FINAL

(Department of Homeland Security-FEMA Seal)

Programmatic Environmental 
Assessment (PEA) for Typical 
Recurring Actions

Flood, Earthquake, Fire, Rain, and 
Wind Disasters in California
Prepared for
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Region IX
1111 Broadway, Suite 1200
Oakland, California 94607
December 2003
 
[NISTAC Symbol]
Nationwide Infrastructure Support Technical Assistance Consultants
A Joint Venture of URS Group, Inc., and Dewberry & Davis LLC

500 12th Street, Suite 200
Oakland, California 94607

Contract No. EMW-97-CO-0173
Task Order 61

15293557.00100

Table of Contents
Section 1 ONE	Introduction	1-1
1.1	Disaster Programs	1-1
1.1.1	Overview		1-1
1.1.2	Response		1-1
1.1.3	Recovery		1-1
1.1.4	Prevention and Mitigation	1-2
1.2	Regulatory Background		1-2
1.3	The Programmatic Environmental Assessment	1-3
1.4	Actions Not Covered by this Programmatic Environmental Assessment	1-5
1.4.1	Statutory Exclusions	1-5
1.4.2	Categorical Exclusions	1-5
1.4.3	Actions Requiring an Environmental Assessment Instead of a Programmatic 
	Environmental Assessment	1-6
1.4.4	Actions Requiring an Environmental Impact Statement		1-6
1.5	Actions Covered by the Programmatic Environmental Assessment	1-6
1.6	Purpose of and Need for Action					1-6
1.7	California Environmental Quality Act and Applicable Permits	1-7
1.8	Using the Programmatic Environmental Assessment			1-7
1.8.1	Organization of the Programmatic Environmental Assessment	1-7
1.8.2	Use of the Programmatic Environmental Assessment		1-8
1.8.3	Other Complementary Programmatic Documents			1-8

Section 2 TWO	Description of Proposed Actions and Alternatives	2-1
2.1	No Action Alternative						2-2
2.2	Nonemergency Debris Removal					2-2
2.3	Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities		2-3
2.3.1	Upgrading or Otherwise Modifying Buildings			2-3
2.3.2	Providing Temporary Facilities					2-4
2.3.3	Acquiring and Demolishing Existing Facilities			2-4
2.3.4	Repairing, Realigning, or Otherwise Modifying Roads, Trails, Utilities, and Rail Lines
									2-5
2.3.5	Constructing New Facilities or Relocating Existing Facilities	2-5
2.3.6	Relocating the Function of an Existing Facility			2-6
2.3.7	Extending the Pressurized Water Service Area			2-6
2.3.8	Developing Demonstration Projects				2-6
2.4	Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features		2-6
2.4.1	Repairing, Stabilizing, or Armoring Embankments			2-7
2.4.2	Creating, Widening, Clearing, or Dredging a Waterway		2-7
2.4.3	Constructing or Modifying a Water Crossing			2-8
2.4.4	Constructing or Modifying a Water Detention, Retention, or Storage Facility	2-9
2.4.5	Constructing or Modifying Other Flood Control Structures	2-10
2.4.6	Constructing or Modifying a Coastal Feature			2-10
2.5	Vegetation Management						2-10
2.5.1	Mechanical or Hand Clearing of Vegetation			2-11
2.5.2	Herbicidal Treatments						2-11
2.5.3	Prescribed Burns						2-12
2.5.4	Biological Control						2-12
2.6	Publication and Revision of Flood Insurance Rate Maps		2-12

Section 3 THREE	Affected Environment					3-1
3.1	Geology, Seismicity, and Soils					3.1-1
3.1.1	Regulatory Background						3.1-1
3.1.2	Geology, Geologic Hazards, and Soils in California		3.1-4
3.2	Air Quality							3.2-1
3.2.1	Regulatory Background						3.2-1
3.2.2	Air Quality in California					3.2-3
3.3	Water Resources							3.3-1
3.3.1	Regulatory Background						3.3-1
3.3.2	Discussion of Water Resources in California			3.3-5
3.4	Biological Resources						3.4-1
3.4.1	Regulatory Background						3.4-1
3.4.2	Biological Resources in California				3.4-5
3.5	Cultural Resources						3.5-1
3.5.1	Regulatory Background						3.5-1
3.5.2	Cultural Resources in California				3.5-3
3.6	Socioeconomics and Public Safety				3.6-1
3.6.1	Regulatory Background						3.6-1
3.6.2	Socioeconomic Conditions in California				3.6-2
3.7	Land Use and Planning						3.7-1
3.7.1	Regulatory Background						3.7-1
3.7.2	Land Uses in California						3.7-2
3.8	Public Services and Recreation					3.8-1
3.8.1	Fire Protection							3.8-1
3.8.2	Police Protection						3.8-2
3.8.3	Public Schools							3.8-2
3.8.4	Public Parks							3.8-2
3.8.5	Public Utilities						3.8-3
3.9	Transportation							3.9-1
3.9.1	Regulatory Background						3.9-1
3.9.2	Transportation in California					3.9-1
3.10	Noise								3.10-1
3.10.1	Regulatory Background						3.10-1
3.10.2	Existing Noise in California					3.10-3
3.11	Hazardous Materials and Wastes					3.11-1
3.11.1	Regulatory Background						3.11-1
3.11.2	Hazardous Materials and Wastes and the Affected Environment	3.11-3
3.12	Visual Resources						3.12-1
3.12.1	Regulatory Background						3.12-1
3.12.2	Visual Resources in California					3.12-1

Section 4 FOUR	Environmental Consequences of Actions and Alternatives	4-1
4.1	Geology, Seismicity, and Soils					4.1-1
4.1.1	No Action Alternative						4.1-1
4.1.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.1-1
4.1.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.1-1
4.2	Air Quality							4.2-1
4.2.1	No Action Alternative						4.2-1
4.2.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.2-1
4.2.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.2-2
4.3	Water Resources							4.3-1
4.3.1	No Action Alternative						4.3-1
4.3.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.3-1
4.3.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.3-2
4.4	Biological Resources						4.4-1
4.4.1	No Action Alternative						4.4-1
4.4.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.4-1
4.4.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.4-2
4.5	Cultural Resources						4.5-1
4.5.1	No Action Alternative						4.5-1
4.5.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.5-1
4.5.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.5-2
4.6	Socioeconomics and Public Safety				4.6-1
4.6.1	No Action Alternative						4.6-1
4.6.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.6-1
4.6.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.6-2
4.7	Land Use and Planning						4.7-1
4.7.1	No Action Alternative						4.7-1
4.7.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.7-1
4.7.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.7-1
4.8	Public Services and Recreation					4.8-1
4.8.1	No Action Alternative						4.8-1
4.8.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.8-1
4.8.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.8-1
4.9	Transportation							4.9-1
4.9.1	No Action Alternative						4.9-1
4.9.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.9-1
4.9.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.9-1
4.10	Noise								4.10-1
4.10.1	No Action Alternative						4.10-1
4.10.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.10-1
4.10.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.10-1
4.11	Hazardous Materials and Wastes					4.11-1
4.11.1	No Action Alternative						4.11-1
4.11.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.11-1
4.11.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.11-1
4.12	Visual Resources						4.12-1
4.12.1	No Action Alternative						4.12-1
4.12.2	General Consequences of Proposed Actions			4.12-1
4.12.3	Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions			4.12-1
4.13	Comparison of Environmental Consequences			4.13-1

Section 5 FIVE - Public Participation Process				5-1

Section 6 SIX -	References						6-1
6.1	Description of Proposed Actions and Alternatives (Section 2.0)	6-1
6.2	Geology, Seismicity, and Soils (Section 3.1)			6-1
6.3	Air Quality (Section 3.2)					6-3
6.4	Water Resources (Section 3.3)					6-4
6.5	Biological Resources (Section 3.4)				6-4
6.6	Cultural Resources (Section 3.5)				6-4
6.7	Socioeconomics and Public Safety (Section 3.6)			6-4
6.8	Land Use and Planning (Section 3.7)				6-4
6.9	Public Services and Recreation (Section 3.8)			6-4
6.10	Noise (Section 3.10)						6-5
6.11	Hazardous Materials (Section 3.11)				6-5
6.12	Visual Resources						6-6

Tables
3.1-1 	Geologic Hazards
3.1-2 	Notable California Earthquakes
3.1-3 	Explanation of Selected Soil Taxonomic Terms
3.2-1	Emission Thresholds That Trigger Applicability of the General Conformity Rule in Tons 
per Year Based on Air Quality Attainment Designation in California
3.2-2 	State and Federal Ambient Air Quality Standards
3.2-3 	North Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-4 	San Francisco Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-5 	North Central Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-6 	South Central Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-7 	South Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-8 	San Diego Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-9 	Northeast Plateau Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-10 	Sacramento Valley Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-11 	San Joaquin Valley Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-12 	Great Basin Valley Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-13 	Mojave Desert Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-14 	Salton Sea Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-15 	Mountain Counties Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-16 	Lake County Air Basin Attainment Status
3.2-17 	Lake Tahoe Air Basin Attainment Status
3.3-1 	California Wild and Scenic Rivers
3.3-2 	California Watershed Hydrologic Areas
3.5-1 	Summary Descriptions of Cultural Resources Sites in California
3.6-1 	State and County Demographics
3.10-1 	Population Density and Average Day-Night Noise Levels Correlation
3.10-2 	Estimating Existing Noise Exposure
3.11-1 	California Asbestos NESHAP Air Pollution Control Districts
4-1 	Typical Construction BMPs
4-2	Impact Matrix of Actions and Alternatives by Resource Area

Figures
3.1-1 	California Geomorphic Provinces
3.1-2 	California Ecological Subregions
3.2-1 	California Air Basins
3.2-2 	California Air Districts
3.2-3 	California Counties
3.2-4 	South Coast Air Basin
3.3-1 	California Watersheds
3.3-2 	California Groundwater Basins

Appendices
A	Example of a Memorandum for an Action Where the PEA Is the Only Documentation 
	Necessary to Comply with NEPA

B	Example of a Supplemental Environmental Assessment

C	Memorandum of Understanding with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

D	Agreement Regarding Section 7 Consultation on the Endangered Species Act When the 
	U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Serves as Lead Agency

E	Programmatic Biological Opinion / Programmatic Incidental Take Statement for FEMA-
	1155-DR-CA

F	Programmatic Biological Assessment for the National Marine Fisheries Service

G	National Marine Fisheries Service Concurrence Letter

H	Programmatic Agreement with the California State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) 
	for Future Declared Disasters

I	List of Agencies to Receive Copies of Draft and Final Programmatic Environmental 
	Assessments

J	Comment Letters on the Draft PEA

K	Cumulative Public Notice Published for the FEMA 1203-DR-CA Disaster

Acronyms
F		Fahrenheit
ACHP		Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
ACCM		asbestos-containing construction material
ACM		asbestos-containing material
A-P Act		Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act
APCD		Air Pollution Control District 
AQMD		Air Quality Management District
AST		aboveground storage tank
BACT		best available control technology
BFE		base flood elevation
BLM		Bureau of Land Management
BMPs		Best Management Practices
CAA		Clean Air Act
CAAQS		California Ambient Air Quality Standards 
Caltrans	California Department of Transportation
CARA		California River Assessment
CARB		California Air Resources Board
CBC		California Building Code
CCAA		California Clean Air Act 
CCR		California Code of Regulations
CDF		California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection
CDFG		California Department of Fish and Game
CEPA		California Environmental Protection Agency
CEQ		Council on Environmental Quality
CEQA		California Environmental Quality Act
CERCLA		Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CESA		California Endangered Species Act
CFR		Code of Federal Regulations
CNEL		community noise equivalent level
CO		carbon monoxide
CTC		California Transportation Commission
CVP		Central Valley Project
CWA		Clean Water Act
DBA		a-weighted decibel(s)
DNL(Ldn)	day-night averaged sound level
EA		Environmental Assessment
EFH		Essential Fish Habitat
EIS		Environmental Impact Statement
EO		Executive Order
ESA		(federal) Endangered Species Act
FEMA		Federal Emergency Management Agency
FIRM		Flood Insurance Rate Map
FONSI		Finding of No Significant Impact
GCR		General Conformity Rule
HUD		Department of Housing and Urban Development
LBP		lead-based paint
Leq		equivalent sound level
MAF		million acre-feet
Mph		mile(s) per hour
NAAQS		National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NEHRP		National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program
NEPA		National Environmental Policy Act
NESHAP		National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NFIP		National Flood Insurance Program
NHPA		National Historic Preservation Act
NOAA Fisheries	National Marine Fisheries Service
NO2		nitrogen dioxide
NOx		nitrogen oxides
NPDES		National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NPS		National Park Service
NRCS		Natural Resources Conservation Service 
NRHP		National Register of Historic Places
NSR		New Source Review
O3		ozone
OES		California Office of Emergency Services
OPR		California Governor's Office of Planning and Research
PA		Programmatic Agreement
PBO		Programmatic Biological Opinion
PCBs		polychlorinated biphenyls
PEA		Programmatic Environmental Assessment
PG&E		Pacific Gas and Electric
PITS		Programmatic Incidental Take Statement
PL		Public Law
PM10		particulate matter smaller than 10 microns in diameter
PM2.5		particulate matter smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter 
PRC		Public Resources Code
PSD		Prevention of Significant Deterioration
RACM		regulated asbestos containing material
RCRA		Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RWQCB		Regional Water Quality Control Board
SARA		Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SCE		Southern California Edison
SDG&E		San Diego Gas and Electric
SEA		Supplemental Environmental Assessment
SFHA		Special Flood Hazard Area
SHPO		State Historic Preservation Officer
SIP		State Implementation Plan
SMUD		Sacramento Municipal Utility District
SO2		sulfur dioxide
SWP		State Water Project
SWRCB		State Water Resources Control Board
TSCA		Toxic Substances Control Act
UBC		Uniform Building Code
URARPAPA	Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisitions Policies Act of 1970
USACE		U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USC		United States Code
USEPA		U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
USFS		U.S. Forest Service
USFWS		U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
UST		underground storage tank
VOCs		volatile organic compounds
WDRs		Waste Discharge Requirements

1. Section 1 ONE	Introduction
1.1 DISASTER PROGRAMS
1.1.1 Overview
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) administers federal programs for 
response to, recovery from, and preparation for disasters. Disasters can result from natural 
events, such as floods, earthquakes, wildland fires, rains, and windstorms, or human-caused 
events, such as fires and explosions. FEMA administers these programs under the following 
authorities:
* The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law (PL) 
93-288, as amended (the Stafford Act), authorizes FEMA to administer response, recovery, and 
mitigation programs. The Stafford Act was amended by the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, PL 
106-390. The Stafford Act includes the following FEMA programs: the Public Assistance 
Program; the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, pre-disaster mitigation programs, the Fire 
Management Assistance Grant Program, and the Assistance for Individuals and Households 
Program. The implementing regulations for these programs are found in Title 44, Code of 
Federal Regulations (CFR), Parts 204 and 206.
* The National Flood Insurance Act, as amended, PL 90-448, and the Flood Disaster Protection 
Act, PL 93-234, authorize FEMA to administer programs for mapping flood hazards, providing 
flood insurance, and providing flood mitigation assistance. Implementing regulations for these 
programs are found in 44 CFR Parts 59-78.
Typical actions taken under these authorities are described below.

1.1.2 Response
In response to disasters, FEMA is authorized under the Stafford Act to provide state and local 
governments with the assistance that is essential to respond to immediate threats to life, public 
health and safety, and property. Response activities include emergency protective measures to 
save lives, protect public health and safety, and protect improved property. These actions may be 
undertaken directly by federal agencies or state and local agencies, with FEMA providing 
funding for extraordinary costs. 

1.1.3 Recovery
Under the Stafford Act, FEMA may provide funds to repair, restore, or replace disaster-damaged 
public facilities as well as facilities owned by certain private nonprofit organizations. Eligible 
facilities include:
* Roads and associated features, such as lighting, curbs, and sidewalks
* Bridges, culverts, and associated features, such as abutments, headwalls, and erosion protection
* Water control facilities, such as embankments, retention basins, and canals 
* Buildings and equipment
* Utilities, such as water and sewer lines and electrical distribution facilities
* Mass transit facilities
* Parks and recreational facilities

Often, the entity applying for assistance (referred to as the "subgrantee") wishes to take 
advantage of the opportunity presented by the necessary repair of a disaster-damaged facility to 
make improvements to, or change the design of, the facility. These actions are referred to as 
"improved projects." In other cases, the subgrantee determines that the public welfare would not 
be best served by restoring a damaged facility or the function of the facility. Funds originally 
available for the restoration of the damaged facility may be made available for the expansion or 
construction of other selected facilities, the purchase of capital equipment, or the funding of 
hazard mitigation measures. Such actions are referred to as "alternate projects."

1.1.4 Prevention and Mitigation
The Stafford Act, the National Flood Insurance Act, and the Flood Disaster Protection Act 
authorize FEMA to provide assistance with actions that reduce or eliminate threats to public 
health and safety and the risk of damage to public and private property during future disasters. 
FEMA may provide funds for mitigation measures applied to a specific facility, such as elevating 
a flood-prone building above flood elevation or reducing risks to the community at large through 
such measures as vegetation management to reduce the risk of wildfire. FEMA may also provide 
funds for the relocation or acquisition of facilities located in areas of hazard, such as floodplains, 
where repetitive damage is likely to occur. 

Under the National Flood Insurance Act and the Flood Disaster Protection Act, FEMA 
administers a nationwide program for the sale of flood insurance. Under this program, called the 
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), the federal government makes available affordable 
flood insurance to participating communities if those communities agree to adopt certain 
minimum standards for the management of floodplains. In support of the NFIP, FEMA publishes 
and maintains Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs), which depict flood hazards. Communities 
use these maps for floodplain management, and the lending and insurance industries use the 
maps for insurance purposes. FEMA revises these maps periodically as conditions affecting 
floodplains change. 

1.2 REGULATORY BACKGROUND
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) and the Council on Environmental 
Quality (CEQ) regulations implementing NEPA (40 CFR Parts 1500 through 1508) direct FEMA 
and other federal agencies to fully understand and take into consideration during decision 
making the environmental consequences of proposed federal actions (also referred to as 
projects). FEMA's regulations for NEPA compliance are described in 44 CFR Part 10. They 
specify that FEMA must comply with NEPA before making federal funds available for disaster 
response, recovery, and mitigation. Under these regulations, FEMA must use a systematic, 
interdisciplinary process that includes public involvement to evaluate the impacts of its actions 
on the environment. 

The Stafford Act and FEMA's implementing regulations for NEPA provide for the exemption of 
certain actions from NEPA and the exclusion of other actions from full review under NEPA (as 
described in Section 1.4). For all other actions, FEMA ensures compliance with NEPA through 
the preparation of Environmental Assessments (EAs). The EA is a concise public document that 
serves to provide evidence of the environmental impacts of a proposed action. The assessment 
includes alternatives to aid in decision making and concludes with one of two findings: a Finding 
of No Significant Impact (FONSI) or a Notice of Intent to prepare an Environmental Impact 
Statement (EIS). FEMA must prepare an EIS when significant environmental impacts are 
anticipated and cannot be mitigated.

1.3 THE PROGRAMMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
FEMA has determined through experience that the majority of the typical recurring actions 
proposed for funding, and for which an EA is required, can be grouped by type of action or 
location. These groups of actions can be evaluated in a Programmatic Environmental Assessment 
(PEA) for compliance with NEPA and its implementing regulations without the need to develop 
and produce a time-consuming, stand-alone EA for every action.

This PEA evaluates typical recurring actions undertaken by FEMA within the State of California 
in preparation for, and in the wake of, disasters. The purpose of this document is to facilitate 
FEMA's compliance with NEPA by providing a framework to address the impacts of actions 
typically funded in response to flood, earthquake, fire, rain, and wind disasters and to prevent 
future disasters resulting from these types of events. 

This PEA also provides the public and decision-makers with the information required to 
understand and evaluate the potential environmental consequences of these actions. In addition 
to meeting the goals of impact identification and disclosure, this PEA addresses the need to 
streamline the NEPA review process in the interest of FEMA's primary mission of disaster 
response, recovery, and mitigation.

This PEA applies immediately to all actions described in Section 2 of this document that have 
been proposed for FEMA funding under all open declared flood, earthquake, fire, rain, and wind 
disasters in California. Open declared disasters are defined as disasters for which FEMA is still 
providing federal assistance under the Stafford Act. This PEA also applies, at FEMA's 
discretion, to subsequent disasters to be declared by the president. FEMA would notify the 
participating interested public and government parties and agencies of the applicability of this 
PEA to subsequent disasters.

The analysis in this PEA has relied on FEMA's historical experience with action typology, 
description, and consequences, as described in environmental documents from 1994 to 2002. The 
analysis in this PEA is also based on a review of scientific literature, consultation with regulatory 
agencies, and expert opinion. A FONSI will be prepared for the proposed actions described and 
assessed in this PEA. 

When FEMA has determined that an EA is required for a specific action, FEMA will use this 
PEA to determine if more site-specific information is available and what level of environmental 
analysis and documentation is required for the action to comply with NEPA. If the alternatives, 
levels of analysis, and site-specific information of an action proposed for FEMA funding are 
fully and accurately described in this PEA, FEMA would prepare a memorandum documenting 
this determination. This memorandum would state that FEMA has reviewed the proposed action, 
alternatives, potential impacts, and mitigation and found them to be fully and accurately 
described by this PEA and the PEA FONSI. Therefore, no further documentation would be 
required to comply with NEPA. The memorandum would also state that cumulative impacts (as 
described below) would not occur from the proposed action and alternatives. Because FEMA and 
the subgrantee would be required to implement the mitigation measures contained in the PEA, 
the memorandum would summarize the mitigation measures to be undertaken for the action and 
alternatives. A sample memorandum is provided as Appendix A.

If the specific action is expected to (1) create impacts not described in the PEA; (2) create 
impacts greater in magnitude, extent, or duration than those described in the PEA; or (3) require 
mitigation measures to keep impacts below significant levels that are not described in the PEA, 
then a Supplemental Environmental Assessment (SEA) and corresponding FONSI would be 
prepared to address the specific action. The SEA would be tiered from this PEA, in accordance 
with 40 CFR Part 1508.28.1 A sample SEA is presented in Appendix B.

If, during the preparation of the SEA, it is determined that a more detailed environmental review 
is required or that the specific action is really a poor fit for the typology described in the PEA, 
rather than trying to develop an SEA, it would be more effective to revert to the standard EA or 
EIS process, as required by NEPA and associated federal, state, tribal, and local statutes. 
Cumulative impacts are defined as environmental effects that are greater in magnitude, extent, or 
duration than the direct and indirect effects of the proposed FEMA-associated action when 
combined with the effects of other current and future actions, regardless of the proponent. For 
example, cumulative impacts could occur to wildlife habitat if a FEMA-funded action to create a 
fuel-break for a municipality were to occur in the same vicinity and time frame as a prescribed 
burn undertaken by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS). Individually, these vegetation management 
actions might allow sufficient habitat for displaced species, but the loss of habitat in both areas 
could substantially affect wildlife. Similarly, cumulative impacts could occur to hydrology in the 
case of a FEMA-funded action to widen and harden a waterway upstream from a site where a 
private entity plans to install a culvert. In this case, each separate action might have negligible 
effects on a bridge downstream, but the combination of the actions could cause the bridge to be 
overtopped. Cumulative impacts are not addressed in this PEA because analysis of these impacts 
requires specific knowledge of other actions occurring or proposed to occur within or near the 
study area. This information cannot be determined because the study area for this PEA is 
statewide, and the list of current and future actions that could cause cumulative impacts with 
FEMA-associated actions is infinite. Cumulative impacts will be considered when determining 
the compatibility of this PEA for specific actions. If cumulative impacts would be created, these 
impacts will be considered in an SEA. If no cumulative impacts would be created and the 
specific action is found to be fully and accurately described in this PEA and PEA FONSI, a 
prepared memorandum (discussed above) would state that cumulative impacts would not occur 
from the proposed actions.

A description of proposed actions and alternatives is provided in Section 2 (Description of 
Proposed Actions and Alternatives).

1.4 ACTIONS NOT COVERED BY THIS PROGRAMMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
This PEA does not cover any action that meets the criteria for a statutory exclusion, described in 
44 CFR 10.8(c), or a categorical exclusion, described in 44 CFR 10.8(d). Also, the PEA does not 
cover any action that requires a stand-alone EA or EIS. Descriptions of such actions are 
explained below.

1.4.1 Statutory Exclusions
Section 316 of the Stafford Act exempts certain actions from review under NEPA. As listed in 
44 CFR 10.8(c), these statutory exclusions include:
* Debris removal
* Emergency protective measures or other assistance essential to saving lives, protecting public 
health and safety, and protecting property
* Repair, restoration, or replacement actions that do not substantially alter the location, footprint, 
function, or size of the original facility

Improved and alternate actions, described in Section 1.1.3, and mitigation actions, described in 
Section 1.1.4, do not qualify as statutory exclusions.
Even though an action may be statutorily excluded from NEPA, FEMA must still ensure that it 
complies with other applicable laws and regulations, such as the Endangered Species Act (ESA). 
However, if FEMA chooses to prepare an EA for this action, the PEA may be applicable.

1.4.2 Categorical Exclusions
The CEQ regulations provide for the categorical exclusion of actions that do not individually or 
cumulatively have a significant impact on the human environment. Neither an EA nor an EIS is 
required for these actions. FEMA's has identified 19 categorical exclusions, which are described 
in 44 CFR 10.8(d)(2). Examples of these categorical exclusions include the following:
* Acquisition of properties, and associated demolition or removal of structures, in situations 
where the resulting sites will remain as open space
* Planting of indigenous vegetation
* Physical relocation of individual structures where FEMA has no involvement in relocation site 
selection or development
* Restoration or retrofit of a facility in a manner that substantially conforms to the predisaster 
design, function, and location of the facility
* Improvements to existing facilities and construction of small-scale mitigation measures in 
previously developed or disturbed areas with substantially completed infrastructure when those 
actions do not alter basic functions, exceed the capacity of, or modify the intended land use of 
the existing facility

Certain actions that would otherwise be categorically excluded may be affected by extraordinary 
circumstances, as described in 44 CFR 10.8(d)(3), such as the presence of endangered species or 
the presence of archaeological or historical resources. In such cases, the categorical exclusion 
may not apply, resulting in the need to prepare an EA. The PEA may be applicable to such 
actions.

1.4.3 Actions Requiring an Environmental Assessment Instead of a Programmatic Environmental 
Assessment
The PEA does not apply to actions:
* That do not fall within one of the types of actions described in Section 2
* For which the analysis of impacts of alternatives presented in Section 4 is not applicable or 
comprehensive

In such cases, a separate, stand-alone EA must be prepared.

1.4.4 Actions Requiring an Environmental Impact Statement
If FEMA has previously determined that an EIS-level of review is required for an action, that 
action would not be considered in this PEA. If, in preparing an SEA or a separate EA, FEMA 
reaches the conclusion that the action has the potential to result in a significant environmental 
impact that cannot be mitigated such that a FONSI cannot be issued, FEMA must issue a Notice 
of Intent to Prepare an Environmental Impact Statement.

1.5 ACTIONS COVERED BY THE PROGRAMMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
The PEA covers the following types of actions:
* Constructing, modifying, or relocating buildings and infrastructure (actions include 
construction of temporary facilities, restoration of disaster-damaged facilities, and mitigation 
actions)
* Modifying waterways, waterway crossings, and coastal features (category also includes 
temporary facilities, restored facilities, and mitigation measures)
* Vegetation management to reduce the risk of damage from flooding and from wildland fires
Specific types of actions are described in Section 2.

1.6 PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR ACTION
FEMA's objectives are to:
* Reduce or eliminate immediate threats to life, public health and safety, and improved property 
resulting from major disasters or emergencies
* Repair, restore, or replace public facilities damaged in such events
* Reduce or eliminate the risk of future damage or loss associated with such events
Without FEMA action, the following would likely result:
* The threat of immediate harm or loss to individuals, families, communities, and properties 
would not be alleviated.
* Government agencies and private nonprofit organizations would not have the resources to 
restore essential public services or to restore, repair, or replace damaged facilities. 
* Communities would not have the resources to reduce the risk of repetitive damage from future 
events. Facilities would not be retrofitted to resist future damage; homes, businesses, and public 
buildings would not be relocated out of high-hazard areas; and threats from hazards such as 
flooding and wildfire would not be reduced through mitigation actions.

1.7 CALIFORNIA ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT AND APPLICABLE PERMITS
FEMA is responsible for ensuring that its actions comply with all applicable federal laws and 
regulations. However, in accepting assistance from FEMA, state and local governments as well 
as private nonprofit organizations must ensure that their actions also comply with applicable 
state and local laws. It is the subgrantee's responsibility to ensure that an action meets the 
requirements of the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) and to obtain additional 
permits as applicable. For example, for an action that includes work in a stream channel, the 
subgrantee is responsible for obtaining a streambed alteration permit from the California 
Department of Fish and Game (CDFG).

Under the CEQ regulations (40 CFR 1500.4), federal agencies must reduce excessive paperwork 
when complying with NEPA. Methods to attain this goal include incorporating material by 
reference, integrating NEPA requirements with other environmental review and consultation 
requirements, and eliminating duplication with state and local documents by preparing joint 
documents. Therefore, FEMA and subgrantees may cooperate to incorporate NEPA and CEQA 
documents by reference and prepare joint documents whenever practicable. In many cases, this 
cooperation consists of the subgrantee referencing the PEA in the CEQA document, as 
appropriate, and adding action-specific information and impact analysis. FEMA then completely 
references the CEQA document and all other relevant environmental studies in preparing the 
SEA. In some instances, the CEQA document and the SEA could be combined into a joint 
federal-state SEA.

1.8 USING THE PROGRAMMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
1.8.1 Organization of the Programmatic Environmental Assessment
This PEA is organized into the following sections:
* Section 2 describes the actions that are covered by the PEA.
* Section 3 describes the affected environment that provides a basis for measuring the impacts of 
actions. 
* Section 4 describes the potential environmental consequences of implementing actions and also 
provides an Impact Summary Matrix, which allows for convenient comparison of actions.
* Section 5 describes the process of public participation and agency coordination in the 
preparation of this PEA and for its future use.
* Section 6 provides the list of references.

In addition to the main text, the PEA includes appendices that provide a sample PEA compliance 
memorandum, a sample SEA, responses from federal and state agencies, and programmatic 
agreements.

1.8.2 Use of the Programmatic Environmental Assessment
The PEA covers the actions and alternatives described in Section 2. As stated above, FEMA will 
prepare stand-alone EAs for proposed actions and alternatives that cannot be categorized among 
those described in that section. As stated in Section 1.3, a specific proposed action fully 
described and assessed in this PEA and the FONSI to this PEA would only require a 
memorandum regarding the proposed action to comply with NEPA (Appendix A). This PEA will 
also serve as a general document for SEAs and their corresponding FONSIs to tier from a 
specific action to comply with NEPA. Actions that have been determined, during the preparation 
of the SEA, to require a more detailed or broader environmental review will be subject to a 
standard stand-alone EA or an EIS, as required by NEPA. A sample SEA is provided in 
Appendix B.

