firefighters alike. 
The IC's situational awareness is critical to effective management of the 
incident. The firefighters' situational awareness, keeping abreast of conditions 
beyond their immediate environment, is critical to their safety. 

Even when an incident becomes a defensive operation, a significant degree of 
communication is required to ensure effective coordination. Defensive operations 
ordinarily require a significant commitment of personnel and resources. The more 
people that are involved in an operation, the more difficult communication 
becomes. For instance, when an advanced fire threatens to produce a structural 
collapse and firefighters are ordered out of a building, efforts must be made to 
quickly account for all personnel who were in, on, or around the involved 
structure. Once assembled and accounted for, these personnel will require new 
instructions for their effective deployment. The incident commander must 
recognize that the functions performed by all personnel prior to the evacuation 
will be substantially affected by changes in 

5-15 

the overall incident control strategy and prepare to communicate new 
instructions during the time it takes to regroup the forces. 

In addition to tactical communications, there often are many other types of 
communications needed during an incident. 

Locating, rescuing, and protecting endangered people are usually among the first 
priorities at any fire or emergency. Often the victims of fires and other 
emergencies are extremely agitated, anxious, or excited. The stress of the 
emergency may make civilians behave irrationally, or they may be unresponsive, 
combative, or uncooperative. The emergency responders need to calm and reassure 
the victims( s) to gain their confidence and cooperation to complete their 
rescue or secure their protection. Such communications must be authoritative, 
confident, and direct but should avoid melodrama, hyperbole, or vulgarity. 
Telling people what is really happening in the most concise and straightforward 
fashion usually works best, whether you are trying to effect an evacuation or 
reassure an accident victim. Incident analysis has demonstrated that people 
usually respond best when confronted with the facts about a dangerous situation. 
The more complete and accurate the information they receive, the better their 
response can be. 

Managing exposures during an incident often involves some degree of 
communication with people other than the emergency responders themselves. The 
location of vital business records or people requiring evacuation assistance, 
for example, may be identified in pre-incident plans, or by contact with the 
person reporting the incident, or from people at the emergency scene. 

Salvage operations often involve establishing a sense of the relative value of 
exposed property and the degree of danger confronting it. This requires 
communicating with property owners or occupants as to what is of highest 
priority to save, or if any areas need special protection. For example, the 
value of paper records themselves may be negligible, but when 

5-16 

those records are the accounts receivable or inventory records of a firm, their 
protection may be considered priceless in the eyes of the owner. 

Emergency Traffic --The fire service is trained to accept emergency scene 
operations as "part of the job." In fact, keeping a cool head in hot situations 
is what firefighting is all about. However, some situations represent 
emergencies even to seasoned firefighters and emergency responders. These 
include missing or injured firefighters, deteriorating or extremely hazardous 
structural conditions, weather changes that will exacerbate the fire situation 
or further endanger lives, and dramatic changes in smoke conditions. All of 
these situations require prompt and coordinated action to avert an operational 
disaster. Effective communications is the key to assuring that appropriate 
action is implemented quickly. Therefore, procedures for distinguishing and 
conveying such emergency messages must be adopted. 

The use of signal words, such as "May Day, " "emergency traffic," or "urgent," 
or the broadcast of a predefined signal like a radio alert tone, apparatus 
siren, or air horn blast must indicate to everyone operating at the incident 
that important, indeed vital, information follows. To maintain their 
effectiveness, these signals must be coordinated before an incident occurs and 
reserved for exclusive use in life-threatening or extremely hazardous 
situations. 

Once broadcast, emergency signals should cause the interruption of all other 
communications until the message is received and acknowledged. Procedures for 
dealing with such emergencies should be defined before an incident, and 
implemented immediately. For instance, if an alert tone is received from a 
Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) device in a trapped firefighter's radio, the 
IC should immediately begin efforts to identify, locate, and rescue the missing 
firefighter. (Radio equipment which integrates the features of PASS devices also 
may give an immediate identification of the radio assigned to the firefighter in 
need of assistance If radio assignment data are accurate, the identity of the 
radio operator and his or her assignment can then be readily determined.) 
Similarly, if sector reports indicate that a structural collapse is imminent and 
defensive operations should be implemented, a signal should be sounded both 
outside on the fireground (e. g., three long blasts on an airhorn) and on the 
radio (e. g., three long 

5-17 

alert tones activated by the dispatcher or field communications personnel) to 
direct firefighters to evacuate the building, secure defensive tactical 
positions, and await further instructions. 

Status Reports --Within a fixed time interval following the preliminary or 
onscene initial report, the IC should give a progress report to the CC. A 
progress report is a verbal picture of what is occurring at the scene and should 
include (1) a description of the fire building or emergency zone, (2) location 
of the fire, (3) description of the exposures, (4) description of the strategy, 
tactics, and resources being employed to control the situation, (5) an appraisal 
of the expected outcome of the current actions, and (6) any other facts which 
will be important to superior officers or surrounding companies listening to the 
report. 

Some departments feel that progress reports should be transmitted at the 
discretion of the IC and should only be transmitted when there is a change in 
operations or when the operation is complete (such as an escalation or de-
escalation). Another option is to require the IC to formulate and transmit 
progress reports at regular time intervals. Those who favor nonprogrammed 
progress reports want to give the IC an opportunity to manage the operation 
without higher levels of command interceding and to limit the radio traffic to 
essential dispatch traffic. Those who practice programmed progress reports 
believe the practice of regularly communicating a verbal picture of onscene 
conditions helps the IC to better understand and appreciate the problems; keeps 
the higher level of command better informed, thus allowing them to make 
judgments on the effectiveness of operations and the need to respond; creates a 
permanent record of the actions and reported conditions at regular intervals, 
and helps communications center personnel to have a clearer understanding of the 
incident and its development. 

A suggested time interval for programmed progress reports is to give the first 
progress report approximately 10 minutes after the preliminary report, and, for 
the next hour of the operation, to give one every 10 to 15 minutes and whenever 
a significant escalation of operations 

5-18 

occurs. The transmission of additional alarms would be defined as escalation and 
would require the IC to inform the communications center of the reasons for this 
additional response. 

Where fire departments use multiple radio channels, such as a primary dispatch 
or operations channel and a command or tactical channel, the operations channel 
is the routine communications link from the incident to the communications 
center. The dispatcher should rebroadcast all progress reports of major 
operations on both the primary channel and the command or tactical channel. The 
procedure for rebroadcasting reports should be predetermined and based upon the 
number of units working at the scene. Preliminary reports and progress reports 
for fires or emergencies smaller than the predetermined size need not be 
rebroadcast. 

Status reports help personnel maintain their situational awareness and prepare 
them for operational changes and new tasks. The reports help ensure safety by 
keeping personnel abreast of changing conditions. And the reports prepare the 
dispatcher and other potential responders for the deployment of additional 
resources or redeployment of those still uncommitted. 

Requests for Additional Resources --Requests for additional resources during an 
incident should include the nature and number of the required resources. Most 
departments group their companies in alarm assignments based on the task force 
concept. With this concept, companies are grouped by capability. Typically, each 
task force consists of one truck, aerial, ladder or service company assigned 
with two engine or pumper companies. For each group of two task forces, an 
officer of battalion or district chief rank is assigned to command. (While these 
groups of companies often are referred to as alarm assignments, an alarm 
assignment also may refer to all of the companies from a particular station or 
fire district.) Occasionally, special service companies like breathing apparatus 
supply units, canteen trucks, light towers or utility trucks, manpower squads, 
or medical units are assigned to round out the complement of capabilities of an 
assignment. 

5-19 

When additional companies or alarms are requested to control an incident, 
instructions also must be given to ensure their orderly integration into the 
incident. Units needed at the scene should be directed to their assignment and 
instructed as to whom they are to report. Units not immediately required at the 
scene, but whose assistance is needed for tools, equipment, or personnel, should 
be assigned to a staging area. The staging area should be established at a 
location with good access to the incident but far enough away to prevent 
uncommitted resources from interfering with emergency scene operations. Once 
established, the staging area represents a resource pool for the IC. At 
protracted incidents, a relief area and logistics sector may be established 
adjacent to the staging area. This way, as personnel and resources become 
available for reassignment, they can easily be attached to the staging sector. 

Requestsfor Special Services --Often at large incidents the assistance of other 
agencies is required to mitigate a situation. This assistance may include Red 
Cross disaster relief teams, social welfare agencies, environmental protection 
officials, utility companies, emergency management officials, or National Guard 
personnel. Ordinarily, these services remain under the direction and supervision 
of their own agency supervisors or commanders when assigned. To ensure effective 
communication with these outside agencies, someone from each agency should be 
included in the incident command hierarchy according to the agency's role in the 
incident. For example, organizations furnishing relief supplies like cots, 
bedding, food, water, or shelter should be assigned to the logistics division. 
32 Communicating with outside agencies will probably remain difficult even if 
integrated into the incident command system. Hardware and operating procedures 
often vary considerably between fire service and non-fire service agencies. 
Outside agencies with radios often cannot communicate with the fire service on a 
common frequency. One way to overcome such difficulties is to request each 
outside agency to supply the incident commander or division commander with one 
of its radios and an identifier. However, even with a radio, the fire service IC 
or division commander may have communication difficulties with the outside 
agencies, because they often have less formal communication 

32 The term "logistics division" refers to the ICS branch concerned with 
supplies, reinforcements, public information, and other support services. The 
division commander is one of five (or fewer) officers who report directly to the 
incident commander. 

5-20 

protocols and standard operating procedures than the fire or EMS department. 
Face-to-face communications may be the most reliable method in some cases. Once 
again, planning and practicing integrated emergency management operations can 
help overcome many of these difficulties. 

Avoiding Unnecessary Traffic --Most communications at the scene of a tire or 
emergency will be verbal. Radios have become the primary means of communicating 
information among emergency responders. However, some communication, 
particularly at the operational or attack level, is most effective when 
conducted face to face. Bogging down radio communications with traffic about 
where to direct a nozzle or how bad smoke conditions are can choke a 
communications network. 

Some departments have been issuing radios to each firefighter on duty to improve 
firefighter safety, the rationale being that each member should be able to 
immediately report extremely hazardous conditions or emergencies such as a 
missing or injured firefighter or a structural collapse. Procedures and controls 
must be adopted to ensure that all radio operators are maintaining radio 
discipline, and sending and receiving the right information to the right people 
at the right time. It does no good for everyone at an incident to have a radio 
if only half of them are listening to the right channel for instructions, or if 
many are speaking at the same time. 

Terminating an Incident 

As an incident is brought under control, the need for personnel and resources 
diminishes. However, incident commands must be terminated in an orderly fashion 
so that control of the incident does not end prematurely and so that resources 
are only placed back in service when fully prepared to engage in new 
assignments, The life cycle of any incident readily facilitates scaling back in 
an orderly fashion. 

5-21 

All Clear --The first significant benchmark in the control of an incident is 
usually the completion of a primary search or the removal of all trapped or 
injured victims from danger. Announcing the all clear indicates to all personnel 
operating at the incident that all known or immediately apparent victims have 
been removed, and the danger to civilians has been mitigated within reasonable 
certainty. In other words, there may still be some chance that lives are in 
jeopardy, but their status could not be determined and must wait for the 
secondary search, which will be conducted when the incident is controlled or 
conditions improve. This incident management priority holds for automobile 
accidents with trapped victims and hazardous materials incidents with 
contaminated or exposed victims as well as wildland and structural fires. The 
actions of firefighters and other emergency service personnel usually are 
dominated by actions to save lives during the early stages of any incident. 
Announcing the all clear tells all 
assigned personnel that the focus has shifted to fire control or property 
protection. 

Under Control (Situation Contained) --Once an incident is no longer growing in 
magnitude or severity, or is at least doing so in a predictable, controlled 
fashion, an incident may be referred to as contained or under control. By 
announcing that the incident is contained or controlled, the incident commander 
is declaring that the incident can be managed with the resources assigned. 
Furthermore, this declaration prepares the dispatcher and assigned companies for 
an orderly return to normal operations. If companies are still responding to the 
incident scene or staging area, they should be considered assigned and continue 
their response, since they may be required for relief or other duties, unless 
released by the incident commander. 

Available/ In Service/ Ready for Service --As companies are released by the 
incident commander through their sector officers, they should report their 
status to the dispatcher or communications center. Companies which are fully 
staffed, equipped, and prepared for another assignment should report themselves 
as "available" or "in service," or "ready" for service (depending on local 
jargon). Companies with reduced capabilities which do not impair their 

5-22 

readiness or response status should indicate their capabilities in their message 
to the dispatcher. For example, a four-person engine company which sends a 
firefighter/ EMT with a medic unit to the hospital might radio the dispatcher, 
"Engine 23 in service with three. One member assisting Medic 12." Occasionally, 
a company must return to quarters but still be out of service. Although the unit 
is unavailable for reassignment, the dispatcher still must be notified that the 
company is no longer assigned to the incident. When the last company clears an 
incident the command should be formally terminated. This indicates that no 
further resources are committed 
to the incident and that the scene is no longer under the control of the fire 
service. This is a particularly important distinction if the incident is a 
suspicious fire or is associated with other criminal activity. When an incident 
scene is left under the control or supervision of another agency, the 
responsible agency should be reported to the dispatcher as a matter of record. 

Postincident Operations 

After an incident is over there may be an investigation, critique, and a variety 
of dealings with the media. 

Investigations --Every tire and emergency incident should be investigated to 
determine its origin and causes as well as the contributing and mitigating 
factors. The actions and assessments of emergency responders aid immeasurably in 
the reconstruction of emergency scenes. Communication between emergency 
responders and investigators is vital to reconstructing the events surrounding 
most fires and emergencies. Therefore, emergency response personnel should 
become skilled in observing, recording, and recollecting details about the 
incidents to which they respond. This information will aid them as well as the 
investigators. 

Critiques, Post-Mortems, and After-Action Assessments --Even the best-trained 
and equipped fire departments and emergency response organizations can learn 
from their experiences, Every incident is an opportunity to test responders' 
knowledge while gaining new insights through experience. Postincident critiques, 
post-mortems, and after-action assessments are an opportunity to share these 
insights among peers. Sharing the lessons learned from every 

5-23 

fire and emergency operation from those with diverse perspectives helps iron out 
operational deficiencies, build teamwork, establish mutual respect among team 
members, and build a common core of experience which will serve the responders 
well at other incidents. Postincident critiques should be critical to the extent 
that they examine every detail that contributes to or detracts from effective 
incident management. 

Press Releases --One of the most difficult and challenging aspects of 
communications for any significant incident is dealing with the media. Often it 
is vital that communication begin with the media while an incident is in 
progress. In fact, the sooner the demand for information about an incident can 
be met the better, provided the information is accurate. After an incident, all 
the loose ends about an incident should be cleared up. A complete press release 
should be issued following every major incident. Many departments also issue 
daily press releases or briefings through the communications center. A good 
press release should answer the five Ws of journalism: who, what, when, where, 
and why (how). Keep press releases clear, complete, and to the point, and the 
media usually will be satisfied. And, when details are sketchy or incomplete, 
remember that accuracy is more important than timeliness. 

5-24 

6. Communications Hardware 

This chapter is a brief introduction to communications systems hardware and 
terminology. The basic elements of a communications system include transmitters, 
antennas, receivers, and their power supplies. There is also various ancillary 
equipment. 

Before discussing hardware details, we will discuss the characteristics of radio 
signals and their intended operating environment, and some key ideas on 
modulation and frequency ranges, all of which have a major bearing on the 
hardware required. 

Characteristics of Radio Signals 

To begin understanding radio systems basics, it is helpful to pause and consider 
that all radio receivers and transmitters are not compatible. The compatibility 
of receivers and transmitters is determined in part by the type of modulation 
(AM or FM) the transmitters use to place information on radio signals, and 
whether the receivers have an internal circuit design that can remove the 
modulated information from the transmitted radio signal. Compatibility also 
depends on the receiver and transmitter both being tuned or tunable to the same 
frequency. 

The type of modulation used and the part of the radio frequency spectrum used 
are two of the most important criteria in designing a system. 

Modulation --"Modulation" is the process of encoding messages to be transmitted 
on a radio signal. A radio signal without any modulation applied is called a 
carrier signal. It is a constant frequency and sounds like a steady tone before 
any modulation is applied to it. After modulation takes place, the result is 
called a modulated carrier signal. Demodulation is what occurs on the receiving 
end of a radio path. It is performed inside the receiver box. The modulation of 
the transmitter must be compatible with the demodulation process in the 
receiver. 

6-1 

The three major types of modulation are Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency 
Modulation (FM), and Phase Modulation (PM). "AM" Radio is a radio using 
Amplitude Modulation. "FM" radio uses Frequency Modulation. 

In amplitude modulation, the information desired to be transmitted is placed on 
the carrier wave by varying the amplitude (or power) of the carrier. In 
frequency modulation, the information to be transmitted is placed on the carrier 
wave by varying its frequency slightly (by several thousand cycles per second 
out of tens of millions cycles per second on the carrier). Phase modulation is 
similar to, but not exactly the same as, frequency modulation, and involves 
varying the phase of the signal to encode the information to be transmitted. 

Frequency modulation and phase modulation are the principal methods used by fire 
service communications to place information on the carrier wave. These methods 
are not the most efficient modulation methods from the point of view of power 
consumption and radio frequency spectrum use. This is unfortunate since the 
relatively high power demand of FM and PM requires heavy, bulky battery packs, 
and their somewhat inefficient use of radio spectrum wastes this precious 
resource. The main reason FM and PM continue to be used is the tremendous 
existing financial investment in hundreds of thousands of pieces of radio 
equipment. It is difficult to consider a wholesale discard of all this equipment 
already in service in the field. 

The ramifications of one department changing its modulation method are not 
limited to that department alone. Mutual aid procedures depend on the ability of 
one department to communicate with another. There would be a logistic and 
communications nightmare involved in attempting to change fire service 
communications modulation methods to more powerful and frequency-efficient 
methods if all departments in a metropolitan area did not change simultaneously. 

6-2 

Frequency Ranges --The radio frequencies used in the fire service are in the 
following ranges: 

VHF-Low Band: 33 MHz -46 MHz 
VHF-High Band: 150MHz-174MHz 
UHF: 450 MHz -460 MHz 
--800 -900 MHz 

Each frequency range uses a different antenna and has different propagation 
characteristics. VHF stands for very high frequency. There are two sections, or 
bands, identified for public safety use in the VHF radio spectrum. The VHF-Low 
Band is the radio frequency spectrum found in the 33 MHz to 46 MHz region. The 
other band is the VHF-High Band from 150 MHz to 174 MHz. 

Antennas used in the VHF-Low Band are typically between one and one-half feet to 
several feet long, the length being inversely proportional to the radio 
frequency selected. VHF-Low Band frequencies have the ability to hug the earth 
and travel relatively long distances over the horizon. This has advantages for 
agencies which have very large service areas that extend beyond the "line of 
sight." 

A disadvantage of this frequency spectrum is the tendency of the radio signals 
to travel off into the portion of the atmosphere called the ionosphere, where 
the signals bounce back and forth between layers of atmosphere like a ball on a 
racquetball court. This bouncing carries the signals over great distances, 
sometimes thousands of miles. This provides no advantage to the principal user, 
but causes a disturbance to receivers on the far end as a phenomenon called 
skip. This transmission path is very unreliable. It is not used for 
communications circuits that need predictability. And it is very troublesome to 
distant stations in the form of sporadic interference to local line-of-sight 
transmissions. 

6-3 

VHF-High Band, in contrast to VHF-Low Band, requires antennas that are about 15 
to 20 inches in length. The specific length is determined by many factors. 
Propagation is for the most part line of sight. However, there is a slight 
tendency of these waves to bend over the visible horizon, so the "radio horizon" 
is slightly beyond the visible horizon. This explains the observation that radio 
signals which supposedly have "line of sight" characteristics perform 
consistently beyond the visible horizon. 