1.8.3 Other Complementary Programmatic Documents
FEMA has executed and is in the process of preparing additional programmatic documents and 
interagency coordination that support the material contained in this PEA. The following provides 
a brief summary of these documents and their implementation.
* Memorandum of Understanding with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS): As 
described in more detail in Section 3.4.1.1 of this PEA, Section 7 of the ESA requires FEMA to 
consult with the USFWS before implementing or funding any action that may affect threatened 
or endangered species under the jurisdiction of the USFWS. To consolidate and streamline the 
Section 7 consultation process, FEMA and the USFWS have executed a Memorandum of 
Understanding that establishes a framework for consultation between FEMA and the USFWS 
(Appendix C).
* Programmatic Consultation with the USFWS: FEMA is in the process of conducting 
Programmatic Consultation with the USFWS for future disasters throughout California. FEMA 
anticipates that the Programmatic Consultation it is now conducting with the USFWS will result 
in a Programmatic Biological Opinion (PBO) and a Programmatic Incidental Take Statement 
(PITS) for all future flood, earthquake, fire, rain, and wind disasters in California. Details of the 
Programmatic Consultation process with the USFWS are provided in Section 3.4.1.1.
* Programmatic Consultation with National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA Fisheries): As 
described in more detail in Section 3.4.1.1 of this PEA, Section 7 of the ESA requires FEMA to 
consult with NOAA Fisheries before implementing or funding any action that may affect 
threatened or endangered species under the jurisdiction of NOAA Fisheries. FEMA has 
conducted this Programmatic Consultation through an informal consultation process with NOAA 
Fisheries for future disasters throughout California. FEMA submitted a Programmatic Biological 
Assessment to NOAA Fisheries on August 28, 2003 for all future flood, earthquake, fire, rain, 
and wind disasters in California. NOAA Fisheries replied to this submission by issuing a letter of 
concurrence on October 14, 2003. Details of the Programmatic Consultation process with NOAA 
Fisheries are provided in Section 3.4.1.1.
* Agreement regarding Section 7 consultation on the ESA when the U.S. Army Corps of 
Engineers (USACE) serves as lead agency: Under the Public Assistance Program, situations 
exist where the estimated cost of the work is less than the amount specified for the fiscal year 
under 44 CFR 206.203 and published in the Federal Register.2 The subgrantee is often 
responsible for preparing the application for FEMA grant funding. In some of these situations, a 
permit may be required or may have been applied for by the subgrantee under Section 404 of the 
Clean Water Act (CWA) and FEMA, due to the nature of the grant application process for these 
low-cost projects, is not able to review the action for its compliance or applicability to NEPA. In 
these situations, the USACE has agreed to be the federal agency responsible for complying with 
Section 7 of the ESA and the agency that conducts Section 7 consultation for such actions. A 
copy of this agreement is provided as Appendix D.
* Programmatic Agreement (PA) with the California State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO): 
As described in more detail in Section 3.5.1.1 of this PEA, FEMA is required to comply with 
Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) before implementing or funding 
any action that may affect properties included in or eligible for inclusion in the National Register 
of Historic Places (NRHP). To streamline the Section 106 review process, FEMA, the SHPO, the 
California Office of Emergency Services (OES), and the Advisory Council on Historic 
Preservation (ACHP) have executed a disaster-specific PA for each recent disaster in California. 
In December 2003, these parties executed a PA for future disasters in California. Details of the 
PAs are provided in Section 3.5.1.1. 

2. Section 2 TWO - Description of Proposed Actions and Alternatives
This section describes typical actions, including the No Action Alternative, undertaken by 
FEMA in response to or in preparation for flood, fire, wind, rain, and earthquake disasters. Any 
action, including the No Action Alternative, has the potential to be the preferred alternative (that 
is, the proposed action) or an alternative to the proposed action for a specific project being 
funded by FEMA. The funding level for a specific action or alternative varies in accordance with 
the circumstances associated with that action or alternative, such as program requirements, 
location, and other circumstances and contingencies. Actions are described independently of the 
source or amount of funding. In addition, actions may be reviewed separately unless a physical 
or functional interdependency exists.

All actions considered in this PEA assume that FEMA action is:
* Required as a result of a major disaster declaration and is administered in accordance with the 
Stafford Act and its implementing regulations in 44 CFR Part 206, or
* Funded under FEMA's authorities for floodplain management in accordance with the National 
Flood Insurance Act and the Flood Disaster Protection Act and their implementing regulations in 
44 CFR Parts 59-78.

Several of the actions described in the following sections could be eligible for one of more 
categorical exclusions. As discussed in Section 1.4.2 of this PEA, actions that would normally be 
categorically excluded from NEPA review may have extraordinary circumstances that require an 
advanced analysis of impacts in the form of an EA. The evaluation of such actions in the PEA 
may be appropriate. Further, actions that may appear to be eligible for one or more categorical 
exclusions may involve improvements or other additional actions that would also require 
analysis in an EA. The PEA may also be applicable to these actions. Nonetheless, actions eligible 
for categorical exclusions (as described in 44 CFR 10.8[d][2]) should be categorically excluded; 
the listing of such actions below should not imply that a PEA is always necessary for these 
actions.

Some actions require federal, state, or local permits or coordination. It may be necessary for 
FEMA to coordinate with the following federal and state agencies when conducting 
environmental review:
* USACE
* State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB)
* USFWS
* NOAA Fisheries
* CDFG
* State Lands Commission
* California Air Resources Board (CARB) and/or the applicable regional air quality jurisdictions

The agencies that FEMA or the subgrantee would need to coordinate with would vary depending 
on the particular action and the specific affected resources at the site where the action would 
occur. Some of the actions covered by this PEA and described below typically require 
coordination with certain agencies. In the description of the proposed actions and alternatives 
below, this typical coordination activity, when applicable, is discussed.

2.1 NO ACTION ALTERNATIVE
Inclusion of a No Action Alternative in the environmental analysis and documentation is 
required under NEPA and is defined as maintaining the status quo, with no FEMA funding for 
any alternative action. This alternative evaluates the effects of not providing eligible assistance 
for a specific action and provides a benchmark against which the alternative actions may be 
evaluated.

Although FEMA would not fund any action under this alternative, it is assumed for the purposes 
of this PEA that disaster-damaged facilities would be repaired or otherwise restored to pre-
disaster conditions with other public or private funds, including insurance payments. It is also 
assumed that no work would be undertaken on disaster-damaged facilities except for restoration 
to pre-disaster conditions. Damaged facilities would not be improved, and hazards would remain 
unmitigated at the disaster-damaged site. Further, no hazard mitigation measures would be 
undertaken to proactively reduce or prevent disaster damage from occurring in the future.

2.2 NONEMERGENCY DEBRIS REMOVAL 
Debris removal that is necessary to reduce or eliminate an immediate threat to life, public health 
and safety, or property is statutorily excluded from the NEPA process by the Stafford Act. 
However, nonemergency situations, such as in the restoration of facilities, occur where debris 
removal is necessary. The statutory exclusion does not apply in such situations. For purposes of 
this document, debris removal performed in these situations is referred to as "nonemergency 
debris removal."

Nonemergency debris removal under this alternative includes: 
* Removal of rock, silt, sediment, or woody debris that has been deposited by floodwaters in 
stream channels, bridge and culvert openings, canals, sedimentation basins, sewage treatment 
ponds, ditches, and other facilities in such a manner as to disrupt normal flows, navigation, 
recreation, or municipal services 
* Removal of woody debris from public areas or facilities after wind or fire events that damage 
or destroy trees
* Removal of rock and earth from public areas or facilities after landslides caused by 
earthquakes or heavy rains
* Removal of building rubble from public areas or facilities after earthquakes
Removal of material from stream channels usually requires a streambed alteration permit from 
the CDFG and coordination with the USACE for compliance and permitting under the CWA. All 
removed debris would be disposed of at approved and licensed disposal sites, in compliance with 
existing laws and regulations. Any hazardous materials or other contaminants would be removed 
and disposed of in an appropriate manner. Woody debris and construction materials can be 
recycled, if recycling facilities exist.

2.3 CONSTRUCTING, MODIFYING, OR RELOCATING FACILITIES
Under 44 CFR 206, FEMA is authorized to provide funds for constructing, modifying, or 
relocating facilities. Relevant action categories are as follows:
* Upgrading or otherwise modifying buildings
* Providing temporary facilities
* Acquiring and demolishing existing facilities 
* Repairing, realigning, or otherwise modifying roads, trails, utilities, and rail lines
* Constructing new facilities or relocating existing facilities
* Relocating the function of an existing facility
* Extending the pressurized water service area
* Developing demonstration projects
Actions involving facilities associated with watercourses or coastal features are described in 
Section 2.4.

2.3.1 Upgrading or Otherwise Modifying Buildings
Under this action, FEMA would provide funds to implement changes required by current 
building codes and standards or otherwise modify existing buildings. Often, these changes have 
the effect of making the structure more resistant to damage in future events. Typical activities 
include:
* Making buildings more fire resistant (e.g., by replacing roofs and doors with fire-resistant 
materials) or safer during fires (e.g., by installing sprinkler and alarm systems)
* Installing bracing, shear panels, shear walls, anchors, or other features so that buildings are 
better able to withstand earthquake shaking or high wind loads
* Modifying buildings to reduce the risk of damage during floods by elevating structures above 
the expected flood level or by floodproofing
* Modifying buildings to meet another need of a subgrantee, such as with an improved action or 
an alternate action

If a building is located in an identified floodplain and is substantially damaged, the NFIP 
requires that the building be elevated so that the lowest floor is at or above the base (100-year) 
flood elevation. Newly constructed buildings, such as those built to replace destroyed facilities 
must also meet this requirement, if located in floodplains. Structures can be elevated on extended 
foundation walls, piers, posts, columns, or compacted fill. All materials used below the base 
flood elevation must be flood resistant. Utilities, such as exterior compressors, must also be 
elevated above the base flood elevation.

A building can also be floodproofed so that floodwaters can encounter it without causing damage 
to the structure or its contents. "Dry floodproofing" methods involve the installation of flood 
shields, water-tight doors and windows, earthen barriers, and pumping systems to prevent water 
from entering the structure. "Wet floodproofing" involves the installation of vents and flood-
resistant materials so that water may enter and leave areas of the structure without causing 
damage. With both dry and wet floodproofing, utilities are modified, elevated, or relocated to 
prevent floodwaters from accumulating within them.

Buildings may also be upgraded to meet codes unrelated to damage from natural hazards, such as 
upgrades required by changes in capacity or function and upgrades necessary to meet the 
requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act.

2.3.2 Providing Temporary Facilities
FEMA may provide temporary group housing sites when a disaster renders homes uninhabitable 
for long periods. Such sites are typically constructed using travel trailers or manufactured 
housing. Temporary housing that is located in a previously disturbed area and in an area of 
compatible residential use is categorically excluded from NEPA and, therefore, not covered in 
this PEA. However, temporary housing located on land not previously disturbed and/or not in a 
compatible residential area is evaluated in the PEA. Typical activities include:
* Developing the pads for dwellings
* Constructing ancillary facilities, such as roads, streets, and parking lots
* Installing utilities, such as potable water lines, sewer hookups, electricity (including proper 
street lighting), and telephones lines

This action would be implemented if other housing options, such as vacancies in hotel rooms or 
availability of rental units, are not feasible. Appropriate sites are not to be located in a floodplain, 
contain wetlands or critical habitat, affect historic properties or archaeological sites, or contain 
hazardous materials. Installation of housing units and utilities is accomplished in accordance 
with current codes and standards. After temporary housing is no longer needed at the disaster 
site, the temporary housing units and associated ancillary facilities are removed by FEMA and 
the land is restored to its original use. All removed materials would be stored for future use or 
disposed of in accordance with applicable laws and regulations.

FEMA may also provide funding for temporary relocation of essential public services, in the 
event that the structures housing those services are damaged, destroyed, or otherwise rendered 
inaccessible by a disaster. In most cases, the lease or purchase of facilities is eligible; however, 
construction of new facilities may be eligible if this action is cost-effective. Funds are also 
provided for the upgrades necessary to meet current codes and standards and the installation or 
modification of appurtenances necessary to operate facilities, such as utilities. 

2.3.3 Acquiring and Demolishing Existing Facilities
FEMA may provide funds for the acquisition and demolition of existing facilities if they are 
located in high-hazard areas and are subject to repetitive loss. Typically, these facilities are at a 
high risk because of (1) damage from flooding; (2) erosion of stream banks, beaches, slopes, or 
bluffs; (3) landslides; or (4) wildfire. These facilities may consist of private properties, such as 
houses and commercial buildings, or publicly owned facilities, such as utilities, roads, and 
bridges. A local government entity purchases private properties on a willing-seller basis, and 
once the property has been purchased, the property will be dedicated and maintained in 
perpetuity for uses compatible with open space, recreational, or wetlands management practices, 
pursuant to 44 CFR 206.434(d)

Existing facilities are either removed or demolished. All demolition materials are disposed of at 
approved and licensed disposal sites, in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Any 
hazardous materials or other contaminants are removed and disposed of in an appropriate 
manner. Construction debris and household materials may be recycled, if recycling facilities 
exist. Once structures are removed, lots are graded to conform to the local topography and 
disturbed areas are revegetated with species approved for the local area. Frequently, the local 
government will develop the acquired land for recreational or open-space uses, such as parks, 
athletic fields, or walking and bike trails.

2.3.4 Repairing, Realigning, or Otherwise Modifying Roads, Trails, Utilities, and Rail Lines
Roads, trails, utilities, and rail lines are typically damaged when floods or heavy rains cause 
erosion, subsidence, or landslides. Earthquakes may cause similar damage. Repairs are 
accomplished by replacing earthen material lost during the disaster and replacing the damaged 
surface, utility line, or, in the case of rail lines, ballast and track. It may be necessary to stabilize 
the replacement fill using rock, grout, timber walls, or steel sheet piling. Hazard mitigation 
measures may be installed to prevent future damage. For example, a pipe may be installed to 
convey drainage beneath a road, thus preventing future washouts, or a utility line may be encased 
in concrete in an area vulnerable to erosion.

If the area of damage is unstable, does not allow for repair, or is subject to repetitive loss, a 
facility may be realigned so that the area of damage is avoided. Property acquisition or a change 
in easement may be necessary.

Facilities may also be modified as part of improved actions or alternate actions to meet 
additional needs of the subgrantee.

2.3.5 Constructing New Facilities or Relocating Existing Facilities
If a facility is located in a floodplain or other hazard area, is subject to repetitive damage, or has 
been damaged in such a way that restoration in the current location is not practical or cost-
effective, FEMA may fund the construction of a new facility or the physical relocation of the 
existing facility. Examples of this action include construction of buildings, roads, trails, utilities 
and utility lines, and rail lines in a different area from the existing facility. The physical 
relocation of existing facilities is only practical with buildings. In cases of both new facility 
construction and physical relocation, FEMA may fund the cost of land acquisition and the 
construction of appurtenant features, such as access roads and utilities. For properties in the 
hazard area, FEMA would acquire damaged properties, demolish existing structures (except in 
cases of physical relocation), and place deed restrictions that would limit future uses to open 
space in perpetuity.

New facilities (including buildings, roads, trails, utilities and utility lines, and rail lines) could 
also be constructed as improved actions or alternate actions to meet additional needs of the 
subgrantee.

2.3.6 Relocating the Function of an Existing Facility
Under this action, FEMA would fund the relocation of the function of a facility to an existing 
facility that has adequate capacity to handle the additional load with minor modifications, if any. 
For structures, the occupants and materials would be relocated to alternative structures, traffic 
would use alternate routes, and utility services would be provided by alternative methods. This 
action would not entail any major physical construction or addition to the existing facility and, if 
any work would be required, it would consist of only minor modifications. A typical example is 
transferring students from a damaged or floodprone school to a suitable existing school nearby, if 
feasible in terms of capacity and convenience for students, families, and teachers. For properties 
in the hazard area, FEMA would acquire damaged properties, demolish existing structures, and 
place deed restrictions that would limit future uses to open space in perpetuity.

2.3.7 Extending the Pressurized Water Service Area
As a means of preventing future damage during wildfires, FEMA may fund the extension of 
pressurized pipelines to a developed area that is prone to repetitive fire damage. Under this 
action, an existing, pressurized system is extended so that fire hydrants can be installed in the 
area where damage is likely to occur. Installation, which involves excavation, is typically 
completed within the road right-of-way.

2.3.8 Developing Demonstration Projects
Demonstration projects focus on public education and are designed to highlight procedures that 
can be employed by the public to reduce property damage during flood, fire, wind, and 
earthquake disasters. Potential demonstration projects would involve the development of a model 
facility to demonstrate how hazard mitigation technologies can be used to reduce the potential 
damage during a disaster. Flood demonstration projects would involve items such as elevating a 
structure or waterproofing windows and doors that are below the elevation of the 100-year flood 
event. A fire demonstration project would include vegetation management around a facility and 
replacing roofs, doors, and windows with fire-resistant materials. Wind and earthquake 
demonstration projects would include changes to the structural design of buildings to allow them 
to withstand higher wind velocity or more movement during an earthquake.

2.4 ACTIONS INVOLVING WATERCOURSES AND COASTAL FEATURES
Many actions pertain to inland water sources, such as streams, rivers, canyons, and lakes, and 
coastal features, such as harbors and beaches. Inland water sources may be perennial or may be 
dry during the summer months. During construction, Best Management Practices (BMPs) are 
normally employed to reduce soil erosion and prevent or reduce the amount of sediment entering 
the water source. Work in a stream channel may involve temporary diversion of the channel 
using sandbags or a cofferdam constructed of fill. Heavy equipment is typically operated from an 
adjacent road, bank, or other feature; however, in some cases, it may be necessary to operate 
equipment in a channel area once flow has been diverted. A pipe or a temporary secondary 
channel may be used to convey the diverted water. 

The PEA does not apply to flood control works in undeveloped areas or that directly or indirectly 
serve to protect undeveloped areas. Such an action would require preparation of an EA or an EIS.
If an action impacts a natural waterway, alters vegetation adjacent to a stream corridor, or 
impacts a floodplain, coordination with the USACE, CDFG, and SWRCB may be required. If the 
action affects a water source that supports anadromous fish species, such as salmon, coordination 
with the NOAA Fisheries is required. If the action involves channel modifications, changes to 
the capacity of bridges and culverts, or the installation of attenuation structures, it may be 
necessary to conduct hydraulic/hydrologic analyses to evaluate the potential effect of changes of 
downstream flow rates.

Relevant categories of actions are as follows:
* Repairing, stabilizing, or armoring embankments
* Creating, widening, clearing, or dredging a waterway
* Constructing or modifying a water crossing
* Constructing or modifying a water detention, retention, or storage facility
* Constructing or modifying other flood control structures
* Constructing or modifying a coastal feature

2.4.1 Repairing, Stabilizing, or Armoring Embankments
These actions would involve the repair of earthen or rock embankments damaged by 
floodwaters. Examples include natural stream banks (such as those in parks); road, trail, and rail 
line embankments; embankments for irrigation and navigation canals; and levees used for flood 
control and reclamation. In addition to repair of damaged features, FEMA may fund measures 
designed to prevent damage in future flood events.

In addition to replacing fill material, embankments may be stabilized or armored through:
* Placing of rock riprap
* Hardening with concrete or soil cement
* Installing retaining walls, gabions, or geotextile fabrics
* Using bioengineering techniques, such as planting vegetation, placing root wads, or placing 
willow bundles 
A combination of these techniques may be employed. For example, rock and geotextiles, when 
used with root wads and willow bundles, may provide mitigation from erosion while enhancing 
the natural values of a stream corridor.

2.4.2 Creating, Widening, Clearing, or Dredging a Waterway
These actions would be employed to reduce the flood hazard to adjacent lands, facilities, or 
populated areas.

New channels would be constructed to convey excess flows around flood-prone areas during 
flood events. Drainage swales, earthen channels, concrete channels, or subsurface concrete pipes 
can be used as a means of conveyance. The new channel would be constructed in a dry 
environment and connected to the stream after the channel has been completed. The channel may 
have an inlet weir higher than the elevation of the normal flow so that normal flows would 
remain in the natural channel. The outlet may be armored with concrete or rock riprap to prevent 
excessive erosion of the existing channel.

Existing channels would be widened to allow a channel to convey a larger volume of water. 
Conveyance may also be increased by replacing earthen banks or channel bottoms with concrete. 
To the extent possible, the construction would be conducted from the top of the bank, but many 
actions would require construction equipment to work in the stream channel. In perennially 
flowing streams, work in a stream channel would generally be restricted to the low-flow period, 
and the flow would be diverted around the construction area. A pipe or a temporary secondary 
channel would be used to convey the diverted water.

As an alternative to constructing a bypass or modifying an existing channel, the existing channel 
may be cleared of vegetation or sediment to increase conveyance. This action is often used in 
developed areas where modifications are not feasible as well as in areas where years of 
inadequate maintenance have allowed trees and brush to grow within the channel or sediment 
and debris to accumulate in the channel or around culverts and bridges. Vegetation may be 
removed through mechanical means, by hand, or by application of herbicides (see Section 2.5). 
Vegetation may be removed not only from the channel but also from the banks and high-water 
areas, thus reducing the risk that floating debris will be trapped by trees or heavy brush. 
Sediment and debris may be removed by dredging, through use of heavy equipment, or by hand, 
as described in Section 2.2. All removed debris would be disposed of at approved and licensed 
disposal sites, in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Woody debris and vegetation 
can be recycled, if recycling facilities exist.

2.4.3 Constructing or Modifying a Water Crossing
FEMA may fund the repair or replacement of damaged water crossings, the enlargement of 
openings to allow greater conveyance and to reduce the risk that debris will get trapped during 
floods, or the installation of bank protection or other means to reduce the risk of erosion. 
Crossings may also be relocated or improved to avoid high-hazard areas, repetitive damage, or 
areas where reconstruction is not cost-effective or feasible. 
Culverts may consist of corrugated metal pipes, reinforced concrete pipes, or reinforced concrete 
box culverts. The capacity of a culvert crossing may be increased to reduce the risk of flooding 
to the surrounding area, or the culvert may be modified to prevent overtopping or erosion of the 
crossing. Typical measures include:
* Increasing the size of a culvert or adding additional culvert barrels
* Changing the type of culvert
* Changing the location or alignment of the culvert
* Adding features, such as a headwall, discharge apron, or riprap, to reduce the risk of erosion or 
damage to the culvert or the crossing
If a culvert's capacity is increased substantially, the reduced attenuation of flow could cause 
increased flooding or erosion downstream. These effects would be evaluated by conducting 
hydraulic and hydrologic analyses.
Similarly, bridges may be modified to increase capacity to reduce the risk of flooding or to 
reduce the risk of damage to the crossing. Typical actions include:
* Widening of existing openings or construction of new openings
* Reconfiguring bracing to reduce the risk that debris will be trapped
* Installing protective features, such as concrete abutments or riprap, to reduce the risk of 
damage due to erosion and scour
* Replacing a multispan structure with a clear-span structure

A bridge may be installed to replace a culvert as a means of increasing the flow capacity of a 
crossing.

If the piers of the bridge are located within the channel of the watercourse, it may be necessary to 
construct a temporary diversion, as described above. As with culverts, modifications to bridges 
may attenuate flow and require an analysis of downstream effects on erosion and flooding.
Low-water crossings may be installed or improved as an alternative to repairing or replacing a 
culvert or bridge. Constructing or upgrading a low-water crossing would typically involve 
hardening the banks and bottom of a water body. A temporary diversion may be necessary 
during construction activities. As for bridges and culverts, flow attenuation and downstream 
impacts to erosion and flooding would require evaluation.

2.4.4 Constructing or Modifying a Water Detention, Retention, or Storage Facility
Potential actions include the construction, enlargement, or restoration of detention basins, 
retention basins, sediment ponds, and reservoirs to reduce flood flows or to provide a water 
source for fighting fires in an area of high fire hazard. The creation and/or enlargement of water 
storage reservoirs would be most frequently associated with flood disasters, and to a lesser extent 
fire disasters.

Detention dams, retention dams, and sediment ponds would be routinely constructed to 
temporarily store flood flows so that downstream peak flows would be reduced. The stored water 
would be released at a slower rate so that the existing drainageways can convey the water 
without contributing to downstream flooding. All areas disturbed during the construction of the 
detention dams, retention dams, or sediment ponds would be revegetated with native plant 
species. This action would also include the repair or restoration of water retention structures. All 
sediment removed from detention dams, retention dams, and sediment ponds would be disposed 
of in a manner consistent with federal, state, and local laws and regulations.

Frequently in rural areas, fire fighting is heavily constrained by the lack of water that can be used 
by firefighters. In response to this need, proposed actions may also include the creation of 
retention dams in locations that can readily be accessed by firefighters either as a direct source of 
water or as a source of water to fill their water supply trucks. All areas disturbed during the 
construction of the retention dam would be revegetated with native fire-resistant plant species.

2.4.5 Constructing or Modifying Other Flood Control Structures
A flood control structure is a facility designed to prevent floodwaters from entering a flood-
prone area. Typical examples include levees (also referred to as dikes) and floodwalls. Actions 
include:
* Repairing damaged facilities, usually during emergency situations 
* Installing embankment protection, as described in Section 2.4.1
* Raising the height of existing facilities to prevent overtopping in future floods
* Constructing new facilities to protect flood-prone areas from damage during future floods
* Modifying or installing interior drainage systems to reduce the risk of damage behind levees 
and floodwalls during heavy rains or flooding events on tributary streams
Levees would be repaired or constructed using compacted fill and, in some cases, riprap 
protection at the base. Bare earth would be seeded with grasses to prevent erosion. Typically, a 
road would be installed on the crest with gravel to allow for maintenance. Floodwalls, typically 
built in urban areas, would be constructed using reinforced concrete or grouted, reinforced 
concrete block. Excavation would be necessary to install footings. Both types of structures would 
include interior drainage systems that may include pumps for removing accumulated water.

2.4.6 Constructing or Modifying a Coastal Feature
These actions would involve the repair, replacement, or construction of facilities in coastal 
environments, such as estuaries, inlets, harbors, and beaches. These facilities include:
* Recreational facilities, such as piers and boat ramps
* Facilities for maritime use, such as docks and slips
* Shoreline protection devices, such as seawalls, groins, jetties, and revetments
* Coastal flood control structures, such as levees
Construction activities would be expected to occur in water and would involve driving piles, 
placing rock or soil, or dredging sand, mud, or other sediment. 

2.5 VEGETATION MANAGEMENT
Vegetation management would be employed to reduce the risk of wildfire and, as described in 
Section 2.4, to increase the ability of channels to convey flows, thus reducing the risk of flood 
damage. These actions may be accomplished using mechanical means, hand clearing, application 
of herbicides, prescribed burning, or grazing. Some actions may include a combination of these 
methods.

Vegetation management actions in areas where threatened and endangered species are thought to 
exist would require coordination with the USFWS or NOAA Fisheries. Prescribed burns require 
coordination with the CARB and/or the applicable regional air quality jurisdictions.
Relevant categories of actions are as follows:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control

2.5.1 Mechanical or Hand Clearing of Vegetation
This action would involve construction, expansion, and/or maintenance of fuel breaks and fuel-
reduction zones. For the purpose of this document, fuel breaks are corridors where all woody 
vegetation has been removed. The purpose of a fuel break would be to reduce the extent of fire 
and to provide a location in which firefighters can work safely and effectively. Fuel breaks can 
also be compacted or graded for use as fire access roads.

Unlike fuel breaks, fuel-reduction zones (also called shaded fuel breaks) would involve the 
selective removal of vegetation such that a certain proportion of vegetation is left in place. Fuel-
reduction zones differ from untreated-forested areas because in fuel-reduction zones low- and 
mid-height vegetation has been removed or reduced and the density of mature trees has been 
reduced. The purpose of fuel-reduction zones is to reduce the speed at which a fire spreads and to 
create a safer environment for firefighters. To create fuel-reduction zones, dead and diseased 
trees would be removed, along with high-ignition-potential species, such as eucalyptus or 
Monterey pine. Low- and mid-height individual plants and limbs would be removed or reduced 
to minimize fire ladders (vegetation that permits fire to travel from the understory to the canopy).
Mechanical removal would use heavy equipment that can uproot, crush, pulverize, or cut the 
trees and brush being removed. Hand removal would involve the use of chainsaws, axes, and 
hoes to cut and uproot vegetation. Vegetation downed as a result of mechanical or hand removal 
would be piled and burned on site, chipped and spread on site, or loaded and hauled from the 
site. After the removal of the targeted vegetation, cleared areas may be revegetated with native 
fire-resistant species. The subgrantee would be responsible for the maintenance of created fuel 
breaks and fuel-reduction zones.

On occasion, mechanical and/or hand removal of vegetation would be employed around a much 
larger area that has been targeted for a prescribed burn, as discussed in Section 2.5.3, to reduce 
the potential that the set fire will escape from the burn area.

2.5.2 Herbicidal Treatments
Actions generally associated with herbicidal treatment include the removal of targeted exotic 
invasive species within specific areas and the prevention of growth and resprouting (e.g., 
eucalyptus removal) of undesirable vegetation once an area has been cleared of excessive 
vegetation by mechanical removal, hand removal, and/or prescribed burns. Only readily accepted 
and registered chemicals would be used to control the growth of undesired vegetation. After 
treatment, some areas may be revegetated with locally occurring, native vegetation that is fire 
resistant.

2.5.3 Prescribed Burns
Prescribed burns would be used in areas with high-fire-hazard potential due to the amount of fuel 
that is on the forest floor. The intent of a prescribed burn is similar to that of the fuel-reduction 
zones discussed in Section 2.5.1 except that the treatment area is typically larger. Prescribed 
burns would only be proposed and authorized in areas where it can be ensured that the fire can be 
controlled and contained within the proposed burn area. As discussed in Section 2.5.1, prescribed 
burn projects would be frequently combined with mechanical and/or hand removal of vegetation 
around the perimeter of the proposed burn area, which would help to ensure that the fire is 
contained. Generally, prescribed burns would be designed to minimize impacts on riparian 
vegetation adjacent to a perennial stream.

Prescribed burns would require interagency coordination by the subgrantee to ensure that all 
appropriate federal, state, and local agencies have been notified of the action and that all their 
concerns have been addressed. FEMA requires that the applicant follow the burn procedures 
outlined in the California Environmental Protection Agency's Forest Management Burning 
Handbook (CEPA 1994). The burn must be terminated if weather conditions become 
undesirable.

Burn actions can also include the burning of trees and brush that have been piled as the result of 
mechanical and/or hand removal activities. The burning of these piles would require a burn plan 
and interagency coordination prior to implementation.

2.5.4 Biological Control
Under this action, the subgrantee would allow cattle, horses, goats, sheep, or other livestock to 
graze on grasses and other vegetation as a means of control. The subgrantee would fence the area 
proposed for grazing, so that the animals would not graze outside of the proposed area. The type 
of animals, timing, duration, and stocking rate would be selected based on the targets of the 
vegetation management plan (i.e., the quantity and quality of residue to remain).