The tendency to travel off into the ionosphere and bounce between layers of 
atmosphere until the signal arrives at a distant point is less apparent for 
High-Band VHF than for Low-Band VHF; nevertheless, the tendency is there. But 
the skip signals are usually fleeting and do not present as much of a problem as 
Low Band does at distant receiving points, in the form of sporadic interference 
to local radio transmissions. 

UHF means Ultra High Frequency. Generally speaking, the UHF spectrum starts at 
about 400 MHz, but fire and EMS radio operations in the UHF spectrum are in the 
450 MHz to 460 MHz region. UHF antennas are about six inches or so in length. 
The exact length is dependent on several design factors. 

Propagation of a radio signal is almost entirely line of sight. Propagation over 
the visible horizon is common, but less than with VHF. There also is less of a 
tendency for the radio signal to bounce back and forth in the ionospheric layers 
than in either of the VHF bands, and when it bounces it dissipates energy 
quickly. The signal tends to head out into space on a straight line rather than 
become trapped in the ionosphere. 

Going even higher in frequency, the 800 to 900 MHz range is today's practical 
upper frequency frontier for fire and EMS service communications. It is 
technically possible to increase the operating frequencies of mobile and 
portable radio equipment beyond 900 MHz, but certain practical matters such as 
maintenance and electronic component design need to be worked out by the 
communications industry. 

6-4 

The 800 to 900 MHz antennas typically range in length from one or two inches to 
six inches. Again, the length of the antenna is dependent on many design 
factors. Propagation characteristics at these frequencies are principally line 
of sight; the radio horizon is closer to the visible horizon in this frequency 
spectrum. Trunking radio communication systems typically use this frequency 
spectrum; they require frequency pairs grouped together closely. 

Microwave Systems Transmission --Microwave systems are high frequency (two 
Gigahertz) FM radio communication systems. They are not found in the majority of 
fire department communications systems but are common in large fire departments 
covering relatively large geographic areas. This is not to say that it is not 
technically feasible to apply microwave systems to small areas. The use of a 
microwave system is predicated on economic considerations and operational 
reliability considerations. Another factor is distance over which control of 
remote sites must be effected. 

Microwave systems provide an alternative to heavy use of many telephone lines. 
Reliability of communications during periods of natural disaster can be 
compromised if too much dependence is placed on the commercial telephone system. 
It can become overloaded or be subject to mechanical and electrical failures. 
Each fire department communications system needs a close evaluation to determine 
whether it is overly dependent on the commercial telephone system. (In fact, 
each communications system should be evaluated to discover whether it is overly 
dependent on any one path.) Then a management decision is required to determine 
whether the risk is acceptable or not. Microwave systems can provide a flexible 
backup. 

The beauty of microwave is its ability to carry many simultaneous channels of 
audio, data, video, and combinations of the three on one microwave frequency. 
The principle of multiplexing is used to accomplish this task. Multiplexing 
provides a method of processing more than one communications event over a single 
wire or single radio frequency. 

6-5 

Microwave systems as used in fire communications often are configured in a 
"loop." The loop provides redundancy so that if any one leg or one station in 
the system fails, the remainder of the loop provides a secondary path for 
communications. 

While all of the microwave functions listed below can be provided by other 
communications services, the microwave system enhances reliability in two ways. 
First, the system and its performance are completely under the control of the 
fire department or public safety managers, The priority of repair and 
maintenance are determined from a public safety point of view, not a commercial, 
economic point of view. Second, since the system is completely dedicated to 
public safety, there are no questions regarding priority of communications 
paths. The system manager knows precisely what communications should be given 
priority should there be a partial failure of the system. Some of the 
applications of a public safety microwave system are as follows. 

Transmit audio and digital signals from the dispatch center to remote fixed 
station transmitter sites. 

Provide intercom and telephone circuits from various sites served directly by 
microwave, or located near microwave sites. 

Provide control of mechanical and electrical operations such as transmitter key 
line functions, satellite receiver monitoring, monitoring of battery voltage 
levels and charging systems, gas pressure in high frequency and high power 
transmission lines, condition of temperature control devices in radio shacks, 
fire and burglar alarm circuits, and control of security devices such as 
television video and security lighting and safety marking lights. 

In larger fire departments, where fire stations and other facilities are spread 
over great areas, a feature called teleconferencing often is used to pass 
information along from supervisors 

6-6 

to their subordinates, to allow the fire chief to discuss issues with employees, 
or to perform any number of communications tasks. 

Teleconferencing involves a central telephone processing unit into which all 
fire stations or facilities involved dial as they would a normal telephone 
system. Microphones and speakers in each facility allow the participants to 
speak to each other as if the conversation were taking place with all the 
participants in one large room. Obviously this process involves many telephone 
lines. A microwave system can replace the hardwire telephone lines with a radio 
frequency signal. The microwave signal has the unique ability to carry many 
voice conversations on one radio frequency. This characteristic makes the task 
of setting up teleconferencing sessions much easier and more reliable than the 
use of commercial telephone lines. 

Microwave, while an expensive initial investment, is very reliable and efficient 
over long periods of time from a technical and economic point of view. 

Differences Among FM Uses --Many entertainment radios which have the ability to 
receive commercial FM also claim they are multi-band receivers and offer the 
purchaser the opportunity to "tune into the excitement of the public safety fire 
and police bands." While these radio receivers do a relatively good job of 
detecting and demodulating the entertainment transmissions, they generally do a 
very poor job of detecting and demodulating fire and police transmissions. 
Although both the entertainment transmitter and public safety transmitter are FM 
transmitters, they use two different kinds of FM, which points up the need to 
consider more than just the stated modulation type. The FM entertainment radio 
cannot effectively receive the public safety FM transmissions. And an FM police 
or fire receiver, if tuned to the FM entertainment transmitter frequency, cannot 
demodulate the entertainment transmitter. The differences lies in the magnitude 
of the frequency variations of the carrier wave. In the case of the 
entertainment transmitter, the swing is in hundreds of thousands of cycles; in 
the case of the public safety transmitter, the swing is measured in only 
thousands of cycles. Both are FM transmissions, yet are not really compatible. 

6-7 

Mobility of Senders and Receivers 

Communications equipment is characterized according to its mobility and intended 
application as fixed station, mobile, or portable equipment, as well as by its 
modulation and frequency band. 

Licensing is different depending on whether the hardware and system are fixed or 
not. The environmental conditions in which the equipment is expected to operate 
also differ according to mobility. The mechanical shock, mechanical vibration, 
and temperature extremes to which the equipment is subjected are important in 
designing or purchasing equipment. They must be clearly stated in the 
specifications. Mobility also affects the type of power that can be used; the 
distinguishing characteristic of fixed station equipment is that it can use 
commercial power sources, such as 110 VAC or 220 VAC. 

Fixed Station Equipment --Fixed station equipment is defined to be 
communications equipment that does not move around from place to place during 
use. Equipment installed in a truck, van, trailer, bus, or similar vehicle can 
be considered fixed station equipment if the vehicle is not moved during use and 
the location of the vehicle can be precisely identified at the same spot all the 
time. For example, radio equipment installed in a 40-foot trailer, parked at 
some specific location, is not mobile equipment. 

A fixed station transmitter can have any power output level authorized by the 
licensing process. The power output needed depends on the coverage area. A fire 
dispatch transmitter usually has a power output of anywhere from 5 watts to 250 
watts, rarely higher. The more typical range is 50 watts to 150 watts. 

Special control transmitters, while not exactly fixed station transmitters, are 
not portable or mobile pieces of radio equipment either. They usually operate 
with very low power output, and are used for point-to-point control or 
communications. Highly sophisticated antenna assemblies make the most of the low 
power and direct it from the transmitter to some distant 

6-8 

receiver in such a fashion that only a receiver directly in the path of the 
transmitter can hear the transmission. Control transmitters often are situated 
in a municipal water supply pump house or well. The transmitter sends data on 
the operating status of the pump house and other critical data to a remote 
monitoring receiver. These data are accumulated and reports filed. Some systems 
trigger an alarm if the data fall out of limits, or are not present, or if the 
transmitter carrier disappears altogether. Another example of a control 
transmitter is the street corner radio emergency call box. Upon activation, 
information is transmitted to the dispatch office indicating police, fire, or 
EMS assistance is needed. 

Mobile Equipment --Mobile radio equipment is expected to perform communications 
functions while in motion. It is used on automobiles, trucks, boats, and the 
like. The communications may take place with other mobile radio equipment, 
portable radio equipment, or fixed station radio equipment. 

The definition of the expected mobile application "duty" is very important for 
equipment specifications. If the operating environment is not defined there is 
no guarantee that the equipment will survive mechanically. Often the obvious 
requirements for survivability are overlooked by the user when a purchase is 
being contemplated. 

It is necessary to consider a mobile radio as part of a system. It is not simply 
a transceiver placed under a dashboard, an antenna here, and a "mike" holder 
here. For effective communications, the entire system, from microphone, data 
terminal, transceiver, through and to the antenna itself, must be planned 
carefully. 

The transceiver configuration is the most popular arrangement in mobile 
operations. Transceivers are nothing more than a marriage of a transmitter and 
receiver into a "box" along 

6-9 

with a common power supply. As a system component, radio transmitters are seldom 
used alone in mobile applications. 33 

The power output level of a mobile transmitter is limited by its ultimate power 
source. In the case of an automobile, it is the vehicle's battery. 
Theoretically, power levels up to 200 watts are possible, but practical system 
configurations limit mobile radio transmitter power outputs to 50 watts or even 
25 watts. In most radio systems, mobile transceivers operate in concert with 
portable radio transceivers elsewhere in the field. The system design usually is 
such that the mobile transmitter power output need not be too different from the 
portable transmitter power levels. If the system can effectively pick out low 
power handheld radio signals, it should be able to receive at some satellite 
receiver the much more efficiently radiated signal from a mobile unit. If the 
handheld power output is approximately 3 watts, there usually is no need to 
specify a mobile radio transmitter with power outputs greater than 25 watts. 

Access and operator convenience are very important in specifying, selecting, and 
installing mobile radio equipment. Cellular telephone installations are a newly 
recognized contributor to motor vehicle accidents. Considerable care in 
placement of controls is needed to reduce the likelihood of an accident when 
emergency vehicle drivers attempt to select a channel, change a mobile unit from 
repeat to direct, or even just raise or lower the volume. The same care is 
needed in selecting equipment features. 

One of the most dangerous mobile radio ancillary devices from the viewpoint of 
diverting a driver's concentration is the Mobile Data Terminal (MDT). Most MDTs 
have many message buttons from which the driver must select. Add in the video 
display or hard printout, and the temptation exists for the driver to divert 
his/ her attention from the road. Given prevailing 

33 That is not to say that some unique system configuration would not allow a 
transmitter to operate alone. An example could be some kind of telemetry 
operation where data are transmitted in one direction from the mobile unit to 
the fixed base station, 

6-10 

staffing levels, MDTs often must be operated by one person who also functions as 
the driver of the vehicle. 

Exhibit 6-1. Well-placed controls are critical, especially when vehicles are 
operated with one person, such as this command vehicle. 

Portable Equipment --Portable equipment is sometimes called Personal Radio 
Communications Equipment. Portable radios used to communicate in both directions 
are transceivers. The battery is the common power supply. The antenna is common 
to both the transmitter and the receiver. 

6-11 

Some communications systems are completely configured around performance of 
personal radio equipment. The fixed base station or several fixed base stations 
and the associated system of receivers and antennas are designed to communicate 
with portable radio equipment only. No mobile equipment is included in the 
design, procurement, or installation, despite the fact that field personnel are 
in motor vehicles. When field personnel are in the vehicle, communications are 
to be performed using a portable radio attached to the user. This creates a very 
challenging system design. Nevertheless, it accomplishes the ultimate in 
communications with field personnel. 

Modern portable radio equipment provides the fire service with a wider range of 
operating features than did earlier radios. These features came into existence 
because of fire service desires or because of technology cross-over from other 
user groups, such as industry, transportation, or law enforcement. From a 
technical and flexibility point of view these features may be good, but they 
also must be assessed in terms of whether they increase or decrease risk to 
field personnel. 

For example, many portable radios now provide features that are controlled by 
accessing a key pad on the side of the radio. One must consider the ability of 
field personnel to use these key pads, and to access channel change knobs, 
volume controls, built-in LED lighting controls, and similar features under the 
high-risk, low visibility environmental conditions of fire operations. The 
choices of features must be tempered with the safety of the user. Can the user 
really access channels, change from direct to repeat, and adjust volume using 
finger touch only? In some areas, the ability to survive harsh environments and 
simplicity of tactile operation take precedence over having multiple features. 

Before any purchase is made, it is usually a good idea to do a "needs" analysis 
of what the field fire service personnel really need. An "ideal" performance 
specification for a portable radio might be "... can be changed from channel to 
channel, direct to repeat, in a pocket, at the end of a speaker-mike, at 2 a. m. 
on a cold winter morning, in a burning warehouse, with smoke banked down to the 
floor, by a fully bunkered-out, glove-wearing, blinded firefighter on his/ her 

6-12 

hands and knees, wearing self-contained breathing apparatus." Consider this end 
user specification against many of the portable radios now on the market. 
Consider it against what is now in service. It certainly provides a challenge to 
the design community. 

The basic hardware elements of communications systems are transmitters, 
receivers, transceivers, and antennas. Command consoles might be added. The 
sections below treat each of these elements in turn. 

Receivers 

Receivers are the "ears" of the communications system. They are tuned to listen 
to either a single frequency or to a "band" of frequencies. Receivers in fire 
communications systems perform the same function as entertainment radio or TV 
receivers. They look at the world through a kind of electromagnetic "window" to 
see if a radio signal of the right frequency is coming through the window. If it 
is, the receiver will attempt to understand what the signal is "saying." This is 
possible only if the modulation method of the transmitter signal and the 
receiver are compatible. 

Receivers are made up of what are called stages, or sections. Simply put, the 
receiver is made up of the front end, or the radio frequency amplifier section, 
also called the rf amplifier; the intermediate frequency amplifier stage, also 
labeled the if stage; and the audio amplifier stage. 

6-13 

Each receiver has circuitry that performs the above three tasks; the difference 
from one receiver to another is the quality of design demonstrated by how 
reliably it removes the information from the carrier. The quality of each 
stage's design and performance dictates the price of the receiver. 

As a stand-alone component, receivers find frequent application as scanners or 
monitors of fire service agencies other than the agency the user is associated 
with. From time to time it is of interest for a fire officer to listen to 
activity in adjacent jurisdictions. A "monitor receiver" is perfect to fill this 
need. Commercially available scanners usually perform adequately if there is no 
need to transmit on the monitored frequencies. 

Rural and suburban areas do not usually present a hostile operating environment 
for inexpensive, off-the-shelf monitor and scanner radio receivers. The most 
common shortfall in rural areas is a lack of ability to pick up the desired 
signal because the radio frequency( rf) -amplifier is not as sensitive as higher 
quality public safety radio receivers. 

Urban settings present a different challenge to inexpensive receivers. Here 
there are often concentrations of entertainment FM radio transmitters, paging 
systems, and other radio services which wreak havoc with lower-quality radio 
designs. Only good quality design and good-quality components can overcome the 
tendency of urban radio congestion to overload inexpensive 
receivers' rf-amplifiers. 

The difference between a $50 monitor or scanning receiver and a $500 monitor or 
scanning receiver usually is not apparent by viewing the outside of the case or 
by listening to the audio output. The test of the quality of a receiver is its 
ability to operate successfully in an urban area where there are many 
transmitters of all kinds, at all frequencies. Only quality design and quality 
components can overcome the tendency of urban radio frequency congestion to 
overload the "front end" of the receiver and cause the circuitry near the 
antenna end to go into distortion because of too many signals or signals that 
are too strong. This undesirable performance exhibits 

6-14

itself by annoying squawking and squealing from the receiver speaker while 
driving through heavy urban areas. 

Most of the communications receivers in the fire service world are used for 
voice transmission or data transmission. All receivers that are tuned to or 
listening on the same frequency as the transmitted signal will understand the 
transmitted information if the transmitter modulation technique and the receiver 
demodulation technique match. When encoding is used, the receiver continually 
evaluates the received signal to determine whether there are any encoded 
messages in the signal, and, if so, decodes them. 

Monitoring Receivers --"Monitoring radio receivers" are radio receivers that 
listen all the time for some signal of interest. Something is usually triggered 
when the information is received. Receivers do not require licenses from the 
Federal Communications Commission or other government agencies. 

The distinguishing characteristic of monitoring receivers is that they operate 
alone, not in conjunction with a transmitter. In a way, monitoring receivers can 
be likened to an "eavesdropper," whereas a radio receiver operating with a 
transmitter is involved in a "conversation." 

Monitoring receivers may be used to monitor the state of sprinkler control 
valves, fire alarm devices, hot and cold water tanks, or the temperature in a 
building. Monitoring receivers may listen for a transmitted signal from a street 
corner radio fire alarm box, a roadside motorist's help alarm box, or even a 
garage door opener. 

Many volunteer fire departments and civil emergency management agencies have 
large alerting sirens located at or near their stations. These sirens can be 
activated manually with a push-button switch or they can be activated by 
broadcasting a radio signal that is "heard" by a monitoring receiver at or near 
the siren. If the signal code is acceptable to the receiver, i. e., it is 

6-15 

something the receiver circuitry understands, a small switch inside the receiver 
is thrown, causing the siren to be activated. 

Monitor radios often are used in the homes and automobiles of volunteers or on-
call personnel to notify them of an emergency. Pagers are another device 
commonly used to alert firefighters of an alarm. Pagers are simply small monitor 
receivers. 

Monitor radios can be classified as either Continuous Monitoring (Open) or 
Alerting. The difference is whether the monitoring receiver allows everything it 
hears to pass on to a loudspeaker or some other circuitry, or whether it is 
selective about what it allows to pass on. In some areas radio traffic is so 
heavy that the listener of the radio cannot tolerate the continuous noise and 
activity. This is an application for an alerting type of monitor radio. The 
alerting type monitor receiver needs some kind of encoding process at the 
beginning of a transmitted signal so the receiver can evaluate the code and 
decide whether it wants to "open up" and let the message through. 

Voting Receivers --Voting receivers, sometimes called satellite receivers, are 
simply remote receivers used in a system to pick up signals from portable or 
mobile equipment that is too weak for the fixed base station antenna to detect. 
Voting receivers are connected to a "black box," called a comparator, which will 
be explained shortly. From a receiver point of view, voting receivers have all 
the characteristics of any other receiver. 

The need for voting receivers arises from the fact that mobile or portable radio 
transceivers are less powerful than fixed base station transmitters. A one-watt 
transmitter in a portable radio cannot transmit with the same authority as a 
150-watt fixed base station over the same distance. While the portable may be 
able to hear the fixed station, the dispatcher at the fixed station may not be 
able to hear the portable over the same antenna-to-antenna path. 

6-16 

Exhibit 6-2. Radio receiver used to control siren. 

To solve this problem, receive sites are situated in remote parts of the radio 
system's coverage area. A receiver is required for each frequency of interest in 
that part of the service area. Receive antennas are placed on towers or on 
buildings in which these receivers are located. The receivers are placed in a 
special secure room in the building or in a small outbuilding sometimes called a 
"radio shack." Since there is now more than one receiver monitoring the channel, 
the probability increases that one of the receivers spread out over the service 
area will hear the signal better than another. Each receiver sends what it hears 
back to the base station on telephone lines, or by means of a microwave channel. 
At the dispatch office or base station, a piece of system equipment called a 
comparator evaluates the quality of each receiver's output, and "votes" for the 
best signal, which it then routes to the dispatcher. 