2.6 PUBLICATION AND REVISION OF FLOOD INSURANCE RATE MAPS
As described in Section 1, FEMA manages the NFIP. The program is based on an agreement 
between local communities and the federal government that if a community implements 
programs to reduce future flood risks, the federal government makes flood insurance available 
within the community as a financial protection against flood losses that occur. In support of the 
NFIP, FEMA has undertaken a nationwide effort to identify and map flood hazards. These flood 
hazards are shown on Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs), which FEMA produces for each 
community participating in the program. The FIRMs show identified Special Flood Hazard 
Areas (SFHAs), which are areas subject to inundation during a flood having a 1 percent chance 
of occurrence in a given year (also known as the base flood or 100-year flood).
FEMA periodically revises FIRMs to reflect changes in hydrologic and hydraulic conditions, to 
update map information based on more detailed data, or to reflect changes to the built 
environment, such as the placement of fill in the floodplain or the construction of a flood control 
channel. These revisions may result in changes to the base flood elevations and floodplain 
delineations shown on the FIRMs. Communities are required to update their floodplain 
management ordinances to reflect the revised maps. 

Development may take place within the SFHA, provided that the development is in compliance 
with local floodplain ordinances, which must meet the minimum federal requirements (see 
Section 2.3.1). Local governments are responsible for implementing these floodplain 
management ordinances. If the community fails to adopt or enforce its floodplain management 
ordinance, FEMA may sanction the community or suspend it from the NFIP, thereby restricting 
the financial benefits of participating in the program. However, FEMA has no other authority or 
responsibility to govern whether and how this development occurs. FEMA's involvement in 
floodplain management is otherwise limited to publication and revision of the FIRMs, which are 
categorically excluded from the preparation of an EA or an EIS (44 CFR 10.8[d][2][iii]). 
Therefore, impacts resulting from the publication and revision of FIRMs are not evaluated 
further in this PEA.

3. Section 3 THREE - Affected Environment
The following subsections discuss the setting and affected environment of 12 resource areas in 
California:
* Geology, Seismicity, and Soils
* Air Quality
* Water Resources
* Biological Resources
* Cultural Resources
* Socioeconomics and Public Safety
* Land Use and Planning
* Public Services and Recreation
* Transportation
* Noise
* Hazardous Materials and Wastes
* Visual Resources
This discussion is broad and regional in nature. It does not include a complete inventory of each 
resource but does provide information to characterize those resources.

3.1 GEOLOGY, SEISMICITY, AND SOILS
Key resource categories and assessment variables described in this section include geology and 
physical processes, geologic resources, geologic hazards, geomorphology, seismicity and seismic 
hazards, and soils.

3.1.1 Regulatory Background

3.1.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
Executive Order 12699: Seismic Safety of Federal and Federally Assisted or Regulated New 
Building Construction 

The purposes of these requirements are to: 
* Reduce risks to the lives of occupants of buildings owned by the federal government, leased 
for federal uses, or purchased or constructed with federal assistance and to persons who would be 
affected by the failures of federal buildings in earthquakes
* Improve the capability of essential federal buildings to function during or after an earthquake
* Reduce earthquake-related losses to public buildings in a cost-effective manner
A building means any structure, fully or partially enclosed, used or intended for sheltering 
persons or property. 

Under this order each federal agency responsible for the design and construction of a federal or 
federally funded building must ensure that the building is designed and constructed in accord 
with appropriate seismic design and construction standards. These standards are promulgated 
through the National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) and are subsequently 
incorporated into the model building codes that are used as the basis for local building codes in 
most municipalities. NEHRP periodically publishes new standards; the latest NEHRP standards 
were published in 2000. This requirement pertains to all building projects for which detailed 
plans and specifications were initiated subsequent to the issuance of the order. 
Each federal agency responsible for the construction and lease of a new building must also 
ensure that the building is designed and constructed in accord with appropriate seismic design 
and construction standards. Local building codes are used in design and construction and 
augmented when necessary to achieve appropriate seismic design and construction standards. 
According to Office of Management and Budget Circular A-119 of January 17, 1980, entitled 
Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Standards, nationally recognized 
private-sector standards and practices are to be used unless the responsible agency finds that 
none are available that meet its requirements. This circular states that design criteria should 
consider the seismic hazards in various areas of the country, as shown in the most recent edition 
of the American National Standards Institute Standards A58, Minimum Design Loads for 
Buildings and Other Structures, or subsequent maps adopted for federal use. Local building 
codes may be used if determined by the responsible agency or by the Interagency Committee for 
Seismic Safety in Construction to provide adequately for seismic safety. Special seismic 
standards and practices may be used if required by a unique agency mission.

Farmland Protection Policy Act of 1981
The Farmland Protection Policy Act (7 United States Code [USC] 4201 et seq.) and the U.S. 
Department of Agriculture's implementing procedures require federal agencies to evaluate the 
effects (direct and indirect) of their activities before taking any action that could result in 
converting designated prime or unique farmland for nonagricultural purposes. If an action would 
adversely affect farmland preservation, alternative actions that could avoid or lessen adverse 
effects must be considered. Federal agencies also must ensure that their programs, to the extent 
practicable, are compatible with state, local, and private programs to protect farmlands. 
Determination of the level of impact to prime and unique farmland or farmland of statewide and 
local importance is done by the lead federal agency, which inventories farmlands affected by the 
proposed action and scores part of an AD 1006 Form, Farmland Conversion Impact Rating, for 
each alternative. Through consultation with the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) 
staff in the particular county of the proposed action, NRCS completes the AD 1006 Form and 
determines the level of consideration for protection of farmlands that needs to occur under the 
Act. 

3.1.1.2 State and Local Laws and Regulations
1998 California Building Code
The CBC contains the minimum standards for design and construction in California. Local 
standards other than the CBC may be adopted if those standards are stricter. The CBC 
incorporates the standards associated with seismic engineering that are detailed in the Uniform 
Building Code (UBC) of 1997. 

The 1997 UBC and therefore the 1998 CBC reflect the National Earthquake Loss Reduction 
Program provisions published in 1994. With the publication of the 2000 NEHRP standards, the 
1998 CBC no longer reflects current standards. Consequently, until California adopts a building 
code reflecting the 2000 NEHRP standards, structures permitted after the 2000 standards became 
available will not be in compliance with Executive Order (EO) 12699.

California Public Resources Code  25523(a), 20 California Code of Regulations  1752(b) and 
(c), and the 1972 Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act (Amended 1994)
The Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act (A-P Act) was passed in 1972 to mitigate the 
hazard of surface faulting to structures for human occupancy. This state law was a direct result of 
the 1971 San Fernando Earthquake, which was associated with extensive surface fault ruptures 
that damaged numerous homes, commercial buildings, and other structures. Surface rupture is 
the most easily avoided seismic hazard. 

The main purpose of the A-P Act is to prevent the construction of buildings used for human 
occupancy on the surface trace of active faults. The act only addresses the hazard of surface fault 
rupture and is not directed toward other earthquake hazards. The Seismic Hazards Mapping Act, 
passed in 1990, addresses nonsurface fault rupture earthquake hazards, including liquefaction 
and seismically induced landslides. 

The A-P Act requires the State Geologist to establish regulatory zones (known as Earthquake 
Fault Zones) around the surface traces of active faults and to issue appropriate maps. The maps 
are distributed to all affected cities, counties, and state agencies for their use in planning and 
controlling new or renewed construction. Local agencies must regulate most development 
projects within the zones, including all land divisions and most structures for human occupancy. 
Single-family wood-frame and steel-frame dwellings of up to two stories that are not part of a 
development of four units or more are exempt. However, local agencies can be more restrictive 
than state law requires. 

Before a proposed action can be permitted, cities and counties must require a geologic 
investigation to demonstrate that proposed buildings will not be constructed across active faults. 
An evaluation and written report of a specific site must be prepared by a licensed geologist. If an 
active fault is found, a structure for human occupancy cannot be placed over the trace of the fault 
and must be set back from the fault (generally 50 feet). 

Earthquake Fault Zones are regulatory zones around active faults. The zones are defined by 
turning points connected by straight lines. Most of the turning points are identified by roads, 
drainages, and other features on the ground. Earthquake Fault Zones are plotted on topographic 
maps at a scale of 1 inch equals 2,000 feet. The zones vary in width, but average about 1/4 mile 
wide. 

Effective June 1, 1998, the Natural Hazards Disclosure Act requires that sellers of real property 
and their agents provide prospective buyers with a "Natural Hazard Disclosure Statement" when 
the property being sold lies within one or more state-mapped hazard areas, including Earthquake 
Fault Zones.

California Public Resources Code Chapter 7.8 and the Seismic Hazards Mapping Act of 1990
This law addresses shaking, landsliding, and liquefaction hazards. It expands from the surface 
fault-rupture hazard addressed in the A-P Act to other seismic hazards, including shaking, 
landsliding, and liquefaction. This law requires the State Geologist to prepare seismic hazard 
maps that cities and counties must use in preparing their general plan safety elements and in 
regulating new development to avoid or mitigate these seismic hazards. The California 
Geological Survey (formerly the California Division of Mines and Geology) has adopted 
regulations for the mapping process under Title 14 of the California Code of Regulations (CCR).
The Seismic Hazards Mapping Act of 1990 allows the lead agency to withhold permits until 
geologic investigations are conducted and mitigation measures are incorporated into plans. This 
act not only addresses seismically induced hazards, but also includes such things as expansive 
soils, settlement, and slope stability. Cities and counties may adopt more stringent criteria and 
policies, as they see fit.

Field Act
After the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, statewide seismic design and construction requirements 
were mandated for public schools. Commonly known as the Field Act, these state requirements 
were extended to the evaluation and retrofitting of existing pre-Field Act buildings with the 
passage of the Garrison Act (1939) and the Greene Act (1967). The scope of the regulations is 
found in CBC, Part I, Title 24, Sec. 4-301 et seq.

Field Act buildings have stringent construction quality control procedures (required by CCR 
Title 24 Part 1). The requirements in this act have been reconsidered on several occasions and 
recommendations have been made for altering them to be more effective. For example, the 
California Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program in Initiative 1.3 in 1991 laid out a goal for all 
school districts to identify and reduce unacceptable earthquake hazards in public schools by the 
year 2000. The Northridge earthquake provided many observations of school damage that was 
not covered by the act. Privately owned schools are excluded from the Field Act requirements. 
Also, the requirements relating to hazard reduction of existing pre-act schools does not apply to 
the California State University or University of California systems, but it does apply to 
community colleges.

3.1.1.3 Local Laws and Regulations
Counties and cities have developed general plans that include county- or city-specific 
descriptions of existing geology and geologic resources.

Shortly after the 1971 San Fernando earthquake, the state legislature passed a requirement that 
all city and county general plans include a seismic safety element. During the mid-1970s local 
governments prepared and adopted seismic safety elements to meet statutory deadlines. In l984, 
the state legislature streamlined general plan requirements, combining the overlapping safety and 
seismic safety elements into a single safety element.

Each planning agency has to prepare, and the legislative body of each county and city has to 
subsequently adopt, a comprehensive, long-term general plan for the physical development of the 
county or city, and of any land outside its boundaries that in the planning agency's judgment 
bears relation to its planning. 

3.1.2 Geology, Geologic Hazards, and Soils in California
3.1.2.1 Geomorphic Provinces
A brief examination of the rock types, geologic structure, and geomorphology (landscape 
features) of California shows some distinct regional differences. The term "geomorphic 
province" is generally defined to be any area that displays a distinctive geologic and landscape 
character as defined by the amount of relief, types of landforms, orientation of valleys and 
mountain ridges, and types of vegetation. As the underlying geology is one of the controlling 
factors that define the geomorphic character of each province, the geology of California is 
commonly described in terms of its geomorphic provinces. California comprises 12 geomorphic 
provinces (Figure 3.1-1). These provinces are described from north to south in the following 
sections.

Klamath Mountains Province
The Klamath Mountains Province is located in the northwestern corner of California and 
southwestern corner of Oregon between the northern Coast Ranges and Cascade Range Province. 
It is made up of several mountain ranges including the Trinity Alps, the Marble Mountains, the 
Salmon Mountains, and the Siskiyou Mountains. It is a north-trending area that covers 
approximately 11,800 square miles. This province consists of a rugged topography with peaks 
and ridges of similar elevations, between 4,900 to 6,900 feet above sea level. 

No zoned active faults according to the A-P Act exist within this province (Hart 1994). However, 
many Quaternary and pre-Quaternary low-angle thrust faults occur, such as the South Fork 
Mountain thrust to the west of the province, which separates the province from the younger rocks 
of the Coast Ranges. None of these faults are considered active or potential earthquake sources. 
One substantial earthquake source exists in this region. Beneath the Klamath Mountains, the 
Gorda plate (a fragment of the Pacific plate) is being subducted1 eastward beneath the North 
American plate (Ludwin, Weaver, and Crosson 1991; Urhammer 1991). Friction between the 
overriding North American plate and the Pacific plate has the potential to generate "megathrust" 
earthquakes, as does deformation within the downgoing plate itself (Heaton and Hartzell 1987).

Cascade Range Province
The Cascade Range comprises a 500-mile-long chain of volcanoes that extend from northern 
California into Oregon and Washington. The Cascade Range province in California is the 
southern tip of the chain and the geology is more similar to that of the Pacific Northwest than to 
the geology of California. Within California, the province is located between the Klamath 
Mountains to the west and the Modoc Plateau Province to the east and north of the Great Valley 
and Sierra Nevada Provinces. One of the most prominent volcanoes of the Cascade Range in 
California is Mount Shasta, which rises 14,162 feet above sea level. The southernmost peak of 
the Cascade Range and the second highest peak within the province is Mt. Lassen (10,453 feet), 
which last erupted sporadically between 1914 and 1921 (Miller 1989). The portion of the 
Cascade Ranges within California resulted from the subduction of the Gorda Plate. As the 
subducted plate is pushed into the mantle it heats up and the rocks eventually melt, producing 
magma. The molten magma is buoyant and rises through the overlying mantle and crust until it is 
erupted as lava. Successive lava eruptions eventually build up into volcanoes. Mount Shasta has 
been built up over the last 10,000 years, when at least 13 major eruptions have occurred. During 
the last 4,500 years, the average interval between eruptions has been 600 years. The most recent 
eruption occurred about 200 years ago (Miller 1989). Geologic evidence indicates that large 
eruptions from Mount Shasta are similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington 
in that they involve explosive eruptions and are accompanied by large debris avalanches that 
inundate large areas up to several tens of kilometers away from the volcanic cone (Crandell et al. 
1984). Evidence of the associated volcanic history can only be traced back to the Eocene Age; 
before that the geologic history and formations are similar to the Klamath Mountains. 
Three A-P Act zoned active faults are located within the province: the Cedar Mountain, Hat 
Creek, and McArthur faults, all of which make up the boundary between the Cascade Range 
Province and the Modoc Plateau. Each of these faults is capable of generating damaging 
earthquakes. In addition to these faults, movement of magma within the crust and volcanic 
eruptions can also be associated with damaging earthquakes.

Modoc Plateau Province
The Modoc Plateau is a table formed by thick accumulation of volcanic lava flows and tuff beds 
located to the east of the Cascades. It is an undulating plateau at an elevation of 4,000 to 6,000 
feet above sea level. Occasional lakes, marshes, and slow-moving streams cut this plateau. The 
province is bounded by the Cascade Range on the west and the Basin and Range Province on the 
east and south. The boundary with the Cascades is marked by the active normal faults2 of the 
Hat Creek fault zone. 

Coast Ranges Province
The Coast Ranges Province extends from Lompoc in the south to the Oregon border. Northwest-
trending ranges and intervening valleys that are generally parallel to major strike-slip faults (e.g., 
the San Andreas fault) and fold axes characterize the Coast Ranges. The mountains range from 
2,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level. The province is bounded to the east by the Great Valley; to 
the north by the South Fork Mountain fault, which marks the southern extent of the Klamath 
Mountains; to the south by the Transverse Ranges; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. The 
province is naturally divided into North and South Coast Ranges by the depression that is 
occupied by San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. 

The Coast Ranges Province is traversed obliquely by the San Andreas fault system, a broad zone 
of strike-slip faulting3 that marks the boundary between the Pacific and North American plates. 
This system of faults, including the San Andreas fault itself, has been responsible for the 
majority of damaging earthquakes in California during historical time. 

In addition to the active strike-slip faults of the San Andreas system, the Coast Ranges also 
contain a number of active reverse or thrust faults4, most notably the blind or buried faults that 
mark the boundary between the Coast Ranges and the Great Valley. These faults have been 
responsible for several damaging earthquakes during historical time (Wakabayashi and Smith 
1994). The northern part of the Coast Ranges Province is dominated by landslide-prone 
formations.

San Francisco Bay Province
The San Francisco Bay area has a structurally controlled topography that consists primarily of 
north- to northwest-trending mountain ranges and intervening valleys that is characteristic of the 
Coast Ranges geomorphic province. This fabric is subparallel to the San Andreas fault. The 
Coast Ranges consist of the Mendocino Range to the north of San Francisco Bay, the Santa Cruz 
Mountains to the west of the Bay, and the Diablo Range to the east of the Bay. 

San Francisco Bay is a topographic trough formed by a combination of warping and faulting and 
is underlain by a down-dropped or tilted block (the Bay Block), which acts as a water gap in the 
Coast Ranges to allow the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers to drain to the ocean. The Bay is 
about 56 miles long and from 3 to 5 miles wide. Constrictions divide the Bay into Suisun, San 
Pablo, and North and South San Francisco bays. The bay is relatively shallow with depths of less 
than 10 feet except in locations of drowned drainage channels. The deepest point is within the 
main channel through the Golden Gate, at a depth of approximately 345 feet below sea level.
The geology of the Bay area is made up primarily of three different geologic provinces: the 
Salinian block, Franciscan complex, and the Great Valley sequence. The Salinian block is 
located west of the San Andreas fault. It is composed primarily of granitic plutonic rocks that are 
similar to those found in the Sierra Nevada and are believed to be rocks of the Sierra Nevada 
batholith that have been displaced along the San Andreas fault. To the east of the San Andreas 
fault and bounded on the west by the Hayward fault is the Franciscan complex. The rocks of the 
Franciscan complex are prone to landslides. To the east of the Hayward fault is the Great Valley 
sequence. These rocks are also prone to landsliding.

The Great Valley Province
The Great Valley Province comprises two elongate northwest- to southeast-trending basins: the 
Sacramento basin to the northwest and the San Joaquin basin to the southeast. These basins are 
located between the Coast Ranges to the west and the Sierra Nevada to the east. The Sacramento 
and San Joaquin rivers drain the basins respectively and both drain to the ocean through San 
Francisco Bay. The province is approximately 450 miles long and 45 to 55 miles wide and 
ranges in elevation from below sea level to approximately 400 feet above sea level.
Four faults around the boundary of the Great Valley Province have been zoned under the A-P 
Act: the Buena Vista and Plieto-Wheeler Ridge faults, which make up the boundary with the 
Coast Ranges and Transverse Ranges to the west and south, respectively, and the Kern Front and 
White Wolf faults, which mark the boundary with the Sierra Nevada and eastern Transverse 
ranges, respectively.

Sierra Nevada Province
The Sierra Nevada Province is a tilted fault block approximately 400 miles long that forms a 
mountain range 40 to 100 miles wide. It is bound to the west by the Great Valley Province, to the 
north by the Cascade Range, to the east by the Basin and Range Province, and to the south by the 
Garlock fault along the northern margin of the Mojave Desert. The eastern face of the Sierra 
Nevada is the high, steep fault scarp of the Sierra Nevada fault and others that form the Sierra 
Nevada block. The western side of the Sierra Nevada is the low-sloping back side of the uplifted 
block containing rocks that disappear under the younger sediments of the Great Valley. Deep 
river canyons are cut into the western slope as they drain the Sierra Nevada. The northern 
boundary of the Sierra Nevada province is defined where the bedrock disappears under the 
Cenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range. Elevations in the province range from 400 feet 
above sea level to 14,496 feet at the top of Mt. Whitney, the highest point in the lower 48 states.
The present topography of the Sierra Nevada is the result of extensive erosion by glaciers during 
the Holocene, and subsequent downcutting by high energy rivers, including the Kern, Kings, and 
Tuolumne. 

The Sierra Nevada has 10 A-P Act zoned faults, 1 within and 9 along the province boundary. 
The Cleveland Hill fault is within the province. The Garlock fault is along the Mojave Desert 
boundary. The Honey Lake, Little Lake, Sierra Nevada, Fort Sage, Hilton Creek, and Owens 
Valley faults are along the boundary with the Basin and Range Province. The Kern Front fault is 
located along the Great Valley boundary.

Basin and Range Province
The Basin and Range Province extends from eastern California to central Utah, from 
southernmost Oregon and Idaho to the north to southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico 
and further into Mexico in the south. Within California the province includes a small portion in 
the northeastern corner of the state and a much larger area in the southern part of the state 
bordered by the Sierra Nevada to the west and the Mojave Desert to the south. Throughout the 
Basin and Range province, range-front faults can be found along the base of the ranges. Recent 
movements on these faults have elevated the ranges relative to the basins. Recent volcanic 
eruptions have left young cinder cones, craters, and lava flows. 

Numerous faults are zoned under the A-P Act within the Basin and Range Province: the Fort 
Sage, Hilton Creek, Sierra Nevada, and Honey Lake faults, which lie on the boundary with the 
Sierra Nevada, and the Death Valley fault, the Deep Springs fault, the Northern Death Valley 
fault, the Panamint Valley fault, the Surprise Valley fault, and the White Mountains fault.

Mojave Desert Province
The Mojave Desert is a region of isolated mountain ranges separated by expanses of desert 
plains. The Mojave Desert is located south of the Basin and Range Province and is bounded by 
the Garlock fault to the north, the Colorado River and the California-Nevada border to the east, 
and the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains and the San Andreas fault to the southwest. 
The topography of the Mojave Desert is characterized by basins and ranges. However, the 
topography in the Mojave Desert is much more subdued than that of the Basin and Range 
Province. The ranges of the Mojave Desert are shorter and lower and the basins are wider. The 
topography is gentler than the sharp contrasts between ridge and valley of the Basin and Range 
Province. 

Numerous faults within the Mojave Desert Province have been zoned by the A-P Act: the 
Garlock fault along the Sierra Nevada and Basin and Range boundary, the North Frontal and 
Pinto Mountain faults along the Transverse Ranges boundary, the Burnt Mountain fault, the 
Eureka Peak fault, the Helendale fault, the Lenwood fault, the Mesquite Lake fault, the Pisgah-
Bullion fault, the Calico fault, the Kickapoo fault, the Manix fault, the Newberry fracture zone, 
and the Upper Johnson Valley fault. These faults have generated three damaging earthquakes in 
the last 20 years, including the 1992 Moment Magnitude 7.3 Landers and 1999 Moment 
Magnitude 7.1 Hector Mine earthquakes.

Transverse Ranges Provinces
The Transverse Ranges Province is a long, narrow, east-west-trending province that consists of a 
series of mountain ranges and valleys. The province is bordered to the south by the Peninsular 
Ranges. This boundary is defined by the Santa Monica fault between the Santa Monica 
Mountains and the Los Angeles Basin. The Mojave Desert borders this province to the north and 
the east and the Salton Trough/Colorado Desert Province to the southeast. 
Numerous active faults are zoned by the A-P Act in this province: the Pinto Mountain and North 
Frontal faults, which make up the Mojave Desert boundary, as well as the Cucamonga fault, the 
Red Mountain fault, the San Cayetano fault, the San Gabriel fault, the Raymond Hill fault, the 
San Andreas fault, the San Fernando fault, and the Ventura fault.

Los Angeles Basin Province
The Los Angeles Basin Province and the surrounding region are being deformed by several 
active faults that have generated a number of moderate-sized earthquakes, including the 1933 
Long Beach, 1971 San Fernando, 1987 Whittier Narrows, and 1994 Northridge events. Faulting 
is dominated by both strike-slip and thrust motions, either of which is capable of generating 
damaging earthquakes. 

The Los Angeles Basin Province is bounded by the San Andreas fault system to the east, the 
Transverse Ranges to the north, and the Continental Borderland and Peninsular Ranges 
provinces to the west and south, respectively. The tectonics of the Los Angeles Basin Province 
are transitional between those of the Transverse Ranges to the north and the Peninsular Ranges 
to the south. The Los Angeles Basin Province is an east-west elongate basin filled with Mesozoic 
and Cenozoic sediments that are highly deformed by a complex system of folds and thrust faults, 
many of which do not reach the earth's surface (so-called blind thrusts). In addition to these 
thrust faults, the Los Angeles Basin Province is traversed by a number of northwest-striking, 
right-lateral strike-slip faults, including the Newport-Inglewood, Elsinore, San Jacinto, and San 
Andreas faults. These strike-slip faults accommodate the majority of the plate motion between 
the Pacific and North American plates. The complex tectonics of the Los Angeles Basin 
Province are the result of a prominent left restraining bend ("The Big Bend") in the San Andreas 
fault as the fault exits Coachella Valley. This fault geometry creates a region of compression that 
is manifest as the folds and thrust faults of the Los Angeles Basin Province and the Transverse 
Ranges Province immediately to the north. 

Peninsular Ranges Province
The Peninsular Ranges Province consists of a series of ranges separated by longitudinal valleys 
that trend northwest to southeast, subparallel to faults of the San Andreas system. These 
mountains are composed of granitic rock intruded by metamorphic rocks similar to the Sierra 
Nevada. This province is located in the southwestern part of the state and is bounded to the north 
by the Transverse Ranges Province, to the east by the Salton Trough/Colorado Desert Province, 
to the south by Mexico, and to the west by the Continental Borderlands. 
Five northwest-trending faults within the Peninsular Ranges Province have been zoned by the 
A-P Act: the Elsinore fault, the Rose Canyon fault, the Newport-Inglewood fault, the San Jacinto 
fault, and the Whittier fault.

Salton Trough/Colorado Desert Province
The Salton Trough/Colorado Desert Province is a low-lying barren desert basin about 245 feet 
below sea level that contains the Salton Sea and the Imperial Desert. It is bordered by the San 
Andreas fault to the northeast and the San Jacinto fault to the southwest. The trough is a pull-
apart basin created by transform fault movement as the Peninsular Ranges pulled away from 
North America. 

Four faults within the province have been zoned by the A-P Act: the Brawley fault, the Imperial 
fault, the San Andreas fault, and the Superstition Hills fault.

Continental Borderlands
To the west, the Los Angeles Basin is bounded by the Continental Borderlands. The Continental 
Borderlands seismotectonic province is located in the offshore region of Southern California, 
extending from offshore Baja to the Channel Islands. This region is characterized by moderate 
levels of seismicity, with epicenters often being aligned along active fault structures. 

3.1.2.2 Geologic Hazards
The geologic environment of California comprises a number of potential geologic hazards, 
which are discussed in the following sections. The specific geologic hazards for each 
geomorphic province are described in Table 3.1-1.

Surface Fault Rupture 
Surface fault rupture is defined as slip on a fault plane that has propagated upwards to, and has 
offset or disturbed, the earth's surface. Offset on a fault intersecting the ground surface can create 
a discrete step or fault scarp if fault slip occurs on a single fault plane or within a narrow fault 
zone. If fault slip is accommodated over a broader area, then the deformation may manifest as a 
zone of fracturing and ground cracking with minor amounts of offset on individual fractures; 
however, the cumulative offset across the entire zone may be substantial. Surface faulting may 
also arise as a secondary effect from other geologic processes. Secondary surface faulting can be 
triggered by aquifer compaction and subsidence (e.g., Bawden et al. 2001) or by the effects of 
strong ground shaking triggering slip on neighboring faults. 

Surface fault rupture has occurred on a number of faults within the study region during the last 
10,000 years (Jennings 1994): the San Andreas fault in 1857 and 1906 (Wallace 1990), the 
Hayward fault in 1868 (Yu and Segal 1996), the Owen fault in 1872 (Lubetkin and Clark 1988), 
the San Fernando fault in 1971 (Barrows et al. 1973), the Imperial and Superstition Hills faults in 
1981 (Sharp, Rymer, and Lienkaemper 1986), the Landers fault zone in 1992 (Hart, Bryant, and 
Trieman 1993), and the Bullion Mountains-Lavic Lake faults in 1999 (U.S. Geological Survey, 
Southern California Earthquake Center, and California Division of Mines and Geology 2000) are 
examples of surface rupture associated with large, damaging earthquakes during historical time.
Areas subject to surface-faulting rupture hazard are zoned by the State of California under the A-
P Act (Hart 1994). Maps of areas of potential surface faulting are prepared by and available from 
California Geological Survey (formerly Division of Mines and Geology). These maps depict the 
most recently active traces of active faults and a zone around these traces within which future 
surface faulting may occur. All geomorphic provinces in California, with the exception of the 
Klamath Mountains, contain active faults that pose a surface-faulting hazard. Because of the high 
slip rates and high density of faults in the Los Angeles Basin and San Francisco Bay Area, these 
two regions have the highest likelihood of experiencing surface faulting in the future. 

Earthquake Ground Shaking
Strong earthquake ground shaking is probably the most important seismic hazard that can be 
expected almost anywhere in California. The amount of earthquake shaking at a particular site is 
a function of earthquake magnitude; the type of earthquake source (i.e., type of fault), distance 
between the site and the earthquake source, the geology of the site, and how the earthquake 
waves decrease or attenuate as they travel from their source to the site in question. The larger the 
earthquake and the shorter the distance between the earthquake source and the site, the greater 
the amount of shaking. The geologic materials through which the earthquake energy travels 
toward the site act to decrease, or attenuate, the amount of shaking. The amount of shaking is 
expressed in terms of "Peak Horizontal Acceleration" measured in percent of "g," the 
acceleration of gravity (approximately 9.81 feet per second squared).

California has experienced numerous damaging earthquakes during historical time (Stover and 
Coffman 1993; Toppozada et al. 2000). The 1868 earthquake on the Hayward fault caused 
widespread damage throughout the eastern San Francisco Bay Area; the 1906 earthquake on the 
San Andreas fault caused extensive damage in San Francisco and throughout Northern 
California. More recently, the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in the Santa Cruz Mountains and the 
1994 Northridge earthquake in San Fernando Valley caused widespread damage in the San 
Francisco Bay and Los Angeles Basin regions, respectively. A more comprehensive list of 
damaging earthquakes is provided in Table 3.1-2.

Liquefaction
Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a soil is reduced by 
earthquake shaking. Liquefaction and related phenomena have been responsible for tremendous 
amounts of damage by historical earthquakes around the world.

Liquefaction is the transformation of a granular material from a solid state into a liquefied state 
as a consequence of increased pore pressure and decreased effective stress (Youd 1973). 
Increased pore pressures in unconsolidated sediment, especially in western California, are most 
typically seismically induced deformation. Observed types of ground failure resulting from 
liquefaction can include sand boils, lateral spreads, ground settlement, ground cracking, and 
ground warping (Youd and Hoose 1978). Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils.

Lateral spreading is the lateral displacement of surficial blocks of sediment as the result of 
liquefaction in a subsurface. Once liquefaction transforms the subsurface layer into a fluidized 
mass, gravity may cause the mass to move downslope toward a cut slope or free face (such as a 
river channel or a canal). Lateral spreads most commonly occur on gentle slopes that range 
between 0.3 and 3. When liquefaction occurs, the strength of the soil decreases and the ability 
of a soil deposit to support foundations for buildings or other structures is reduced. Liquefied soil 
also exerts higher pressure on retaining walls, which can cause them to tilt or slide. This 
movement can cause settlement of the retained soil and destruction of structures on the ground 
surface.

The potential for liquefaction is a function of having susceptible soils, shallow groundwater to 
create saturated conditions, and high enough ground shaking. If any of these conditions are 
lacking, then the potential for liquefaction is considered low.

Subsidence and Uplift
Land surface subsidence can result from both natural and human-made phenomena. Natural 
phenomena include subsidence resulting from tectonic deformations and seismically induced 
settlements (see liquefaction), soil subsidence due to consolidation, subsidence due to oxidation 
or dewatering of organic-rich soils, and subsidence related to subsurface cavities. Subsidence or 
settlement related to human activities includes subsidence caused by decreased pore pressure due 
to the withdrawal of subsurface fluids, including water and hydrocarbons. 

Subsidence and uplift are generally only considered a substantial hazard if they occur over 
human life time. Most of the mechanisms of subsidence and uplift described above occur over 
geologic time and, therefore, are not considered a potential hazard.

Expansive Soils
Expansive soils contain mixed-layer clay minerals that increase and decrease in volume on 
wetting and drying, respectively. Expansive soils are common throughout California and can 
cause damage to foundations and slabs unless properly treated during construction. Mixed layer 
clays and potentially expansive soils are present almost everywhere in California.

Mass Wasting
Mass wasting is downward movement of soils and rock under gravity, including landslides, rock 
falls, and debris flows. Mass wasting requires source materials, a slope, and a triggering 
mechanism. Source materials include fractured and weathered bedrock and loose soils. 
Triggering mechanisms include earthquake shaking, heavy rainfall, and erosion.

Volcanic Hazards
Potentially hazardous volcanic events can be categorized into three groups: flowage phenomena, 
eruption of tephra, and emission of volcanic gases. Flowage phenomena include debris 
avalanches and flows, pyroclastic flows5 and surges, directed blasts, lava flows, and floods. Any 
erupted volcanic material that moves down slope, such as lava, ash, water, and mud, away from 
the flanks of the volcano, or down adjacent valleys, constitutes flowage phenomena. The speed 
and distance at which they can flow is dependent on the composition of the erupted material, 
which varies for each volcano and type of flow. Most flowage phenomena are devastating, 
destroying everything in their path either by impact, burial, or ignition if the material is hot 
(Miller 1989). Floods occur if molten lava melts snow and ice on the volcano, consequently 
generating debris flows as lava ash and mud. Lahars, hot volcanic mud flows, are some of the 
most devastating consequences of volcanic activity. Such debris avalanches and flows, 
pyroclastic flows, and surges are difficult to avoid as their highly mobile, fluid nature allows 
them to move swiftly downslope away from their source (Miller 1989).

Tephra or ash fall consists of combinations of pumice, dense-rock material of various sizes, and 
mineral crystals. Ash fall is produced by explosive eruptions that propel material from a few 
meters to several tens of kilometers into the air (Miller 1989). Hazards related to tephra eruptions 
include high temperatures, burial, and impact of falling blocks. A substantial volume of tephra 
can collapse structures under its weight and, if it is hot, ignite fires. Hazards associated with ash 
fall decrease with distance from the volcano. The main hazard at considerable distances from the 
volcano would be the effects of ash on the respiratory system. Vehicles and machinery would be 
affected, possibly causing disruptions in transportation, communication, and electrical services 
(Miller 1989).

Gases are often emitted from vents preceding a volcanic eruption and can occur for hundreds or 
thousands of years after an eruption. Volcanic gases consist of steam with lesser amounts of 
carbon dioxide, sulfur, and chlorine. Gases are concentrated near vents but are also distributed 
downwind. As with tephra, hazards from volcanic gases decrease with distance from the vent. 
Oxidation of sulfur and chlorine gases can lead to the formation of sulfuric and hydrochloric acid 
aerosols. Such strong acid vapors can be harmful to plants, animals, and people if the vapors are 
in high concentrations (Miller 1989).

Tsunami and Seiche
A tsunami (Japanese word meaning "harbor wave") is a water wave or a series of waves 
generated by an impulsive displacement of the surface of the ocean or other body of water. 
Tsunamis can travel across oceanic basins and cause damage several thousand miles from their 
sources. Most tsunamis are caused by a rapid vertical movement along a break in the Earth's 
crust (i.e., a tectonic fault rupture on the bottom of the ocean resulting in the displacement of the 
column of water directly above it). The majority of tsunamis are triggered by earthquake rupture 
along subduction zones. The 1964 Alaska earthquake generated a tsunami that caused 
widespread damage along the coastline of Northern California. Paleoseismic investigations have 
also shown that tsunamis resulting from earthquakes on the subduction zone beneath Japan and 
the Cascadia subduction zone in the Pacific Northwest have also inundated the Pacific coast 
states (Atwater et al. 1995). 

A seiche is a periodic oscillation or "sloshing" of water in an enclosed basin such as San 
Francisco Bay. The period of oscillation can range from minutes to hours. 

Erosion
Erosion is the gradual wearing away of land by water, wind, and general weather conditions. As 
with weathering, erosion is a natural geological process, but more rapid soil erosion results from 
poor land use practices, leading to the loss of fertile topsoil and to the silting of dams, lakes, 
rivers, and harbors. 

Wind erosion can occur on any soil whose surface is dry, unprotected by vegetation (to bind it at 
root level and shelter the surface), and consists of light particles. The mechanisms include 
straightforward picking up of dust and soil particles by the airflow and the dislodging or abrasion 
of surface material by the impact of particles already airborne. 

Three classes of erosion by water exist: (1) splash erosion occurs when raindrops strike bare soil, 
causing it to splash as mud, to flow into spaces in the soil, and to turn the upper layer of soil into 
a structureless, compacted mass that dries with a hard, largely impermeable crust; (2) surface 
flow occurs when soil is removed with surface runoff during heavy rain; and (3) channelized 
flow occurs when a flowing mixture of water and soil cuts a channel, which is then deepened by 
further scouring.

3.1.2.3 Soils
The formation of a soil profile is influenced by five primary factors: climate, topography, soil 
parent material, biotic influence, and time. Because a wide variation may exist between these 
factors, even within a relatively small area, any regionwide or statewide summary must be 
somewhat imprecise and inclusive. The soils descriptions in the following sections are intended 
to be general in nature and follow the taxonomic terminology used by the U.S. Department of 
Agriculture. Figure 3.1-2 is a map of California divided into ecological subregions that reflect 
differences due primarily to variations in climate, topographic relief, and the geographic 
relationships between subregions and the Pacific Ocean. The following text is modified from 
Ecological Subregions of California: Section and Subsection Descriptions (Miles and Goudey 
1997).

Central California Coast
This section consists of mountains, hills, valleys, and plains in the southern Coast Ranges of 
California. It is close enough to the Pacific Ocean for the climate to be modified greatly by 
marine influence. This section is within the Coast Ranges Province (Figure 3.1-1). The bedrock 
is primarily Cenozoic marine and nonmarine sedimentary rocks and Mesozoic granitic and 
ultramafic rocks mantled by alluvial and colluvial deposits. Soils are Alfisols, Entisols, 
Inceptisols, Mollisols, Ultisols, and Vertisols. Table 3.1-3 provides a brief description of soil 
taxonomic terminology. Soil temperature regimes are isomesic, mesic, or thermic; soil moisture 
regimes are xeric, udic, ustic, or aquic. 

Southern California Coast
This section contains mountains, hills, valleys, and plains of the Transverse Ranges and of the 
Peninsular Ranges that are close enough to the Pacific Ocean for the climate to be modified 
greatly by marine influence. This section is within both the Transverse and Peninsular Ranges 
Provinces. The landscape consists of narrow ranges and broad fault blocks, alluviated lowlands, 
and coastal terraces. Cenozoic marine and nonmarine sedimentary rocks and alluvial deposits 
underlie the soils of this section. Soils are Alfisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Ultisols, and 
Vertisols in combination with thermic, isothermic, or mesic soil temperature regimes and xeric, 
ustic, or aquic soil moisture regimes. 

Great Valley
This section contains the alluvial plains of Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Summers are 
hot and dry and winters are mild. Oceanic influence on climate is slight in the middle of the 
Great Valley, which receives some marine air through Carquinez Strait, but little at the north and 
south ends of the valley. This section coincides with the low fluviatile plain of the Great Valley 
Province. Holocene and Pleistocene alluvial deposits cover nearly all of this ecological section. 
Soil orders found here are Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Histisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and 
Vertisols. The soil temperature regime is thermic, and xeric, aquic, or aridic soil moisture 
regimes are common, depending on soil profile location. 

Northern California Coast
This section encompasses mountains, hills, valleys, and plains in the Northern California Coast 
Ranges and small parts of the Klamath Mountains that are close enough to the Pacific Ocean for 
the climate to be modified greatly by marine influence. Summers are characterized by fog, cool 
temperatures, and higher humidity than found inland. Like the Central California Coast section 
described above, the Northern California Coast lies within the Coast Ranges geomorphic 
province typified by somewhat linear ranges, with rounded crests of subequal height separated 
by parallel valleys. Late Mesozoic rocks of the Franciscan Formation and shelf and slope 
sedimentary rocks have been folded, faulted, and metamorphosed in this section. Soils on the 
north coast are Alfisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Spodosols (Pygmy Forest), Ultisols, and 
Vertisols. Typically, soil temperature regimes are isomesic, mesic or thermic, and soil moisture 
regimes are aquic, udic, ustic, or xeric (moist end of range). 

Klamath Mountains
The Klamath Mountains section is between the Southern Cascade Mountains and the Coast 
Ranges mountains. Its southern limit is the northern end of the Great Valley. This section 
coincides with the Klamath Mountains geomorphic province, an uplifted and dissected peneplain 
formed on strong rocks with extensive monadnock ranges. Mountains in this section have 
accordant or subequal summits and are generally, but not consistently, aligned north to south. 
Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and Mesozoic ultramafic, granitic, sedimentary, and 
volcanic rocks are found here. Soils are Alfisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Ultisols in 
combination with thermic, mesic, frigid, or cryic soil temperature regimes and xeric or aquic soil 
moisture regimes. 

Northern California Coast Ranges
This section is the interior part of the Northern California Coast Ranges mountains, north of 
Carquinez Strait. Marine air modifies winter and summer temperatures, but the section is far 
enough inland from the coast that oceanic effects are greatly diminished and less prevalent than 
in the Northern California Coast section. This section lies within the Coast Ranges geomorphic 
province of parallel ranges, folded, faulted, and metamorphosed strata. Late Mesozoic rocks of 
the Franciscan Formation, Mesozic ultramafic rocks, and Cenozoic volcanic rocks are the 
common bedrock lithologies in this section. Soil orders found in this ecoregion are Alfisols, 
Entisols, Inceptisols, and Mollisols in combination with frigid, mesic, or thermic soil temperature 
regimes and a xeric soil moisture regime. 

Northern California Interior Coast Ranges
This section is the southeastern edge of the Northern California Coast Ranges mountains (south 
of Cache Creek) and hills and terraces along the west side and north end of Sacramento Valley. 
Like the above section, this section is part of the Coast Ranges geomorphic province. 
Bedrock in the Northern California Interior Coast Ranges is late Mesozoic marine shelf and 
slope sedimentary deposits. Soils are Alfisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols in 
combination with thermic soil temperature regime and xeric soil moisture regime. 

Southern Cascades
This section comprises the southern Cascade Ranges. The crest of the mountain chain is aligned 
toward the north-northwest between the Sierra Nevada and Mount Shasta and toward the north 
from Mount Shasta northward. The landscape in this section is dominated by volcanic mountains 
that are variously eroded. This section lies completely within the Cascade Ranges geomorphic 
province of California. Rocks in this section are Cenozoic volcanic rocks and alluvial deposits of 
these same rocks. 

Numerous soil orders have been described in this section: Alfisols, Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, 
Inceptisols, Mollisols, Ultisols, and Vertisols. The soil temperature regime is mesic, frigid, or 
cryic, and the soil moisture regime is xeric, aridic, or aquic. 

Sierra Nevada
This section is the temperate to very cold parts of the Sierra Nevada, which is a north-northwest-
trending tilt-block mountain range with a steep eastern side and gentler sloping western side. 
This ecoregion lies within the Sierra Nevada Range geomorphic province. Mesozoic granitic and 
ultramafic rocks, Paleozoic and Mesozoic strongly metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic 
rocks, and Cenozoic volcanic rocks are present in this range. Locally glacial and fluvial deposits 
are present as well. Soils are Alfisols, Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and 
Ultisols in combination with mesic, frigid, or cryic soil temperature regimes and xeric, udic, 
aridic, or aquic soil moisture regimes. 

Sierra Nevada Foothills
This section comprises the foothills on the western side of the Sierra Nevada, and the 
southwestern end of the Cascade Ranges, adjacent to the Great Valley. Summers are hot and dry 
and winters are mild. This ecoregion lies within the Sierra Nevada Range geomorphic province. 
Mesozoic sedimentary, granitic, volcanic, and ultramafic bedrock is present. Soil orders found in 
this section include Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols in 
combination with mostly thermic soil temperature regimes and xeric or aridic soil moisture 
regimes. 

Modoc Plateau
This section corresponds to most of the Modoc Plateau, which is related structurally to the Basin 
and Range Province and lithologically to the Columbia Plateau. Northwest-trending fault-block 
mountains and ridges are common here with intervening basin-like grabens that commonly are 
interspersed with lakebed deposits, shield volcanoes, cinder cones, or lava flows. This ecoregion 
is also a separate geomorphic province: Modoc Plateau (part of the Basin and Range Province 
flooded with volcanics related to those of the Cascade Ranges Province). Cenozoic volcanic and 
nonmarine sedimentary rocks and alluvial deposits cover this landscape. Soil taxa are Alfisols, 
Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Histisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols. Soil temperature 
regimes are mesic, frigid, or cryic, and soil moisture regimes are xeric, aquic, or aridic. 

Central California Coast Ranges
This section is the interior part of the southern Coast Ranges of California, south of Carquinez 
Strait. It is inland from the coast far enough that the climate is modified only slightly by marine 
influence. It is bounded on the northeast by the alluvial plain of San Joaquin Valley and on the 
southwest by the coastal part of the southern Coast Ranges (Section 261A). It extends south to 
the Transverse Ranges. Like the northern Coast Ranges, the central Coast Ranges are part of the 
Coast Ranges Province and consist of parallel northwest-trending ranges, folded, faulted, and 
metamorphosed strata with rounded crests of subequal height separated by intervening valleys. 
The lithology of the rocks in this section varies from Cenozoic marine and nonmarine 
sedimentary rocks and alluvial deposits to late Mesozoic shelf, slope, and active tectonic margin 
sedimentary rocks and Mesozoic ultramafic rocks. Soils are Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, 
Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols in thermic or mesic soil temperature regimes and dry xeric 
or aridic soil moisture regimes. 

Southern California Mountains and Valleys
This section includes mountains, hills, and valleys of the Transverse Ranges and the Peninsular 
Ranges that are near the Pacific Ocean, but not bordering it. Much of the section is close enough 
to the Pacific Ocean for the climate to be moderated by marine influence. The geomorphology in 
this area consists of narrow ranges and broad fault blocks, alluvial lowlands, and dissected 
westward sloping granitic uplands. This ecological region lies within the Transverse and 
Peninsular Ranges provinces. Rocks in this region consist of Cenozoic marine and nonmarine 
sedimentary rocks and alluvial deposits and Mesozoic granitic rocks. Soils of the Alfisol, 
Aridisol, Entisol, Inceptisols, and Mollisol orders are found here. The soil temperature regime is 
thermic, mesic, or frigid; the soil moisture regime is xeric or aridic. 

Mojave Desert
This section is the hot part of the Basin and Range Province from the southern end of the Sierra 
Nevada and the north-northeastern side of the Transverse Ranges to Nevada and Arizona. 
Widely separated short ranges jutting up from desert plains are the common landforms of this 
region. Isolated mountains and plateaus are flanked by broad alluvial fans, locally extending 
down to dry lake beds (playas) and dunes. The Mojave Desert ecoregion lies within the Basin 
and Range Province. Cenozoic nonmarine sedimentary and granitic rocks and alluvial deposits 
and Precambrian rocks of all types can be found throughout the Mojave Desert. 
As can be expected in this hot, dry climate, Aridisols and Entisols are the prevalent soil types in 
combination with thermic or hyperthermic soil temperature regimes and aridic soil moisture 
regimes on foothills and valleys. Thermic or mesic soil temperature regimes and aridic or xeric 
soil moisture regimes can be expected on the mountains. Some low closed basin areas contain 
salt-affected soils.

Sonoran Desert
This section is the hot part of the Basin and Range Province from the eastern end of the 
Transverse Ranges and the Salton Trough east to Arizona. Some rain falls during the summer. 
The geomorphology in this portion of the Basin and Range Province is dominated by widely 
separated short ranges in broad desert plains. Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, alluvial and eolian 
(wind blown) deposits, and Precambrian to Cenozoic granitic and metamorphic rocks are 
common. Aridisols and Entisols are the common soil taxa in thermic or hyperthermic soil 
temperature regimes and aridic soil moisture regimes. 

Colorado Desert (Salton Trough)
This section is a very hot part of the Basin and Range Province that is sometimes called the 
Salton Trough. The surface of sediments in the middle of the trough are about 275 feet below sea 
level. The delta of the Colorado River is generally high enough to keep seawater out of the 
Salton Trough. In 1905, however, the Colorado River overflowed into the Salton Trough and the 
breach was not finally sealed until 1907. The current level of the Salton Sea is about 230 feet 
below sea level. An ancient lake, Lake Cahuilla, was higher long enough to produce shoreline 
features that persist and reveal its former size. This low area is covered by Cenozoic sedimentary 
rocks, alluvial fans, fine-grained lacustrine (lake) deposits, and eolian dunes and delta plain (Gulf 
of California). Aridisols and Entisols with hyperthermic soil temperature regimes and aridic soil 
moisture regimes are the common soils here. 

Mono
This ecological section is in the western part of the Great Basin, just east of the Sierra Nevada. 
Isolated fault block mountain ranges are separated by aggraded desert plains (alluvial fans and 
basins). The Mono ecological region lies within the Basin and Range Province. Cenozoic 
volcanic rocks and alluvial deposits, Mesozoic granitic rocks, and Paleozoic sedimentary and 
volcanic rocks are the common lithologies. Soils are widely variable between Alfisols, Aridisols, 
Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols in combination with mesic, frigid, or cryic soil 
temperature regimes and aridic, xeric, or aquic soil moisture regimes. 

Southeastern Great Basin
This section comprises the southern Great Basin in the Basin and Range Province. Like the rest 
of the Basin and Range Province, the southeastern Great Basin is dominated by widely separated 
short fault block ranges with intervening downdropped graben basins and plains. Common 
landforms include isolated mountains, plateaus, alluvial fans, playas, basins, and dunes. 
Quaternary and Tertiary alluvial deposits and volcanic rocks and Mesozoic granitic rocks are 
common in this region. The common soil orders are Aridisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, and 
Mollisols in combination with thermic, mesic, or frigid soil temperature regimes and aridic, 
xeric, or aquic soil moisture regimes. 

Northwestern Basin and Range
This section comprises the northern, particularly the northwestern, part of the Great Basin in the 
Basin and Range Province. The landscape here is dominated by isolated ranges (largely dissected 
block mountains) separated by aggraded desert plains. Quaternary alluvial and lacustrine 
deposits and Pliocene and Miocene volcanic rocks cover this region. Aridisols, Entisols, 
Inceptisols, and Mollisols are the prevailing soil orders with frigid and mesic soil temperature 
regimes and aridic and xeric soil moisture regimes. This section includes localized areas of salt-
affected soils, generally in closed basins where runoff accumulates and evaporates.

Tables
Table 3.1-1
Geologic Hazards

Table 3.1-2
Notable California Earthquakes

Table 3.1-3 
Explanation of Selected Soil Taxonomic Terms
Soil Orders and Distinguishing Characteristics

Alfisols
Naturally fertile soils in humid or subhumid regions, widely used for agriculture, with the 
following five characteristics: (1) Sufficient translocated clay particles to form an argillic Bt 
horizon; (2) Relatively high base saturation (>35 percent) that typically increases with depth; (3) 
Contrasting soil horizons O, A, E, and Bt; (4) Favorable moisture regime: water is available to 
mesophytic plants more than half of the year, or for three consecutive months in warm season; and 
(5) Little accumulation of organic matter.

Andisols
Soils formed from and having the characteristics identified as associated with volcanic ash. 

Aridisols
Soils of deserts. 

Entisols
Recently formed soils, soils that have little or no evidence of development of pedogenic horizons. 

Histosols
Organic soils commonly with very high water content.

Inceptisols
Soils that have not developed features diagnostic of other orders but have some features in 
addition to those permitted in Entisols. 

Mollisols
Grassland soils of steppes and prairies having deep dark (due to organic content) relatively fertile 
surface horizon.

Ultisols
Relatively old deep and highly weathered forest soils formed in humid areas on parent materials 
that have been unaffected by glaciation. 

Vertisols
Soils with thick horizons of expansive clays. Deep vertical cracks form when the soil dries. 

Soil Moisture Regimes
Aquic	
A reducing regime that is virtually free of dissolved oxygen because the soil is saturated

Aridic
(1) Dry more than half of the time that the soil temperature is above 5?C at a depth of 50 cm; (2) 
Never moist in some or all parts for as long as 90 consecutive days when soil temperature is above 
8?C at a depth of 50 cm. 

Udic
Not dry for as long as 90 days in most years. Common in humid climate or where summer rains 
plus storage exceed evapotranspirational losses. 

Ustic
Intermediate between Aridic and Udic moisture regimes. 

Xeric
Typical in Mediterranean climate: moist cool winters and warm dry summers.

Soil Temperature Regimes*
Frigid
Below 8? C  

Mesic
From 8? to 15? C 

Thermic
From 15? to 22? C 

Hyperthermic
22? C or higher

The term "Iso" is added to the above four temperature terms if the difference between mean winter and mean 
summer temperatures is less than 5? C. 
* Note: soil temperature is measured at a depth of 50 cm.

Figures
Figure 3.1-1 California Geomorphic Provinces

Figure 3.1-2 California Ecological Subregions

3.2 AIR QUALITY
This section describes relevant air quality regulations and discusses attainment status for criteria 
pollutants by geographical region in California. This information is necessary to assess the air 
quality impacts of potential FEMA actions and alternatives.

3.2.1 Regulatory Background

3.2.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
Several federal and state laws regulate air quality in California. The federal Clean Air Act (CAA) 
of 1970 was enacted to regulate air emissions from area, stationary, and mobile sources. This law 
authorized the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to establish National Ambient 
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and the environment. The six most 
common criteria pollutants regulated by the CAA are carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), 
nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter smaller than 10 microns in diameter (PM10), 
particulate matter smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Other 
criteria pollutants include lead, sulfates, and hydrogen sulfide. If the levels of any of the criteria 
pollutants in a particular geographic area exceed the NAAQS established for those pollutants, the 
area is designated as "nonattainment" for those pollutants. Likewise, if standards for pollutants 
are met in a particular area, the area is designated as "attainment" for those pollutants. In areas 
where background monitoring data are not available for certain criteria pollutants, the areas are 
considered "unclassified" for those pollutants. The FAA also requires that nonattainment areas 
for criteria pollutants prepare and implement State Implementation Plans (SIPs) to achieve the 
standards. Under the New Source Review (NSR) permitting process, any new potential source of 
emissions exceeding a certain amount may have to be permitted by the air districts. 
The federal General Conformity Rule (GCR) states that a federal action cannot:
* Adversely affect or delay air quality plan maintenance
* Contribute to any new violations of an air quality standard
* Increase the frequency or severity of an existing violation
* Delay achieving attainment or emission reductions in any area

This rule applies to all federal actions, with an extensive listing of exempted actions that include 
those listed below (The GCR includes a comprehensive set of exemptions and only a key subset 
of these is listed below.):
* Actions specifically included in a transportation plan, program, or project developed, funded, 
or approved under 23 USC or the Federal Transit Act (49 USC 1601 et seq.) and which are 
subject to their own unique set of transportation conformity requirements under a different set of 
federal regulations
* Actions resulting in emissions below the threshold levels specified in 40 CFR Part 51.583(b) 
and shown in Table 3.2-1.
* Actions specifically listed as exempt because they have been determined to result in no 
emissions increase or an emission increase that is clearly de minimis (e.g., routine maintenance 
and repair of facilities; issuance of licenses, leases, or permits to ongoing operations; etc.)
* Actions that would carry out a conforming program, such as prescribed burning actions, which 
are consistent with a conforming land management plan
* The portion of any actions associated with major new or modified stationary sources that 
require a permit under the NSR program or the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) 
program
* Actions taken in response to emergencies or natural disasters 
* Planning studies, research, demonstrations, and training where no environmental detriment is 
expected 
* Alterations to facilities specifically required to comply with environmental laws or regulations
Of the list of exempted actions above, the following are the most relevant to potential FEMA 
actions: actions that result in emissions below the thresholds specified in 40 CFR Part 51.853(b), 
actions involving major stationary sources under NSR, emergency and natural disaster response 
actions; prescribed burning; planning studies; and routine maintenance and repairs (40 CFR Part 
51.853). 

If an action is not exempted under the GCR, the action must be reviewed to determine if it 
conforms for each criteria pollutant. The conformity analysis generally involves a demonstration 
that:
* Expected emissions from the activity have been appropriately accounted for and/or will not 
exceed the emission budgets specified in the approved SIP.
* Expected emissions will not cause a new violation of an applicable NAAQS or significantly 
worsen an existing violation. 

The GCR may apply to an action. Consequently, each action must be reviewed to determine 
whether it qualifies for one of the many GCR exemptions (40 CFR 51.853), or whether further 
analysis is required under the GCR to establish conformity with the SIP.

3.2.1.2 State Laws and Regulations
The CARB was formed to "attain and maintain healthy air quality, conduct research into the 
causes of and solutions to air pollution, and systematically attack the serious problem caused by 
motor vehicles, which are the major causes of air pollution in the state." CARB also assists local 
air districts with setting appropriate emissions limits, enforcing laws, and providing technical 
staff and equipment when needed. 

The California Clean Air Act (CCAA) has established California Ambient Air Quality Standards 
(CAAQS). These standards are generally more stringent than those promulgated by the NAAQS. 
The CCAA requires attainment of CAAQS by the earliest practicable date. For air districts in 
violation of the state O3, CO, SO2, or nitrogen dioxide (NO2) standards at the time the CCAA 
was established, attainment plans were required by July 1991. The federal and state standards are 
summarized in Table 3.2-2.

3.2.1.3 Local Laws and Regulations
For air quality purposes, California is divided into 15 air basins based on meteorological and 
geographical conditions, and where possible, jurisdictional boundaries. Each air basin is divided 
into Air Quality Management Districts (AQMDs) or Air Pollution Control Districts (APCDs). 
Each district is responsible for controlling air pollution such that the district's air quality meets 
all state and federal air quality standards. Some AQMDs and APCDs are further broken down by 
county. The division of the state into air basins, air districts, and counties is shown on Figures 
3.2-1, 3.2-2, and 3.2-3. 

Each air district adopts its own statutes to deal with the air quality problems specific to that 
district, including setting emission limits for stationary sources. In addition, each district 
develops its own clean air plan and enforces local air pollution control laws. Because the air 
quality problems across the state vary, each district has its own requirements for managing air 
quality.

Local air quality districts require preconstruction permits for stationary sources, but do not have 
authority to issue permits for mobile sources. As part of the permitting process, local air districts 
may require the use of Best Available Control Technology (BACT) to decrease emissions and 
corresponding potential air quality impacts.

3.2.2 Air Quality in California
The current air quality status of each basin, district, and county is discussed in this section. The 
attainment status of the air basins with respect to the six key criteria pollutants-O3, CO, NO2, 
SO2, PM10, and PM2.5-is shown in Tables 3.2-3 through 3.2-17. For all counties, the status of 
PM2.5 attainment has not yet been determined. When all the counties of a basin are classified the 
same with respect to their attainment status, the individual counties of an air basin are not listed 
in a table.

The following symbols apply to all air basin tables:
A   = Attainment
N   = Nonattainment
NT  = Nonattainment-Transitional
U   = Unclassified
U/A = Unclassified or attainment

3.2.2.1 North Coast Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the North Coast Unified AQMD and the Mendocino County AQMD. 
This basin includes Sonoma, Del Norte, Humboldt, and Trinity counties in the North Coast 
District and Mendocino County in the Mendocino District. The attainment status of the North 
Coast Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-3.

The North Coast area has two major topographic features: the Klamath Mountains and the Coast 
Range. Both features are rugged, mountainous terrain. Winds are from a westerly or 
southwesterly direction and are restricted by a barrier created by the orientation of the 
topography. The Coast Range includes low-lying areas along the coastal strip. These low-lying 
areas constitute less than 10 percent of the basin. Under low-level inversion conditions when 
vertical air movement is restricted due to a layer of warm air acting as a lid over cooler air that is 
near the surface, the effective volume of air for dilution of pollutants in the coastal valleys is 
severely limited.

The weather in this basin is directly related to the elevation, latitude, and distance from the ocean 
and the nature of the terrain between an area and the ocean. Although some continental influence 
may exist in parts of Sonoma County and in some of the river valleys, the climate of the most 
highly populated sections of the basin is generally a marine climate. Fog and sea breezes are 
typical during the summer. The average July temperature is between 50 and 60 Fahrenheit (F). 
Winters are mild for the latitude with an overall small annual temperature range. Precipitation 
increases substantially northward over the basin.

3.2.2.2 San Francisco Bay Area Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Bay Area AQMD and the Northern Sonoma County APCD. The 
Bay Area AQMD includes Contra Costa, San Francisco, Alameda, Marin, Napa, Santa Clara, 
San Mateo counties, the southern portion of Sonoma County, and the western portion of Solano 
County. The Northern Sonoma County APCD includes the northern portion of Sonoma County. 
The attainment status of the San Francisco Bay Area Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-4.
The climate of the San Francisco Bay Area is classified as Mediterranean with mild, wet winters 
and warm, dry summers. The regional climate is controlled primarily by the Pacific high-
pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean and by local topography. The local climate is 
strongly influenced by topography and proximity to the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay. 
Cool, onshore winds blowing from the Pacific have a moderating effect, especially west of the 
Diablo Mountain Range. These mountains act as a barrier to onshore winds, resulting in the 
channeling of airflow along canyons, valleys, and through straits in the Bay and strong west-to-
east temperature differences. 

The resulting overall airflow patterns are complex, exhibiting much local variation. Large-scale 
winds, which are the wind patterns influenced by the general geographical and topographical 
features of the San Francisco Bay Area on a roughly 50-mile scale, are predominantly from the 
northwest. The Bay Area has a large range of temperatures on any given day (particularly in the 
summer) due to the influence of the marine layer. During the summer months, the mean 
maximum temperature can range from 55F near the coast to 100F in the inland valleys. The 
range in temperature is not as great in the winter. 