Most often, more than two voting receivers, other than the base station 
receiver, will be used in a radio system requiring this feature. There is no 
reason why the fixed base station receiver itself could not be configured as a 
voting receiver and operate in concert with another receiver remote from the 
base station. Because of their relatively low power requirement and use in 
remote geographic locations, they are prime candidates for which to consider use 
of a solar power supply. 

6-17 

Transmitters 

If receivers are the "ears" of radio communications, then transmitters are the 
"voice" of radio communications. Transmitters are the originating end of the 
radio transmission path. A transmitter works in cooperation with an antenna to 
send out a radio frequency electrical signal that anyone can listen to. All the 
listener needs is an antenna and a receiver tuned to the same frequency as the 
transmitted signal. The receiver must be able to understand the language, or 
modulation, of the transmitter. 

Exhibit 6-3. Voting Receivers. 

6-18

The essential parts of a transmitter are the sections which determine the 
frequency at which the transmitter operates; the section which makes certain 
that no undesired frequencies leak out of the transmitter and that the frequency 
of the generator stage is properly multiplied if needed; and the section that 
determines how much power the transmitter will output to an antenna. 

The first stage, frequency generation, can be achieved by either what is called 
crystal oscillator generation or by a synthesizer. The synthesizer is the most 
modern type of frequency generator. It provides a fast and easy way for the user 
to change the frequency of the receiver or transmitter, but requires additional 
design and manufacturing expense for the increased circuitry and filtering 
needed to minimize the generation of false or spurious signals. 

In certain systems there is no choice about whether or not a synthesizer should 
be used: modern trunking radio systems require synthesized frequency generation 
for both transmitters and receivers. Computer-based master controllers in 
trunking systems send encoded commands to all the system transmitters and 
receivers telling them the frequency on which they should operate. This is done 
without any action on the part of the equipment user. 

The second major stage of a transmitter is called the frequency multiplication 
stage( s). These stages not only increase the frequency of the oscillator or 
synthesizer, but also possess circuitry that works to keep the output signal of 
the transmitter "clean," or in other words, to limit the output signal to only 
the desired signal. 

6-19 

Finally, a transmitter is provided with what is called an amplifier stage. This 
stage raises the power output to the antenna to whatever power the designer 
desires. The power output of a transmitter significantly affects its price. 

Repeating Transmitters --A repeating transmitter simultaneously rebroadcasts to 
all receivers in a radio system the message a user of the system is transmitting 
from a mobile or portable transceiver. The mobile or portable must be configured 
so that its transmit frequency is the same as the base station receive 
frequency, and its receive frequency is the same as the base station transmit 
and repeating transmitter frequency. The advantage of this arrangement is that 
the field mobile or portable units transmit to all other units in the system 
with the same "power output authority" and signal coverage as the fixed base 
station transmitter. Conversely, system receivers receive all system 
transmitters, regardless of their transmit power output, as if they were 
transmitting at the full power output of the base station transmitter. 

While this may seem a good idea, there is a price to be paid: the feature 
requires at least two separate, properly spaced radio frequencies dedicated to 
this operation. The frequencies are called repeater pairs and are selected to 
accommodate the receiver in the system. Ideally, radio receivers listen to one 
frequency only. But in real life, the ability of the radio receiver to 
discriminate between the desired frequency and transmissions made one or two 
channels away is dependent on the quality of the receiver. If a high power 
transmitter sends out a signal on a channel too close to the one to which the 
receiver is tuned, the receiver is "aware" of the transmissions and becomes 
desensitized. This occurs even when the user is unaware that his/ her receiver 
is overloaded and essentially useless. Put another way, the rf-amplifier of the 
receiver goes into an overloaded condition. Therefore, the repeater pairs must 
be selected so the transmit frequency is far enough from a receive frequency to 
eliminate this overload condition. This frequency spread must be determined by 
the equipment manufacturer. 

6-20 

In the VHF-Low Band and VHF-High Band spectrums, there are few, if any, repeater 
pairs available. If the fire department operates at 154 MHz, and if frequencies 
are not currently "owned" by the fire department, it is highly improbable that 
the frequencies will become available for a repeater system in most parts of the 
country, because the frequencies needed for one or the other part of the 
repeater pair are usually already assigned to other agencies. If the operating 
frequency is at 450 MHz, or even 800 MHz, the probability is higher that 
repeater pair frequencies will be available. But even there, it is difficult to 
obtain licensing for repeater frequency pairs because the regulating agencies 
have adopted a policy of promoting radio trunking systems. These systems, 
addressed elsewhere in this manual, require extensive assignment of repeater 
pair frequencies to a multichannel radio system. 

Transceivers 

Transceivers are a combination of transmitter, receiver, and power supply. The 
word transceiver is a contraction formed from the words "transmitter" and 
"receiver." Every receiver or transmitter must have some kind of power supply. 
In the transceiver, the power supply provides power to either the transmitter 
section or the receiver section, but only one at a time. Most common references 
to portable or base station "radios" actually mean transceivers. 

A distinguishing characteristic of transceivers is their antenna connection and 
switchover. It is not desirable to have one antenna for receive and another for 
transmit. The transceiver employs circuitry to carefully and quickly switch the 
antenna back and forth between the transmitter and the receiver. This circuitry 
is controlled by what is called the Push-to-Talk-Switch, frequently labeled the 
PTT Switch. A design flaw or failure in this circuitry could "dump" the high 
power output of the transmitter into the sensitive and delicate receiver "front-
end" rf-amplifier with disastrous results. Since the receiver is listening to, 
or is near, the same frequency as the transmitter, it is necessary to turn the 
receiver off while the transmitter is operating so "feedback" does not occur. 

6-21 

Base station radio equipment is almost always configured as a transceiver. 
Transmitters have higher power supply requirements than receivers. Therefore, 
the power supply section of a transceiver, while supplying both receiver and 
transmitter, is sized for the transmitter. 

Exhibit 6-4. Fixed station radio in use at a fire station. Also note the 
printer, MDT, and external alarm used for redundant means of communication. 

6-22 

Antennas 

The antenna can make or break a system. In terms of cost per component, 
allocating money to antenna design provides more benefit in system performance 
than any other system component. Two key antenna characteristics are the angle 
of radiation and the directionality. 

The angle of radiation is important in that it determines the ability of the 
antenna to direct most of its radiated radio frequency energy toward the 
horizon. After all, in most fire department applications, there is not much 
value to allowing much of the radio energy to be radiated straight upwards 
toward outer space. The location of the receiver is almost always in the 
direction of the horizon. The more basic antenna designs unfortunately allow 
this waste of energy by radiating upward at many angles. Simple antennas also 
allow radio energy to be radiated in all horizontal directions from the antenna. 
This is called the omni-directional characteristic. But if 80 percent of the 
energy could be directed in one given direction instead of in all directions, 
the energy put into the antenna by the transmitter would be used in a highly 
efficient manner. This is not to say that all antennas should be directional. 
But it is generally helpful for antennas used in the majority of fire department 
systems to have narrow angles of radiation. 

As noted earlier, the higher the operating frequency, the shorter the physical 
length needed for the antenna. (The length of the antenna is related to the 
wavelength of the frequency, which is inversely proportional to frequency.) Most 
antennas used in the fire service are vertically polarized. This means the 
antenna rod points up or down, not side to side. The expanse of the conducting 
surface on which the antenna is mounted should have a radius at least one and a 
half times the length of the antenna. This expanse of conducting surface is 
called a ground plane. A trunk lid or a rooftop are examples of mounting 
surfaces that serve as ground planes. Therefore, it is more difficult to find a 
suitable mounting location for a 33 MHz (long wavelength) antenna than it is to 
find one for an 820 MHz (short wavelength) antenna. The ability to find the 
horizontal ground plane for the higher frequency antenna is easier. 

6-23 

Exhibit 6-5. Relative Length of Antennas at Typical Fire Department Operating 
Frequencies. 

Certain specialized antennas do not require a ground plane for proper 
performance. They are usually used in situations where it is impossible to 
provide a ground plane. However, performance is inferior to that of a simple 
antenna with an adequate ground plane. 

Antenna directional characteristics are measured in terms of decibels. Decibels 
are simply a ratio or comparison. A decibel has no units of dimensions. It is 
simply a number. For a given antenna, plus decibels indicate higher performance 
in the direction indicated; negative decibels indicate lower performance in the 
direction indicated, relative to a quarter-wave whip antenna. A glance at an 
antenna specification sheet will help you to understand the principles. 

Fixed Station Antennas --Fixed station antennas provide designers and users the 
widest range of opportunities to decide the direction in which to project the 
radio signal. This is because fixed station antennas allow a greater selection 
of design options with respect to vertical and horizontal signal patterns, The 
base station directional characteristics not only enhance the propagation of the 
base station signal but also enhance the ability to receive 

6-24 

mobile or portable transmissions from the field. Whatever advantage the antenna 
offers to the transmitted signal, it also offers to the received signal. 

Gain antennas, those antennas which are designed to propagate radio energy 
toward the horizon, or in one direction more than another, may be used to favor 
a certain direction of transmission and/ or to minimize interference from 
distant stations. Antenna arrays, a form of gain antenna, can be rotated, 
raised, or lowered to maximize communications reliability inside the radio 
service area. 

Intuitively it may seem that system performance is enhanced by raising an 
antenna to a new height. While often true, that is not always the case. Even 
though the antenna is highly reliable and a relatively inexpensive systems 
component, antenna theory and antenna applications are highly specialized 
technologies. It is practical to focus on the antenna system as a solution to 
coverage and interference problems. However, this should be done by people 
experienced in the field. 

Mobile Station Antennas --Placement of antennas on motor vehicles is an art as 
well as a science. There is at least one basic principle to apply: Place the 
antenna in the middle of the largest horizontal expanse of metal available in 
most cases. The metal should extend from the base of the antenna at least the 
length of the antenna itself, and preferably one and a half times the length of 
the antenna in all directions. It is not always possible to identify a location 
meeting the above criteria; in these cases, an antenna is used that does not 
require a ground expanse at all. These antennas may be found by consulting a 
reliable commercial antenna manufacturer. If the above options are not feasible, 
then the installer must do the best possible job of selecting an antenna 
location. This task should be performed by a knowledgeable person. 

6-25 

Optimum Gain Collinear design delivers 4.5dB omnidirectional gain across each 
band segment, with 5 dB peak gain at center 

Fiber glass Lightweight white ARMORWEAVE radome protects radiating elements and 
simplifies installation 

Rugged Wind rated at 128 mi/ h (206 km/ h) with a 1.65 safety factor 

Reliable Power rated at 350 watts to assure continuous service for years 

Protected Do grounded for maximum equipment protection 

Specifications 

Electrical 

Power 350 watts maximum 
Gain 4.5dB minimum (RS-328) 
5.0 dB maximum at center frequency 
Frequency Range 137-l44 MHz (ASPD682); 146-l54 MHz (ASPD682); 152-l58 MHz 
(ASPD682); 156-l62 MHz (ASPC682); 160-l66 MHz (ASPD682); 
164-170 MHz (ASPE682); 166-174 MHz (ASPF882) 
Bandwidth Specified frequency range
VSWR Less than 1.5: 1
Impedance 50 ohms nominal 
Vertical Beamwidth 22 degrees 
Termination RG-213U, 24 inches (61 cm) flexible extension with male N connector 

Mechanical 

Rated Wind Velocity 128 mi/ h (206 km/ h) 
Lateral Thrust 50.37 Ibs (22.9 kg) @ 100 mi/ h (161 km/ h) 
Bending Moment 298 ft-lb (41.2 kg-m) @ 100 mi/ h (161 km/ h)
Equivalent Flat Plate Area 1.26 ft2 (0.12 m 2 ) 
Antenna Length 16.2 ft (4.9 m) 
Weight 9.5 lb (4.3 kg)
Radiating Elements 3/ 18 inch (4.8 mm) brass tube 
Antenna Housing ARMORWEAVE fiber glass dome 
support 17/ 8 inch (47.6 mm) O, D, heavy duty heat treated aluminum pipe
Mounting Two (2) heavy duty mast clamps recommended (furnished) 

Shipping Information 

Weight 28 lb (12.7 kg) 
Dimensions 3 1/ 2 inch (8.9 cm) 0, D, tube x 209 inches (531 cm) 

Exhibit 6-6. Sample Antenna Specification From a Manufacturer 

6-26 

While the quarter-wave whip antenna is very simple, it is recommended that "gain 
antennas" be used in mobile applications, for several reasons. First, the gain 
antenna provides an inexpensive way to obtain an apparent increase in power. The 
radiation pattern of this type of antenna directs most of the radiated energy 
toward the horizon in all directions. Ordinary antennas also direct a good part 
of the energy vertically, toward the sky. This energy is lost. Second, the gain 
antenna minimizes the power required to supply the transmitter because the 
"gain" of the antenna allows the power supply to the transmitter to be 
downsized. This is very desirable in mobile and portable applications. For 
instance, if 10 watts of transmitter power output is needed for reliable 
communications with a standard whip antenna, approximately 5 watts is required 
for the same reliability using what is called a standard 3db Gain Antenna. 
Third, since gain antennas have neither moving parts nor require any power 
supply, they are very reliable and quickly replaced by a user if they fail. They 
are not significantly larger than a standard whip antenna. 

Portable Equipment Antennas --There are few ways, if any, to compensate for the 
poor antenna radiation conditions that surround portable radio applications. The 
absence of a ground plane or metal-like sheet extending in all directions 
results in an inefficient radiation pattern for transmission. 

At VHF-Low Band, there is little one can do to attain efficient antenna 
configurations because it is difficult to provide an effective ground plane. At 
VHF-High Band, antenna systems begin to become manageable. At 450 MHz and above, 
the antenna system becomes very predictable because it is relatively easy to 
provide the antenna system with an effective ground plane. 

The place on the human body that a radio transceiver is carried when 
transmitting or receiving is very important. Almost every radio manufacturer 
equips portable radios so they can be worn on the user's belt. Or, the radio can 
be placed inside a turnout coat in a radio pocket so it will not be affected by 
water. In both cases a speaker-microphone is almost always used to 

6-27 

activate the transmit and receive function. When the portable radio is worn on 
the belt the transmit efficiency is greatly reduced. Much of the radiated energy 
is absorbed by the body. Likewise, the ability of the portable radio to 
efficiently receive while on the belt is greatly reduced because the body 
shields the antenna from the radiated signal. Much of the time the user is 
unaware of this reduced operating efficiency. The user often assumes that if the 
manufacturer made a speaker-mike available, then the radio must work properly 
when it is connected. It is necessary to educate the users of portable radios 
about the need for the antenna on the portable to be positioned as high as 
possible, kept vertical, and away from obstructions when the radio unit is used. 

Control Consoles --Control consoles are another type of fixed station equipment, 
usually located in dispatch offices. A control console is a component in a radio 
system with knobs, buttons, switches, and displays that allow the dispatcher to 
control the system. The console effectively becomes an extension of the 
dispatcher's eyes, ears, hands, and feet. Some consoles are very basic. They 
might contain only a transmit/ receive button or switch, a volume control, a red 
"transmit" light, and a green "receive" light. Medium to large radio systems 
employ more complex control consoles that provide channel selection features, 
cross-patching or connection between channels, clocks, muting, recording, 
telephone answering and patching ability, and even voice privacy features. 

The layout of console controls needs to be planned carefully so that the 
controls interface appropriately with the dispatcher's hands and eyes, and help 
make dispatching efficient and reliable. Even foot controls may be used to 
assist the dispatcher in commanding the radio system, telephone system, and 
intercom system. 

6-28 

Exhibit 6-7. A commercially available radio control console installed in 
Huntington Beach, California. 

The placement of controls may be as important, if not more important in the long 
run, than minor variations in technical specifications from one manufacturer to 
another. 

In most cases, radio system consoles are designed by radio equipment 
manufacturers. Specialists in the field of ergonomics, the science and art of 
human engineering, carefully plan the location of controls. Engineers plan the 
layout of the electronics. If departments elect to design and build their own 
consoles and console panels, they must be aware that the layout and electronic 
component selection of a console and the ergonomics are critical. Control 
consoles process relatively low-level electrical signals. Many things can go 
wrong in the routing of these signals that can result in undesirable levels of 
hum and other kinds of interference in the radio system. 

6-29 

Exhibit 6-8. The consoles in the Montgomery County, Pennsylvania communications 
center were custom designed. 

Users can expect to see more changes in the characteristics of control consoles 
over the next 5 to 10 years than they have seen over the past 40 years. The 
increased use of trunking systems, computer-aided dispatch, and the availability 
and cost effectiveness of personal computer technology are bringing console 
technology from the electromechanical era of mechanical push-button switches to 
video displays. A console formerly five feet wide and five feet high may be 
collapsed into a package the size of a personal computer complete with a high-
resolution color screen. It is not beyond today's technology to expect to see a 
14-inch CRT with an entire dispatch console displayed on the screen. How can 
many functions such as equipment status, typed notes for future reference, phone 
directory, response patterns, incident report format, and alarms-in-progress 
information all fit into this small area? The answer lies in computer screen 
windowing. 

The term windowing refers to computer programming where information may be 
called up on a computer screen in the form of overlaying displays resembling 
windows into the topics listed on the displays. This feature, or type of 
display, is a distinct advantage for dispatchers 

6-30 

in that they do not need to move their eyes, hands, or body from a single point 
of view to perform a desired function. 

Dispatchers can activate the various functions in a video display by any of 
several design options. The familiar "mouse" is one. Another is to touch the 
screen with a finger or an electronic wand. In the future, nothing precludes the 
application of technology that would allow the dispatcher to wear a head-mounted 
infrared or other type of "pointer." By simply "looking" at a spot on the CRT 
and then depressing a key button held in the hand or using a voice command, the 
operation could be completed. 

Other Radio System Components 

Transmitters, receivers, and transceivers form the nucleus of a functional 
communications system. They, in turn, have critical subcomponents such as 
amplifiers and mixers. There are also other common electronic components such as 
comparators that are useful to know something about. 

Comparators --Comparators are devices used in radio communications systems that 
have voting receivers, also called satellite receivers. The comparator acts as a 
"judge" of radio signal quality. 

Consider two or more receivers in a radio system that are located in remote 
locations of the coverage area. A portable radio somewhere in the field 
transmits a signal. This signal might be heard by one or both receivers. The 
goal of the system is to pass on to the listener the best of all signals 
received. The task of the comparator is to listen to the signal quality from 
each of the remote receivers, inspect various characteristics of the signals, 
and decide which receiver is "hearing" the best. That signal is passed on to the 
listener. 

6-31 

If the user of the portable radio walks around during the transmission, one 
receiver may "hear" the portable better at one moment, and another receiver may 
"hear" it better the next, But so far as the listener is concerned there is a 
barely noticeable transition "click" or change in the overall quality of the 
received signal, as the system selects a different receiver's output to pass on. 

Satellite receivers most often send their received information to the comparator 
over telephone wire lines. Unfortunately all telephone wire lines do not have 
the same quality. Therefore, some installations may be plagued by a certain 
amount of fidelity loss as the comparator first selects one receiver, then 
another, and passes the information onto the listener. 

The comparator also is charged with the task of keeping tabs on the operating 
condition of the satellite receivers. Most receivers have a backup battery 
supply which keeps the receivers operating if there is a commercial power 
failure. The comparator monitors the battery charge condition. Also, the 
comparator can be manually controlled by the dispatch supervisor. From time to 
time, undesired (spurious) frequencies can "lock up" or capture a satellite 
receiver. The manual control feature allows the dispatcher to turn any of the 
remote receivers off or on and do away with problems until repairs or 
adjustments can be made. This control is usually performed by digital command or 
by a single tone or combination of tones slightly below the audible frequency 
range (subaudible tones). 