3.2.2.3 North Central Coast Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Monterey Bay Unified APCD. This basin includes Monterey, San 
Benito, and Santa Cruz Counties. The attainment status of the North Central Coast Air Basin is 
shown in Table 3.2-5.

This basin's climate is mild because of its proximity to the ocean. Winter temperatures average 
between 45 and 50F, and summer temperatures average in the low 70s. The further from the 
ocean, the higher the temperature in the summer and the lower the temperature in the winter. 
Temperature inversions are characteristic of this basin. During the late summer and fall, the cool 
air typically becomes trapped under a warmer layer of air preventing the dispersion of air 
pollutants. The prevailing wind direction when the inland area is warmer than the coastal area is 
from west to east, which is caused by the uprising of air in the inland areas that results from the 
heating of the land. When the inland area is cooler than the coastal area, the prevailing wind 
direction is from east to west. The prevailing wind is directed through the troughs between the 
mountains. 

3.2.2.4 South Central Coast Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the San Luis Obispo County, Ventura County, and Santa Barbara 
County APCDs. Each APCD governs air quality for its county only. The attainment status of the 
South Central Coast Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-6.

This basin has cool winters and warm, dry summers tempered by cooling sea breezes. Summer, 
spring, and fall weather is generally a result of the movement and intensity of the semipermanent 
high-pressure area located several hundred miles to the west. Marine influences generally 
predominate during this period and cause afternoon onshore flow and evening offshore flow. 
Winter weather is generally a result of the size and location of low-pressure weather systems 
originating in the north Pacific Ocean. The winds are dominated by a diurnal land-sea breeze 
cycle. This cycle is broken only by occasional winter storms and infrequent strong Santa Ana 
winds from the northeast. The sea breeze is generally stronger than the land breeze and results in 
a net flow from west to east. Westerly sea breezes carry pollutants generated in the coastal areas 
into the inland valleys, where dispersion is restricted. The presence of temperature inversions 
and westerly transport result in meteorological conditions conducive to O3 formation in the 
inland valleys. In particular, Simi Valley and Conejo Valley suffer from restricted vertical 
mixing caused by temperature inversions and the transport of pollutants from the South Coast 
Air Basin. 

3.2.2.5 South Coast Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the South Coast AQMD. This AQMD includes Los Angeles County 
(except for the Antelope Valley APCD, which is in the Mojave Desert Air Basin), Orange 
County, and the western portions of San Bernardino and Riverside counties, as shown on Figure 

3.2-4. The attainment status of the South Coast Air Basin in shown in Table 3.2-7.
This basin's climate is determined by its terrain and geographical location. It is a coastal plain 
with connecting broad valleys and low hills, bounded by the Pacific Ocean in the southwest 
quadrant with high mountains forming the remainder of the perimeter. The basin generally lies in 
the semipermanent high-pressure zone of the eastern Pacific. The climate is mild with cool sea 
breezes. Infrequently, periods of extremely hot weather, winter storms, or Santa Ana winds occur 
in the area. Most of the 14.24 inches of average annual rainfall in the basin occurs between 
November and March. The median temperature in the area is 64.3F. However, in the spring, 
summer, and fall, the temperature variation from the coast to the inland areas is large. The basin 
has frequent strong, elevated inversions and low winds throughout the year. Air contaminants do 
not get dispersed well horizontally in this basin because of the low winds.

3.2.2.6 San Diego Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the San Diego APCD. This APCD governs air quality for San Diego 
County only. The attainment status of the San Diego Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-8.
San Diego's climate is generally subtropical with large-scale wind and temperature regimes that 
are controlled by the Pacific Ocean and the seasonal migration of the Pacific high-pressure 
system. Summers and winters are mild. Temperatures rarely get below 32F or over 100F. The 
average temperatures (as indicated in observations at the weather station at Miramar Naval Air 
Station) are 57F in December and 72F in June. Winds are predominantly westerly in the 
spring, summer, and fall, with an average wind direction from the west-northwest from February 
through October. From November through January, the average wind flow is from the northeast. 
Wind speeds average less than 10 miles per hour (mph). Rainfall in this basin averages about 
10.6 inches per year.

3.2.2.7 Northeast Plateau Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Siskiyou County, Modoc County, and Lassen County APCDs. 
Each APCD governs air quality for its county only. The attainment status of the Northeast 
Plateau Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-9.

The climate in this air basin is mainly controlled by the quasistationary high-pressure cell off the 
coast. In the western portion of the basin, winters are cloudy, cool, and rainy. An almost 
unbroken succession of winter storms passes through the extreme northern area. The Modoc 
Plateau is typically cloudy, but precipitation is light. Winds are often from a southerly quadrant 
for the entire basin. Winds vary from moderate to strong and gusty as frontal systems approach. 
In summer, a brief period of thunderstorms might interrupt the more typical clear warm weather.

3.2.2.8 Sacramento Valley Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Shasta County AQMD, Tehama County APCD, Glenn County 
APCD, Butte County AQMD, Colusa County APCD, Feather River AQMD, Placer County 
APCD, Yolo-Solano AQMD, and Sacramento Metropolitan AQMD. The Shasta County AQMD 
includes Shasta County. The Tehama, Glenn, Butte, Colusa, Placer, and Sacramento districts 
each govern the air quality for their counties only. The Feather River AQMD includes Sutter and 
Yuba counties. The Yolo-Solano AQMD includes Yolo County and the eastern portion of Solano 
County. The attainment status of the Sacramento Valley Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-10.
This basin's climate is Mediterranean with a dry, warm summer and a wet, mild winter. Diurnal 
winter temperatures range from 15 to 74F, and averages range from 35 to 55F. Diurnal summer 
temperatures range from 39 to 115F and averages range from 56 to 94F. About 80 percent of 
the rainfall occurs from the beginning November through March. The average annual rainfall is 
23 inches. Even a trace of rain is rare in June, July, August, and September. Prevailing winds in 
the area are south to southeasterly except during November, when they are from the north-
northwest. During the winter months, frontal storm systems sometimes bring high-speed wind 
conditions.

3.2.2.9 San Joaquin Valley Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the San Joaquin Valley Unified APCD. This APCD includes Fresno, 
Kings, Madera, Merced, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, and Tulare counties and the western portion of 
Kern County. The attainment status of the San Joaquin Valley Air Basin is shown in Table 
3.2-11.

This basin is dominated by hot, dry summers and mild winters with relatively small amounts of 
precipitation. The semipermanent "Pacific High" over the eastern Pacific Ocean dominates the 
weather during the summer months, blocking low-pressure systems from passing through the 
area. The summers are usually quite warm, with average daily maximum temperatures during 
July of over 98F. 

During the winter months, the Pacific High weakens and migrates to the south allowing Pacific 
storms into California. The annual rainfall in the Bakersfield area is only 5.7 inches. In between 
storms, high pressure from the Great Basin High can block storms and result in persistent fog 
caused by temperature inversions. Daily maximums during the December-January months are a 
relatively mild 57F, with lows averaging 38F. At the Maricopa weather station, a record high 
of 115F in the summer and a record low of 15F in the winter has been measured. 

Winds in the area are strongly influenced by the Temblor Range to the west and the marine air 
that enters the Central Valley through Carquinez Strait and Altamont Pass in the Bay Area to the 
north. During the summer, marine air entering the Central Valley results in northeasterly winds 
in the daytime hours. In the nighttime hours downslope drainage of air from the hills and 
mountains to the south and west results in winds from the southwest. This windflow pattern is 
fairly consistent throughout the year, although more variability to wind directions occurs during 
the winter with the passage of storms through the area. Winds are usually stronger during the 
summer because during the winter, calm and stagnant atmospheric conditions can occur between 
storms and the influence of the marine air from the coast is substantially diminished. 

3.2.2.10 Great Basin Valley Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Great Basin Unified APCD. The Great Basin district includes 
Alpine, Inyo, and Mono counties. The attainment status of the Great Basin Valley Air Basin is 
shown in Table 3.2-12.

This basin is located between the eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Nevada border. It is a 
complex system of high-elevation mountain ranges and deep valleys. Death Valley (-279 feet) 
has the lowest elevation in the continental U.S. and Mount Whitney (14,494 feet) has the highest 
elevation in the continental U.S. The climate in the area varies dramatically with elevation. In the 
Sierra Nevada mountains, temperatures are cold, with glaciers at the highest elevations. Owens 
Valley has a mild high-desert climate with temperatures in summer ranging from 45 to 103F, 
and in winter from 18 to 70F. Death Valley, which is the southernmost part of the Great Basin 
Valley, has some of the highest temperatures in the U.S., typically exceeding 120F during the 
summer. Storms in the areas are typically generated over the Pacific Ocean and move from west 
to east across the Sierra Nevada mountain range on the western boundary of the basin. The 
amount of rainfall varies from 3 to 30 inches within several miles as the elevation changes. 
Winds can exceed an hourly average of 40 mph at 33 feet above ground level.

3.2.2.11 Mojave Desert Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Mojave Desert AQMD, Kern County APCD, Antelope Valley 
AQMD, and South Coast AQMD. The Mojave Desert AQMD includes the northern portion of 
San Bernardino County and the eastern portion of Riverside County. The Kern County APCD 
includes the eastern portion of Kern County (the western portion of Kern County is governed by 
the San Joaquin Valley Unified APCD). The Antelope Valley AQMD includes the northeastern 
portion of Los Angeles County. The South Coast AQMD includes Los Angeles County except 
for the Antelope Valley AQMD, Orange County, and the western portions of San Bernardino and 
Riverside counties. The attainment status of the Mojave Desert Air Basin is shown in Table 
3.2-13.

This basin, located in the southeastern portion of California, covers an area of over 18,000 square 
miles of desert. The area is mostly rural with a few sparsely populated urban centers. This basin 
exhibits a typical desert climate. The San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountain ranges block the 
desert from the cool, moist coastal air of the South Coast Air Basin. It is generally hot and dry in 
summer with mild winters with little annual rainfall (2 to 5 inches per year). The meteorology is 
affected by a moderately intense high-pressure circulation (sinking and warming of the air), 
except during periods of frontal activity during the winter. On average, 20 to 30 frontal systems 
move into the area each winter. Prevailing winds are from a westerly and southerly direction 
with the most common wind direction being west to east.

3.2.2.12 Salton Sea Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Imperial County APCD and the South Coast AQMD. The Imperial 
County APCD governs Imperial County only. The South Coast AQMD includes Los Angeles 
County except for the Antelope Valley AQMD, Orange County, and the western portions of San 
Bernardino and Riverside counties. The attainment status of the Salton Sea Air Basin is shown in 
Table 3.2-14.

This basin is bordered on the south by Mexico, on the east by Arizona, on the west by San Diego 
County, and on the north by Riverside County. The area consists of more than 2 million acres of 
desert and mountains. Large-scale sinking and warming of air masses characterize the climatic 
conditions. The coastal mountains prevent the intrusion of any cool, damp marine air. The area 
typically has clear skies, very low humidity, very hot summers, mild winters, and little rainfall. 
The temperature in El Centro and the city of Imperial reaches an average annual high of 88F 
and an annual average low of 59F. Subsidence inversions, in which the air mass aloft sinks, 
causing compressional heating on the surface, are common in this area from November through 
June. These inversions can form a nearly impenetrable lid to vertical mixing of particulate 
matter. The temperature in Palm Springs has an average maximum temperature of 70F in 
January and 109F in July. Wind conditions are from a westerly or west-northwesterly direction 
and are usually high in the desert. The winds are calmer in the winter than in other seasons. 

3.2.2.13 Mountain Counties Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Northern Sierra AQMD, Feather River AQMD, Placer County 
APCD, El Dorado APCD, Amador County APCD, Calaveras County APCD, Tuolumne County 
APCD, and Mariposa County APCD. The Northern Sierra AQMD includes Nevada, Plumas, and 
Sierra counties. The Feather River AQMD includes Sutter and Yuba counties. The Placer 
County, El Dorado, Amador County, Calaveras County, Tuolumne County, and Mariposa 
County APCDs govern air quality for their own counties only. The attainment status of the 
Mountain Counties Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-15.

This basin is primarily located in the western portion of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and 
incorporates much of the Sierra foothills. Elevation varies from less than 1,000 feet above sea 
level in the west to about 6,000 feet in the east. Winters are longer and more severe as elevation 
increases and distance from the ocean increases. At above 4,000 feet, moderate to heavy 
snowfall is typical. The summers are typically mild to warm.

3.2.2.14 Lake County Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the Lake County AQMD, which includes Lake County. The attainment 
status of the Lake County Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-18.

This basin lies entirely within the North Coast Range. It constitutes one of the major terrain 
depressions of the region. It is much cooler than the central valley and has a climate similar to 
that of the North Coast region in inland areas. Between storm periods, nighttime cooling usually 
leads to the formation of ground fog in sheltered inland valleys. Considerable air stagnation 
occurs when these fogs persist for several days. The winter weather in the region brings 
generally favorable ventilation conditions. Because the air aloft is still relatively cold in the 
spring months, the atmosphere tends to become unstable. This instability is conducive to vertical 
air motion and generally favorable ventilation. During summer, most of the storm tracks are 
deflected far to the north of California as the semipermanent Pacific high migrates northward. 
The Lake County area seldom receives precipitation from Pacific storms during this time of the 
year. In the fall, inversions with accompanying ground fog occur during the periods of clear 
skies and light winds. Pressure gradients are generally weak during the fall and result in the 
lowest mean wind speeds of the year.

3.2.2.15 Lake Tahoe Air Basin
This basin is regulated by the El Dorado County and Placer County APCDs. The El Dorado 
County APCD includes El Dorado County. The Placer County APCD includes Placer County. 
The attainment status of the Lake Tahoe Air Basin is shown in Table 3.2-17.
This basin is located in the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range at an elevation of 6,225 feet. It is set 
in a structural basin rimmed by ice-sculptured summits rising above conifer-forested slopes. It is 
more than 20 miles long and covers 193 square miles (partially in Nevada). Winters tend to be 
longer and colder than in the surrounding areas. The area receives moderate to heavy snowfall. 
Summers are typically mild and cool.

Tables

Table 3.2-1
Emission Thresholds That Trigger Applicability of the General Conformity Rule in Tons 
Per Year Based on Air Quality Attainment Designation in California

Attainment Designation	NOx or VOCs1 (as a 
			precursor to O3)2	NOx3	SO2	PM10	Lead
Extreme Nonattainment	10			NA4	NA4	NA5	NA4
Severe Nonattainment	25			NA4	NA4	NA5	NA4
Serious Nonattainment	50			NA4	NA4	70	NA4
Moderate or Marginal 
Nonattainment		100			1004	1004	100	254
Maintenance6		100			100	100	100	100
1 VOCs = volatile organic compounds. 
2 NOx and VOC are regulated under the CAA as precursors to O3, an atmospheric pollutant with an adopted NAAQS that is not 
directly emitted. The attainment designations for values in this column apply to O3. The threshold quantities listed apply 
separately to NOx and VOC emissions.
3 NOx is also separately regulated under the NAAQS for NO2. The threshold values shown in this column apply to the attainment 
designation with respect to the NAAQS for NO2.
4 Only Nonattainment or Maintenance designations apply to NOx, SO2, and lead (i.e., the severity of nonattainment is not 
applicable because it is not separately categorized for these pollutants). The threshold values listed under "Moderate or Marginal 
Nonattainment" apply to all areas designated Nonattainment.
5 Extreme and severe attainment designations are not applicable to PM10, which is only categorized as either Serious or Moderate 
nonattainment.
6 The "Maintenance " designation applies to areas that currently attain the NAAQS.

Table 3.2-2 
State and Federal Ambient Air Quality Standards

								California 
								Standardsa	National Standardsb
Pollutant		Averaging Time	Concentrationsc		Primaryc, d	Secondaryc, e
Ozone			8-hour		--   			0.08 ppm 	Same as primary
			1-hourf		0.09 ppm		0.12 ppm	

Carbon monoxide		8-hour 		9.0 ppm			9 ppm 		Same as primary
			1-hour		20.0 ppm		35 ppm		

Nitrogen dioxide	Annual mean 	-- 			0.053 ppm 	Same as primary
			1-hour		0.25 ppm		--

Sulfur dioxide		Annual mean 	-- 			0.03 ppm 	--
			24-hour 	0.04 ppm		0.14 ppm 	--
			3-hour		-- 			-- 		0.5 ppm 
			1-hour		0.25 ppm		--		--

Particulate matter 	Annual mean	-- 			50 ?g/m3	Same as primary 
(PM10)			Annual 
			geometric mean	30 (mu)g/m3 		--		-- 
			24-hour		50 (mu)g/m3		150 (mu)g/m3	Same as primary 

Fine particulate matter 
(PM2.5)			Annual mean	-- 			15 (mu)g/m3	Same as primary
			24-hour		--			65 (mu)g/m3

Notes:  
a: California standards, other than CO, SO2 (1-hour), and fine particulate matter, are values that are not to be equaled or violated. The 
CO, SO2 (1-hour), and fine particulate matter standards are not to be violated. 
b: National standards, other than O3, the 24-hour PM2.5, the PM10, and those standards based on annual averages, are not to be 
exceeded more than once a year. The 1-hour O3 standard is attained when the expected number of days per calendar year with 
maximum hourly average concentrations above the standard is equal to or less than one. The 8-hour O3 standard is attained when the 
3-year average of the annual fourth highest daily maximum concentration is less than 0.08 ppm. The 24-hour PM10 standard is attained 
when the 99th percentile of 24-hour PM10 concentrations in a year, averaged over 3 years, at the population-oriented monitoring site 
with the highest measured values in the area, is below 150 ?g/m3. The 24-hour PM2.5 standard is attained when the 98th percentile of 
24-hour PM2.5 concentrations in a year, averaged over 3 years, at the population-oriented monitoring site with the highest measured 
values in the area, is below 65 ?g/m3. The annual average PM2.5 standard is attained when the 3-year average of the annual arithmetic 
mean PM2.5 concentrations, from single or multiple community oriented monitors is less than or equal to 15 ?g/m3. 
c: All measurements of air quality are to be corrected to a reference temperature of 25? C and a reference pressure of 760 mm of 
mercury (Hg) (1013.2 millibar); ppm in this table refers to ppm by volume, or micromoles of pollutant per mole of gas. 
d: National Primary Standards: The levels of air quality deemed necessary by the federal government, with an adequate margin of 
safety, to protect the public health. 
e: National Secondary Standards: The levels of air quality deemed necessary by the federal government, to protect the public welfare 
from any known or anticipated adverse effects from a pollutant. 
f: The 1-hour O3 standard will be replaced by the 8-hour standard on an area-by-area basis when the area has achieved 3 consecutive 
years of air quality data meeting the 1-hour standard.
ppm = parts per million, ?g/m3 = micrograms per cubic meter
Source: CARB 2003.

Table 3.2-3 
North Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State 
Sonoma		U/A NT		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Del Norte	U/A A		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Humboldt	U/A A		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Mendocino	U/A A		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Trinity		U/A A		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-4 
San Francisco Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
All Counties	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Bay Area Basin	U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-5 
North Central Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Monterey	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
San Benito	U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Santa Cruz	U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-6 
South Central Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
San Luis Obispo	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Santa Barbara	N   N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Ventura		N   A		U/A A		U/A A		A   A		U   N		U   U
Channel Islands	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-7 
South Coast Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Los Angeles	N   N		N   N		U/A A		A   A		N   N		U   U
Orange		N   N		N   A		U/A A		A   A		N   N		U   U
Riverside	N   N		N   A		U/A A		A   A		N   N		U   U
San 
Bernardino	N   N		N   A		U/A A		A   A		N   N		U   U

Table 3.2-8 
San Diego Air Basin Attainment Status

		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
All Counties	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
San Diego Basin	N   N		U/A A		U/A A		A   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-9 
Northeast Plateau Air Basin Attainment Status

		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
All Counties	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Northeast 
Plateau Basin	U/A A		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-10 
Sacramento Valley Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Butte		U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Colusa		U/A NT		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Glenn		U/A NT		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Placer		U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Sacramento	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U
Shasta		U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Solano		U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Sutter		U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Tehama		U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Yolo		U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U
Yuba   		U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-11 
San Joaquin Valley Air Basin Attainment Status

		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Fresno		N   N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U
Kern		N   N		U/A A		U/A A		A   A		N   N		U   U
Kings  		N   N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U
Madera		N   N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U
Merced 		N   N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U
San Joaquin	N   N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U
Stanislaus	N   N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U
Tulare		N   N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Table 3.2-12 
Great Basin Valley Air Basin Attainment Status

		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Alpine		U/A U		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Inyo County 
Owens Valley 
Planning Area	U/A U		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Inyo County 
Searles Valley 
Planning Area	U/A U		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Inyo County 
(Except Searles 
and Owens)	U/A U		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Mono County 
Mammoth Lakes 
Planning Area	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Mono County 
Mono Lake 
Planning Area	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Mono (Except 
Mono and 
Mammoth Lakes 
Planning Areas)	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-13 
Mojave Desert Air Basin Attainment Status

		           O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County			Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Kern County Searles 
Valley Planning Area	N   N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Kern County (except 
Searles Valley 
Planning Area)		N   N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Los Angeles County	N   N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Riverside		U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

San Bernadino County 
Western Portion		N   N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

San Bernadino County 
Eastern Portion		U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Table 3.2-14 
Salton Sea Air Basin Attainment Status

		           O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County			Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Imperial County  
City of Calexico	N   N		U/A N		A   A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Imperial County 
(Except City of 
Calexico)		N   N		U/A U		A   A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Imperial County 
(Except Imperial 
Valley Planning Area)	N   N		U/A U		A   A		U   U		U   N		U   U

Riverside County 
AQMD Portion		N   N		U/A A		U   A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Riverside County 
(Except AQMD 
Portion)		U/A N		U/A A		U   A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Riverside County 
Imperial Valley 
Planning Area		N   N		U/A A		U   A		U   A		N   N		U   U

Riverside County 
(Except Imperial 
Valley Planning Area)	U/A N		U/A A		U   A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Table 3.2-15 
Mountain Counties Air Basin Attainment Status

		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
County		Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Amador		U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   U		U   U

Calvaras	U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

El Dorado	N   N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Mariposa County 
Yosemite Park	U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Mariposa County 
(except 
Yosemite Park)	U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   U		U   U

Nevada		U/A N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Placer		N   N		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Plumas		U/A U		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Sierra		U/A U		U/A U		U/A A		U   A		U   N		U   U

Tuolumne	U/A N		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   U		U   U

Table 3.2-16 
Lake County Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
All Counties	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Lake County 
Air Basin	U/A A		U/A A		U/A A		U   A		U   A		U   U

Table 3.2-17 
Lake Tahoe Air Basin Attainment Status
		   O3		   CO		  NO2		  SO2		  PM10		  PM2.5
All Counties	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State	Nat State
Lake Tahoe 
Air Basin	U/A A		U/A A		U/A A		A   A		U   N		U   U

Figures
Figure 3.2-1 California Air Basins

Figure 3.2-2 California Air Districts

Figure 3.2-3 California Counties

Figure 3.2-4 South Coast Air Basin

1.1 
3.3 WATER RESOURCES
Water resources refer to the occurrence, availability, and physical, chemical, and biological 
characteristics of surface water and groundwater, including hydrologic properties and water 
quality for aquatic communities and public water supplies. Water bodies include aquifers, 
springs, streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and nearshore and offshore marine water. 
Water quality encompasses the level of pollutants that affect the suitability of water for a given 
use. Water use classifications generally include public water supply, recreation, propagation of 
fish and other aquatic life, agricultural use, and industrial use.

3.3.1 Regulatory Background

3.3.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
Clean Water Act 
The CWA is a 1977 amendment to the federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (USC, Title 
33), which established the basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges to navigable 
waters1 of the United States. The CWA sets forth procedures for effluent limitations, water 
quality standards and implementation plans, national performance standards, and point source 
(e.g., municipal wastewater discharges) and nonpoint source programs (e.g., stormwater). The 
CWA also establishes the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) under 
Sections 401 and 402 and permits for dredged or fill material under Section 404. 
The USACE is charged with regulating the disposal of dredged and fill materials under Section 
404 of the CWA. Certain waters of the U.S. are considered "special aquatic sites" under the 
CWA because they are generally recognized as having particular ecological value. Such sites 
include sanctuaries and refuges, mudflats, wetlands, vegetated shallow, eelgrass beds, coral 
reefs, and riffle and pool complexes. Special aquatic sites are defined in the CWA and may be 
afforded additional consideration in the USACE permit process for a project.
A Section 404 permit from the USACE must be obtained for any dredge or fill activities within 
jurisdictional waters of the U.S. During the permit review process, the USACE determines the 
type of permit appropriate for the proposed action. Two types of permits are issued by the 
USACE:
* General Permits are issued on a state, regional, and nationwide basis and cover a variety of 
activities, including minimal individual and cumulative adverse affects. These permits fit into 
specific categories established by the USACE.
* Individual Permits are issued for a case-specific activity.
Section 401 of the CWA specifies that states must certify that any activity subject to a permit 
issued by a federal agency, such as a CWA Section 404 permit, meets all state water quality 
standards. In California, the SWRCB or the appropriate Regional Water Quality Control Board 
(RWQCB) are responsible for reviewing activities under Section 401 of the CWA. A project 
proponent must obtain water quality certification (also known as 401 certification) from the 
SWRCB or RWQCB in order to receive a Section 404 permit. Water quality certification is also 
necessary when a project qualifies for a General Permit, even if the activity does not need to be 
reported to the USACE.

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act 
The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 preserves selected rivers in a free-flowing condition 
and protects their local environments. These rivers possess outstanding scenic, recreation, 
geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, or cultural values. Three types of Wild and Scenic 
designations exist, depending on a river's characteristics:
* Wild-undeveloped, generally inaccessible except by trail, with essentially primitive watersheds 
or shorelines and unpolluted waters
* Scenic-undeveloped, occasionally accessible by road, with shorelines or watersheds largely 
undeveloped 
* Recreational-some development, readily accessible by road or railroad, with some 
impoundment or diversion in the past
Selected rivers and streams have been placed into the National Rivers Inventory by acts of 
Congress. In California approximately 1,900 miles of river are under Wild and Scenic protection. 
Details about the designated rivers in California are shown in Table 3.3-1.
For particular actions that require the actual stream reach of a designated river and a description 
of the river and surrounding areas, contact the National Park Service (www.nps.gov/rivers) or 
other managing agency. Rivers and streams that are in the National Rivers Inventory or are 
proposed for inclusion must be considered during project planning. 

The State of California also has a Wild and Scenic Rivers system. No legal requirement exist to 
consider state-listed Wild and Scenic Rivers and streams or unique areas during the planning for 
an action. However, it is recommended that impacts to state-listed or proposed-for-listing rivers 
and streams and unique areas be considered and addressed at levels comparable to the 
consideration given to rivers and streams protected by the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act.

Rivers and Harbors Act
Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act (33 USC 401 et seq.) requires authorization from the 
USACE for the construction of any structure in, over or under any navigable water of the U.S., 
the excavation/dredging or deposition of material in these waters, or any obstruction or alteration 
in a navigable water. Structure or work outside the limits defined for navigable waters of the 
U.S. requires a Section 10 permit if the structure or work affects the course, location, condition, 
or capacity of the water body. Section 10 and CWA Section 404 overlap in some activities 
involving wetlands. Permits for activities regulated under both are processed simultaneously by 
the USACE.

Coastal Zone Management Act
In recognition of the increasing pressures of overdevelopment on the nation's coastal resources, 
Congress enacted the Coastal Zone Management Act in 1972 and the Coastal Zone Act 
Reauthorization Amendments of 1990. These laws encourage states by making federal funds 
available to preserve, protect, develop, and, where possible, restore or enhance valuable natural 
coastal resources such as wetlands, floodplains, estuaries, beaches, dunes, barrier islands, and 
coral reefs as well as the fish and wildlife using those habitats. Participation by states in these 
laws is voluntary. To encourage states to participate, the act makes federal financial assistance 
available to any coastal state or territory, including those on the Great Lakes, that is willing to 
develop and implement a comprehensive coastal management program (U.S. Department of 
Energy 1996). These acts apply to all actions that are located within a designated coastal zone 
and state that any federal agency whose activities directly affect the coastal zone will, to the 
maximum extent practicable, be consistent with approved state management programs.
The California Coastal Commission implement these acts as they apply to federal activities, 
development projects, permits and licenses, and support to state and local governments. On 
certification of a state's coastal management program, a federal agency must conduct its activities 
(including federal development projects, permits, and licenses as well as assistance to state and 
local governments) in a manner consistent with the state's certified program. California has a 
federally approved coastal management program.

Executive Order 11988: Floodplain Management 
Impacts related to floodplain management include potential damage to structures located in the 
floodplain and changes to the extent, elevation, or other features of the floodplain as a result of 
flood protection measures or other structures being sited in or removed from the floodplain.
The term floodplain generally refers to the 100-year floodplain, which designates the area subject 
to inundation from a flood having a 1 percent chance of occurring in a given year. This flood is 
also referred to as the "base flood" and may occur more or less often than once every 100 years. 
In circumstances known as "critical actions," the regulated flood-prone area is defined by the 
500-year floodplain, which designates the area subject to inundation from a flood having a 0.2 
percent chance of occurring in a given year.

FEMA has produced a nationwide system of FIRMs to show flood hazards for communities that 
participate in NFIP. The NFIP and its implementing regulations (44 CFR 59 through 78) 
stipulate minimum standards for floodplain development in communities that participate in the 
program. Local governments incorporate these standards, or in some cases more stringent 
standards, into their floodplain management ordinances. In addition to showing the locations of 
the 100-year and 500-year floodplains, many FIRMs show the base flood elevation, which is the 
estimated water-surface elevation during the 100-year flood. In addition to showing the 100- and 
500-year floodplains, FIRMs may also show the following: 
* Floodway - The channel of a river or other watercourse and adjacent land areas that are 
required to remain free from development to discharge the base flood without cumulatively 
increasing the water-surface elevation. 
* Coastal high hazard area - An area subject to flooding accompanied by the additional hazards 
associated with wave action. The minimum construction standards of the NFIP are more 
restrictive in these areas.

The NEPA compliance process requires federal agencies to consider direct and indirect impacts 
to floodplains that may result from federally funded actions. EO 11988 requires federal agencies 
to take action to minimize occupancy and modification of floodplains. Furthermore, EO 11988 
requires that federal agencies proposing to site an action in a 100-year floodplain must consider 
alternatives to avoid adverse effects and incompatible development in the floodplain. In 
accordance with 44 CFR Part 9, critical actions, such as developing hazardous waste facilities, 
hospitals, or utility plants, must be undertaken outside of a 500-year floodplain. If no practicable 
alternatives exist to siting an action in the floodplain, the action must be designed to minimize 
potential harm to or within the floodplain. Furthermore, a notice must be publicly circulated 
explaining the action and the reasons for siting it in the floodplain. When evaluating actions in 
the floodplain, FEMA applies the decision process described in 44 CFR Part 9, referred to as the 
Eight-Step Process, to ensure that its actions are consistent with EO 11988. By its nature, the 
NEPA compliance process involves the same basic decision-making process as the Eight-Step 
Process. 

Executive Order 11990: Protection of Wetlands
As with EO 11988, EO 11990 requires federal agencies to follow avoidance, mitigation, and 
preservation procedures with public input before proposing new construction in wetlands. The 
implementation of EO 11990 is described in 44 CFR Part 9. As with EO 11988, the Eight-Step 
Process is also used to evaluate the potential effects of an action on wetlands. As discussed in the 
Clean Water Act subsection above, formal legal protection of jurisdictional wetlands is 
promulgated through Section 404 of the CWA. A permit from the USACE may be required if an 
action has the potential to affect wetlands.

3.3.1.2 State Laws and Regulations
Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act 
The Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act of 1969, which became Division 7 of the 
California Water Code, authorized the SWRCB to provide comprehensive protection for 
California's waters through water allocation and water quality protection. The SWRCB 
implements the requirement of CWA Section 303 that water quality standards be set for certain 
waters by adopting water quality control plans under the Porter-Cologne Act. In addition, the 
Porter-Cologne Act established the responsibilities and authorities of the nine RWQCBs. These 
responsibilities include preparing water quality plans for areas within the region (Basin Plans), 
identifying water quality objectives, and issuing NPDES permits pursuant to the Waste 
Discharge Requirements (WDRs). 

NPDES permits, issued by RWQCBs pursuant to the CWA, also serve as WDRs issued pursuant 
to the Porter-Cologne Act. Generally, WDRs are issued for discharges that are exempt from the 
NPDES permitting program, discharges that may affect waters of the state that are not waters of 
the U.S. (i.e., groundwater), and/or wastes that may be discharged in a diffused manner. WDRs 
are established and implemented to achieve the Water Quality Objectives for receiving waters as 
established in the Basin Plans. Sometimes they are combined WDRs/NPDES permits.

California Coastal Act
The California Coastal Act of 1976 (California Public Resources Code [PRC], Division 20, 
Section 30000 et seq.) implemented the federally approved coastal management plan for 
California and established the California Coastal Commission as one of California's two 
designated coastal management agencies. The San Francisco Bay Conservation and 
Development Commission, which was established before this act was created, has authority 
within San Francisco Bay, while the California Coastal Commission exercises its authority for 
the rest of California's coastal zone. This act gave the responsibility to these agencies to plan and 
regulate land and water uses in the coastal zone consistent with its policies.

California Fish and Game Code
The California Fish and Game Code, Division 2, Section 1600 et seq. regulates alterations to 
natural waterways and gives regulatory and permitting authority to the CDFG. Modifications or 
new construction of facilities that may impact the volume or quality of water entering a natural 
waterway (such as a culvert discharging into a "dry wash" or a channel that carries intermittent 
or seasonal flows) may be required to obtain a Streambed Alteration Agreement.

3.3.1.3 Local Laws and Regulations
Counties and cities have developed general plans that include county-specific (or city-specific) 
descriptions of existing surface-water and groundwater resources.

Some urbanized counties and municipalities in California have countywide or areawide 
stormwater permits that offer guidelines and restrictions to new development that may impact 
modifications to existing facilities or construction of new facilities. These plans are generally 
administered by the local Flood Control District. If no areawide stormwater permit is in place 
and the facility is located near the coastline, the applicant must comply with the Coastal Zone 
Management Act (see Section 3.3.1.1).

Some municipalities have adopted Watershed Management Plans that may regulate or restrict 
modification and/or construction of facilities that discharge into waters within the plan area.

3.3.2 Discussion of Water Resources in California
3.3.2.1 Major Watersheds 
The term "watershed" is generally defined to be any area of land that drains to a common point. 
A watershed is generally smaller than a river basin or subbasin but larger than a drainage or site. 
In California, the definitions of watersheds are provided by the software titled CALWATER 
(Version 1.2). CALWATER is a geographic information system database that captures the 
SWRCB watershed delineations and further subdivision into smaller watershed units. The system 
is designed so that the smaller units are nested within the next larger unit. The hierarchy of the 
delineation system is organized from largest to smallest: region, hydrologic unit, hydrologic area, 
hydrologic subarea, super planning watersheds, and planning watersheds. The smallest units, 
planning watersheds, are approximately 3,000 to 10,000 acres, and the super planning 
watersheds are on the order of 50,000 acres or more in size (California Environmental Resources 
Evaluation System 1997).

California has ten watershed/hydrologic regions, as shown on Figure 3.3-1. Table 3.3-2 briefly 
describes each region and lists the hydrologic units located therein. For a particular action, it is 
recommended that regional water quality control plans be consulted for more specific water 
resource issues. The plans are issued by the appropriate RWQCB. Other sources of information 
can be found at www.ceres.ca.gov/watershed/geographic, which has links to the California River 
Assessment (CARA) Interactive Web Database and the USEPA's Office of Water.

3.3.2.2 Groundwater Basins 
A groundwater basin is defined as an area underlain by permeable materials capable of 
furnishing a substantial supply of groundwater to wells or storing a substantial amount of water. 
A groundwater basin is three-dimensional and includes both the surface extent and all of the 
subsurface freshwater-yielding material. However, available data only permit two-dimensional 
delineations of groundwater basins. The current groundwater basin map, as shown on Figure 

3.3-2, depicts a surface expression of groundwater basin boundaries and should not be used to 
construe the depths of these basins.

Groundwater basins are delineated and separated from each other by the following features or 
conditions: 
* Impermeable Bedrock - consists of rocks of low-water-yielding capacity, including rocks of 
marine origin and crystalline/or metamorphic rock 
* Constrictions in Permeable Materials - a narrow gap in impermeable material, even though 
filled with permeable stream channel materials, generally forms a basin boundary due to 
groundwater flow constriction in these areas
* Fault - crosses permeable materials and generally forms a barrier to groundwater movement; 
this condition usually indicated by a noticeable difference in water levels and/or flow patterns on 
either side of the fault
* Low-Permeability Zone - areas of clay or other fine-grained material that have substantial areal 
or vertical extent generally form a barrier to groundwater movement
* Groundwater Divide - generally forms a barrier to groundwater movement and has noticeably 
divergent groundwater flow directions on either side of the divide with the water table sloping 
away from the divide. 
* Adjudicated Basin Boundaries - established by court order and used for all adjudicated basins
In many upland areas of the state, fractures, joints, and other spaces in crystalline rock can yield 
sufficient water for individual domestic supply or for stockwater. These areas were not identified 
on the current version of the groundwater basin map (Figure 3.3-2) because the availability of 
water in these formations can vary widely between areas, even if only a few feet apart.
The California Department of Water Resources provides information on groundwater recharge 
programs; subsidence caused by groundwater extraction; standards for the construction and 
destruction of water wells, monitoring wells, and cathodic protection wells; and resource 
evaluation. The state is divided into four groundwater districts: the Northern, Central, Southern, 
and San Joaquin. These districts provide general groundwater information, groundwater levels, 
groundwater quality, well completion reports, and publications (California Department of Water 
Resources n.d.).

3.3.2.3 Water Supply 
Water supply in California comes primarily from two sources: groundwater or surface water. 
Groundwater is extracted through either private or public wells and provides for approximately 
half of the state's drinking water and is also a major source for agricultural needs. Surface water 
supplies drinking water, agricultural water, flood control, water quality control, environmental 
water, recreational opportunities, and hydropower generation. 

California has two major water projects: the Central Valley Project (CVP) and the State Water 
Project (SWP). The CVP and SWP consist of dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, and canals. The CVP 
primarily supplies irrigation water to farmers throughout the Central Valley, and the SWP is the 
state's major distribution system for urban water supplies. The CVP and SWP facilities stretch 
from Shasta Dam in the north to Perris Lake in Southern California.

In Southern California, the Metropolitan Water District brings Colorado River water to their area 
(Water Education Foundation 1987). The six California water agencies that receive Colorado 
River water are the Imperial Irrigation District, Palo Verde Irrigation District, Metropolitan 
Water District, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, San Diego County Water 
Authority, and Coachella Valley Water District.

Tables

Table 3.3-1 
California Wild and Scenic Rivers

River			Designation	Miles	Year Designated		Managing Agency1
American (Lower)	Recreational	23.0	1981			California

American (North Fork)	Wild		38.3	1978			BLM/USFS

Big Sur			Wild		19.5	1992			USFS

Eel			Wild 		97.0	1981			BLM/USFS/ 
			Scenic 		28.0				California
			Recreational	273.0	

Feather (Middle Fork)	Wild 		32.9	1968			USFS
			Scenic 		9.7
			Recreational	35.0
 
Kern			Wild 		123.1	1987			NPS/USFS
			Scenic 		20.9 
			Recreational	7.0
 
Kings			Wild 		65.5 	1987			NPS/USFS
			Recreational	15.5

Klamath			Wild 		12.0	1981			BLM/NPS/USFS/
			Scenic 		24.0				California
			Recreational	250.0

Merced			Wild 		71.0	1987, 1992		BLM/NPS/USFS
			Scenic 		16.0 
			Recreational	35.5
 
Sespe Creek		Wild 		27.5	1992			USFS
			Scenic		4.0

Sisquoc			Wild		33.0	1992			USFS

Smith			Wild 		78.0	1981, 1990		USFS/California
			Scenic 		31.0
			Recreational	216.4
 
Trinity			Wild 		44.0	1981			BLM/USFS/ 
			Scenic 		39.0				California 
			Recreational	120.0

Tuolumne		Wild 		47.0	1984			BLM/NPS/USFS
			Scenic 		23.0
			Recreational	13.0
 
1BLM = Bureau of Land Management, NPS = National Park Service, USFS = U.S. Forest Service
Source: National Park Service 2003
Source: National Park Service 2003

Insert 
Table 3.3-2
California Watershed Hydrologic Areas

Figures

Insert
Figure 3.3-1 California Watersheds

Insert
Figure 3.3-2 California Groundwater Basins

 
3.4 BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
This section presents a general description of resources, including endangered or threatened 
species and their habitats, wildlife, wetlands, and other key biological resources.

3.4.1 Regulatory Background

3.4.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
Federal Endangered Species Act
The ESA defines "endangered" species as those in danger of extinction throughout all or a 
substantial portion of their range. A "threatened" species is any species that is likely to become 
an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a substantial portion of its 
range. "Candidate species" are those for which the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries have enough 
information on file to propose listing as endangered or threatened and are protected through a 
Candidate Conservation Program until they are formally listed as threatened or endangered. An 
additional category defined, but not afforded protected status, in the ESA, is "species of 
concern." "Species of concern" are those for which listing is possibly appropriate but the 
USFWS and NOAA Fisheries lack sufficient information to support a listing proposal. All of 
these designations (endangered, threatened, proposed, candidate, and species of concern) are 
referred to as "special-status species." A "delisted" species is one whose population has met its 
recovery goal target and is no longer found to be in jeopardy of extinction.

Section 7 of the ESA requires that federal agencies consult with the USFWS or NOAA Fisheries 
when taking action that has the potential to affect species listed as endangered or threatened or 
proposed for threatened or endangered listing. "Taking" of a federally listed species is prohibited 
under Section 9 of the ESA. "Take" is defined in ESA Section 3(19) as "to harass, harm, pursue, 
hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or attempt to engage in any such conduct." 
Therefore, any action which could result in an "incidental take" of a listed species requires 
consultation with the USFWS or NOAA Fisheries. Federally listed species may be addressed for 
an action in one of two ways: (1) a nonfederal government entity may resolve potential adverse 
impacts to species protected under Section 10 of the ESA or (2) a federal lead agency regulates 
the action in accordance with Section 7 of the ESA. Both require consultation with the USFWS, 
which administers the ESA and issues a final opinion determining whether the federally listed 
species will be adversely affected by the action. Under the second process, the federal lead 
agency is responsible for preparing a biological assessment, which evaluates the potential 
adverse effects to a federally listed species, and coordinating with state and federal biological 
resource agencies to assess impacts and propose mitigation. In addition, the federal lead agency 
is responsible for developing mitigation for all substantial impacts to federally listed species. 
Whenever acting as the federal lead agency, FEMA requests consultation with the USFWS and 
NOAA Fisheries regarding potential impacts to listed species.

As mentioned in Section 1.8.3 of this PEA, FEMA is in the process of conducting a 
Programmatic Consultations with the USFWS and has completed a Programmatic Consultation 
with NOAA Fisheries for future disasters throughout California. These Programmatic 
Consultations cover typical actions proposed for FEMA funding for several types of disasters, 
including fires, earthquakes, floods, rain, and wind. The Programmatic Consultations establish a 
framework for FEMA to comply with Section 7 requirements in California in cases where 
species or critical habitat are involved. The Programmatic Consultations allow FEMA and the 
USFWS or NOAA Fisheries to consult on multiple projects that are grouped and analyzed 
together by either project type or location.

The Programmatic Consultation benefits FEMA by allowing FEMA to comply with Section 7 
requirements in the least amount of time and to more quickly satisfy its mission to assist local 
communities in responding to, recovering from, and preparing for disasters. The USFWS and 
NOAA Fisheries benefit from the Programmatic Consultation by ensuring that FEMA activities 
protect threatened and endangered species in compliance with the ESA and by obviating the need 
for USFWS and NOAA Fisheries personnel to spend valuable time consulting on individual 
action.

FEMA's Programmatic Consultation with the USFWS is modeled after the Programmatic 
Consultation that FEMA conducted with the USFWS for a previous disaster (FEMA-115-DR-
CA, a severe storms/flooding disaster declared on January 4, 1997). The Programmatic 
Consultation for FEMA-1155-DR-CA resulted in the USFWS issuing a PBO and a PITS. A copy 
of this PBO/PITS is provided in Appendix E. FEMA anticipates that the Programmatic 
Consultation it is now conducting with the USFWS will result in a PBO/PITS for all future 
flood, earthquake, fire, rain, and wind disasters in California. Because the Programmatic 
Consultation is still ongoing, the impact analysis presented in Section 4.4 considers both the 
current situation, in which no PBO/PITS for disasters other than FEMA-1155-DR-CA exists, and 
the future situation in which a PBO/PITS for any disaster throughout the state has been executed 
by the USFWS.

The Programmatic Consultation between FEMA and NOAA Fisheries was an informal 
consultation process where FEMA submitted a Programmatic Biological Assessment, provided 
in Appendix F, on August 28, 2003 and NOAA Fisheries issued a concurrence letter, provided in 
Appendix G, on October 14, 2003, concluding the Programmatic Consultation process. The 
concurrence letter from NOAA Fisheries states that under the criteria, guidelines, and 
consultation program described in the Programmatic Biological Assessment, the proposed 
recurring actions would not be likely to adversely affect ESA-listed salmonids and/or critical 
habitat. The consultation program that is established in the Programmatic Biological Assessment 
involves grouping specific actions proposed for FEMA funding into three categories based on 
the associated project effects to salmonids. Category 1 actions would have no effect upon ESA-
listed salmonids and would not require further Section 7 consultation.  Category 2 actions would 
not be likely to adversely affect ESA-listed salmonids and/or critical habitat and would require 
informal Section 7 consultation. Category 2 actions would be grouped together by location and 
their project descriptions would be submitted to NOAA Fisheries for review prior to funding. 
NOAA Fisheries would issue a single concurrence letter for the grouped submission which 
would conclude informal Section 7 consultation. If necessary, NOAA Fisheries would identify 
specific actions within the grouped submission that NOAA Fisheries determines would be likely 
to adversely affect listed salmonids and/or critical habitat and would require an individual 
Section 7 consultation. Category 3 actions would be likely to adversely affect ESA-listed 
salmonids and/or critical habitat and would require individual informal or formal Section 7 
consultation.

Migratory Bird Treaty Act
The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (16 USC 703-711) makes it unlawful to take, possess, 
buy, sell, purchase, or barter any migratory bird listed in 50 CFR Part 10, including feathers or 
other parts, nests, eggs, or products, except as allowed by implementing regulations (50 CFR 
21). Disturbance that causes nest abandonment and/or loss of reproductive effort (e.g., killing or 
abandoning eggs or young) may be considered a take and is potentially punishable by fines 
and/or imprisonment. If an action is determined to cause a potential take, as described above, of 
migratory birds, then a consultation process with the USFWS needs to be initiated to determine 
measures to minimize or avoid these impacts. This consultation should start as an informal 
process.

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
This act was enacted to protect fish and wildlife when federal actions result in the control or 
modification of a natural stream or body of water. The statute requires federal agencies to take 
into consideration the effect that water-related projects would have on fish and wildlife 
resources, take actions to prevent loss or damage to these resources, and provide for the 
development and improvement of these resources. For an action resulting in the control or 
modification of a body of water, the federal agency must consult with the USFWS or NOAA 
Fisheries (as appropriate) and the CDFG to develop measures to mitigate action-related losses of 
fish and wildlife resources. These measures need to be included in some kind of public 
documentation for the action, and where possible, the federal lead agency must incorporate the 
measures in the plans for the action.

Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Act
The Amended Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, also known as the 
Sustainable Fisheries Act (PL 104-297), requires all federal agencies to consult with the NOAA 
Fisheries on activities or proposed activities authorized, funded, or undertaken by that agency 
that may adversely affect Essential Fish Habitat (EFH). The EFH provisions of the Sustainable 
Fisheries Act are designed to protect fisheries habitat from being lost due to disturbance and 
degradation.

Marine Mammal Protection Act
Under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (16 USC 1371), it is unlawful to take or 
import marine mammals and marine mammal products. Under Section 101(a)(5)(D) of the act, 
an incidental harassment permit may be issued for activities other than commercial fishing that 
may impact small numbers of marine mammals. An incidental harassment permit covers 
activities that last for no more than 1 year and that will have a negligible impact on the impacted 
species. If an action has been determined to potentially harass marine mammals, a consultation 
process must be initiated with the NOAA Fisheries to obtain a harassment permit. 

Executive Order 13112: Invasive Species
EO 13112 of 1999 was created to prevent the introduction of invasive species and to provide for 
their control. Under this order, the federal government may "not authorize, fund, or carry out 
actions that it believes are likely to cause or promote the introduction or spread of invasive 
species in the U.S. or elsewhere unless, pursuant to guidelines that it has prescribed, the agency 
has determined and made public its determination that the benefits of such actions clearly 
outweigh the potential harm caused by invasive species; and that all feasible and prudent 
measures to minimize risk of harm will be taken in conjunction with the actions." Federal 
agencies must also consult with the Invasive Species Council consistent with the Invasive 
Species Management Plan.

3.4.1.2 State and Local Laws and Regulations
California Endangered Species Act (CESA)
Similar to the ESA, this act authorizes the California Fish and Game Commission to designate, 
protect, and regulate the taking of special-status species in California. CESA (codified in 
California Fish and Game Code Sections 2050-2116) defines "endangered" species as those 
whose continued existence in California is jeopardized. State-listed "threatened" species are not 
presently threatened with extinction but may become endangered if their environments change or 
deteriorate. Any action that may adversely impact state-listed threatened or endangered species 
must formally consult with the CDFG. 

Section 2080 of the California Fish and Game Code prohibits the taking of state-listed plants and 
animals. The CDFG also designates "fully protected" or "protected" species as those that may not 
be taken or possessed without a permit from the California Fish and Game Commission and/or 
the CDFG. Species designated as fully protected or protected may or may not be listed as 
endangered or threatened. 

In addition to listed species, the CDFG maintains a list of "Species of Special Concern," most of 
which are species whose breeding populations in California may face extirpation. To avoid the 
future need to list these species as endangered or threatened, the CDFG recommends 
consideration of these species, which do not yet have any legal status, during analysis of the 
impacts of an action. 

Native Plant Protection Act 
The legal framework for conserving plants merits clarification due to the existence of an early 
state law protecting plants. The Native Plant Protection Act of 1977 directed the CDFG to carry 
out the legislature's intent to "preserve, protect, and enhance rare and endangered plants in this 
State." This act (codified in California Fish and Game Code Sections 1900-1913) gave the 
California Fish and Game Commission the power to designate native plants as "endangered" or 
"rare" and protect endangered and rare plants from take. In addition to state regulations, many 
counties have local biological regulations and ordinances. Local statutes normally concern tree 
retention and habitat quality issues.

3.4.2 Biological Resources in California
This section summarizes California resources that could be affected by FEMA programs. It does 
not provide site-specific information on all plant and wildlife species that may be affected. 
Instead, information is presented on a broad regional level appropriate for a programmatic 
approach to environmental review. 

California is one of the most biologically diverse areas in the world. Within its 160,000 square 
miles, California harbors more plant and animal species than any other state in the U.S. The 
diversity of climates and landscapes, and barriers to migrations such as rivers, mountains, and 
deserts, have led to the evolution of a large number of isolated (endemic) species and varieties of 
animals, many of which are found only in the state. For example, California has approximately 
30,000 insect species, 63 freshwater fish species, 46 amphibians, 96 reptiles, 563 birds, 190 
mammals, and about 8,000 plants on record (Steinhart 1990).

California's mountain ranges, deserts, and extensive coastline, along with its unusual summer-
dry (Mediterranean) climate, set the stage for a complex vegetative community system. In the 
coastal mountains, heavy winter precipitation and summer fog support dense needleleaf 
evergreen forests, with needleleaf-broadleaf forests as far south as the Transverse Ranges. 
Broadleaf forests are common in the higher elevations from the Transverse Ranges south to the 
Mexican border. Eastward across the Cascades and Sierra Nevada mountains, the increase of 
precipitation with higher elevations leads to an orderly succession of plant communities, from 
grasslands to mixed hardwood and conifer woodlands and forests and finally to an even higher 
elevation sequence of coniferous and subalpine communities. The structural complexity of 
forest/woodland communities makes them important for wildlife diversity. In the high mountains 
of Southern California, the forest succession is similar except at the lower slopes, which are 
commonly dominated by chaparral. Compared to the mountainous areas, the California lowlands 
are relatively dry even on the coast. Consequently, lowland areas support mainly treeless 
grasslands and marshes, particularly in the Central Valley, or scrub formations, such as those in 
the eastern deserts. The diverse vegetation habitats in California support a wide variety of 
wildlife species. 

Another habitat feature that is important to wildlife is riparian drainages. Riparian communities 
occur along creeks and rivers and are found throughout California. These communities are 
adapted to wide seasonal and annual fluctuations in flow volumes, abundant floodplain soil 
moisture, and a dynamic erosion-deposition cycle. Riparian communities are usually in a 
constant state of ecological succession because of the dynamic nature of hydrologic flows over 
unique topographical features. Fluvial (riverine) processes such as flooding, with its bank erosion 
and sediment deposition, create gravel bars and terraces. The resulting succession is responsible 
for the plant species and structural diversity in riparian areas. 

Riparian vegetation is important because of its scarcity and resource values. It serves humans 
directly by forming a buffer between rivers and streams and intensively managed farmlands and 
urban landscapes, enhancing water quality by filtering surface runoff, stabilizing streambanks, 
and moderating flood flows. Riparian communities typically support great wildlife diversity 
because they present a unique combination of surface water and groundwater, fertile soils, high 
nutrient availability, and thermal and predation cover. 

Wetlands, similar to riparian areas, occur along lakes, ponds, marshes, rivers, streams, 
hill/mountainside seeps, perched water tables, and plow pans. They are often inundated by water 
and normally have saturated or seasonally saturated soil conditions within 18 inches of the 
surface. Common wetland plants range from cottonwoods and willows to sedges, rushes, and 
cattails. The width of the areas may vary from a few feet along small streams to several hundred 
feet along major rivers. Because of the presence of moisture and abundant nutrients, wetlands 
and riparian areas are often the most productive areas of vegetative growth and have high 
wildlife habitat value. Two broad categories of wetland communities occur in California: 
freshwater emergent wetlands and saline emergent wetlands. Freshwater emergent wetlands 
include freshwater marshes, vernal pools, and wetlands that are managed and maintained 
impoundments associated with flood control/water supply structures. Saline emergent wetland 
vegetation is dominated by water-seeking (hydrophytic and/or halophytic) vegetation that lives 
in brackish or saline waters or soils such as those found along the California coast. Open-water 
and tidal flat communities are generally unvegetated but are associated with wetland 
communities.

California can be divided into 12 bioregional provinces that consist of vegetation communities 
based on topographical and geomorphological features. These bioregions, or habitats, are 
adapted from the California Division of Mines and Geology and relate to climate as it is affected 
by terrain and results in the formation of habitat (see Section 3.1.2, Figure 3.1-1). The habitat 
types included in this document, condensed from Mayer and Laudenslayer (1988), are defined as 
follows.

Coniferous Forest
This habitat consists of an assemblage of conifer species with multilayered canopy structure and 
spacing. Older stands are characterized by a diversity of tree sizes and shapes, light gaps and 
associated understory growth, snags, fallen limbs, and branches close to the ground. Typical 
species include Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), 
white fir (Abies concolor), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), and redwood (Sequoia 
sempervirens). Coniferous forests are typically associated with mountainous regions and are 
habitat to numerous bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species.

Hardwood Forest
This habitat contains an assemblage of hardwood trees including oak (Quercus spp.), Pacific 
madrone (Arbutus menziesii), black walnut (Juglans nigra), and big-leaf maple (Acer 
macrophyllum). Hardwood stands with multilayered canopy structures and spacing provide 
valuable habitat for wildlife, offering opportunities for thermal and predation cover, forage, 
resting, and denning. Hardwood forests can contain a mix of conifer and shrub species and are 
generally associated with lower-elevation foothills and areas where forest stands were once 
routinely converted from cone-bearing to acorn-producing trees through the use of fire. 

Woodland
Woodland habitats contain a mixed community of trees and grassland with a poorly developed 
shrub subcanopy stratum and relatively open spacing between individual trees. Generally, the 
dominant species of this habitat consist of an oak overstory with an annual grass sublayer but can 
also consist of a juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) overstory with a curl-leaf mountain mahogany 
(Cercocarpus ledifolius) sublayer or a Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) overstory with 
a perennial grass understory. 

Riparian
Riparian habitats consist of variable, structurally diverse vegetation associated with perennial 
and intermittent stream and creek channels. An important component of this habitat type is the 
predominance of a canopy layer that provides excellent microclimatic regulation, cover, denning, 
and forage opportunities. Many species of wildlife use riparian corridors as avenues for 
movement, and these habitats are a critical component of an overall landscape matrix that allows 
for population connectivity.

Wet Meadow
The wet meadow habitat consists of a single layer of herbaceous growth associated with water. 
This habitat is poorly drained and has water at or near the surface all year. Shrub and tree layers 
are generally absent or extremely sparse, except along the edges. Species composition will vary 
throughout the state depending upon elevation and climatic factors. 

Chaparral
Chaparral habitats contain structurally homogeneous brushland dominated by shrubs with thick, 
stiff, heavily cutinized evergreen leaves. Fire suppression policies over the past century have 
resulted in many California chaparral areas becoming decadent and matted, with tight spacing 
and poor forage opportunities for large game animals. Chaparral habitats usually dominate south-
facing slopes. Common chaparral species include chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), redshank 
(Tringa tetanus), wedge-leaf ceanothus (Ceanothus cuneatus), California buckthorn (Rhamnus 
californica), and hollyleaf cherry (Prunus ilicifolia).

Grassland
Introduced and native open grassland is commonly associated with livestock grazing and is 
usually void of trees and shrubs except near the edges. Seasonal variations in precipitation 
promote physiognomic changes in structure. The structure of this habitat depends on the 
composition of species present. Introduced grass species include wild oat (Avena fatua), foxtail 
fescue (Festuca megalura), turkey mullein (Eremocarpus setigerus), and ripgut brome (Bromus 
diandrus). Vernal pools, seasonally flooded depressions found on soils with an impermeable 
layer such as a hardpan, are frequently present in grasslands in the Central Valley and support 
species such as downingia (Downingia cuspidate) and meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba). 
Perennial grasslands typically occur on ridges and south-facing slopes and are dominated by 
California oatgrass (Danthonia californica) and curly-cup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa).

Sagebrush
Sagebrush habitats typically contain large, open, discontinuous stands of vegetation of 
comparatively uniform height. The sagebrush can consist of small, widely spaced plants or big, 
overlapping brush with touching canopies. Trees are generally sparse. Sagebrush (Artemisia 
tridentate) has a deep and well-developed lateral root system, which results in stands of uniform 
size and spacing. Variant species of sagebrush include western chokecherry (Prunus virginiana 
demissa), curl-leaf mountain mahogany, and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentate). 
Desert

This habitat type can consist of chaparral brush, succulent shrubs, oasis palms, alkali soils, and 
sand. Succulent floristic components and oasis desert conditions offer a greater array of 
structural complexity than adjacent desert areas, which generally results in greater species 
diversity at these locations.

Cropland/Orchard
Cropland/orchard habitat contains managed lands that consist of commercial agricultural fields, 
pastures, vineyards, and fruit orchards, depending upon ownership and season. This habitat is 
often located on flat to gently rolling hills, with rolling terrain usually watered via sprinkler 
system and flat land usually irrigated. The types of crops grown in this habitat depend on soil 
composition. Wildlife that has adapted to introduced croplands and orchards are generally not 
welcomed by growers, and control measures have historically been implemented to keep those 
populations away. The only county in California to be void of large agricultural cropland is San 
Francisco. 

Lacustrine
Lacustrine habitats are inland depressions or dammed rivers and streams that contain standing 
water. They can vary from small ponds to large water bodies covering several square miles. 
Notable habitats include Shasta Lake reservoir and Lake Tahoe. Plankton are a key component 
of open-water food webs. Submerged and floating vegetation near the shoreline offer support for 
herbivorous wildlife that feed upon phytoplankton and plants. Invertebrate aquatic species are 
frequently present.

Riverine
Riverine habitats consist of intermittently or continually running rivers, creeks, or streams. 
Headwaters originate at higher elevations and flow downward relative to slope and volume of 
surface runoff. The substrates generally become smaller as slope gradient decreases and volume 
accumulates. Water temperature and turbidity increases, resulting in a change of the types of 
organisms that can survive. The shoreline produces emergent vegetation used by vertebrate 
species of aquatic and terrestrial wildlife for foraging, egg-laying, nesting, and cover.

Emergent Wetland
Emergent wetlands generally consist of a single-stratum layer of herbaceous hydrophytes or 
perennial graminoids and forbs that depend upon saltwater or freshwater influences. Tidal-
influenced wetlands are often associated with estuarine habitats and are composed of brackish 
waters with salt-tolerant root systems. Typical saline wetland vegetation includes cordgrass 
(Spartina spp.), pickleweed (Salicornia virginica), and shoreweed (Littorella uniflora). 
Freshwater wetlands are typically dominated by perennial monocots including nutsedge 
(Cyperus spp.), Baltic rush (Juncus balticus), and willow (Salix spp). Bulrush (Scirpus spp.) and 
cattail (Typha spp.) can be found in both types. Wetlands have gradually diminished in 
California as a result of commercial agriculture and real estate development. Many species of 
birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians are dependent upon this habitat type for survival.