Mixers --Mixers serve to combine several input signals into one signal, or 
output. There are audio mixers and radio frequency mixers. Many people are 
familiar with the concept from the entertainment industry where signals from 
several microphones or playback devices are blended together into one "signal" 
to be played or recorded. Mixers are very often found in radio control consoles. 
They are always found in radio transmitters and receivers. The topic is raised 
here simply to alert the general user to the purpose of the device when the term 
is observed in a user's manual, a schematic diagram, or block diagram of a 
system or piece of equipment. 

6-32 

Amplifiers --"Amplification" means to make something bigger. In electronics, an 
amplifier produces an electronic signal at its output that has a higher power 
level than the signal coming in. Most people are familiar with audio amplifiers 
used in high-fidelity systems. In contrast, most amplifiers in the radio 
communications field are radio frequency amplifiers. While the principle is the 
same, "little signal in; big signal out," the user can't directly experience the 
results of this amplification. These amplifiers are buried deep in the circuits 
of transmitters and receivers and can't be seen or heard. Nevertheless, they are 
necessary for the success of the system. 

Some amplifiers are classified as voltage amplifiers; some are classified as 
current amplifiers. The design engineer determines what kind of amplifier is 
needed. These terms often appear in block diagrams and schematic diagrams. 

Electronic amplifiers are not often interchangeable. There is a difference 
between an amplifier used to "drive" audio speakers and an amplifier used to 
"drive" an antenna. Conceptually they are alike, but there is little physical 
similarity. This difference is brought on by the frequency spectrum in which 
each is called upon to operate. 

Multiplexers --A multiplexer is a piece of electronic equipment that allows more 
than one electronic signal to travel on one path at the same time. The principle 
of multiplexing has been used for years in the telephone industry as well as in 
radio communications. The ability to build an efficient and effective 
multiplexer at radio frequencies depends heavily on the availability of high 
quality electronic parts. Research is now supplying these parts and the designs 
are improving. 

A common application of a multiplexer in a fire service radio communications 
system is between the antenna high up on a tower and a transmitter/ receiver 
combination in a repeating transmitter configuration (as previously shown in 
Exhibit 6-2). In a repeater, the repeating transmitter broadcasts or "repeats" 
what is being heard at another frequency by a receiver. A 

6-33 

receiver antenna picks up the desired signal, which then goes down a coaxial 
cable to the input of the receiver, through the receiver, and then to the audio 
input of the transmitter. The transmitter processes the signal through the 
transmitter circuits, out the transmitter output terminal, into a coaxial cable, 
and then into an antenna which rebroadcasts the message. 

Two antennas and two sets of coaxial cable would be required unless multiplexing 
is used, in which case only one coaxial cable and one antenna are required. 

Multiplexing also is used in computer operations. For example, if several 
terminals and several printers were located at some remote spot and the central 
processing unit (CPU) is located some distance, up to miles away, a multiplexer 
on each end of a single communications line could allow all of the terminals and 
all of the printers to operate on one line and not interfere with each other. 

Encoder& Decoders --Encoders arrange information in such a fashion that only 
specified receivers equipped with decoders find it intelligible. Decoding is the 
process of receiving the encoded signal, examining it, and deciding whether it 
is meant for the party that received it. 34 

There are several traditional uses of encoding in the fire service as well as a 
few more modern uses. The volunteer tire service has had a long-standing need to 
notify members that an emergency incident has occurred to which they should 
respond. In the late 50s and early 60s the establishment of central dispatches 
or answering points serving several fire departments created a need to 
selectively trigger high-powered volunteer fire department sirens. The expense 
of wire lines to each fire department from the dispatch center could be replaced 
by a radio transmitter 

34 Note that the term "encoding" can be used in four senses: The encoding of a 
signal onto a carrier, which is called modulation; the encoding of speech using 
lo-codes; the encoding of information prior to modulation, which requires not 
only demodulation but also decryption to get the information back; and the 
encoding of a signal to tell receivers whether to open up and accept a 
particular message. 

6-34 

emitting selected audio tones. These tones were evaluated by many individual 
siren control receivers associated with the fire companies spread out in a 
geographic area. If the tones were correct, the siren was activated, telling the 
volunteer department or company members that they were to go to the station and 
find out the nature of the call. Even today, this remains a common method of 
notification. 

Manufacturers then provided the fire service with radio receivers that could be 
placed in the home and provide the same alerting function on the individual 
level without the need for sirens. These first receivers used vacuum tubes, were 
quite large, and were hardly portable. Many are still in service today. But 
today's technology has provided solid state equipment which performs exactly the 
same function after "looking" at the same tones, but in significantly smaller 
packages. Automobile battery voltages are perfect for powering solid state 
circuits. Monitor and alert receivers are now very common in motor vehicles. 

Pagers, which at one time cost $400 to $500, now are more reasonably priced and 
provide adequate signal sensitivity to be a useful and reliable notification 
method. While the radio frequency amplifier part of the pager "watches and 
listens" to everything happening on the frequency to which it is tuned, the 
decoder stands watch over the signals, evaluating each. It waits until the 
desired combination comes along and then "tells" the output part of the pager it 
is time to "open up." The message follows. 

Many pagers operate on what is called tone encoding. Tone encoding involves 
transmission of a series of two tones, or even four tones. The tone sequence and 
tone combination determine the "code." The disadvantage of tone encoding is the 
limitation on the number of possible combinations of codes. 

More modern encoding and decoding systems use what is called digital encoding. 
This method involves the transmission of a series of "0s" and " 1s." The series 
of signals often is made by shifting back and forth between two tones. In this 
method, the two tones provide an almost 

6-35 

infinite number of encoding combinations. Also, the system is not as sensitive 
to the absolute frequency of the two tones as is the tone encoding system. Yet 
higher levels of reliability are achieved in digital encoding by transmitting 
the same code several times during the transmit process to give the decoders in 
the receivers multiple opportunities to "interpret" the encoded message. 

Exhibit 6-9. Tone Encoding --Only Receivers 1 & 3 Respond to Transmitter 

6-36 

Exhibit 6-10. Digital Encoding --Only Receivers 2 & 3 Respond to Transmitter 

More recent advancements in pagers allow these receivers to be "voiceless." The 
receivers, large and small, receive a message, emit a notification audio sound, 
and then display the message on a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) prominently 
located on the receiver itself. In many models, these messages are stored in 
memory for future reference by the user should the need arise. Many receivers 
and pager type receivers store in excess of 10 messages of approximately 10 to 
15 words in length for days. The messages are sent by digital communications. 
The casual listener to the audio being transmitted has no idea what is being 
said, unless the decoder is available to him/ her. For all practical purposes, 
tone encoding, while still available and still used, is finding fewer and fewer 
applications because of the advantages of digital encoding. 

Another method of encoding and decoding commonly used in fire service radio 
communications is subaudible tone encoding/ decoding. The human ear is primarily 
sensitive to audio frequencies between 100 and 20,000 Hz. The bulk of 
information contained in human 

6-37 

speech is found in the frequency spectrum 300 Hz to 3,000 Hz. To conserve 
frequency spectrum, and to allow for control circuits such as the ones under 
discussion here, fire service radio circuits contain "shapers" which throw away 
frequencies below 300 Hz and above 3,000 Hz. This leaves room for low frequency 
transmissions, below 300 Hz. These subaudible tones can be switched on and off 
in most systems. Sometimes they are referred to as "guards." 

The operation of guards is relatively straightforward. If a receiver is set up 
to activate or "open up" when it hears the proper subaudible tone, the radio 
transmission on the frequency is heard by the user. If it is not the proper 
tone, then the user does not hear the transmission. This affords some level of 
privacy. However, a receiver set up to disregard all tones hears everything that 
is transmitted. 

Power Supplies 

Electronic communications systems obviously need electrical power to work. Most 
commercial power companies are very reliable and are the primary power source 
used in fire communications systems. However, these power systems may fail 
during natural or man-made disasters, the times when emergency communications 
are needed the most. Therefore, fire communications systems need backup power 
supplies. 

One of the principal ways to provide backup power is for the communications 
center to have its own emergency generating equipment. Virtually all emergency 
power supply sources are of the rotating machinery, or rotating equipment type. 
The power supply devices provide single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase power 
from some kind of alternator device. Some call them generators. They are called 
rotating equipment because a prime mover, most often a diesel or gasoline 
engine, powers a shaft, which, in turn, turns a shaft on an electrical 
generating device. These devices come in all sizes. Some can be carried by two 
people. The majority of the generating situations under review here require a 
prime mover, diesel or gasoline, with about 125 to 180 horsepower. These are 
large internal combustion engines. 

When commercial power fails, the absence of power causes a relay or contact to 
activate the start cycle for the internal combustion prime mover for the AC 
rotating equipment. When the 

6-38 

engine-generator is up to speed and ready to take on a "load," a transfer switch 
operates. The transfer switch removes the structure from the commercial power 
lines and "transfers" the building over to the output of the engine-generator. 
When the commercial power returns and is confirmed to be present for a 
predetermined amount of time, the transfer switch operates again. At this time 
the structure is removed from the output of the engine-generator and placed back 
on the commercial power supply, that is, the public utility. It is common for an 
engine-generator to run at least 30 minutes before switching back to the 
commercial power source. This time delay prevents unnecessary "jogging" of the 
power system because of continuous starting and stopping of electrical equipment 
during the generator shutdown and startup. 

The time required for an engine-generator to sense the absence of commercial 
power, start, and then pick up the building electric load is typically 10 
seconds for dispatch center backup power. 

Two useful documents for planning an emergency backup power supply are NFPA 110, 
Standardfor Emergency and Standby Power Systems, which provides details on how 
to classify and specify this kind of equipment, and NFPA 70, National Electrical 
Code, which is of assistance in determining what one of these systems should 
look like. 

From time to time, solid state inverters have been considered as a possible 
replacement for rotating machinery. Solid state inverters can indeed convert 
other forms of energy, such as battery power, into 60 Hz 110 VAC. There are no 
rotating parts to suffer mechanical damage. However, these power supply units 
require large battery supplies for the levels of power needed. To power 
structures of any significant size, mechanical rotating machinery driven by 
internal combustion engines, and deriving their energy from liquid or gas fuel 
sources, is by far the most common method. 

Uninterruptable Power Supplies --There are some components of communications 
systems, such as computers, which cannot tolerate loss of electrical power for 
even a fraction of a second, There are at least two types of uninterruptable 
power supplies available for such equipment. 

6-39 

One type of backup supply follows the commercial power supply, cycle by cycle. 
In a way, it "rides the coattails" of the commercial supply. If there is any 
tendency for the commercial supply to fail, the local supply, which is 
"mirroring" the commercial supply, quickly removes the commercial supply from 
the scene, and the local supply takes over. The switchover is performed by solid 
state switches; mechanical switches are not fast enough. 

Another kind of uninterruptable power supply provides power to the protected 
equipment at all times. The uninterruptable power supply derives its power from 
a battery bank which is constantly being charged by a conventional battery 
charger. The battery charger operates off commercial power. If the commercial 
power fails, the batteries simply continue to supply the electronics which 
change the battery DC into 110 VAC or 220 VAC on the output of the 
uninterruptable supply. 

In higher quality and more costly uninterruptable supplies, circuits inside the 
electronics convert the battery DC into 110 VAC, 60 Hz, or 220 VAC, 60 Hz, and 
continually check component and smaller critical circuits inside to make certain 
that unexpected failures have not occurred in the uninterruptable power supply. 
Some supplies have a feature called "self-diagnostics and repair." If a failure 
of a critical component or circuit occurs, the apparatus repairs itself by 
switching in redundant circuits or components. Then the system notifies the user 
that something has gone wrong. 

Ancillary Communications Equipment 

There are other types of communications equipment not directly related to radio 
frequency generation, propagation, and reception, yet part of the communications 
path. Radio frequency equipment is, from time to time, connected to the devices 
discussed below. Alternatively, these devices can be connected to wire lines in 
a radio communication system. 

Computers --Computers are natural components of radio communications systems. 
They are frequently used in what are called computer-aided dispatch (CAD) 
systems. In one role they perform as sophisticated clerks by providing to 
dispatchers instant information regarding street address locations and 
preselected recommendations of equipment to send, keeping track of 

6-40 
1
equipment, providing automatic assignment of incident numbers, and storing 
information on each incident for later analysis and report writing. 

In a more advanced CAD system the computer actually dispatches the appropriate 
emergency apparatus. After receiving information from a dispatcher or call-taker 
regarding the nature of the call and the address, the computer selects the 
equipment and actually electronically dispatches the apparatus. It keeps track 
of the equipment status while apparatus is turning out, en route, and at the 
scene, and notes when the equipment is back in the station. The dispatchers 
monitor the activity and can intervene at any time if the need arises. 

Perhaps the most advanced use of computers in communications systems today is 
their application in trunking radio systems. A computer in the trunking radio 
system master control automatically manages the radio traffic on several 
frequencies. The objective is to optimize the communications traffic on each 
channel. A given communication between two parties may be moved from channel to 
channel without the user knowing this shifting is happening. Should traffic 
become so heavy that all channels are in use, the computer has the ability and 
the programmed authority to interrupt communications of lower levels of priority 
and allow only communications at higher levels of priority to proceed. When 
channel loading diminishes, 
lower-level priorities are allowed to resume. 

Cellular radio systems are examples of high intensity use of computers in system 
management. Mobile radiotelephone conversations are handed off from cell to cell 
by computer management as a portable or mobile radiotelephone user passes from 
one geographic location to another. The computer manages which cell receives and 
which cell transmits. It also keeps track of how long the transmissions last and 
keeps detailed records of who places and receives calls. 

Fax Equipment --While considered by many to be an innovation, the radio world 
has had the equipment of "fax" functions for decades. The modem fax operates 
similarly, yet differently from what historically has been called "RTTY." RTTY 
stands for radio teletype in contrast to the teletype that operates over hard 
wire-lines. 

6-41 

Most people are familiar with the office fax machine. This same fax machine 
technology is applicable to mobile and other field work so long as the 
transmission path is of adequate quality. In other words, it is technically 
possible for a base station to fax a document to a mobile unit somewhere in the 
field using available fax technology and a cellular telephone, or an equivalent 
radio frequency circuit. 

Fax offers the convenience of transmitting maps, building information and 
layout, hazardous material documents, and similar information from a dispatch 
office to a field unit. Sending a fax from the field back to the dispatch office 
is also possible. 

The significant difference in and advantage of fax over RTTY is the ability of 
FAX to transmit images, graphics, and other alphabetic or numeric forms. The 
teletype input device used to be a keyboard that possessed only alphanumeric 
characters. On the other hand, a Fax machine "optically scans" what it sees on 
the original paper, transforms that image into a series of digital (zero and 
one) electronic impulses, and sends them over either a wire line or radio 
circuit at some rate. 

A facsimile may be sent over wire lines or over radio circuits. However, 
transmission speed is affected by transmission path bandwidth. The quality of 
the path is measured in terms of bandwidth and noise. If the bandwidth of the 
path is not sufficiently wide, the rate of transmission must be slowed until the 
rate meets the bandwidth limitations. If the noise is too significant, then 
either the signal level of the desired Fax must be increased or the transmission 
must be repeated and verified to guarantee the information was accurately 
received. 

Fax is not a video process. It is a data transmission process that transmits 
small computer graphics symbols which ultimately are placed on paper. The 
assembled graphic symbols present a picture, a printed page, or even a 
signature. 

Video --The word video refers to a type, or class, of electronic signal. In 
layman's terms, a video display is like a television picture. It contains many 
independent component signals necessary to display a picture on what is called a 
video display. It is not accurate anymore to represent a video display as a 
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) because modern technology 

6-42 

has provided many other media to accomplish this task. The Liquid Crystal 
Display (LCD) of a laptop computer is an example of a video display. Even 
inexpensive watches have crude video LCD displays available. 

Transmission of live, real-time video signals requires a wide bandwidth. The 
term wide bandwidth implies a grouping of many continuously adjacent radio 
frequencies somewhere in the radio frequency spectrum. As a frame of reference, 
a common public safety FM channel allows operation of a voice circuit every 
10,000 cycles. An FM entertainment channel requires hundreds of thousands of 
cycles to operate. A microwave circuit often requires a million cycles to 
perform its assigned task. Since video signals require bandwidth not available 
on VHF and UHF voice channels, there is no technical way to transmit live video 
signals on these assigned frequencies. Radio equipment, transceivers, receivers, 
and transmitters commonly found in public safety applications are not able to 
process video signals. 

It is not permissible to transmit video on frequencies commonly assigned to the 
fire service for dispatch and dispatch use. There is insufficient spectrum 
available in these bands. On the other hand, microwave channels, if used by the 
fire department for transmission of system control, telephone conversations, and 
transmit/ receive audio signals, can be used to transmit video signals from one 
part of the microwave system to some distant part. 

Video transmission by radio is seldom attempted by fire departments. Frequencies 
available to the fire service for this purpose are difficult to obtain. Further, 
the equipment required to transmit the video signal is not found in the fire 
service radio transmission equipment inventory because of bandwidth limitations. 

Printer/ Teletype Machines --Printers are the devices most often found connected 
to computer-related equipment. The commonly perceived vision of a printer is a 
device sitting next to a Personal Computer (PC). The electromechanical device 
included in a Mobile Data Terminal (MDT) is another example of a printer. The 
electromechanical device included in the design of field heart monitoring 
equipment is also an example of a printer. 

6-43 

Teletype machines represent relatively obsolete printer technology. It is not to 
be implied that the technology does not operate properly. However, the speed at 
which the machines operate is much less than that of the nominal dot matrix 
printer. 

Modern printers may be classified under three general categories: 

Dot Matrix Printers (DMP) normally have 9 to 24 pins and strike a sheet of paper 
through an inked ribbon assembly. 

Ink Jet Printers have ink stored in a very small bladder that sprays upon the 
paper as commanded by digital electronic elements. 

Laser Printers use technology similar to that in most copy machines. An element 
in the machine responds to electronic information with the result that an 
electric charge is imposed upon the blank paper where the letter or graphics 
should be. Minute particles resembling black "pencil lead" affix themselves to 
the paper where the charge exists. The particles are fused to the paper, with 
the result being print on paper. 

Audio Equipment --One of the key links in fire department communications is the 
audio equipment that translates electrical signals into the sounds that humans 
can understand, While not as exotic as many other component parts of a radio 
communications system, inefficiencies, unreliability, or improper selection of 
system audio components can immediately negate thousands of dollars spent 
elsewhere in the system to get the signal to the speakers. 

Voice information must be audible in many fire dispatch office, fire station, 
and fire apparatus applications. Very often the audio (or voice) signal levels 
coming from radio receivers or consoles are not high enough to drive the 
loudspeakers (or speakers). Audiophiles are familiar with numbers like "200 
watts per channel," but the criteria for the power measurements are not the same 
in most fire department applications; 200 watts would be overkill in one or two 
speakers in the living quarters of a fire station. 

6-44 

The total power output capability of any audio amplifier application is 
determined by adding the power levels at which the user wants to "drive" all the 
speakers. Typical power levels needed for audio signals are, for a typical fire 
station room, 2 to 3 watts; for a large meeting room, 5 to 10 watts; and for a 
truck room, 20 to 50 watts. A mobile application in a sedan finds 5 watts of 
audio typically adequate. A mobile application on a fire pumper may call for 20 
to 25 watts at the pump panel, or in a high-noise situation. These estimations 
serve only to give a rough idea of the power levels required in speakers; the 
details must be worked out for the particular space, communications equipment, 
and environment. 

Speakers and similar audio equipment are passive elements. They do not generate 
or create power, but rather use power up or dissipate energy. If a speaker is 
specified to be a three-watt speaker, it means that it will operate reliably up 
to a three-watt power input level. The specified power level for a speaker gives 
the user an idea of how much power the speaker will take before it becomes 
unintelligible, or is in danger of mechanical damage. The degree of 
intelligibility of a speaker is defined in terms of percent distortion. Any 
distortion level in a speaker or any other place in an audio system that is in 
excess of five percent is cause for concern. 