Estuarine
Estuarine habitats consist of lagoons with periodically and permanently flooded substrates and 
open-water portions of semienclosed coastal zones where tidal seawater is diluted by flowing 
freshwater. Estuarine environments generally support a lower diversity of species but higher 
population numbers compared to other habitat types due to the adaptive stress associated with 
changing salinity gradients. Estuarine wildlife organisms are often marine in origin. Numerous 
bird and mammal species use estuarine habitats, including cormorant (Phalacrocorax spp.), gull 
(Larus spp.), brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), California sea 
lion (Zalophus califonianus), and sea otter (Enhydra lutris spp). 

Coastal
Four basic subzones are included in this category. The shoreline subzone is characterized by the 
substrates that compose the barren land from the edge of the spray zone to where vegetative 
cover exceeds 10 percent. Typical formations are sandy beaches and rocky cliffs. The tidal 
subzone includes the area exposed by low tides. The subtidal subzone extends from the low-tide 
exposure point seaward to the area where kelp forests (Nereocystis spp.) can propagate given the 
correct substrate. The pelagic subzone is the depth beyond the kelp forest toward the open ocean.

 
3.5 CULTURAL RESOURCES
Cultural resources include archaeological and historical objects, sites, and districts; historic 
buildings and structures; cultural landscapes; and sites and resources of concern to local Native 
Americans and other ethnic groups.

3.5.1 Regulatory Background

3.5.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
National Historic Preservation Act, as amended (1966)
The NHPA declares federal policy to protect historic sites and values in cooperation with other 
nations, states, and local governments. Subsequent amendments designated the SHPO as the 
individual responsible for administering state-level programs. The act also created the ACHP. 
Section 106 of the NHPA and implementing regulations (36 CFR 800) outline the procedures to 
be followed in the documentation, evaluation, and mitigation of impacts for cultural resources. 
The Section 106 process applies to any federal undertaking that has the potential to affect 
cultural resources. The Section 106 process includes identifying significant historic properties 
and districts that may be affected by an action and mitigating adverse effects to properties listed, 
or eligible for listing, in the NRHP (36 CFR 60.4).

As mentioned in Section 1.8.3 of this PEA, FEMA, the SHPO, the OES, and the ACHP have 
executed a disaster-specific PA for each recent disaster in California to streamline the Section 
106 review process. FEMA, the SHPO, OES, and ACHP have executed a nondisaster-specific 
PA for future disasters in California. A copy of this agreement is provided in Appendix H. The 
impact analysis presented in Section 4.5 assumes that a disaster-specific PA would be used for 
actions associated with disasters that already occurred and that the nondisaster-specific PA that 
has been executed would be used for any nonemergency work for any future disasters.
American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978)

The American Indian Religious Freedom Act (42 USC 1996 et seq.), regulated under 43 CFR 7, 
was established to protect religious practices, ethnic heritage sites, and land uses of Native 
Americans. The act makes it a policy to protect and preserve for Native Americans, Eskimos, 
Aleuts, and Native Hawaiians their inherent right to believe, express, and exercise their 
traditional religions. The act allows them access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects, 
and freedom to worship through ceremonial and traditional rights. It further directs federal 
departments, agencies, and other instrumentalities responsible for administering relevant laws to 
evaluate their policies and procedures in consultation with Native American traditional religious 
leaders to determine changes necessary to protect and preserve Native American cultural and 
religious practices.

3.5.1.2 State and Local Laws and Regulations
California Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (2001)
California Health and Safety Code, Division 7, Part 2, Chapter 5 (Sections 8010-8030), makes 
broad provisions for the protection of Native American cultural resources. The act sets the state 
policy to ensure that all California Native American human remains and cultural items are 
treated with due respect and dignity.

California Public Resources Code
The PRC contains several sections relevant to cultural resources, as described below:
* Section 5097.9 details procedures that should be taken whenever Native American remains are 
discovered. No public agency, and no private party using or occupying public property, or 
operating on public property, under a public license, permit, grant, lease, or contract made on or 
after July 1, 1977, shall in any manner whatsoever interfere with the free expression or exercise 
of Native American religion as provided in the United States Constitution and the California 
Constitution; nor shall any such agency or party cause severe or irreparable damage to any 
Native American sanctified cemetery, place of worship, religious or ceremonial site, or sacred 
shrine located on public property, except on a clear and convincing showing that the public 
interest and necessity so require. 
* Section 7050.5 establishes that every person who knowingly mutilates or disinters, wantonly 
disturbs, or willfully removes any human remains in or from any location other than a dedicated 
cemetery without authority of law is guilty of a misdemeanor, except as provided in PRC Section 
5097.99. In the event of discovery or recognition of any human remains in any location other 
than a dedicated cemetery, no further excavation or disturbance of the site or any nearby area 
reasonably suspected to overlie adjacent remains should take place until the coroner of the 
county in which the human remains are discovered has determined whether the remains are 
under his or her jurisdiction. If the coroner determines that the remains are not subject to his or 
her authority and recognizes the human remains to be those of a Native American, or has reason 
to believe that they are those of a Native American, he or she shall contact the Native American 
Heritage Commission by telephone within 24 hours. 
* Section 7051 establishes that every person who removes any part of any human remains from 
any place where it has been interred, or from any place where it is deposited while awaiting 
interment or cremation, with intent to sell or dissect it, without authority of law or written 
permission of the person or persons having the right to control the remains under Section 7100, 
or with malice or wantonness, has committed a public offense that is punishable by 
imprisonment in the state prison. 

14 California Code of Regulations 4308 
Under this state preservation law, no person shall remove, injure, disfigure, deface, or destroy 
any object of archaeological or historical interest or value. 

Local Regulations
Some counties and cities have developed general plans that include county-specific or city-
specific ordinances or guidelines related to the treatment of cultural resources.

3.5.2 Cultural Resources in California
Table 3.5.1 provides summary descriptions of cultural resources sites in California. The 
information in the table and the description below is primarily from Chartkoff and Chartkoff's 
1994 book, The Archaeology of California. Table 3.5-1 is not intended to be a definitive 
statement on archaeological or historic site types but rather provides a broad overview of 
California's cultural past subject to ongoing revisions and refinement by other researchers. Four 
major time periods are identified: Paleo-Indian, Archaic, Pacific, and Historical. These periods 
have been developed as an organizing device and not as a model of evolutionary stages of 
development. These arbitrary divisions highlight times of shared traits and shared trends toward 
particular styles of adaptation rather than mark major breaks in California's past. Table 3.5-1 
describes the characteristics of archaeological sites from these periods and the geographical 
region where these sites may be located. The table also suggests the importance of these sites, 
but all sites should be considered significant until evaluated by a professional archaeologist.
Paleo-Indians were the first humans to live in California. They tended to restrict themselves to a 
single kind of environment and practiced a focal economy based on the exploitation of a few 
resources for food, typically megafauna. The Paleo-Indians used generalized and multifunctional 
tools, each designed for many tasks. Climate change at the end of the Pleistocene epoch caused 
megafauna populations to decline, and the Paleo-Indians gradually gave way to the Archaic way 
of life. The Archaic period, unlike the Paleo-Indian period, witnessed considerable change over 
time and displayed growing variability across space. By the end of the Archaic period, the native 
groups were far more complex than in Paleo-Indian times and could support far more people. 
The Archaic period is characterized by a diffuse economy, in which people used many kinds of 
resources for food. As a result of this increase and diversification of resources, Archaic people 
needed to exploit many kinds of environments and resources that were more affected by seasonal 
availability than the megafauna had been. Seasonal migrations began to develop and dispersal 
into new ecological niches around California took place, resulting in the development of 
specialized technologies necessary for the processing of newly exploited resources. The Archaic 
people elaborated on and refined Paleo-Indians tools and also created ritual objects and personal 
ornaments.

Pacific period societies took certain practices begun in the Archaic period and refined them to 
extraordinary degrees, which ultimately transformed their whole way of life. The Pacific period 
marked a return toward a more focal subsistence economy concentrated on a few staples. The 
subsistence involved the use of more species than in Archaic time, though many species were 
used for craft materials, medicines, and rituals, rather than for food. Pacific period groups 
learned to support more people by collecting crops in surplus and storing them for other seasons 
when food was less abundant. This high productivity gave rise to large complex societies such as 
tribes, chiefdoms, and kingdoms, and highly developed systems of trade between communities. 
The Pacific period groups also greatly expanded the exploitation of riverine fish, acorns, and 
deep-seawater resources.

Native Californians had successfully occupied every region of the state by the time Spanish and 
European settlers arrived, which marked the beginning of the Historical period. The Historical 
period resulted in the breakdown of traditional society in California, the pioneer settlement of 
other cultures, and the development of an urbanized, multiethnic society. The clash of cultures 
between Native Californians and different groups of immigrants resulted in the collapse of most 
Native Californian societies. A rise toward urbanism was based on the production of agricultural 
and ranch products, timber, and mineral resources, stimulated by a tremendous influx of people 
due to the Gold Rush. The emergence of industrial cities and technologies is the most recent 
phenomenon.

Tables

Insert
Table 3.5-1
Summary Descriptions of Cultural Resources Sites in California

3.6 SOCIOECONOMICS AND PUBLIC SAFETY
Under NEPA, potential impacts to socioeconomic resources include changes to demographics, 
housing, employment, the local economy, and public safety. The general basis for socioeconomic 
considerations is data obtained from the U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census. 
Additional data obtained from state and local resources may be used as well

3.6.1 Regulatory Background

3.6.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
Executive Order 12898: Environmental Justice
EO 12898, "Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority and Low-Income 
Populations," was issued to all federal departments on February 11, 1994. This order requires 
federal lead agencies to ensure rights established under Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 
are considered as part of analyzing environmental effects. FEMA and most federal lead agencies 
determine impacts to low-income and minority communities as part of the NEPA compliance 
process. Agencies are required to identify and correct programs, policies, and activities that have 
disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects on minority or low-
income populations. EO 12898 also tasks federal agencies with ensuring that public notifications 
regarding environmental issues are concise, understandable, and readily accessible.
Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act of 1970 
(URARPAPA, PL 91-646) and Title IV Uniform Relocation Act (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation)
These regulations provide uniform and equitable treatment of persons displaced from their 
homes, businesses, or farms by federal or federally assisted programs. These regulations also 
establish uniform and equitable land acquisition policies for federal and federally assisted 
programs. Agencies are required to reimburse for and provide relocation planning, assistance 
coordination, and advisory services to persons displaced by such programs.

3.6.1.2 State Laws and Regulations
California Environmental Quality Act
CEQA (PRC Sections 21000-21178) and the CEQA Guidelines (CCR Sections 15000-15387) 
are the primary policies that require proponents of an action to analyze its potential 
socioeconomic impacts to communities resulting from the implementation of the action.

Relocation Assistance: Chapter 16 of the California Government Code
Whenever an action undertaken by a California public entity results in the displacement of any 
person, the displaced person is entitled to payment for relocation and related expenses. 
Procedures guiding relocation assistance are detailed in Chapter 16 of the California Government 
Code (Sections 7260-7277).

3.6.2 Socioeconomic Conditions in California
Much of the relevant data on demographics and housing in California is provided by the U.S. 
Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census. Census data are provided for the political 
subdivisions of the country, that is, states, counties, and cities. In addition, census data are 
provided by statistical subdivision that include (in order of decreasing size) tracts, block 
numbering areas, block groups, and blocks. These statistical subdivisions of counties are 
delineated to be homogeneous with respect to demographics, economic status, and living 
conditions. Most local governments have basic demographic, economic, and employment data 
based on political subdivisions. California is a diverse state demographically. Given the 
programmatic nature of this document, socioeconomic data are presented in broad terms for the 
state.

The poverty rate in the state is 14 percent, based on the 3-year average from 1998 to 2000. In 
California, people living in predominantly rural areas tend to have lower incomes, higher poverty 
rates, and higher unemployment rates than those living in urban areas. However, in San 
Francisco and Los Angeles counties high income levels coexist with some of the highest poverty 
rates in the state. Poverty rates are higher among minority ethnic groups. Throughout the state, 
pockets of prosperity have an "averaging effect," that is, they raise average personal income and 
lower average poverty and unemployment rates. Annual per capita income in California ranges 
from $10,000 in Yuba County to $28,000 in Marin County. Unemployment rates vary 
considerably from county to county, as they depend on the local availability of work. At the state 
level, unemployment rates respond to general economic trends and conditions. The California 
Employment Development Department issues monthly unemployment rate reports. The 
statewide unemployment rate for June 2002 was 6.3 percent. 

Table 3.6-1 provides a summary of state and county demographic data.

Tables

Insert
Table 3.6-1
State and County Demographics

3.7 LAND USE AND PLANNING
Under NEPA, this resource category evaluates land uses and zoning designations in areas where 
an action would take place. Proposed alternatives can contradict or be in harmony with 
designated uses. Impacts can occur if changes to real and designated use areas are necessary to 
implement an alternative or if implementation results in an unbalanced land use. This resource 
category also evaluates the issue of land ownership.

3.7.1 Regulatory Background
Land use, the existing function of real property, is regulated by all levels of government. 
However, the majority of land use control and zoning is implemented by local authorities. State 
regulations include California's Planning and Zoning Law. Local regulations are described in 
county general plans. 

3.7.1.1 State and Local Laws and Regulations
It is the intent of the State of California to give as much control over land use as possible to local 
authorities. California's Planning and Zoning Law (California Government Code Sections 65000-
66037) requires each city and county jurisdiction in the state to prepare a local general plan. The 
general plan is the primary planning document that establishes policies to regulate the 
development, function, and use of land within the jurisdictional boundaries of each city or 
county. General plans are required to contain the following elements or chapters: land use, 
circulation, housing, conservation, open space, noise, and safety. Although all seven elements 
carry equal weight, the land use element is integral to carrying out local planning because it 
designates the pattern and scope of development. In the general plan, all public and private 
property within the county or city's jurisdiction is designated with a specific land use. Examples 
of land use designations include residential, commercial, industrial, public (or institutional), 
recreational, agricultural, and open (or undeveloped). The designations are often further 
subdivided, for example, high-, medium-, and low-density residential or light and heavy 
industrial.

General plan policies and county or city zoning ordinances define permissible land uses within 
each designated land use area or zone. These policies and ordinances prohibit development that 
is inconsistent with land uses in a given zone. For example, the construction of an industrial 
facility in a low-density residential zone would be prohibited in most city or county zoning 
ordinances. Compliance with zoning ordinances is normally enforced by local governments as 
part of the building permit process. Under most zoning ordinances, land uses that are compatible 
with a land use designation require a simplified land use permitting process. A "conditional use" 
is the term given to land uses that do not completely conform to the land use designation but are 
allowable within the zoning ordinance provided that certain conditions are met. For example, in 
many cities small retail properties such as a coin-operated laundry facility or a convenience store 
may be allowable in a medium-density residential zone when a conditional use permit is obtained 
by the owner of the retail property. Finally, land uses may be designated as "nonconforming" 
uses, which occurs when a land use does not meet the requirements of the zoning ordinance for 
that land use area and a conditional use is not permitted. Often a "zoning variance" is obtained by 
the owner of the nonconforming land use property. Frequently nonconforming uses occur when a 
land use designation for a given area has been changed and an existing property maintains its 
original land use, such as a commercial farm that operates in an area that has been rezoned as 
residential.

3.7.2 Land Uses in California
Land use throughout California is extremely varied. This section provides an overview of 
regional land use patterns in California.

3.7.2.1 Bay-Delta Region
Prior to the 1940s the most substantial urban area in the Bay-Delta Region was the city of San 
Francisco; most of the other portions of the region were rural. During the last 50 years, however, 
land uses throughout the region have shifted, becoming progressively more urbanized. Post-
World War II urbanization in the metropolitan San Francisco area was the principal catalyst for 
this development, along with growth in the cities of Oakland and San Jose, which are the other 
major urban areas in the region. Since the 1970s, the South Bay region has become a hub for 
companies that provide high-technology products and services. Suburban sprawl, characterized 
by low-density residential and light manufacturing land uses, occupies much of the Bay-Delta 
Region outside the city of San Francisco. Land uses in the region are diverse and include the 
Napa Valley and Sonoma County wine industry; international business and tourism in San 
Francisco; technological development and production in Silicon Valley; and urban, suburban, 
and rural residential uses. Urban land accounts for about 23 percent (655,600 acres) of the land 
area (CALFED 2000). 

3.7.2.2 Central Valley Region
Agriculture and open space historically have constituted the most important land uses in the 
Sacramento River and San Joaquin Valley areas that comprise the Central Valley Region. Since 
the 1970s, however, urban land uses in the greater metropolitan Sacramento area have begun to 
supplant some agricultural uses. Except for Sacramento County, the region generally contains 
large quantities of parkland, forests, and other open space and has preserved its traditionally rural 
nature. Urban development accounts for approximately 863,000 acres (about 4 percent) of total 
land use in the region. Land uses in the Sacramento River area are still principally agricultural 
and open space, with urban development focused in and around the city of Sacramento. More 
than half the region's population lives in the greater metropolitan Sacramento area. Other fast-
growing communities include Vacaville, Dixon, Redding, Chico, and several Sierra Nevada 
foothill towns. Urban development along major highway corridors in Placer, El Dorado, Yolo, 
Solano, and Sutter counties has taken some irrigated agricultural land out of production. 
Land uses in the San Joaquin River area are predominantly open space in the mountains and 
foothills and agricultural in the San Joaquin Valley area. Urban land usage in 1990 totaled 
295,300 acres, or about 2 percent of the region's area. Urban areas include the cities of Stockton, 
Modesto, Merced, and Tracy, as well as smaller communities such as Lodi, Galt, Madera, and 
Manteca. In contrast to the urban centers of the valley, separated by flat agricultural fields and 
linked by freeways, the foothills are sprinkled with small communities that are connected by 
two-lane roads. The western side of the Central Valley Region, south of Tracy, is sparsely 
populated. Many small agricultural communities dot the eastern side of the southern San Joaquin 
Valley, with urban development and anticipated population growth focused in the cities of 
Fresno, Bakersfield, Visalia, and Tulare.

3.7.2.3 South Coast Region
The South Coast Region is the most urbanized area in California. The Los Angeles metropolitan 
area is now the second largest in the nation. Of the approximately 7 million acres in the area, 
about 1.7 million acres are urbanized. Most of the area's coastal plains and valleys are densely 
populated. The largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, Long Beach, Santa Ana, and Anaheim. 
Areas undergoing increased urbanization include the coastal plains of Orange and Ventura 
counties, Santa Clarita Valley in northwestern Los Angeles County, Pomona/San 
Bernardino/Moreno Valleys, and the valleys north and east of the city of San Diego. To the north 
of the area are the cities of Santa Barbara, Lompoc, Santa Maria, Morro Bay, and San Luis 
Obispo. The eastern portion of Kern County, northeastern portion of Los Angeles County, and 
western San Bernardino County contain many desert valleys and small mountain ranges. 
Although not densely populated, these areas contain growing urban areas, including the city of 
Lancaster.

3.7.2.4 Other Regions
In addition to the more urban Bay-Delta, Central Valley, and South Coast regions, California is 
composed of large expanses of rural, less-developed country. These more rural areas include the 
Klamath, Modoc, and Sierra regions to the north, the Central Coast region to the center west, and 
the Colorado and Mojave Desert regions in the southeast of the state. In general, these areas are 
characterized by large expanses of public lands (e.g., lands administered by the BLM and USFS). 
Typical land uses in these areas include forestry, agriculture, recreation, geothermal power, and 
open space. Despite the comparatively substantial amount of undeveloped land in these regions, 
urbanization is encroaching from the urban centers of Orange County and Los Angeles, 
Sacramento, and the San Francisco Bay Area.

 
3.8 PUBLIC SERVICES AND RECREATION
Public services in California include fire protection, police protection, public schools, parks, and 
other services at public facilities. Guidelines and statutes regarding public services and recreation 
are generally found at the local level. Local jurisdictions frequently establish building codes and 
other construction standards and prescribe requirements for local police and fire protection. 
Local planning agencies may establish goals or ordinances for parks or keeping areas 
undeveloped. Although California and the federal government constrain aspects of school policy 
decision making, local school boards determine school operations. 

3.8.1 Fire Protection
Fire protection at the state level is under the direction of the California Department of Forestry 
and Fire Protection (CDF). The CDF has the responsibility for fire protection and stewardship of 
over 31 million acres of California's privately owned wildlands. In addition, the CDF provides 
varied emergency services in 33 of the state's 58 counties via contracts with local governments. 
Beyond its wildland fire-fighting role, the CDF responds to an average of nearly 273,000 
nonwildfire emergencies each year. The CDF responds to medical emergencies of all types, 
hazardous material spills, swiftwater rescues, search and rescue missions, civil disturbances, and 
other emergencies (see www.fire.ca.gov).

Because of the CDF's size and major incident management experience, it is often asked to assist 
or take the lead in disasters, including the northern and central California floods of 1997 and 
1998, the 1991 Cantara train derailment and toxic spill, the 1994 Northridge earthquake, 1989 
Loma Prieta earthquake, and the 1991 Tunnel Fire in the Oakland/Berkeley Hills. 

A part of the CDF team since 1996, the Office of the State Fire Marshal supports the CDF 
mission to protect life and property through fire prevention engineering programs, law and code 
enforcement, and education. The office provides for fire prevention by enforcing fire-related 
laws in state-owned or -operated buildings, investigating arson fires in California, licensing those 
who inspect and service fire protection systems, approving fireworks for use in California, 
regulating the use of chemical flame retardants, evaluating building materials against fire safety 
standards, regulating hazardous liquid pipelines, and tracking incident statistics for local and 
state government emergency response agencies.

In addition to the state fire-fighting capabilities, the Fire and Aviation Management part of the 
USFS works to advance technologies in fire management and suppression, maintain and improve 
the efficient mobilization and tracking systems in place, and reach out in support of federal, state, 
and international fire partners.

The National Fire Plan, released in May 2002, is a cooperative, long-term effort by the USFS, 
Department of the Interior, and National Association of State Foresters. The National Fire Plan is 
a collaborative 10-year comprehensive strategy to reduce the risk of wildland fire to 
communities and the environment. The need for a 10-year fire plan is the result of: 
* A high level of growth in the wildland-urban interface that is placing more citizens and 
property at risk of wildland fire
* Increasing ecosystem health problems across the landscape
* Millions of acres of land nationwide are presently classified as being at high risk from wildland 
fire (see www.fireplan.gov)
* An awareness that many of the past century's traditional approaches to land management, the 
development of unnaturally dense, diseased or dying forests, and treatment of wildland fire have 
contributed to more severe wildland fires and created widespread threats to communities and 
ecosystems 

In addition to state and federal fire-fighting services, local communities often provide fire 
protection in the form of municipal or community-based fire districts. Volunteer fire districts 
may also serve a community, but they are often in small cities or remote areas and are not as 
common as in the past.

Within California there is also an organization called the California Fire Alliance. This is a 
collaborative effort between the USFS, BLM, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, USFWS, FEMA, 
CDF, OES, and a local government representative. The California Fire Alliance coordinates the 
various grants available for fuel reduction projects. It lends support and technical assistance and 
facilitates the National Fire Plan's Firewise Program. The California Fire Alliance also monitors 
100 communities involved in the Fire Safe Community Program.

3.8.2 Police Protection
Throughout the state various departments within the cities and counties provide police protection 
and emergency services to members of their respective communities. One of the major agencies 
providing police protection in the state is the California Highway Patrol. The California Highway 
Patrol was created to ensure safety and provide service to the public as they use the highway 
transportation system in the state and to assist local government during emergencies when 
requested. 

3.8.3 Public Schools
California has 8,761 public schools, with as few as 10 public schools in Alpine County and as 
many as 3,484 in Los Angeles County. The California School Board Association represents 
1,000 school districts and county offices of education throughout the state. 

3.8.4 Public Parks
The California State Parks system comprises over 260 state parks, beaches, historic sites, and 
recreational areas. The California State Parks Department contains the largest and most diverse 
natural and cultural heritage holdings of any state agency in the nation. State park units include 
underwater preserves, reserves, and parks; redwood, rhododendron, and wildlife reserves; state 
beaches, recreation areas, wilderness areas, and reservoirs; state historic parks, historic homes, 
Spanish-era adobe buildings, including museums, visitor centers, cultural reserves, and 
preserves; lighthouses, ghost towns, waterslides, conference centers, and off-highway vehicle 
parks. These park units protect and preserve an unparalleled collection of culturally and 
environmentally sensitive structures and habitats, threatened plant and animal species, ancient 
Native American sites, historic structures, and artifacts. Numerous county and regional parks 
also exist in California. 

3.8.5 Public Utilities
3.8.5.1 Water-Related Infrastructure
California has two major water projects: the CVP and the SWP. Construction of the CVP began 
during the Depression. The CVP stores and transports water from the Sacramento and San 
Joaquin rivers for use primarily in the Central Valley for irrigation. The federal CVP is the 
largest water storage and transfer system in the state. It stores up to 12 million acre-feet (MAF) 
and delivers 7.3 MAF annually. About 90 percent of these deliveries are used to irrigate about 3 
million acres of farmlands south of the Delta, with the remaining 10 percent of CVP water used 
for wildlife refuges.

The SWP consists of large dams, reservoirs, and a major aqueduct (the California Aqueduct). 
The SWP stretches from Oroville Dam on the Feather River in the north to Perris Lake in 
Southern California (Water Education Foundation 1987). About 20 million Californians get 
some portion of their water from the SWP, the state's major distribution system for urban water 
supplies. The 29 water agencies that buy SWP water have contracted for long-term deliveries of 
about 4 MAF of water. The existing facilities allow the SWP to deliver between 2.5 and 3 MAF 
in a normal water year and 1.1 MAF in dry years (Water Education Foundation 2003).
In addition to the two large water projects, California has nearly 600 special purpose local 
governments that provide water to their areas through imported supplies. Some water districts 
provide domestic and industrial water and others serve agricultural needs. Since the early 1900s, 
local water import programs have made possible the development of the San Francisco Bay 
Area, Los Angeles, other Southern California cities, and agricultural areas statewide. Major local 
projects in the north include the Hetch Hetchy Aqueducts, which transport Tuolumne River 
water to San Francisco and the Peninsula, and the Pardee and Comanche reservoirs, which 
supply the East Bay. In Southern California, a group of southern cities formed the Metropolitan 
Water District to bring Colorado River water to their area (Water Education Foundation 1987). 
California is permitted to use 4.4 MAF of Colorado River water annually. 
3.8.5.2 Electric Utility and Communication Infrastructure 

The electric utility infrastructure in California consists primarily of Pacific Gas and Electric 
(PG&E) in the northern and central parts of the state and Southern California Edison (SCE) in 
the southern and central portions. San Diego Gas and Electric (SDG&E) in Southern California 
and the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) are also important providers of electric 
utility service. Communication infrastructure throughout the state includes underground cable, 
fiber optic lines, and communication/transmission towers.

In the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, power transmission facilities have developed in 
parallel with the population growth of various communities near the Delta. PG&E and the 
Western Area Power Administration have developed power transmission lines across Delta 
islands and waterways. Many of these corridors are within the periphery of the Delta upland 
areas, including several natural-gas-fired plants. Power-generating facilities are absent from the 
central Delta. 

In the San Francisco Bay Area electric infrastructure consists of a large and complex grid of 
power plants, transmission lines, and substations. Generating facilities in the region primarily are 
fired with natural gas and oil. Major power generation facilities and oil refineries are located 
along Carquinez Strait. 

In the Sacramento area, infrastructure consists primarily of hydroelectric and natural-gas-fired 
generating facilities, transmission lines, substations, distribution lines, fiber optic and cable lines, 
and communication towers. SMUD is the nation's sixth largest community-owned electric utility 
in terms of customers served. SMUD generates, transmits, and distributes electric power to a 
900-square-mile service area that includes Sacramento County and a small portion of Placer 
County.

In the San Joaquin area, infrastructure consists primarily of natural-gas-fired and hydroelectric-
generating facilities, transmission lines, substations, distribution lines, fiber optic and cable 
television lines, and communication towers.

In the Sacramento and San Joaquin valley areas, hydropower generation levels fluctuate 
substantially with reservoir releases, which are in turn affected by droughts (and other climatic 
conditions), minimum streamflow requirements, flow fluctuation restrictions, and water quality 
requirements. Changes in power generation affect coordinated operations of both PG&E and 
CVP facilities.

A complex system of generating facilities, substations, and transmission infrastructure exists in 
the South and Central Coast regions. Natural gas, nuclear, oil, hydroelectric, and other 
technologies are used for power production. 

Located in Southern California, SCE is one of the largest electric utilities in the U.S. On an 
average day, SCE provides power for 11 million individuals, 800 communities and cities, 5,000 
large businesses, and 280,000 small businesses in Central and Southern California. Delivering 
that power takes 16 utility interconnections, 4,900 transmission and distribution circuits, and 365 
transmission and distribution crews (see www.sce.com).

SDG&E is a regulated public utility that provides service to 3 million consumers through 1.3 
million electric meters and 775,000 natural gas meters in San Diego and southern Orange 
counties. SDG&E is part of Sempra Energy Utilities, the umbrella for Sempra Energy's regulated 
business units (see www.sdge.com/aboutus/).

3.8.5.3 Natural Gas Infrastructure
Approximately 43 percent of California's electricity is generated by combusting natural gas that 
was obtained from the state's gas resources. Natural gas is generally distributed throughout the 
state (including to residential homes) by pipelines. Of the 58 counties in California, 28 had some 
form of oil and/or gas production in 2000. Natural gas is produced in two basic forms, associated 
gas and nonassociated gas. Associated gas is produced along with crude oil while nonassociated 
gas is produced from gas fields that do not produce any crude oil. Of the 288 active oil and gas 
fields in the state, 284.6 billion cubic feet of associated gas, which is generally produced in 
Southern California, and 94.5 billion cubic feet of nonassociated gas, which is generally 
produced in Northern California, was produced in 2000 (California Department of Conservation 
2001; California Energy Commission 2001). Throughout the state the natural gas infrastructure 
consists of gas fields, pipelines, compressor stations, underground storage areas, storage facilities 
owned by oil and gas companies, public utilities, various independent leaseholders, and other 
related infrastructure (CALFED 2000).

3.9 TRANSPORTATION
3.9.1 Regulatory Background
The California Transportation Commission (CTC) was established in 1978 by Assembly Bill 402 
(Chapter 1106, Statutes of 1977). The CTC is responsible for programming and allocating funds 
for the construction of highway, passenger rail, and transit improvements throughout California. 
The CTC also participates in the initiation and development of state and federal legislation that 
seeks to secure financial stability for the state's transportation needs.
The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) is responsible for the design, 
construction, and maintenance of the California State Highway System as well as the portion of 
interstate highways within California's boundaries. 

The California legislature strives for an integrated state and regional transportation planning 
process. A State Transportation Plan, issued in 2000, sets the standards and requirements for 
local transportation plans. The transportation planning agencies of local governments and 
regional authorities are responsible for the design, construction, and maintenance of county and 
local roads. These agencies include the Regional Transportation Planning Agencies designated 
under Section 29532 of the California Government Code, the Local Transportation Commissions 
designated under Section 29535 of the Government Code, and the Metropolitan Planning 
Organizations designated by the governor and required by federal provisions for urbanized areas 
under the Federal Highway Act of 1962.