Receiver power output ratings can be as confusing in public safety radio 
specifications as they are in high-fidelity entertainment equipment. When 
comparing the power output of one receiver to another, make certain that both 
receivers are using the same percentage of distortion as the measurement point. 
There can be "lots of power output," but the message may be unintelligible 
because the distortion is so high. 

A relatively recent application of audio equipment is the headsets worn by 
members of a fire company while in the apparatus. The headsets perform two 
tasks. First, they attenuate, or cut down, external noise from apparatus engines 
and other noise sources to minimize the probability of damage to the employees' 
ears. Second, the headsets provide an opportunity for fire company members to 
efficiently "tune in" to radio traffic en route to an emergency situation. In 
some cases, the vehicle audio system not only distributes radio audio, but also 
acts as an 

6-45 

acts as an intercom between personnel riding on the apparatus. A microphone can 
be included as part of the headset. The microphone allows each user to talk into 
the intercom system. 

Environmental Considerations 

Radio equipment must be purchased with consideration given to the environment in 
which it will reside. Will it be subjected to heat, cold, vibration, shock, 
moisture, and other physical characteristics? Sales and engineering departments 
of large radio communications equipment manufacturers are sensitive to the 
user's environment because their warranties and reputations depend on proper 
application. 

When the user (fire department) does not elect to enlist the assistance of a 
manufacturer's representative or engineering department in assessing the usage 
environment, it is the responsibility of the user to make certain that the 
following elements are considered. 

Temperature --Temperature extremes are the enemy of electronic equipment. One 
must pay particular attention to the temperature range over which the 
manufacturer says the equipment will perform within specifications when 
purchasing equipment. If the equipment has moving parts, heat and cold are 
obviously a danger. However, solid state communications components also are 
vulnerable to heat and cold. Excessively hot temperatures can cause a 
significant decrease in the life of electronic components. Also, semiconductor 
devices tend to become unstable above their rated temperatures. Wherever 
communications equipment is used, it is important to provide proper ventilation, 
and not obstruct ventilation holes in the equipment. At low temperatures, 
electronic components can change values quickly, and can become unpredictable 
and sluggish. 

Moisture --Moisture is another enemy of electronic equipment. A salt atmosphere 
is especially damaging. Much of the circuitry in electronic equipment contains 
copper elements and components, and must be protected from corrosion. Corrosion 
can be combatted in electronic equipment by applying gold plating to critical 
parts and connections. Moisture can be a particular problem with plug-in printed 
circuit boards. The "fingers" on these printed 

6-46 

boards and the connectors they plug into are gold-plated in quality equipment. 
Be sure to exercise due care in selecting equipment-mounting locations. 

Exhibit 6-11. Shock resistance needs to be considered. 

Shock and Vibration --The potential effects of shock and vibration on sensitive 
electronic equipment also must be considered in the design and use of 
communications equipment. Obviously, fixed station applications call for a 
different mechanical design than do mobile or portable applications. Fire 
pumpers call for different shock and vibration specifications than do sedans. 
Manufacturers can be of great assistance when choosing a level of mechanical 
sturdiness. 

6-47 

Electrical Fields --Exposure to electrical fields is a particularly insidious 
problem. They can't be seen, they usually are not well understood, and it is 
uncommon that anyone knows where to look for them. Solenoids and relays, driven 
by direct current (DC), and transformers, driven by alternating current (AC), 
can be generators of interfering fields. These fields can introduce what is 
called hum and other interference into audio circuits. Intense fields can even 
cause semiconductors to fail. It is good practice to make certain that radio 
receivers and low-power audio or computer equipment are not placed near large 
transformers or near medium-to-large solenoids or relays. 

Exhibit 6-12. Vibration resistance must be tested for radios mounted in 
vehicles. Vibrations can be countered with appropriate mounting. 

Also, computers and television sets, including video displays, should not be 
placed near low-power radio frequency equipment. Computers and video displays 
can cause interference in radio receivers. 

6-48 

Lightning --There are few, if any, places free from the unpredictable and often 
uncontrollable forces of lightning. Lightning need only strike nearby to damage 
equipment. The intense electric field generated by a strike is strong enough to 
induce damaging high voltages in wires and power lines in the vicinity of the 
strike. The field can be so intense as to damage sensitive semiconductor 
devices. 

While there is no way to eliminate entirely the possibility of damage caused by 
lightning, there are many reliable ways to minimize the probability of damage. 
Two of the most common approaches involve grounding to prevent an installation 
from becoming a target for lightning, and using shielding to protect equipment 
from a lightning strike. 

An adequate ground for communications equipment requires considerably more than 
driving a copper ground rod into the earth. Establishing the ground can be 
troublesome, especially in dry soil. Specialists in grounding and bonding are 
usually the best bets to ensure the job is performed adequately. Once a proper 
ground is established, attention is given to the second defense-how the facility 
might be "shielded" from a lightning strike. Conceptually, an electrically 
connected grid is constructed over the entire facility. The grid offers itself 
as a sacrifice if lightning strikes. The grid is connected to lightning rods. 

Another, less expensive method of minimizing the probability that lightning 
strikes on or near power lines could damage sensitive electronic equipment is to 
install lightning suppression devices on telephone, control, and power lines 
serving electronic communications equipment. These devices are principally 
voltage spike suppressors. Each has the ability to absorb a certain amount of 
energy. Some devices sacrifice themselves in the suppression process. Others, 
like gas discharge suppression devices, operate with extreme speed and do not 
sacrifice themselves in the process, but can absorb only a limited amount of 
energy. A qualified lightning control specialist can discuss several of these 
methods with the manager of 
the communications agency. Qualified lightning protection specialists are 
uncommon and often expensive to retain. Nevertheless, in lightning-prone areas, 
they are worth considering. Unfortunately, understanding the technology of 
lightning protection is almost as much an art as it is a science. 

6-49 

The above sections introduced the reader to the principal hardware components of 
fire communications systems. The bibliography contains references for those 
readers who wish to have a more detailed understanding of specific communication 
systems topics. 

6-50 

7. Future Technology 

Communications technology available to fire departments is continually 
improving. The state of the art in military applications is well beyond that 
used in fire departments, where budgets don't allow the true state of the art to 
be used. Nevertheless, as costs come down for the existing technology, and as 
new, more cost-effective technology is developed, there are major improvements 
likely to be feasible for fire department communications in the next decade. 
This chapter gives a few examples, starting with some simple advances and moving 
toward more revolutionary changes. 

Portable Radio Features --Current technology permits the transmission of coded 
signals to the communications center by using the "Emergency" button which is 
provided on portable radios. The configuration of this button was designed 
primarily for law enforcemen and is not readily used by a firefighter wearing 
gloves. Several companies are developing improved radio systems designed 
specifically for the fire service which will advance this basic concept. The 
technical capability exists for many state-of-the-art features to be 
incorporated into the "typical" firefighter's portable radio, such as a PASS 
device or more advanced features such as monitoring of vital signs or 
transmission of temperature or environmental data in real-time back to a 
fireground control unit or the dispatch center. 

Portable radios with built-in PASS devices that send a coded signal to a central 
location are currently in use in the petrochemical industry. The radios 
themselves, however, are not designed for fireground use. It is likely that 
added safety features will be incorporated into portable radio equipment in the 
coming years. At least one company is planning to have a total fireground 
electronic accountability system in test stages in 1995. 

The electronics already exist today for many of these new applications. The 
challenge is to develop configurations that will be capable of withstanding the 
harsh treatment and 

7-1 

conditions encountered in fireground operations, and be affordable. Also, new 
features must be added without reducing the reliability of the unit. 

Two other important recent technological developments likely to influence future 
fire department communications are the development of digital technology for 
two-way radio communications and the development of extensive satellite 
communications systems. These two developments open the door for major 
technological change in how fire departments communicate. 

Digital Radio --High-quality digital voice systems have better audio quality 
over a wider range than do analog systems, and also have the capability to 
transmit data along with voice on the same channel, using less spectrum than 
analog uses just for voice. 35 

This advanced technology will allow the user to receive and transmit text 
messages while still receiving voice messages. Embedded signaling can display 
the calling unit's ID to the receiving unit's mobile radio, eliminating 
confusion about who sent a message. Using this same embedded digital ID, 
messages can be prioritized as to which field units will receive the traffic. 

Digital technology will allow field units to interface fax machines, laptop 
computers, and mobile data terminals into their existing voice communications 
system without interference from voice traffic. Many departments in the past 
have faced the problem of finding separate radio frequencies for data 
transmission. Digital radio technology now meets that need and uses half the 
bandwidth of an analog system. 

35 A study of advanced technology for land mobile radio is being made by a 
consortium of federal, state, and local government, and private industry who are 
to investigate and decide upon basic requirements for digital radio's technical 
ability to meet the needs of public safety organizations. The study, called 
Project 25, is co-chaired by the Association of Public Safety Communications 
Officials International, Inc. (APCO) and the National Association of State 
Telecommunications Directors (NASTD). 

7-2 

The new digital technology will quickly bring new communication features to the 
fire service. The power and capability of personal computers will become a 
standard part of a fire department communications system. Tied to a digital 
radio, computers can quickly provide important text or images to field units. 
Central computers can query data banks and transmit vital information to 
incident commanders to inform them about inventories, building plans, hazardous 
operations, or types of surrounding occupancies. Through the use of digital 
radio technology any record in the data banks would be available to the 
emergency responders. 

Several vendors have begun to develop digital programs and products aimed at 
serving the needs of the fire service. Many of these products use a multimedia 
approach which incorporates video, digital, and voice synthesis to illustrate a 
subject. For example, one vendor videotaped a large office building both inside 
and out. The videotape then was converted to a digital format and placed on a 
compact optical disk that could be used in a portable computer. Using a 
multimedia environment, statistical data, building drawings, and synthesized 
voice were added. The incident commander could bring up the image of the 
building and, by using computer commands, change the view of the building and/ 
or have graphic overlays along with text or voice to describe the building and 
construction or contents. The incident commander could "walk the building" 
without ever leaving his/ her command post. All of the information is stored in 
digital form and will eventually be available for digital transmission to field 
units from the communications center. 

Digital Mapping --Another example of using multimedia is the digital mapping of 
terrain and buildings. The information is displayed in a three-dimensional 
format on a personal computer. Field units would have the ability to visualize 
the terrain, including buildings from all angles. These maps are produced by 
digitizing mapbases that have longitude, latitude, and altitude in their base. 
Photographs or drawings of structures are overlaid and digitized so that a 
synthetic three-dimensional picture is provided. This technology was developed 
for the military and is now becoming available for nonmilitary use. 

7-3 

Using this digitized mapping technology and current weather information, field 
commanders will have the ability to accurately plot the movement of hazardous 
material incident clouds or determine the speed, direction, and spread of a 
moving wildland fire. (These abilities already exist today, but the information 
will be more readily available in the field in the future, and be more graphic.) 
The key will be the ability of the field unit to obtain real-time information 
through the digital communications system and to process the data in its mobile 
computer. 

Commercial Satellites --The advent of commercial satellite systems also will 
affect the future communication systems of the fire service. Satellites will 
allow fire departments to access information from central data banks or to 
contact experts quickly while in the field. They also will provide a backup 
communications system should the department's regular system fail. In the past 
natural disasters have created communications system failures just when the need 
for the system was the greatest. 

New navigational satellites introduced to assist shipping and air flights will 
benefit the fire service by providing a reliable fix for automatic vehicle 
locator (AVL) systems, Used with new computer programs, this information will 
allow departments to dispatch the closest units based on their actual location 
rather than their station location, 

AVL systems require a digital communications system to transport the satellite 
location information to the host computers. Mobile data terminals and digital 
radios with locator mechanisms can receive the satellite signal and relay the 
information to a host computer for processing to determine closest units. 

In-Building Networks --Fire departments have had a continuing problem of 
maintaining effective communications when operating in large concrete and steel 
buildings. A wireless in-building communications network can be created in such 
buildings to replace 

7-4 

the current hard-wired telephone and data communication systems. 36 This 
networked cellular communications system within large buildings could access 
satellite communication systems for transmissions outside of the building and 
use digital radio technology for efficient spectrum usage within the building. 
The building's own communication system then could be tied to the fire 
department communications system, thus allowing units working in the interior to 
have clear access to units outside, and also to satellite communications. 

The new digital radio technology and satellite communication systems will 
provide many applications that could change how fire departments receive and 
send information. Portable computers and distributed software, coupled with 
digital communications, will open new avenues of assistance to emergency 
providers. Fifty years ago, most fire department communications systems 
consisted of a nickel in the captain's pocket to call the dispatch center. 
Tomorrow will bring personal computers and high-tech digital communication 
systems connected to data bank networks, and other, as yet unforeseen, 
developments. 

36 See "Wireless In-Building Network Technology" by Cheryl Beck et al, Motorola 
Inc., Arlington Heights, Illinois, February 1991. 

7-5 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Basic Telecommunicator Course. South Daytona, FL: Association of Public Safety 
Communications Officials International, Inc. (APCO), 1987. 

Brunacini, Alan. Fire Command. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 
1985. 

Cole, David. "The Emergency Response Time Line." 9-1-1 Magazine, March/ April 
1991, pp. 20-21. 

Christen, Frank. "Computer Aided Dispatch Comes of Age." Firehouse, February 
1991, pp. 32-35. 

Christen, Frank. "Fiber for the Fire Service." Firehouse, April 1991, p. 70. 

Command and Control of Fire Department Operations at Catastrophic Disasters. 
Emmitsburg, MD: National Fire Academy, 1986. 

Copeland, Tom D., and Philip Schaenman. Sherwin Williams Paint Warehouse Fire. 
Emmitsburg, MD: United States Fire Administration, 1987. 

Crichlow, Doug. "Parlez-Vous Cellular?" Fire Command, October 1990, pp. 22-24, 
34. 

Czarnowski, Jerome A. "Radio Networks and Communications for the Fire Service." 
Fire Command, December 1987, pp. 22-25. 

Darius, Chip. "A Key to Interagency Communication." 9-1-1 Magazine, January/ 
February 1991, pp. 20-21. 

Fire Mutual Aid Radio System (FMARS) Manual. Washington, DC: Metropolitan 
Washington Council of Governments, December 1990. 

Fire Protection Handbook. 14th ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection 
Association, 1977. 

Hampton, John A. "Exploring Tommorrow's Communications Today." Fire Command, 
October 1990, pp. 13-15, 27. 

Incident Command System Field Operations Pocket Guide. Stillwater, OK: Fire 
Protection Publications, 1983. 

Incident Command System. Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection Publications, 1983. 

1 

Jenaway, W. F. Pre Emergency Planning. Ashland, MA: International Society of 
Fire Service Instructors, 1986. 

Keller, Richard, and Jamiel Yameen. "EMD in the Fire Service." Fire Chief, May 
1992, pp. 46-51. 

Klein, G. A., R. Calderwood, and A. Clinton-Cirocco. Rapid Decision Making on 
the Fireground. Alexandria, VA: US. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral 
and Social Sciences, 1985. 

Larson, Randall D. " 'Zero' Response Time: Creating a Modern Medical Dispatching 
Program." Fire Engineering, July 1992, pp. 67-69. 

Nasser, Joseph Y. 80-Hour Telecommunicator Training Course. South Daytona, FL: 
Association of Public Safety Communications Officials International, Inc. 
(APCO), 1987. 

Nehnevajsa, Jiri. Emergency Preparedness: Reports and Reflections of Local and 
County Emergency Managers. Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 
March 1990. (Cooperative agreement #EMW-K-1024) 

New York State Office of Fire Prevention and Control, Department of State. 
Planning Communications and Control Centers (Volume 11 of Fire Service Guide 
Series) Revised May 1988. 

Spahn, Edwin J. Fire Service Radio Communications, New York: Fire Engineering, 
1989. 

Spahn, Edwin J. "Trunking Radio Communications Systems." Fire Engineering, 
January, 1992, pp. 61-66. 

Varedoe, W. W. "Standardizing Communications." 9-1-1 Magazine, January/ February 
1991, p. 30. 

Walsh, Clifford P. "Radio Communications: Coming In Loud and Clear." Fire 
Engineering, November 1989, pp. 33-34, 36. 

West, Gordon. "Pay-Less, Do-More, VHF/ UHF Handhelds: Comparison of Handheld 
Radios." 9-1-1 Magazine, January/ February 1991, pp. 6-11. 

2 

National Standards 

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1201, Recommendations for Developing 
Fire Protection Services for the Public, 1989 Edition. 

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1221, Standard for the Installation, 
Maintenance, and Use of Public Fire Service Communications Systems, 1991 
Edition. 

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1561, Standard for Fire Department 
Incident Management System, 1991 Edition. 

Communications Standards and Practices Organizations Associated Public Safety 
Communications Officers (APCO) 
2040 S. Ridgewood Ave. 
South Daytona, FL 32119-2257 

Insurance Services Office (ISO) 
160 Water Street 
New York, New York 10038 

International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) 
4025 Fair Ridge Drive 
Fairfax, Virginia 22033 

International Municipal Signal Association (IMSA) 
1115 N. Main St. 
Newark, NY 14513 

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 
One Batterymarch Park 
P. O. Box 9101 
Quincy, MA 02269-9101 

3 

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS 

John Cummings is an Assistant Chief in the Los Angeles County Fire Department. 
He oversaw design, construction, installation, and operation of its computer-
aided dispatch system and earthquake-resistant Command and Control facility. 

James Murtagh is the Deputy Assistant Chief of the New York City Fire Department 
in charge of the Communications Division. He is currently supervising pilot 
testing of enhancements to New York's dispatch system. 

Steve Souder is Administrator of the Arlington County, Virginia, Emergency 
Communications Center, a joint Police/ Fire/ EMS center. He is currently 
overseeing installation of an 800 MHz trunked radio system and new facility. 
Previously, he spent 25 years in the District of Columbia Fire Department, where 
he was Chief Dispatcher. 

Edwin Spahn, P. E. is a consultant and former Deputy Chief of the Orange County, 
Florida Fire/ Rescue Division, where he supervised Engineering, Financial, 
Planning and Legal aspects of the Division. He is author of the book Fire 
Service Radio Communications and assisted in the development of a County-wide 
Public Safety Communications System. He also served as the Chief of the Joliet, 
Illinois and Hastings, Nebraska fire departments. 

The project staff wishes to thank the many fire departments cited in this report 
for sharing information on their communications systems and procedures. Special 
thanks go to the fire departments of Dallas, Texas; Huntington Beach, 
California; Montgomery County, Pennsylvania; Palm Beach, Florida; and Phoenix, 
Arizona. 

APPENDIX A 

Sample Policies and Procedures 

Example of 9-1-1 Call Policy Orange County, California 

NET 6 POLICY 

No. B-9 Date: June 2, 1988 Original (X) Revision [ ] 

9-1-1 CALLS 

I. PURPOSE 

To establish a standard procedure for the handling of 9-1-1 calls 

II. RESPONSIBILlTY 

The Fire Con trollers shall 'be responsible for operating within these 
guidelines 

III. POLICY 

A. The Police Department in each city is the Public Safety Answering Point 
(PSAP) and initially receives all 9-1-1 calls. Any calls for fire or paramedic 
services will be transferred to Net 6 Fire Dispatch Center (FDC). 

B. Fire Controllers will answer 9-1-1 calls, obtain the needed information and 
dispatch the call. On every call, confirm that the ANI and ALI displayed 
information (the telephone number and location) are correct. 

C. Any discrepancies in the ALI or ANI information shall be noted on the 9-1-1 
Correction Form and forwarded to one (1) of the Leadworkers or the Dispatcher 
Supervisor. 

D. Any incomplete transfers from PD will be followed up by the Fire Con 
trollers. If the ANI information is available, a call back to the telephone 
number is required. If no AN1 or AL1 information comes across, but the 9-l-l 
line rings and there is no one on the line when answered, the Fire Controllers 
will contact the PSAP's to see if a 9-1-1 call was transferred. 

E. Any problems with 9-l-l phone circuits or equipment should be immediately 
reported to the Leadworkers or the Dispatch Supervisor. 

APPROVED: 

Example of Fire Company Coverage Policy Orange County, California 

CENTRAL NET POLlCY MANUAL 
AUGUST 7, 1990 SECTION D OPERATIONS POLICY 1 

CENTRAL NET FIRE COMPANY COVERAGE 

I . PURPOSE 

To coordinate all fire company activities and coverage for the purpose of 
maintaining a strong fire defense posture. 

II. RESPONSIBILITY 
A. It is the responsibility of the Fire Controllers to monitor the status of all 
units to ensure adequate Net coverage and to maintain that coverage by means of 
"move ups" and mutual aid.


B. It is the responsibility of all Company Officers to notify the Fire 
Controllers anytime companies are out of service or unavailable for response. 

C. It is the responsibility of the Fire Controllers to notify the Net 
Coordinator (on-duty Huntington Beach Battalion Chief) of any apparatus 
exceptions:

1. Every morning at the start of status check 

2. Anytime during the day or night when an exception occurs. 

III. POLICY 

A. MOVE UPS 

Whenever an area of the Net is uncovered for any reason (working incidents, 
training, etc.) the Fire Controllers shall initiate move ups to ensure adequate 
coverage of Central Net. 

Anytime there is a working structure fire in the Net, Fire Controllers shall 
make move ups as soon as possible. 


B. MINIMUM TRUCK COMPANY COVERAGE 

1. The minimum number of truck companies available for deployment in the Net 
shall never be less than five (5). Mutual aid shall be used to maintain at least 
five (5) trucks available and the FDC shall consider the authorization for 
mutual aid request automatic by this policy. 

2. Mutual aid may be utilized for any assignment within the Net when it is known 
that a mutual aid truck company can obviously deploy more expeditiously than a 
Net truck company. 

715F/ 36 D-I/ PAGE I of 4 

CENTRAL NET POLICY MANUAL 

AUGUST 7, 1990 

SECTION D OPERATIONS 

POLICY I 

3. Key Station Truck Company Coverage 

a. Move ups should always be used to provide the best possible equal truck 
company distribution anytime a significant reduction in available truck 
companies occurs and is expected to last for thirty (30) minutes or more. 

b. Anytime the number of truck companies available in the Net is reduced to 
eight (8) or less the following stations shall be manned with truck companies, 
or its equivalency available in the field, as a minimum deployment pattern: CM-
2, FV-1, HB-MU, N B-2, SA-5. 

C. MINIMUM ENGINE COMPANY COVERAGE 

I. The absolute minimum of engine companies available for deployment in the Net 
shall never be less than twelve (12). Mutual aid should be utilized to maintain 
this minimum requirement and the request authorization for this need should be 
considered as automatic. 

2. Mutual aid may be utilized for any assignment within the Net when it is known 
that a mutual aid engine company, from outside the Net, can obviously deploy 
more expeditiously than a Central Net company. 

3. Key Station Engine Company Coverage 

a. Move ups should always be used to provide the best possible equal engine 
company distribution anytime a significant reduction in available engine 
companies occurs and is expected to last for thirty (30) minutes or more. 

b. Anytime the number of engine companies available in the Net is reduced to 
fifteen (15) or less the following stations shall be manned with engine 
companies, or its equivalency available in the field, as a minimum deployment 
pattern: CM-2, CM-3, FV-I, HB-Heil, HB-Lake, NB-2, NB-3, SA-I, SA-4, SA-5, SA-6, 
WM-I. 

D. MINIMUM PARAMEDIC UNIT COVERAGE 

1. The minimum number of paramedic units available for deployment is five (5). 
Anytime the number of available paramedics drops below five (5) and is expected 
to continue. for thirty (30) minutes or more, mutual aid shall be used to 
provide at least five (5) paramedic units available. 

The FDC shall consider the authorization for mutual aid request automatic by 
this policy. 

2 Key Station Paramedic Unit Coverage 

a. Move ups should always be used to provide the best possible equal paramedic 
unit distribution anytime a significant reduction 

715F/ 36 D-l/ PAGE 2 of 4 

CENTRAL NET P0LlCY MANUAL 
AUGUST 7, I990 

SECTION D OPERATIONS 

POLICY I 

in available paramedic units occurs and is expected to last for thirty (30) 
minutes or more. 

b. Anytime the number of paramedic units available in the Net is reduced to 
eight (8) or less and the condition is expected to last for thirty (30) minutes 
or more the following stations shall be manned with paramedic units, or its 
equivalency available in the field, as a minimum deployment pattern: CM-5, FV-I, 
HB-MU, NB-2, SA-3. 

E. RESOURCE COORDlNATION 

Anytime resources within the Net become significantly reduced it is imperative 
that the Net Coordinator assess coverage and make necessary adjustments. Within 
each dispatch center, anytime a major incident occurs, including a second or 
greater alarm, a multi-victim medical incident, or a multi-team hazardous 
materials response, or anytime resources fall below minimum levels for engine 
companies, truck companies, or paramedic units, the Net Coordinator and other 
dispatch centers within the Net must be notified. 

Minimum resources requiring notification are: 

Central Net: 6 Engine Companies 3 Truck Companies 2 Paramedic Units 

Costa Mesa: 2 Engine Companies 0 Paramedic Units 1 Truck Companies 

Santa Ana: 4 Engine Companies 1 Paramedic Units I Truck Companies 

F. TEMPORARY SUSPENSION OF AUTOMATIC AID AGREEMENT 

Certain circumstances such as an area wide disaster could require the 
cancellation of this Automatic Aid Agreement by one (I) or more of the agencies 
involved. It is understood by all parties to this Agreement that any agency may 
temporarily suspend this Agreement by decree of the Fire Chief. 

715F/ 36 D-l/ PAGE 3 of 4 

Mobile Unit Communications Policy Montgomery County, Pennsylvania 

6.0 COMMUNICATIONS WITH MOBILE UNITS 

6.1 Under normal conditions it is not necessary for mobile units to call and 
await acknowledgement before transmitting routine messages such as responding or 
on location. However, in advance of sending a lengthy message, it is preferable 
to make a preliminary call and await acknowledgement before proceeding. In such 
cases, the identifying words "Montgomery County" should be used when calling the 
Communications Center. The message should start with "Montgomery County followed 
by your unit number. For " example: "Montgomery County from 82-5." 

6.2 When responding to alarms, each and every chief and apparatus should advise 
that they are responding and on location. This message can be given straight out 
without waiting for an acknowledgement from the Communications Center. However, 
only the first chief and apparatus of each station will be acknowledged by the 
Communications Center. The exception to this rule would be the acknowledgement 
of a chief that is higher in rank than the first out and on location chief. Even 
though each unit will not be acknowledged, their status will be kept by the 
Communications Center. 

6.3 Fire Police units should advise that they are responding on F-3. They will 
not be acknowledged, but it will be noted that they are enroute to the call. The 
only exception to this, will be when the fire police are specially called, at 
which time the first out unit will be acknowledged. 

6.4 The first chief or apparatus to arrive on location shall advise the 
Communications Center of their arrival and report information of value to other 
incoming units (see Section 9.1 for further details). 

6.5 When apparatus is relaying information to the Communications Center from an 
officer, it should be stated such in their message. For example: "Montgomery 
County from 82-21, by orders of 82-5, dispatch the second alarm." Also, if the 
Communications Center is calling an officer and the apparatus is answering for 
him, they should make that fact clear. "Montgomery County from 82-21 proceed 
with your message for 82-5." 

6.6 There is no need to advise the Communications Center that units are 
"available by radio for driver-training, fuel, parades, " etc., either by phone 
or radio. The only time that the Communications Center is to be made aware of 
this fact, is when it would change the dispatch procedure of the station or 
necessitate a special procedure, at which time the O. I. C. should advise the 
Communications Center by phone. (See Section 11.0 for further details on special 
procedures.) 

6.7 Individual apparatus returning to station or available from a scene need not 
advise the Communications Center of such, unless it will cancel a special 
procedure or release a stand-by company, at which time the Communications Center 
should be advised of this fact. 

6.8 Individual officers returning to station or available from a scene need not 
advise the Communications Center. 

6.9 When multiple officers are responding on one apparatus, only the highest 
ranking officer should be announced as responding with that apparatus. 

APPENDIX B Sample Job Descriptions 

Sample Position Description 
Communications Technician Trainee Arlington County, Virginia 

Position: ARLINGTON COUNTY EMPLOYMENT EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS TECHNICIAN 
VIRGINIA OPPORTUNITY TRAINEE (Public Safety Dispatcher) 

POLICE DEPARTMENT 
Announcement No: FILING: Applications must be submitted no later than 5: 00 p. 
m. on the closing date to: Department of Personnel 5034-2B-POL 
#1 Courthouse Plaza, Suite 511 Salary 
2100 Clarendon Boulevard 
Arlington, Virginia 22201 $24,864* 

FURTHER INFORMATION: Weekdays 8-5: (703) 358-3500 Closing Date: 24-HOUR JOB 
LINE: (703) 538-3363 

Hearing impaired ONLY: (703) 358-4613 FEBRUARY 20, 1992 

KIND OF WORK: This is Trainee-level technical communications work in the 
Arlington County Police/ Fire Emergency Communications Center. Employee works 
primarily with telephone requests for public safety services including police, 
fire, and emergency medical services and/ or dispatching administrative/ 
emergency messages by 2-way radio. The employee receives and records oral 
complaints and reports from the public and must respond in a time critical 
manner; operates teletype console, 9-l-l emergency and non-emergency telephone 
console, various recording devices, computer keyboard/ terminal for on-line 
computer systems, and other related equipment; determines emergency nature and 
criticality of calls and refers appropriately. Work is carried out under well-
defined policies and procedures. Limited independent judgement is exercised 
under close supervision in a stressful environment. Upon completion of required 
training and demonstrated proficiency, an employee must qualify for advancement 
to Emergency Communications Technician (Grade 6) within 18 months. 

SCHEDULE: Work is done on a shift basis and an employee will be required to work 
one of three fixed shifts: day shift is from 6: 45 a. m. to 3: 00 p. m.; evening 
shift is from 2: 45 p. m. to 11; 00 p. m.; midnight shift from l0: 45 p. m. to 
7: 00 a. m. in addition to base pay as indicated, then is a shift differential 
of $. 35 per hour for the evening shift and $. 85 per hour to the midnight 
shift. Shift assignment is made at the discretion of the Emergency 
Communications Center Administrator. The work of an Emergency Communications 
Technician Trainee involves a five day work week with rotating days off. 

QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS: 

MINIMUM: Graduation from high school, vocational school, or equivalent. One year 
of experience in telecommunications, public contact or high volume 
administrative support work. Ability to type 20 words per minute; ability to 
satisfactorily complete the training course in communications, police and 
firefighting operations; abiIity to make independent decisions in a quick and 
decise manner and operate effectively under pressure; ability to communicate 
clearly and effectively both verbally and in writing; ability to follow complex 
oral and written instructions quickly; ability to establish and maintain 
effective working relationships with employees and the general public; ability 
to search manual and automated records and files quickly and accurately in order 
to obtain requested information. 

SUBSTITUTION: Additional qualifying experience may be substituted for the 
educational requirement or any combination of education and experiende that 
provides the required skills, knowledge and abilities. 

EXAMINATION MAY INCLUDE ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING: (1) Evaluation of training 
and Experience: (2) Written and/ or Oral Examination: (3) Performance Test: (4) 
Personal Interview: (5) Physical Examination: (6) Group Discussion Exam. 

"An Equal Opportunity Employer" Exhibition Of Discrimination: Discrimination 
against any person in any practice or procedure in advertising, recruitment, 
referral, testing, hiring, transfer, promotion or any other term, condition, or 
privlege of employment which limits or adversley affects employment 
opportunities, because of political or religous options or affiliation, or 
because of race, color, sex, national origin, marital status, pregnancy, 
parenthood, age, sexual orientation, status as a Vietnam Era Veteran or handicap 
which is unrelated to the person's occupational qualifications or any other non-
merit factor which is not a bona fide occupational qualification, is prohibited; 
provided that nothing in this section is intended to prohibit the County from 
taking reasonable affirmative action to eliminate the effect of dicrimination." 

See back of announcement for expanlation of employment Discrimination Appeal 
Procedures. January 23, 1992 gml 

DESIRABLE: Preference may be given to candidates with one or more of the 
following: 1) telecommunications experience; b) experience dealing with a high 
volume of calls of an emergency or stressful nature; and/ or c) experience in a 
public safety environment. 

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS: Availibility for shift work. Availability and willingness 
for call back and to work after normal duty hours. Because of the nature of this 
work, there may be times when shifts may be extended to accommodate emergency 
situations (the county compensates for overtime). 

EXAMINATION WILL INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING: 

1) Evaluation of training and experience 
2) Typing Test (qualifying) 
3) written performance test involving work sample simulation 
4) Oral examination involving work sample situation 
5) Pane1 interview (qualifying) 
6) Personal interview 
7) Polygraph examination by Police Department (qualifying) 
8) Character/ background investigation by Police Department (persons who have 
engaged in an activity that would support a felony conviction are unlikely to 
receive favorable consideration) 
9) Medical examination 
10) Drug abuse and/ or alcohol testing 

The salary scale for this position is from $24,864 (normal entrance in grade 5-
3) to $35,644 maximum in grade 6). With satisfactory ( performence, employees 
are considered for periodic (step) increases up to the maximum of the range. 
Employees may qualify for additional increases with superior performance. 

FORM A ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR APPLICANTS: (Permanent Appointments) 
APPLICATION FORMS: All applications for employment in the Arlington County 
government must be submitted on official application forms provided by the 
Personnel Department. Application forms must be received at the Personnel 
Department (2100 Clarendon Boulevard, Suite #511, Arlington, Virginia 22201) 
before the closing date shown on the front of this announcement. Postmarks will 
not be accepted in place of actual receipt of the application. An application 
may be rejected if incomplete or received after the closing date. The 
application will be used as part of the examination. 

ELIGIBILITY FOR EMPLOYMENT: All persons hired by the County after Nov. 6, 1986, 
are required to prove identity and eligibility to work in the U. S. The County 
will employ only U. S. citizens or aliens authorized to work in the U. S. 

PRE-EMPLOYMENT MEDICAL EXAMINATION Before being employed, a selected applicant 
must successfully pass a County medical examination given by County designated 
medical staff. An applicant with a medical history of significant illness or 
disability or an applicant receiving a disability pension (which could affect 
job performance) may be required to (1) submit a statement from the attending 
physician for the illness or disability and/ or (2) be seen by a County-
designated medical specialist or diagnostic specialist (the applicant pays the 
cost of the visit in the limited number of situations where this is required) 
and/ or (3) sign a waiver for benefits under the County's service connected 
disability retirement provision and the long term disability plan. 

VACATION, SICK LEAVE AND HOLIDAYS: Employees in full time permanent positions 
earn 13 vacation leave days a year. This increases gradually with added service, 
so that an employee with 12+ years of service earns 26 days a year. Sick leave 
accumulates at the rate of 1/ 2 day every 2 weeks (13 days a year). An employee 
also gets 10 paid holidays per year and Inauguration Day. 

SOCIAL SECURITY, RETIREMENT, INSURANCE AND OTHER BENEFITS: All employees are 
covered under the Old Age and Survivors section of the Social Security Act and 
under the State Workers' Compensation Act. Full-time and part-time permanent 
employees who have met all the required medical standards are included in the 
Arlington County Supplemental Retirement System and the County's group life 
insurance plan. Three group health insurance plans (Blue Cross/ Blue Shield and 
two health maintenance organizations) are offered as an option to all permanent 
employees. The County contributes significantly in the cost of insurance. The 
employees pay a share of that cost through payroll deductions according to the 
options chosen. Other benefits include a Deferred Compensation Plan (optional 
for all employees), a credit union, discounted METRO (bus/ subway) flash passes, 
and identification cards. Child care is available on a first-come-first-served 
fee basis. 

SMOKING POLICY: The County has a smoking policy that supports employees' efforts 
to stop smoking and indicates where and under what circumstances smoking is 
permitted. 

MERIT SYSTEM ORDINANCE: Employee in departments under the administrative control 
and direction of the County Manager are in the Competitive Service and work 
under a Merit System Ordinance which is a plan for appointment, promotion, and 
separation of employees on the basis of merit. 

EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION APPEAL PROCEDURES: Any applicant who is not a current 
County employee and who believes that he/ she has been discriminated against in 
the employment process may contact the County EEO Investigator in the County 
Manager's Office at (703) 358-3929 and/ or may appeal in writing to the Civil 
Service Commission. An applicant who currently is employed by the County and who 
believes that he/ she has been discriminated against in the employment process 
may contact the EEO Investigator in the County Manager% Office and/ or may file 
a grievance in accord with Administrative Regulation 2.7, Rule XIII which covers 
the County's Grievance Procedure. Employees who have questions about their 
rights under the Arlington County Grievance Procedure or have questions about 
Arlington County Personnel Policies and Procedures may contact the Employee 
Advisor at (703) 358-3399. Employment discrimination appeals to the Civil 
Service Commission or initiation of County Grievance Procedures must be made 
within 30 calendar days of the occurrence of the event giving rise to the 
appeal. Individuals filing an appeal with the Commission are requested to 
provide a phone number where they can be reached to assist the Commission, in 
responding to the appeal. The address of the Civil Service Commission is 2100 
Clarendon Boulevard, Suite 317, Arlington, Virginia 22201 or telephone (703) 
338-3966. 

Sample Position Description 
Communications Technician 2 

IV. DESCRIPTION 

A. General Summary: 
Performs communications duties in the Communications Section of the Police 
Department, which takes emergency and non-emergency calls from the public and 
dispatches police and fire units. Exchanges information with the public and 
police and fire units; receives emergency/ non-emergency calls; determines 
priorities of calls; dispatches police and fire units; relays information on 
callers; reviews manuals, maps, and standard operating procedures; and may act 
as supervisor in supervisor's absence. 

Major duties: 
Answers calls for emergency and non-emergency services. 
Coordinates and monitors emergency and non-emergency response of police/ fire/ 
EMS units. 
Operates and maintains duty-related equipment. 
Updates job knowledge and trains new personnel. 

B. Major Duties/ Specific Tasks: 
Answers calls for emergency and non-emergency services. 
Answers and reviews calls over emergency (911) telephones and non-emergency 
telephones. 
Determines priorities of incoming calls after obtaining accurate information 
from callers. 
Obtains accurate information from callers and records requests. 
Determines the location of a call and which emergency unit is closest. 
Relays information to dispatcher, 
Traces calls if complete information is not obtained. 
Provides information to callers. 
Attempts to calm hysterical or irate callers and to understand non-English-
speaking citizens. 
Performs supervisory duties in supervisor's absense. 

EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION TECHNICIAN II / Page 3 FINAL 

Coordinates and monitors emergency and non-emergency response of police/ fire/ 
EMS units. 
Dispatches and displays police, fire/ rescue, and emergency medical units. 
Determines type and amount of emergency aid needed. 
Maintains contact with field personnel and dispatches additional emergency 
personnel as necessary. 
Maintains list of current location of units. 
References standard operating procedures, maps, telephone books, cross-
directories, and codebooks. 
Maintains records and reports. 
Operates and maintains duty-related equipment. 
Receives updated information over teletype concerning wanted persons, 
burglaries, etc. 
Operates tape recorder to record incoming calls. 
Types information from caller into computer. 
Sends messages using teletype. 
Performs routine maintenance and checks on equipment. 
Updates job knowledge and trains new personnel. 
Learns new materials and procedures. 
Reviews manuals and standard operating procedures. 
Reviews County maps. 
Trains new personnel. 
Briefs the next shift on current status of events and units. 
Performs other related duties as required or as directed by Supervisor. 

EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION TECHNICIAN II / Page 4 FINAL 

C. Supervision: 

Received: General supervision --work assignments are reviewed by immediate 
supervisor, but individual is expected to work independently according to 
standard procedures and/ or instructions, Given: When appointed as Acting 
Supervisor, coordinates the activities of the work unit. 

D. Minimum Qualifications: 

Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities/ Examples of Specific Tasks 
Reading comprehension to read standard business English. 
Reviews manuals and standard operating procedures. 
Writing skills to prepare routine correspondence. 
Maintains records and reports. 
Interpersonal skills to persuade or manage others. 
Attempts to calm hysterical or irate callers and to understand non-English-
speaking citizens. 
Problem-solving kill to apply standard procedures to problems which may not be 
clearly defined. 
Determines priorities of calls. 
Typing/ data entry skill. 
Types information from caller into computer. 
Considerable knowledge of emergency communication procedures. 
Dispatches and displays police, fire/ rescue, and emergency medical units. 
Trains new personnel. 
Education and Experience 
Education: Completion of the requirements for graduation from a standard senior 
high school or vocational school, a GED certificate, or the equivalent. 
Experience: One year's experience in the emergency communication 

PAQ JOB DIMENSION PROFILE and JOB EVALUATION SCORE 

1156 
ECT TECH 

PRIMARY COMPENSABLE FACTORS WEIGHT SCORE POINTS 

Having Decision, Communications, and General Responsibility 108.73 17.612 
1914.953 
Interpreting What Is Sensed 26.19 19.596 513.219
Making Decisions  24.57 19.408 476.855 
Having Public/ Customer/ Related Contacts  24.51 16.256 398.435 
Using Machines/ Tools/ Equipment 20.28 20.520 416.146 
Performing Supervisory/ Coordination Related Activities 17.55 17.984 315.619 
Performing Controlled Manual/ Related Activities 14.41 17.508 252.290 
Working Other Schedules vs Working Regular Day Schedules 13.55 19.648 266.230
Being in a Non-Hazardous Job Situation 11.90 22.844 271.844
Engaging in Non-Personally Demanding Situations 11.10 22.336 247.930
Being in a Non-Stressful/ Pleasant Environment 9.59 21.976 210.750
Being Aware of the Work Environment 9.56 18.600 177.816
Watching Devices/ Materials for Information 8.76 18.176 159.222 
Working in an Unpleasant/ Hazardous/ Demanding Environment 8.74 18.452 161.270

SECONDARY COMPENSABLE FACTORS 

Working Day vs Non-Typical Schedules  7.75 18.076 140.089 
Working in Businesslike Situations  7.66 21.860 167.448
Performing Regular vs Irregular Work 6.74 21.760 146.662
Using Various Senses 6.51 19.132 124.549 
Engaging in Physical Activities 6.09 17.324 105.503 
Being Aware of Environmental Conditions 4.82 16.892 81.419
Using Miscellaneous Equipment/ Devices 2.95 20.628 60.853 
Performing Skilled/ Technical Activities 2.94 15.500 45.570 
Evaluating/ Judging What Is Sensed 2.58 16.216 41.837
Being Paid on a Variable vs Salary Basis 1.98 21.596 42.760
Working Under Job Demanding Circumstances 1.64 17.084 28.018
Engaging in General Personal Contacts 1.17 20.640 24.149
Being Alert to Changing Conditions .81 19.848 16.077
Working on a Regular vs Irregular Schedule .23 19.152 4.405 

EC TECHNICIAN 2 1156 Page 2 

INVERTED DIMENSIONS WEIGHT SCORE POINTS 

Operating Machines/ Equipment 42.67 17.808 759.867
Having Public/ Related Personal Contacts 20.21 19.572 395.550 
Exchanging Job-Related Information 15.40 21.984 338.554 
Processing Information 5.42 19.396 105.126
Performing Service/ Related Activities 4.26 20.952 89.256 
Using Various Sources of Information 4.06 21.424 86.981 
Performing Handling/ Related Manual Activities 3.53 16.260 57.398
Using General Physical Coordination 3.12 25.532 79.660 
Communicating Judgments/ Related 2.64 16.556 43.708
Information Controlling Machines/ Processes 1.25 16.548 20.685 

TOTAL POINTS 823.883 

To obtain your total points, you should add the points from the Primary 
Compensable Factors and the points from the Secondary Compensable Factors. Then 
subtract the points from the Inverted Dimensions and subtract a constant value 
of 4011.25. 

Appendix C Fireground Command Communications Vehicle 

Fireground Command Communications Vehicle 

Emergency service personnel respond to emergencies in vehicles of various 
shapes, sizes, and types. Usually these emergency vehicles are equipped with 
many or all of the tools required to manage the incident; this includes the C 3 
I functions. The larger and more complex the incident, however, the greater the 
demand for a dedicated command and control vehicle to service the command post. 

Choice of Vehicle --In most incidents, from automobile accidents to commercial 
building fires, the incident commander will probably require little beyond a 
radio, tactical control guides, preincident plans, some degree of shelter, and a 
good view of the scene to effectively control the incident. The first-arriving 
engine or truck company often will suffice as an incident command post for 
anything requiring only one or two companies. At incidents involving three or 
more companies on a single alarm, a chief's car or an engine or truck with a so-
called command cab should provide sufficient dedicated space to give the 
incident commander a comfortable and protected work area. 

Incidents involving multiple alarms, companies from different jurisdictions or 
agencies, or large areas or time spans may require support from dedicated 
command vehicles. These vehicles range in size and complexity from panel vans 
outfitted for one or two operators up to buses and semi-trailers. The size and 
complexity of the vehicle often will parallel that of the incident at which it 
is used. 

Command Post Equipment and Features --Dedicated command vehicles ordinarily 
will be equipped with a much wider array of communications and support equipment 
than chiefs' cars or other emergency vehicles. At a minimum, this equipment 
should consist of the following items. 

1 

Fixed radio transceivers for all channels and frequencies used by agencies and 
personnel assigned to the incident. 

Portable radios for all incident command line and staff officers. 

Spare portable radios and batteries. 

Public address system or loudspeaker. 

Cellular telephone( s). 

Voice recording equipment. 

Command post identification equipment, such as vests, signs, lights, barricade 
tape, etc. 

Portable electric generator of adequate size to support all installed equipment. 

Reference materials, e. g., preincident plans, hazardous materials guides, 
telephone lists or directories, resource lists, maps, etc. 

Tactical control guides. 

Writing materials, including pens, pencils, paper, forms, logbook, etc. 

Personnel protective equipment. 

In addition, the following are desirable: 

Television and videocassette recording and playback equipment, 

Cellular facsimile machine. 
Photocopier. 

Relief facilities, e. g., restroom, refrigerator, microwave oven, water cooler, 
etc. 

Conference facilities, such as conference table and chairs, writing board or 
easelpad and easel, etc. 

2 

Exhibit C-1. Huntington Beach Command Unit. 

Exhibit C-2. Rear of Huntington Beach Command Unit showing layout of command and 
communications equipment. 

3 

Lighting and HVAC --The command vehicle requires good lighting and climate 
control equipment to maintain a comfortable working environment. Specifications 
should anticipate the extremes of local weather. Indirect or red interior 
lighting may help improve contrast or reduce eyestrain during nighttime 
operations. Electrical power generation equipment must be sized to provide 
adequate power to operate all equipment assigned to or installed in the vehicle. 
The vehicle and generator fuel supplies should be of adequate capacity to permit 
extended operations without fueling. 

Staffing --The complexity of emergency scene operations will dictate how many 
personnel need to be assigned to the mobile command post. Those personnel 
assigned to the mobile command post usually will perform logistics and planning 
duties in support of the incident commander. Some experienced ICs recommend a 
minimum of two personnel. One of the duties of the command and communications 
staff should be to constantly monitor the radio traffic for signals of an 
emergency nature and to promptly notify the IC of these transmissions. The IC 
cannot do this task by him/ herself nor can a single command and communications 
person. 

4 

Exhibit C-3. Multiagency Command Vehicle operated in Tulsa, Oklahoma. 

5 

Appendix D Related National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standards 


APPENDIX D -RELATED NFPA STANDARDS 

NFPA Standard Description of Pertinent Information Related Manual Section 

NFPA 471, Recommended Practice for Responding to Hazardous Materials Incidents 
(1992 Edition) This standard recommends practices for hazardous materials Does 
not cover haz response, detailing incident response planning, response levels, 
mat operations site safety, personnel protective equipment, incident mitigation, 
specifically, but and decontamination. Section 4-4 covers communications at the 
related material response site recommending use of radios, dedicated 
frequencies, provided in Chapter 5, and backup communications via hand signals. 
In section 5-5, two-Incident Operations, way radios are recommended for 
hazardous chemical protective pp. 5-10 to 5-22 ensembles for Levels A, B, and C. 

NFPA 472, Standard for Professional Competence of Responders to Hazardous 
Materials Incidents (1992 Edition) This standard identifies the levels of 
competence required of Chapter 5, Elements responders to hazardous material 
incidents. Levels of competence of Effective Onscene include first responder, 
hazardous materials technician, incident Communications, commander, and off-site 
specialist employees. Competence pp. 5-1 to 5-10 includes effective 
communications of site information to appropriate authorities. 

NFPA 473, Standard for Professional Competence for EMS Personnel Responding to 
Hazardous Materials Incidents (1992 Edition) This standard identifies the levels 
of competence required of Various parts of emergency medical service (EMS) 
personnel to hazardous material Chapter 6, incidents. Levels of competence 
include EMS/ HM Level I and Communications Level II responders. Appendix C 
provides a description of Hardware, apply recommended hardware for 
communications with hospital pp. 6-1 to 6-38; 6-40 
personnel and information resources. to 6-47 

APPENDIX D -RELATED NFPA STANDARDS (cont'd) 

NFPA Standard Description of Pertinent Information Related Manual Section 

NFPA 1001, Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications (1992 Edition) 
This standard identifies the performance requirements necessary to Required 
knowledge perform the duties of a firefighter. It specifically identifies the 
pertains to information minimum requirements for firefighter candidates and two 
levels of provided in Chapter 4, performance. Both firefighter I and firefighter 
II levels require a Operating Procedures, knowledge in the areas of fire alarms 
and communications, pp. 4-10 to 4-25 sections 3-4 and 4-4, respectively. 

NFPA 1021, Standard for Fire Officer Professional Qualifications (1992 Edition) 
This standard identifies the performance requirements necessary to Required 
knowledge perform the duties of a fire officer and specifically identifies four 
pertains to information levels of progression. Fire officer levels I, II, III, 
and IV are provided in Chapter 5, required to demonstrate increasing proficiency 
in communications Onscene skills relevant to providing a detailed account of an 
incident Communications, (Section 2-8); report preparation, dealing with the 
public, and pp. 5-1 to 5-10 identification of hazards (Section 3-8). No 
additional communication skill requirements exist for Fire Officer III and IV. 

NFPA 1201, Recommendations for Developing Fire Protection Services for the 
Public (1989 Edition) This standard provides recommendations on the structure 
and operation of organizations providing public fire protection. Chapter 16 
addresses communications with sections on general requirements, the 
communications center, public reporting of fires/ emergencies, dispatch systems, 
radio communication, fireground communication, nonemergency communications, and 
private alarm systems. Related information is provided in Chapter 3 (Planning a 
Communications System), Chapter 4 (Operating Procedures), and Chapter 5 (Onscene 
Communications). 

APPENDIX D -RELATED NFPA STANDARDS (cont'd) 

NFPA Standard Description of Pertinent Information Related Manual Section 

NFPA 1221, Standard for the Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Public Fire 
Service Communications Systems (1991 Edition) This standard covers the 
installation, maintenance, and use of  public fire service communications 
systems and facilities. While it is not a specification it addresses several 
details related to  communications centers, dispatching systems, and public 
reporting systems. Entire manual, particularly Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 6.

NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program 
(1992 Edition) This standard primarily covers health and safety program, vehicle 
safety, protective clothing and equipment, and emergency  operations, facility 
safety, medical/ physical requirements, and member assistance programs for fire 
departments. Under Chapter 6, Emergency Operations, the standard requires the 
incident commander to "initiate, maintain, and control incident communications." 
It also requires fire departments to establish and maintain a fire dispatch and 
incident communications system that meets NFPA 1561. Chapter 5, Incident 
Operations, pp. 5-10 to 5-22 

NFPA 1561, Standard for Fire This standard contains the minimum requirements for 
an incident Department Incident Management management system used by fire 
departments to manage  System (1990 Edition) emergency incidents. Section 3-6 
addresses communications as  part of the incident management system, prescribing 
standard operating procedures for radio communications, use of standard, 
terminology, and standard transmission methods.  Chapter 4 (Operating 
Procedures), pp. 4-4 to 4-6 and Chapter 5 (Onscene Communications) pp. 5-10 to 
5-25.

Appendix E 

Related National Fire Academy (NFA) Student Manuals to Content in This Manual 

*APPENDIX E -RELATED NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY STUDENT MANUALS 

NFA Student Manual Description of Related Information Related Manual Section 

Code Management: A Systems Approach (NFA-SM-CODES), April 1, 1989 Communications 
as part of the incident command system (p. ix to x).  Chapter 5, Fireground 
Communications, Philosophy, p. 5-6 Effective communications at meetings with the 
public. Chapter 21 External Relations, p. 2-15 

*Command and Control of Fire Department Major Operations (NFA-PM-CCFDMO), 
February 1, 1988 Communications as part of the incident command system, example 
of incident command system (p. viii to x, p. 2-9 to 2-33).Chapter 5,  Fireground 
Communications, Philosophy, p. 5-6 

Proper communications in preparing preincident plan, including status report, 
use of radio frequencies, common communications problems, and establishing 
standard operating procedures and quick action plans (p. 3-1 to 3-19). Majority 
of Chapter 5, On-scene Communications, p. 5-1; Incident Operations, 5-10 

Communications during incident sizeup; with public, other units, outside 
resources (p. 4-14 to 4-19). Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-10; Chapter 2, 
External Relations, p. 2-l5 

Communications for establishing command (p. 6-2 to 6-4,6-18). Chapter 5, 
Fireground Decisionmaking, p. 5-5 

Establishing a command post and related communications capabilities (p. 6-19 to 
6-26); Communications as part of the action plan (p. 7-9 to 7-12). Chapter 5, 
Incident Operations, p. 5-10 

*The information in this appendix was current at the time of publication. 

APPENDIX E -RELATED NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY STUDENT MANUALS (cont'd) 

NFA Student Manual Description of Related Information Related Manual Section 

Command and Control of Fire Department Operations at Catastrophic Disasters 
(NFA/ SM/ CCFDOCD), April 1992 Emergency communications as part of the emergency  
operating plan involving vulnerability of primary systems,  backup methods, 
alerting/ warning methods, emergency  public information, and evacuation (p. 2-
30 to 2-32, D-17); Evaluation criteria for communications during emergency 
operations (p. 3-16). Chapter 4, Major Disaster Operations, p. 4-14; Mutual Aid 
and Mutual Response Operations, p. 4-18 

Role of effective communications during emergency operations (p. 4-9). Elements 
of Effective Onscene Communications, p. 5-2 Chapter 5, 

Communications as consideration for establishing a Chapter 5, Fireground 
command post and emergency operations center (p. 4-18). Communications, 
Philosophy, p. 5-13 

Communications in coordination and management of emergency response (p. 4-33 to 
4-35); Methods of implementing emergency communications procedures and using 
resources from other agencies (p. 4-36 to 4-37). Chapter 5, Incident Operations, 
p. 5-20 

Communications as part of pre-and postearthquake safety assessments (p. 6-31, 6-
34 to 6-36).  Chapter 4, Major Disaster Operations, p. 4-14

Developing Fire and Life Safety Strategies (NFA-DLSS-SM), October 17, 1991 
Communicating with the public (p. SM 6-8). Chapter 2, External Relations, p. 2-
15 

Executive Development (NFA-ED-SM), May 1992  Effective communications with the 
public, other agencies, and employees (Sections 4 and 5). Chapter 5, 
Postincident Operations, p. 5-25 

APPENDIX E -RELATED NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY STUDENT MANUALS (cont'd) 

NFA Student Manual Description of Related Information Related Manual Section 

Executive Leadership Course (NFA-EL-SM), May 1992 Effective communications with 
employees (SM 9-15). No specific cross reference 

Fire/ Arson Investigation (NFA/ NETC) Communications as part of the incident 
command system (p. iv to viii). Chapter 5, Fireground Communications, 
Philosophy, p. 5-6 

Fire Command Operations (USFA/ NFA-FCO-SM), February 1993 Communications for 
responding units to a mutual-aid incident (p. 3-8). Chapter 4, Mutual Aid and 
Response Operations, p. 4-18 

Communicating the action plan (p. 4-17). Chapter 4, Communications Plan. p. 4-l 

Incident scene communications (p. 7-23 to 7-24). Chapter 5, Incident Operations, 
p. 5-10 

Communications in effective incident management (p. 10-6).

Consideration of communications resources in establishing a 
command post (p. 10-17).

Dispatch response patterns (p. 11-13). Chapter 4, Communications with Fire 
Stations, p. 4-12 

Fire Inspection Principles (NFA-FIP-SM). August 1992 Effective communications 
with public (Activity 1.3). Chapter 2, External Relations, p. 2-15 

Firefighter Safety and Survival: The Company Officer's Role (NFA-SM-FSCO-TtT), 
July 13, 1988 Obligation of emergency vehicle operator to clarify with 
Dispatcher type of response (Appendix I-B).Chapter 2, Training, p. 2-34; Chapter 
5, Incident Operations, p 5-10 


APPENDIX E -RELATED NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY STUDENT MANUALS (cont'd) 

NFA Student Manual Description of Related Information Related Manual Section 

Fire Service Communication Fire service writing, correspondence, incident 
reports, (NFA-FSC-SM), October 1992 speeches, listening, presentations, and 
meetings (entire -manual). Parts of Chapter 5, Elements of Effective OnScene 
Communications 

Hazardous Materials Incident Analysis (NFA-SM-HMIA/ TtT) February 1, 1985 
Integrated communications as part of the incident command system, p. xii to 
xiii. Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-10 

List of resources and organizations to contact in event of hazardous materials 
incident (Appendix D). Chapter 4, Major Disaster Operations, p. 4-14; 
Establishing/ Maintaining Databases, p. 4-28 

Hazardous Materials Operating Site Practices, July 1993 Communications during 
dispatch and initial response stage (SM 2-1-6 to 2-1-7). Chapter 5, Incident 
Operations, p. 5-10 

Communications between the onscene commander and the entry team (p. SM 5-2-4). 
Chapter 5, Fireground Communications Philosophy, p. 5-6 

Hazardous Materials: The Pesticide Challenge (NFA-SM-HMPU/ TtT), February 1, 
1985 List of resources and organizations to contact in event of hazardous 
materials incident involving pesticides (Unit IV). Chapter 4, Major Disaster 
Operations, p. 4-14; Establishing/ Maintaining Data Bases, p. 4-28 

Incident command post communications with other agencies; Incident other 
communications responsibilities (p. VI-4). Chapter 5, Operations, p. 5-13 


APPENDIX E -RELATED NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY STUDENT MANUALS (cont'd) 

NFA Student Manual Description of Related Information Related Manual Section 

Incident Safety (NFA-SM-FSCO [MS]-TtT), July 13, 1988 Dispatcher communication 
of best routes to emergency vehicle (p. SM 5-2).  Chapter 5, Incident 
Operations, p. 5-11; Establishing/ Maintaining atabases, p. 4-28 

Onsite communications at incident and chain of command in passing 
communications; exercising radio discipline;  incident commander communications 
with interior firefighters (p. SM 5-4, 5-7, 5-17). Chapter 5, Fireground 
Communication Philosophy, p. 5-6 

Infection Control for Emergency Response Personnel (FEMA/ USFA/ NFA-
ICERP),September 1992 List of resources and organizations to contact for 
assistance in emergency medical operations infection control (Appendix  C) 
Chapter 4, Response Policy,.p. 4-7 

Initial Response to Hazardous Materials Incidents: Basic Concepts (NFA-IRHMI: 
BC-SM), August 1992 List of resources and organizations to contact in event of 
hazardous materials incident (p. SM 9-23 to 9-31). Chapter 4, Major Disaster  
Operations, p. 4-14; Establishing/ Maintaining Databases, p. 4-28 

Initial Response to Hazardous Materials Incidents: Concept Implementation (NFA-
IRHMI: CI-SM), August 1992 

Communications during dispatch and initial response phase information; incident 
information management (p. SM 2-4 to 2-5). Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-
10 

Goals in notification of hazardous materials incidents; methods of notification 
and communication (p. SM 4-6, 5-10 to 5-12). Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 
5-10 

Hazard communication requirements of OSHA regulations for employees and site 
safety plan p. SM 5-46, 6-7 to 6-8). No specific cross-reference 

APPENDIX E -RELATED NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY STUDENT MANUALS (cont'd) 

NFA Student Manual Description of Related Information Related Manual Section 

Initial Response to Hazardous Materials Incidents: Concept Implementation (NFA-
lRHMl: CI-SM), August 1992 List of resources and organizations to contact in 
event of hazardous materials incident (Appendix E). Chapter 4, Major Disaster 
Operations, p. 4-14 

Communications-related responsibilities of haz mat officers 
and personnel (Appendix F). No specific cross-reference 

Interpersonal Dynamics in Fire Service Organizations (NFA-IDFSO-SM), January 
1982 Techniques and training activities for effective communications with 
employees and supervisors (Unit 6). Chapter 5, Elements of Effective Onscene 
Communications, p. 5-2 

Management of Emergency Medical Services (NFA-SM-MEMS), December 19, 1986 
Department chief or assistant chief responsibilities for comnnmicating with 
various county, state, national, or  federal organizations (p. 245). Chapter 4, 
Move-Ups and Major Disaster Operations, p. 4-13 

Management of Fire Prevention Programs (NFA-SM-MFPP), December 16, 1985 
Negotiations and communication with the public (p. VI-6 to  VI-25). Chapter 2, 
External Relations, p. 2-15 

Managing Company Tactical Operations : Decisionmaking (NFA-MCTO-D-SM), July 15, 
1991 Communicating the initial report as sizing up an incident (p. SM 2-20). 
Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-12 

Use of communications in implementing the action plan (p. SM 4-7 to 4-11).  
Chapter 5, Fireground Decisionmaking, p. 5-5

Communications in incident command system (p. SM 5-11 to 5-14).  Chapter 5, 
Fireground Communications Philosophy, p. 5-9

Managing Company Tactical Operations: Preparation (NFA-MCTO-P-SM), July 1991 
Skills and requirements necessary for effective communications (p. SM 3-11 to 3-
16). Chapter 5, Elements of Effective Onscene Communications, p. 5-2 

APPENDIX E -RELATED NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY STUDENT MANUALS (cont'd) 

NFA Student Manual Description of Related Information Related Manual Section 

Managing Company Tactical Operations: Preparation (NFA-MCTO-P-SM) July 1991 Need 
for a communications model (establishing communications procedures and 
communications hardware); Common communications problems (p. SM 3-16 to 3-26). 
Chapters 3, 5, and 6 throughout 

Tactical communications responsibilities (p. SM 3-26 to 3-28).  Chapter 5, 
Incident Operations, p. 5-15

Managing Company Tactical Operations: Tactics (NFA-MCTO-T-SM), April 1993 
Need for communications, prefire, and tactical models, establishing 
communications procedures and communications hardware (p. SM 1-15 to 1-23). 
Chapters 3, 5, and 6 throughout 

Coordination of resources using communications in rescue operations (p. SM 2-19 
to 1-21). Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-15 

Simulated communications during private dwelling fires (p. SM 6-15 to 6-60). No 
specific cross-reference 

Recognizing and Identifying Hazardous Materials, 2nd Edition, September 1992 
Notification procedures using local Emergency Response Plan, implementation of 
incident command system, including communications structure, p. 19 to 20. 
Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-10 

Strategic Analysis of Fire Department Operations (NFA-SM-SAFDO), November 1990 
Specific strategies for several incident case studies, including role of 
communications (entire manual). Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-10 

Strategic Analysis of Fire Comrnunity relations and effective communications. 
Prevention Programs (NFA-PG-SAFPP), March 1, 1990 Chapter 2, External Relations, 
p. 2-15 

Appendix F Deviations in NFA Student Manuals From Content in This Manual 

APPENDIX F -DEVIATIONS IN NFA STUDENT MANUALS TO CONTENT IN THIS MANUAL 

NFA Student Manual Related Section in this Manual Description of Deviation 

Command and Control of Fire Department Major Operations (NFA-PM-CCFDMO), 
February 1, 1988 Chapter 5, Incident Command and Control, pp. 5-9 to 5-10 
Most NFA manuals describe the incident command system (ICS) has having five 
components: command, operations, planning, logistics, and finance (pp. 2-12 to 
2-20). This manual describes ICS in terms of command, control, communications, 
and intelligence. 

Chapter 5, Incident Operations, p. 5-10 This manual lists incident operations as 
(1) notification and initiation of response, (2) communication en route, (3) 
communication upon arrival, (4) establishing a command post, (5) tactical 
operations, and (6) incident termination on pp 2-24 to 2-28. The NFA manual 
describes the incident command sequence as (1) incident priorities, (2) sizeup, 
(3) goals & objectives, and (4) tactical operations. 

Chapter 5, Status Reports, pp. 5-18 to 5-19 The NFA manual calls incident 
progress reports "periodic" reports (p. 3-12). This manual does not specify a 
final incident report. 

Command and Control of Fire Department Operations at Catastrophic Disasters 
(NFA-PM-CCFDOCD), April 1992 Chapter 4, Major Disaster Operations, pp. 4-16 to 
4-18 The NFA manual specifies the major considerations of preparedness for 
emergency communications to consist of special communications procedures, new 
communications links, and backup/ auxiliary systems (p. 2-47). This manual 
provides two other considerations--having emergency vehicle fuel sources in 
reserve and conducting critical incident stress debriefings on communications 
center personnel. 

APPENDIX F -DEVIATIONS IN NFA STUDENT MANUALS TO CONTENT IN THIS MANUAL (cont'd) 

NFA Student Manual Related Section in this Manual Description of Deviation 


Managing Company Tactical Operations:  Preparation (NFA-MCTO-P-SM), July 1991 
Chapter 5, Fireground Decisionmaking,PP. 5-5 to 5-6 The NFA manual describes the 
use of a communications model consisting of six steps for formulating the 
message,  sending the message, transfer of the message through the medium, 
receipt of the message, interpretation of the message, and confirmation for 
understanding the message (pp. 3-21 to 3-23) . This manual uses a navigation 
analogy to describe how messages should be prepared, sent, and understood. 

Chapter 5, Terminating an Incident, pp. 5-22 to 5-23 The NFA manual uses the 
terms "all clear," "under control,"  and "loss stopped" to indicate different 
situation status at the end of the incident (p. 3-27). This manual recommends 
using "available, in-service, or ready for service" as another message for 
incident termination. 

Managing Company Tactical Operations: Tactics (NFA-MCTO-T-SM), April 1993 
Chapter 5, Fireground  Decisionmaking, PP. 5-5 to 5-6 The NFA manual uses the 
six-step communication module described above. 

Appendix G 
Index 

APPENDIX G 
INDEX 

10-codes, 3-16, 5-2 
Accidental calls, 2-16 
Advanced life support (ALS), 2-33,4-8 
Alarm companies, 2-15 
Alphanumeric messages, 3-9 
Alternating current (AC), 6-48 
Amplifiers, 6-31,6-33 
Amplitude modulation (AM), 6-2 
Antennas 
array, 6-25 
characteristics, 6-21 
fixed station, 6-24 
gain, 6-25 
mobile station, 6-25 
portable equipment, 6-11, 6-27 
specification (example), 6-26 
Arson information management system (AIMS), 5-9 
Association of Public Safety Communications Officials International, Inc. 
(APCO), 2-26, 2-29, 2-30, 2-35, 3-16, 4-19, 5-2 
Audio equipment, 6-44 
Automatic fire alarm systems, 2-3, 2-15 
Automatic location information (ALI), 2-10 
Automatic number identification (ANI), 2-10 
Automatic vehicle locator (AVL), 7-4 
Bandwidth, 6-43 
Basic life support (BLS), 2-32, 4-8 
Call-taker, 2-9, 2-34 
Cathode ray tube (CRT), 6-30, 6-43 
Cellular telephones, 3-11, 6-10, 6-41 
Circuit boards, 6-48 
"Clear" text, 3-16 
Combined radio/ PASS systems, 7-1 
Command post 
location, 5-13 
Communications 
direction, 5-8 
types of information, 5-7 
with units en route, 4-11, 5-11 
with fire stations, 4-10 
with units on scene, 4-12, 5-12 
Communications center 
definition, 2-1 
civilian-based, 2-26 
combined, 2-3 
computer-assisted, 2-6 to 2-8, 2-11 
control consoles, 6-28 
external relations, 2-15 
facility space, 3-25 
firefighter-based, 2-26 
function, 2-1 
independent, 2-3 
manager characteristics, 2-21 
manual operation, 2-6, 2-10 
operations, 4-9 
organization, 2-2 
personnel policies, 2-17 
personnel functions, 2-19 
personnel qualifications, 2-22 
police-controlled, 2-4 
public relations, 2-16, 5-24 
recordkeeping, 2-13 to 2-15 
recruitment, 2-19 
responsible agency, 2-1 
shift supervisor, 2-23, 3-23 
small/ medium departments, 2-2 
staffing, 2-18, 3-22 
volunteer fire departments, 2-2 
work schedule, 2-26 
Communication skills, 2-35 
Communications plan 
designation of authority, 4-3 
function, 4-1 
parts, 4-2 
Communications system 
accuracy, 3-20 
capacity, 3-21 
definition, 3-1 
elements, 3-2 
establishing requirements, 3-19 
interference, 3-17 
licensing, 3-35 
maintenance, 3-22 
planning, 3-17 
projecting future demand, 3-19 
purposes, 3-1 
recommended performance, 3-17 
safety, 3-26 
security, 3-26 
specifications, 3-31 
Comparator, 6-16, 6-31 
Computer-assisted dispatch 
advantages, 2-7 
computer use in, 6-41 
control consoles, 6-28 
definition, 2-6 
digital technology, 3-21 
recommended sizes, 2-8 
security, 2-15 high-band, 3-3, 6-4, 6-21, 6-27 
use with MDT, 3-14 low-band, 3-3, 6-3, 6-21, 6-27 
Computers, 3-13, 6-30, 6-40, 6-43 multiplication stage, 6-19 
Continuous monitoring/ alerting, 6-16 ranges, 6-3 
Control consoles, 6-28 UHF, 6-4 
Corrosion, 6-46 VHF, 6-3, 6-21, 6-27 
Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD), 4-18 Frequency modulation (FM), 6-2, 
6-7 
Databases Future technology 
building/ hazard files, 4-27 
combined radio/ PASS systems, 7-1 
response area characteristics, 4-26 
commercial satellites, 7-4 
use of, 4-25 digital mapping, 7-3 
Decoders, 6-34 digital radio, 7-2 
Digital mapping, 7-3 in-building networks, 7-4 
Digital radio, 7-2 Geofiles, 2-7, 4-26 
Direct current (DC), 6-48 Ground plane, 6-23 
Directionality, 6-23 Hard-lines, 3-11 
Dispatch center, 2-1 Hardware 
Dispatchers dependability, 3-23 
characteristics, 2-24 maintenance, 3-22 
functions, 2-24, 4-10, 5-11 specifications, 3-35 
training, 2-28 types, 3-2 
Distortion, 6-45 Incident commanders, 5-5, 5-9, 5-14 
Electrical fields, 6-48 Incident command system, 5-2, 5-6, 5-9 
Electromagnetic spectrum, 3-3 Incident operations 
Emergency communications (traffic), 3-16, 4-12, 5-17 communications en route, 5-
11 
Emergency medical dispatchers, 2-4, 2-33, 4-8 communications upon arrival, 5-11 
Emergency medical services (EMS) critiques, 5-23 
communications, 2-4 establishing command posts, 5-13 
related training, 2-33 initial report, 5-13 
response policy, 4-7 investigations, 5-23 
Emergency medical technicians, 2-28 notification of response, 5-10 
Encoders, 6-34 postincident, 5-23 
Encoding press releases, 5-24 
digital, 6-35 Incident records, 2-13 
subaudible tone, 6-32, 6-37 Initial reporting, 5-12 
tone, 6-35 International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC), 2-9, 
Environmental effects, 6-46 3-35 
Fair Labor Standards Act, 2-26 Inverters, 6-39 
Fax, 3-12, 6-41 Ionosphere, 6-3 
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 3-5, 3-32, Licenses 
4-18 application to FCC, 3-35 
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 4-16 frequency coordination, 3-34 
Fire records, 2-13 procedures, 3-35 
Fixed stations, 3-35, 6-8 renewal, 3-36 
Frequencies (communication) system dependency, 6-8 
allocation, 3-3, 3-6, 3-35 Lightning, 6-49 
bandwidth, 6-43 Liquid crystal display (LCD), 6-37, 6-43 
carrier wave, 6-2 Maintenance 
channels, 3-7 hardware, 3-23 
changing, 3-18 organization, 3-23 
control, 3-7 policy, 3-23 
coordination, 3-35 types, 3-22 
definition, 3-3 Material safety data sheets (MSDSs), 4-28 
fire and rescue departments, 4-19 Microphones, 6-45 
Microwave links, 3-10, 4-10, 6-5 
Mixers, 6-31, 6-32 
Mobile data systems, 3-9 
Mobile data terminal (MDT), 3-9, 3-14, 4-10, 6-10, 
6-11, 6-43, 7-4 
Mobile stations, 3-32 
Moisture effects, 6-46 
Move-ups, 4-13 
Multiplexers, 6-33 
Mutual aid, 4-13, 4-18 
National Fire Incident Reporting System, 2-14 
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards, 3-25, 6-39 
News media, 2-16 
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 4-28 
Onscene communications 
command functions, 5-9 
command posts, 5-13 
control functions, 5-9 
decisionmaking, 5-5 
discipline, 5-4 
effective communications, 5-1 
elements, 5-2 
emergency traffic, 5-17 
tireground operations, 5-1 
improving feedback, 5-3 
intelligence gathering, 5-9 
philosophy, 5-6 
reduction of noise, 5-3 
requests for additional resources, 5-19 
requests for special service, 5-20 
status reports, 5-18 
tactical communications, 5-15 
termination, 5-21 
Operating procedures 
administrative, 4-11 
area-wide survey, 4-18 
authority, 4-3 
communications plan, 4-1 
dispatches, 4-10 
field operations, 4-4 
jurisdiction, 4-19 
level of resources, 4-6 
listing of disaster-related agencies, 4-17 
major disasters, 4-14 
management, 4-3 
maintaining databases, 4-25 
move-ups, 4-13 
mutual aid, 4-18 
mutual response, 4-20 
preincident planning, 4-27 
response policy, 4-5 
sequence of responsibility, 4-9 
standard, 4-4 
Pagers, 3-12, 6-35 
Passive elements, 6-45 
Personal Alert Safety System (PASS), 5-17 
Personnel 
civilian, 2-26 
dispatchers, 2-24 
firefighter, 2-27 
identification, 4-24 
manager, 2-21 
selection, 2-19 
shift supervisors, 2-11 
training, 2-28 
Power supply 
backup, 6-39, 6-40 
'transmitter requirement, 6-21 
types, 6-38 
uninterruptible, 6-39 
Printers 
dot matrix, 6-44 
ink jet, 6-44 
laser, 6-44 
Progress reports, 5-18 
Prowords, 4-19 
Public information officers, 2-16 
Public safety answering point 
basic 9-1-1, 2-9 
definition, 2-8 
enhanced 9-1-1, 2-10 
modes of operation, 2-8 
responsibility, 2-10 
Push-to-talk switch, 6-21 
Radios 
fixed station, 3-4 
frequency use, 3-3 
general systems, 3-2 
mobile data systems, 3-9 
portable, 3-4 
repeater systems, 3-4 
trunking systems, 3-5, 6-21 
Radio signals 
amplitude modulation (AM), 6-2 
frequency modulation (FM), 6-2 
modulation, 6-1 
Radio system components 
amplifiers, 6-33 
audio equipment, 6-44 
encoders/ decoders, 6-34 
fax equipment, 6-42 
microphones, 6-45 
mixers, 6-32 
multiplexers, 6-33 
power supplies, 6-38 
printers, 6-43 
receivers, 6-13 
speakers, 6-44 
teletypes, 6-43 
transceivers, 6-21 
transmitters, 6-18 
video equipment, 6-42 
Radio teletype, 6-41 
Receivers 
definition, 6-13 
monitoring, 6-15 
satellite, 6-31 
types, 6-14 
voting, 6-16, 6-31 
Records 
CAD-system-generated data, 2-14 
control of computer software/ files, 2-15 
tire, 2-13 
incident, 2-13 
resource documents, 4-29 
retention of, 2-14 
security of, 2-13 
storage, 2-14 
verbal communications, 2-14 
Repeater systems, 3-4 
Satellite receivers, 6-31 
Situational awareness, 5-5 
Skip, 6-3 
Speakers, 6-44 
Standard operating procedures 
computer-based, 4-5 
function, 4-4 
manuals, 4-5 
part of requests, 5-20 
Statement of work (SOW), 3-30 
Status reports, 5-18 
Synthesizer, 6-19 
Tactical communications, 5-15 
Tape recorders, 2-14 
Teleconferencing, 6-6 
Telephone numbers 
Nonemergency, 2-17 
9-1-1,2-9 
Telephone service priority program, 4-16 
Teletype machines, 6-43 
Training 
administrative policy, 2-31 
communications policy, 2-31 
communication skills, 2-30 
department procedures, 2-31, 3-23 
equipment usage, 2-33 
general recommendations, 2-28 
interpersonal communications, 2-35 
monitoring, 2-37 
policy, 2-32 
Transceivers, 6-21, 6-31 
Transfer switch, 6-39 
Transmission 
line-of-site, 6-3 
loop, 6-6 
microwave, 6-5 
power output, 6-8, 6-10 
Transmitters 
definition, 6-18 
essential parts, 6-19 
fixed station, 6-8 
mobile, 6-9 
portable radios, 6-11 
repeater, 6-20 
special control, 6-8 
Trunking systems, 3-5 to 3-9, 6-5, 6-19, 6-21, 6-30 
UHF (ultra high frequencies), 6-4 
Unit identification, 4-19, 4-21 
Unit status 
designations, 2-11 
use of, 2-10 
Verbal communications, 5-2 
VHF (very high frequencies), 6-3, 6-21 
Vibration, 6-47 
Video display, 6-42 
Voice mail, 2-17 
Watch desk, 2-3 
Wide area network (WAN), 3-12 
Windowing, 6-30 

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: l995-624-795/ 82392