The use of California state highways and freeways for other than normal transportation purposes 
may require written authorization from Caltrans. If activities are to be conducted within the 
right-of-way of a state highway, Caltrans reviews the request, which must be submitted on a 
Standard Encroachment Permit Application and forwarded to the appropriate Caltrans district. 
Caltrans also issues special permits for the movement of vehicles/loads exceeding statutory 
limitations on the size, weight, and loading of vehicles contained in Division 15 of the California 
Vehicle Code. These special permits require the completion of an application for a 
Transportation Permit. Local authorities often have their own rules and regulations for local 
roads. 

3.9.2 Transportation in California
Transportation is vital to the California and its economy. Work commutes, shipping and 
distribution, and routine daily tasks rely on a dependable and safe transportation system. The 
state includes two major transportation hubs: the Bay Area and the South Coast. These hubs 
function as gateways for international trade. California includes dense urban cores with suburban 
and rural peripheries. A system of federal and state highways provides regional connections, and 
a network of local major and arterial roads provides internal circulation. 

A full description of the California road and highway systems is beyond the scope of this PEA. 
The California State Highway Code defines a number of different types of highways, including 
special designations for portions of routes. The California Scenic Highway System includes 
those portions of highway that together with their adjacent scenic corridors require special scenic 
conservation treatment (State Highway Code Section 260). The California Historic Parkway 
System includes those portions of highways that (1) were constructed prior to 1945; (2) have 
been recognized by Caltrans or the Office of Historic Preservation in the Department of Parks 
and Recreation as having historical significance, including notable landmarks, historical sites, 
etc.; (3) are bounded by federal, state, or local parkland, Native American lands or monuments, 
or other open space dedicated to historical or recreational uses; and (4) are traversed by no fewer 
than 40,000 vehicles per day on an annual daily average basis (State Highway Code 280). The 
concerns raised by these designations are also addressed under the cultural resources, public 
services and recreation, and visual resources sections of this PEA. 

The State of California finances the operation of passenger routes within the state, including both 
operating and capital grants for station and equipment improvement. Numerous privately 
operated freight and passenger rail lines exist in the state. Many of these operations operate on 
the same rail lines. Key railway corridors include the Central Valley, Donner Pass, Cajon Pass, 
and routes crossing the Mojave and Colorado deserts. Some of the primary railway hubs are Los 
Angeles, Oakland, Sacramento, and Barstow. Rail lines are often owned by a private company 
and any crossing of a rail line right-of-way typically requires the approval of the rail line owner.

 
3.10 NOISE
Commonly defined as unwanted and/or unwelcome sound, noise could be associated with 
actions that are part of this PEA. Sound is most commonly measured in decibels on the A-
weighted scale (a scale based on the range of sounds that the human ear can hear) and expressed 
as dBA. The day-night averaged sound level (DNL or Ldn) is an average measure of sound for a 
24-hour period expressed in dBA. It takes into account the volume of each sound incident, the 
number of times each incident occurs, and the time of day each incident occurs (nighttime sound 
being weighted more heavily because it is assumed to be more annoying to the community). The 
DNL descriptor is accepted by federal agencies as a standard for estimating sound impacts and 
establishing guidelines for compatible land uses.

3.10.1 Regulatory Background
3.10.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
The Noise Control Act of 1972
The Noise Control Act (42 USC Chapter 4901 et seq.) tasked the USEPA to develop noise level 
guidelines that would be designed to protect the population from the adverse effects of 
environmental noise and make recommendations for acceptable noise level limits. The USEPA 
(1974) guidelines (and those of many federal agencies) state that outdoor sound levels in excess 
of 55 decibel DNL are "normally unacceptable" for noise-sensitive land uses such as residences, 
schools, and hospitals. The guideline for indoor sound levels is 45 dBA Ldn1. 
Noise Emission Standards for Transportation Equipment

Federal regulations establish noise limits for medium and heavy trucks (more than 4.5 tons, gross 
vehicle weight rating) under 40 CFR, Part 205, Subpart B. The federal truck pass-by noise 
standard is 80 dBA at 15 meters (approximately 50 feet) from the vehicle pathway centerline 
(Crocker 1997). Vehicle noise limits are implemented through regulatory controls on vehicle 
manufacturers.

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Standards
FEMA, along with many other federal agencies, does not have its own standards for acceptable 
noise levels. Of the federal agencies that do have standards for noise levels, HUD's standards are 
considered the most appropriate for residential use. HUD standards define Ldn below 65 dBA as 
acceptable for residential use (HUD 1985). Levels up to 75 dBA Ldn can be made acceptable 
through the use of insulation in buildings.

3.10.1.2 State Laws and Regulations
The California Noise Control Act of 1973
Chapter 14 of the California Health and Safety Code delegates the authority to regulate ambient 
noise to local jurisdictions.

Noise Insulation Standards
Relevant state regulations are contained in the CCR. Part 2 of Title 24 establishes the limit for 
interior community noise level for multifamily dwellings, hotels, motels, dormitories and long-
term care facilities as 45 dBA Ldn.
California Governor's Office of Planning and Research (OPR) Guidelines

In 1998, the OPR published its most recent edition of the General Plan Guidelines, which advise 
local jurisdictions in preparing their comprehensive long-term general plans. The noise element 
is a mandatory component of the general plan and includes general community noise guidelines 
and specific planning guidelines for noise/land use compatibility developed by the local 
jurisdiction.

The OPR guidelines are presented on Figure 3.10-1. Selected relevant levels are:
* Community noise equivalent level (CNEL) below 60 dBA-acceptable for low-density 
residential use
* CNEL below 65 dBA-normally acceptable for high-density residential use
* CNEL of 60 to 70 dBA-conditionally acceptable for churches, educational, and medical 
facilities
* CNEL below 70 dBA-normally acceptable for playgrounds and neighborhood parks
California Vehicle Code
The State of California also establishes noise limits for vehicles licensed to operate on public 
roads. For heavy trucks, the state pass-by noise standard is consistent with the federal limit of 80 
dBA. The state pass-by noise standard for light trucks and passenger cars (less than 4.5 tons 
gross vehicle weight rating) is also 80 dBA at 15 meters from the centerline. As with federal 
regulations, vehicle noise limits are implemented through regulatory controls on vehicle 
manufacturers and by legal sanction of vehicle operators enforced by state and local peace 
officers. 

3.10.1.3 Local Laws and Regulations
Regulatory noise standards employed by local jurisdictions generally fall into two categories: 
noise control ordinances and noise/land use compatibility guidelines. Noise produced by 
nontransportation-related noise sources is usually regulated using ordinances that limit the 
amount of noise such sources may produce, as measured at the nearest sensitive receptor or at 
property lines. Standards in local noise ordinances may be in the form of quantitative noise 
performance levels, or they may simply be in the form of a qualitative prohibition against 
creating a nuisance. Many ordinances employ both approaches. Local ordinances typically 
specify daytime and nighttime limits of statistical noise levels for various land uses or zoning 
categories. Nighttime limits are usually lower than daytime limits, accounting for the lower 
ambient noise levels at night and people's increased sensitivity to nighttime noise.
Because local jurisdictions are preempted from regulating noise emissions from transportation 
noise sources such as cars, trucks, trains, airplanes, and ferries, such jurisdictions also typically 
implement noise controls through adoption and implementation of noise/land use compatibility 
guidelines. Noise/land use compatibility guidelines identify the range of noise levels with which 
various land uses are deemed compatible, which permits local jurisdictions to achieve noise/land 
use compatibility for the land uses exposed to noise, even if the noise sources themselves cannot 
be regulated. Also, when existing noise and land uses are not compatible, local jurisdictions 
might provide aid to local residents to protect them from extreme noise levels. 

3.10.2 Existing Noise in California
Land use categories throughout California range from undeveloped rural to densely developed 
urban land. The noise levels associated with the range of land uses occurring in the state range 
from quiet to very noisy. Based on the results of environmental noise studies, planners and 
decision-makers generally accept that a consistent and direct relationship exists between 
population density and the associated noise level environment. The more rural and less populated 
(and less developed) areas typically have lower noise levels than the more urban and densely 
populated (and more developed) areas. Table 3.10-1 shows the relationship between population 
density and noise levels. 

A potential for higher noise levels exists in areas adjacent to transportation corridors or airports 
or adjacent to industrial or commercial land uses. Noise levels associated with transportation 
activities are shown in Table 3.10-2. 

Tables

Table 3.10-1 
Population Density and Average Day-Night Noise Levels Correlation

Location		Persons/Sq.Km. 		Ldn (dBA)
Rural
Undeveloped		8			35
Partially Developed	23			40

Suburban
Quiet			77			45
Normal			230			50

Urban
Normal			770			55
Noisy			2300			60
Very Noisy		7700			65

Source: CALFED 2000

Table 3.10-2 
Estimating Existing Noise Exposure

Distance from Major Noise Source 1 (feet)			Noise Exposure Estimates (dBA)

Interstate 	Other		Railroad  Population
Highways 2	Roadways3	Lines 4	  Density (people 	Leq	Leq	   Leq 	    Ldn
 					  per sq. mile)		(day)	(evening)  (night)

10 - 49								75	70	   65	    75
50 - 99								70	65	   60	    70
100 - 199							65	60	   55	    65
200  399							60	55	   50	    60
400 - 799							55	50	   45	    55
800 and up							50	45	   40	    50

		10 - 49						70	65	   60	    70
		50 - 99						65	60	   55	    65
		100 - 199					60	55	   50	    60
		200 - 399					55	50	   45	    55
		400 and up					50	45 	   40	    50
				10  29							    75	
				30  59   						    70
				60  119						    65
				120  239						    60
				240  499						    55
				500  799						    50
				800 and up						    45

					1 - 99			35	30	   25	    35
					100 - 299		40	35	   30	    40
					300 - 999		45   	40	   35	    45
					1,000 - 2,999		50	45	   40	    50
					3,000 - 9,999		55	50	   45	    55
					10,000 - 29,999		60	55	   50	    60
					30,000 and up		65	60	   55	    65
Notes:
1: Distances do not include shielding from intervening rows of buildings. General rule for estimating shielding attenuation in 
populated areas: Assume 1 row of buildings every 100 feet; -4.5 dB for the first row, -1.5 dB for every subsequent row up to a 
maximum of -10 dB attenuation.
2: Roadways with four or more lanes that permit trucks, with traffic at 60 mph.
3: Parkways with traffic at 55 mph, but without trucks, and city streets with the equivalent of 75 or more heavy trucks per hour 
and 300 or more medium trucks per hour at 30 mph.
4: Main line railroad corridors typically carrying 5 to 10 trains per day at speeds of 30 to 40 mph.

Source: Federal Transit Administration 1995.

3.11 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS AND WASTES
Under NEPA, actions involving hazardous materials or generating hazardous wastes must be in 
compliance with applicable regulations. A proposed action would have an impact if it interferes 
with ongoing or planned remediation programs or if it introduces or contributes to existing 
contamination.

3.11.1 Regulatory Background
The terms hazardous material and hazardous waste are defined by both federal and state 
regulations and often can encompass different materials depending on which regulation is being 
referred to and which state this site is located in. For the purposes of this document, hazardous 
material is defined as any solid, liquid, or gas that when improperly handled or released will have 
acute or chronic effects on human health or the environment. Hazardous waste is defined as any 
solid liquid, or gas that is a hazardous material and is discarded or is intended to be discarded.

3.11.1.1 Federal Laws and Regulations
Hazardous materials and wastes are regulated in the U.S. under a variety of federal and state 
laws. Federal laws and subsequent regulations governing the assessment, transportation, and 
disposal of hazardous materials and wastes include the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 
(RCRA); the RCRA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments; Comprehensive Environmental 
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA); the Solid Waste Act; the Toxic 
Substances Control Act (TSCA); and the Clean Air Act (CAA).

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RCRA is the federal law that regulates hazardous waste. RCRA regulates hazardous waste from 
"cradle to grave," that is, from the time the waste is generated through its management, storage, 
transport, treatment, and final disposal. The USEPA is responsible for implementing this law and 
may delegate this responsibility to the states to implement it. The State of California has been 
delegated with this responsibility. RCRA also sets forth a framework for the management of 
nonhazardous wastes. The 1986 amendments to RCRA enable the USEPA to address the 
environmental problems that can result from underground tanks storing petroleum and hazardous 
substances. RCRA focuses only on active and proposed facilities and does not address 
abandoned or historical sites.

Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendment of 1984
The federal Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments to RCRA require phasing out the land 
disposal of hazardous waste. Some of the other mandates of this law include increased 
enforcement authority for the USEPA, more stringent hazardous waste management standards, 
and a comprehensive underground storage tank (UST) program. 

Toxic Substances Control Act 
TSCA was enacted by Congress to give the USEPA the ability to track the approximately 75,000 
industrial chemicals currently produced or imported into the U.S. The USEPA repeatedly screens 
these chemicals and can require reporting or testing of those that may pose an environmental or 
human-health hazard. The USEPA may ban the manufacture and import of those chemicals that 
pose an unreasonable risk. The USEPA may also control these chemicals as necessary to protect 
human health and the environment. TSCA supplements other federal statutes, including CAA 
and the Toxic Release Inventory under the Emergency Planning and Community-Right-to-Know 
Act. TSCA included regulations regarding asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 and the 
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)

CERCLA and SARA are the federal laws that govern the process of identifying and prioritizing 
the cleanup of abandoned or other sites not regulated under RCRA contaminated by the release 
of hazardous materials to the environment. The process is conducted though the National 
Contingency Plan, which ranks sites and determines whether a site should be placed on the 
National Priority List. Sites on the list are commonly referred as Superfund sites. The USEPA is 
responsible for enforcing CERCLA and SARA. The USEPA was given power to seek out those 
parties responsible for any release and ensure their cooperation in the cleanup. Superfund site 
identification, monitoring, and response activities in states are coordinated through the state 
environmental protection or waste management agencies. 

Clean Air Act 
Section 112 of the CAA requires the USEPA to develop emission standards for hazardous air 
pollutants. In response to this section the USEPA published a list of hazardous air pollutants and 
promulgated the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) 
regulations. Because lead and asbestos present a substantial risk to human health as a result of air 
emissions from one or more source categories, they are considered hazardous air pollutants and, 
thus, hazardous materials. The Asbestos NESHAP (40 CFR 61, Subpart M) addresses milling, 
manufacturing, and fabricating operations; demolition and renovation activities; waste disposal 
issues; active and inactive waste disposal sites; and asbestos conversion processes.

3.11.1.2 State and Local Laws and Regulations
In addition to the powers granted to California by the Federal Government, several state and 
local laws and regulations affect the management of hazardous materials and wastes. State 
hazardous waste statutes are contained in of the California Health and Safety Code, Chapter 6.5, 
Hazardous Waste Control. The California hazardous waste regulations are found in CCR Title 
22. The CEPA, Department of Toxic Substances Control, and CARB are the major state agencies 
charged with the regulation of hazardous materials and hazardous wastes. California has laws 
and regulations that cover the use of aboveground storage tanks (ASTs) and USTs, and the 
generation and storage of hazardous waste. Oversight of both ASTs and USTs is provided by 
state and local agencies because California has a cooperative agreement with the USEPA to 
implement AST and UST regulations through the SWRCB and RWQCBs. These boards may, in 
turn, delegate authority to county and city agencies for local implementation and enforcement of 
AST and UST regulations. 

NESHAP regulations, including asbestos, are delegated by the USEPA to the CARB. California 
regulates asbestos content of building materials to 0.1 percent, lower than the USEPA 1 percent 
definition of asbestos-containing material (ACM); building materials above 0.1 percent asbestos 
are classified as asbestos-containing construction materials (ACCMs) by California. California 
also limits the asbestos content of imported surface fill for naturally occurring asbestos to 0.25 
percent. The CARB delegates authority to some AQMDs and APCDs, which at the local level 
are primarily responsible for the management of asbestos in their regions in accordance with the 
federal asbestos NESHAP (40 CFR Part 61). Some of the 17 air districts have developed their 
own, more stringent statutes for managing asbestos removal (Table 3.11-1). These regulations 
differ from district to district, so that the local district rules should be reviewed before any 
public, commercial, federal, or private demolition or renovation activity is started.
Lead materials in construction are regulated primarily under the federal Occupational Safety and 
Health Administration regulations (29 CFR 1910.1025 and 1926.62) and are for worker 
protection. The California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Occupational Safety 
and Health and the Department of Health Services administer additional regulations in 
California. Building materials with lead-based paint (LBP) in good condition can be disposed of 
as normal construction debris, according to California regulatory interpretation, although federal 
RCRA hazardous waste characterization requirements still apply. Buildings, such as schools, 
public housing, and day-care centers, that will be occupied by children under the age of 7 are 
regulated by the USEPA for lead content under TSCA.

3.11.2 Hazardous Materials and Wastes and the Affected Environment
Hazardous materials and wastes are grouped into the following four categories based on their 
properties: toxic (causes human health effects), ignitable (has the ability to burn), corrosive 
(causes severe burns or damage to materials), and reactive (causes explosions or generates toxic 
gases) (CCR Title 22, Division 4.5, Chapter 11, Article 3). Although petroleum products are not 
considered a hazardous material under federal regulations, they are regulated as hazardous 
materials in California.

As discussed in Section 3.11.1, a hazardous material is defined in many ways according to 
different federal and state regulations. In California, hazardous material is defined as:
* Any substance designated pursuant to CWA Section 311(b)(2)(A), as amended (33 USC 
Section 466 et seq.)
* Any element, compound, mixture, solution, or substance designated pursuant to CERCLA 
Section 102, as amended (42 USC Section 9601 et seq.)
* Any substance as defined by the California Health and Safety Code, Chapter 6.5, Hazardous 
Waste Control
* Any toxic pollutant listed under CWA Section 307(a), as amended (33 USC Section 466 et 
seq.)
* Any hazardous air pollutant listed under CAA Section 112, as amended (42 USC Section 1857 
et seq.)
* Any imminently hazardous chemical substance or mixture with respect to which the USEPA 
has taken action pursuant to TCSA Section 7, as amended (15 USC Section 2601 et seq.)
A hazardous material in California includes petroleum, natural gas, natural gas liquids, liquefied 
natural gas, or synthetic gas usable for fuel. As defined previously, a hazardous waste is any 
hazardous material that is discarded, abandoned, or transported and stored prior to being 
recycled. The criteria that render a material hazardous also make a waste hazardous. Hazardous 
materials and wastes can result in public health hazards if released to the soil or groundwater or 
through airborne releases in vapors, fumes, or dust. Hazardous wastes must be disposed of in 
accordance with all federal and California hazardous waste regulations.
Hazardous materials and wastes may be part of the affected environment of FEMA's actions 
considered in this PEA. In general, actions that are foreseen to involve hazardous materials or 
wastes include:
* Demolition or modification of building components coated with leaded paint
* Demolition or modification of building components that are or contain asbestos
* Demolition, acquisition, or modification of structures containing fluorescent or high-insensity 
discharge lighting (PCBs and mercury)
* Acquisition of or construction on sites containing hazardous materials or wastes
* Acquisition of or construction on sites containing USTs or ASTs
* Acquisition of structures that contain leaded paint or asbestos

3.11.2.1 Demolition or Modification of Building Components Coated with Lead-Based Paint
Lead is commonly found in painted and varnished surfaces in older buildings. Less common is 
the presence of lead in water supply pipes, pipe solder, and shielding in large, high-voltage 
electrical cables. Lead is a known human health hazard, particularly to children.
Debris resulting from the demolition or modification of building components with LBP can be 
disposed of as normal construction debris, according to California regulatory interpretation, 
although federal RCRA hazardous waste characterization requirements still apply. If any 
component with LBP is to be cut with a flame, sanded, or abraded, the LBP should be removed 
prior to the work. Renovated buildings, particularly schools, containing LBP should be 
decontaminated by the use of wet wiping and HEPA vacuums to remove lead-containing dusts 
before occupants are allowed to use the building. Buildings that will be occupied by children 
under the age of 7 must be decontaminated to below the USEPA and HUD clearance levels of 40 
micrograms per square foot for floors and 250 micrograms per square foot for interior window 
sills. Lead roof flashing, sewer pipes, waste vent pipes, water supply pipes, and electrical cable 
shielding, which are usually pure lead, should be removed prior to building demolition or 
modification and either recycled or disposed of as hazardous waste.

3.11.2.2 Demolition or Modification of Building Components with Asbestos-Containing 
Material
Asbestos was banned from friable materials such as spray-on fireproofing, acoustical tile, and 
pipe/boiler insulation by the USEPA in the early 1980s, and may be present in buildings that 
were constructed prior to the ban. Nonfriable ACMs may be present in many common building 
materials, including floor tile, sheet flooring, caulks and putties, mastics (including carpet 
mastics), transite (asbestos-cement), drywall (gypsum board), drywall joint compound, roof felts 
and papers, shingles, roof tar, and insulation around plumbing and heating ducts of any 
construction date.

USEPA/NESHAP has classified ACM into three categories: Friable, Category I Nonfriable, and 
Category II Nonfriable. A friable ACM is defined as any material containing more than 1 percent 
asbestos that, when dry, can be crumbled, pulverized, or reduced to powder by hand pressure. 
Nonfriable ACMs are classified as either Category I or Category II materials. Category I material 
is defined as asbestos-containing resilient floor covering (tile), asphalt roofing products, 
packings, and gaskets. Category II material is defined as all remaining types of nonfriable ACM 
not included in Category I that, when dry, cannot be crumbled, pulverized, or reduced to powder. 
A Category I or II material may become a Regulated ACM (RACM) if it has become friable, for 
example a Category I or II material that has been or will be subjected to sanding, cutting, 
grinding, or abrading or a Category II material that has been crumbled, pulverized, or reduced to 
powder by the mechanical forces expected to act on the material in the course of demolition or 
renovation operations. An example of Category II material is nonfriable asbestos-cement 
products such as transite. Also, any structure that will be demolished by intentional burning must 
have all ACM removed prior to demolition.

In cases where demolition or modification of ACCMs is part of an action, the appropriate air 
district or the CARB and USEPA must be notified before beginning the action. In accordance 
with the asbestos NESHAP (40 CFR Part 61, Subpart M), Category I materials that are not in 
poor condition and are not friable do not have to be removed before building demolition or 
modification; however, in California each air district has jurisdiction and rules on what may be 
left in place. Any material that is a Category I or II material cannot be recycled by any method 
that crushes, sands, breaks, cracks, or abrades the ACM. The local air district should be 
contacted before any building demolition or modification is conducted. Further information and 
handling procedures for the removal of Category I materials are included in A Guide to Normal 
Demolition Practices Under the Asbestos NESHAP (USEPA 1992) and are available from the air 
pollution districts associated with the action. Category I and II materials that have not become 
friable during building demolition or modification may be disposed of in a landfill that normally 
accepts construction debris, according to the asbestos NESHAP in 40 CFR Part 61. However, 
disposal plans should be confirmed with the local California air district.

Friable ACM and material that may potentially become friable during demolition must be 
removed before building modification or demolition begins in accordance with the asbestos 
NESHAP, 40 CFR Part 61, Subpart M. If the ACM is to be disposed of, disposal must occur in 
an approved facility. If Category I or II material is sanded, ground, cut, or abraded before it is 
buried at the landfill, it is subject to the asbestos NESHAP disposal regulations. RACM must be 
disposed of in a landfill that operates in accordance with 40 CFR Parts 61.150 and 61.154, or in a 
USEPA-approved conversion facility described in 40 CFR Part 61.155 of the asbestos NESHAP 
regulations. Further information and handling procedures for the removal of RACM and 
Category II material are included in the USEPA (1992) guidance.

If friable or nonfriable ACM is to be removed, a licensed and trained ACM abatement (removal) 
contractor must conduct the removal. Third party oversight and area air monitoring/clearance 
during the ACM removal is recommended and may be required by state or local regulation. 
Buildings that will be occupied for use as educational facilities for children from kindergarten 
through high school, including any temporary facilities such as trailers or manufactured housing, 
will be required to be inspected for ACM according to federal Asbestos Hazard Emergency 
Response Act regulations. 

RACM must be removed and disposed of off site as a regulated waste before building demolition 
or modification is started, to prevent the regulated ACM from contaminating the nonhazardous 
demolition debris. If asbestos contamination of nonhazardous debris occurs, it must all be 
disposed of as asbestos-regulated waste (a hazardous waste).

In California, if any detectable concentration of asbestos is present in the material to be removed, 
workers must be provided training and proper personal protective equipment according to federal 
and state occupational safety and health regulations.

3.11.2.3 Demolition, Acquisition, or Modification of Structures Containing Fluorescent or High-
Intensity Discharge Lighting
Fluorescent and high-intensity discharge light bulbs and tubes contain metals, particularly 
mercury, in concentrations that if not properly handled, would render them a hazardous waste. 
Federal and state regulations required these light tubes to be handled as either hazardous waste or 
universal waste. The difference between the two is whether they will be discarded/disposed 
(hazardous) or recycled (universal).

The starter, capacitors, and ballasts for these lights may contain PCB or a PCB replacement 
chemical (DEHP). Federal and state regulations require these items to be handled in a manner 
similar to the bulbs and tubes - as either a hazardous or universal waste.

3.11.2.4 Acquisition of or Construction on Sites Containing Hazardous Materials or Wastes
Hazardous materials or wastes may be used, generated, or stored in facilities associated with 
acquisition or construction actions, such as manufacturing, maintenance, or repair facilities; 
pipeline and fueling areas; wastewater treatment; or legal or illegal disposal sites. Actions 
involving ground disturbance have the potential to encounter hazardous materials or wastes if 
they were discharged to or disposed of in the ground. Liability for existing hazardous materials 
or wastes is of concern whenever property is acquired since the liability is joint and several. 
Several federal, state, and local environmental information databases can be accessed to 
determine the possible presence and approximate location of known hazardous materials or 
wastes in the areas where actions would be implemented. Reconnaissance surveys should also be 
conducted to search for evidence of hazardous materials release, such as stained soils, basic 
topographic conditions, and current and past uses of the subject and adjacent properties. The 
owner of a facility is responsible for notifying the Department of Toxic Substances Control when 
a release of a hazardous substance is discovered. 

3.11.2.5 Acquisition of or Construction on Sites Containing Underground or Aboveground 
Storage Tanks
Similar to impacts described in Section 3.11.2.4, actions involving ground disturbance have the 
potential to encounter USTs or ASTs. Several federal, state, and local UST environmental 
databases can be accessed to determine the possible presence and approximate location of known 
USTs and ASTs. Reconnaissance surveys should also be conducted to search for evidence of 
USTs and ASTs.

The USTs in California are managed by the SWRCB. One SWRCB and nine RWQCBs across 
the state oversee compliance with the UST and AST laws. The local agencies are in charge of the 
UST/AST-permitting program and issue operating and closure permits as necessary. If USTs are 
no longer to be used, such as for acquisition actions, closure permits must be secured and the 
tank removed or closed in place. If a UST or AST problem (such as a leak) is identified, the 
RWQCB or local agency locates the responsible party, determines cleanup activities, and 
oversees the activities until complete. The SWRCB also administers the UST Cleanup Fund 
Program (created by the Underground Storage Tank Cleanup Fund Act of 1988), which funds 
corrective actions at leaking UST sites and third party liability costs (SWRCB 1997).

3.11.2.6 Acquisition of Structures that Contain Lead-Based Paint and Asbestos-Containing 
Material
The areas where actions would be implemented may include the acquisition of structures 
containing LBP and ACM. The presence, quantity, and condition of these materials should be 
evaluated prior to acquisition for the property so cost to abate or maintain these materials can be 
factored into the acquisition costs. If the structures are to be demolished or renovated, then 
requirements described in Sections 3.11.2.1 and 3.11.2.2 would be applicable to the action.
Properties and structures in the areas where actions would be implemented may also contain 
miscellaneous hazardous materials, including but not limited to gasoline, oils, greases, pesticides, 
herbicides, ammunition, cleaners, degreasers, solvents, medical waste, and small quantity 
radioactive sources (smoke detectors). All of these miscellaneous hazardous materials are 
commonly referred to as regulated building contents. The presence, quantity, and condition of 
these materials should be evaluated prior to acquisition since the disposition of these materials 
may impact the costs of the actions. 

Tables

Table 3.11-1 
California Asbestos NESHAP Air Pollution Control Districts

Delegated Districts 			Nondelegated Districts 
(region-specific statutes)1		(NESHAP)2
Bay Area AQMD				Amador County APCD
Great Basin Unified APCD		Butte County APCD
Lake County AQMD			Calaveras County APCD
Mendocino County APCD			Colusa County APCD
Modoc County APCD			El Dorado County APCD
Monterey Bay APCD			Feather River Unified APCD
North Coast Unified AQMD		Glenn County APCD
Northern Sonoma County APCD		Imperial County APCD
Sacramento Metro AQMD			Lassen County APCD
Mojave Desert APCD			Mariposa County APCD
San Diego County APCD			Northern Sierra County AQMD
San Joaquin Valley Unified APCD		Placer County APCD
San Luis Obispo County APCD		Shasta County APCD
Santa Barbara County APCD		Siskiyou County APCD
South Coast AQMD			Tehama County APCD
Ventura County APCD			Tuolumne County APCD
Yolo-Solano County APCD

Notes:
1: Contact the air district before project inception.
2: Contact the CARB and USEPA before project inception.
Source: CARB, Compliance Division, November 1997.

 
3.12 VISUAL RESOURCES
This section describes visual and scenic resources. The visual impacts resulting from an action 
may be perceived by stationary or mobile viewers.

3.12.1 Regulatory Background
Scenic values have historically not had the same level of policy recognition as other 
environmental values. However, a diverse set of federal and state laws recognize scenic and 
aesthetic values, and courts nationwide have ruled favorably for aesthetic regulation. Several 
federal and state laws contain some reference to scenic beauty or aesthetics. Federal regulations 
include NEPA, the Federal Lands Policy Management Act of 1976, National Forest Management 
Act, Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, National Highway System Act of 1995, 
Highway Beautification Act of 1965, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, National Trails Act, 
Antiquities Act, and Wilderness Act of 1964. State regulations include the California General 
Plan Law, Williamson Act, California Scenic Highways Legislation, CEQA, Visual Impact 
Assessment, and California Outdoor Advertising Act. California regulations support local land 
use planning, and the counties manage several open-space conservation incentive and purchasing 
programs that promote scenic conservation. 

3.12.2 Visual Resources in California
The state of California contains many varying landscapes and thus has a large variety of visual 
resources. In a programmatic analysis, visual resources can only be characterized in general 
terms. The visual resources at a particular project site vary. A visual assessment would be 
required to identify, describe, and map visual resources that may be affected by an action. Like 
many other federal agencies, FEMA does not have its own guidance for visual resources. 
Therefore, FEMA follows visual resource study methodologies developed by both the USFS 
(1974) and the Federal Highway Administration (1986). The main concepts utilized by these 
methodologies are briefly presented below.

3.12.2.1 Visual Character and Quality 
To assess the potential effects an action may have on scenic resources, it is first necessary to 
describe the visual environment of the project area. The scenic qualities of a landscape are 
determined through an analysis of the landscape character type. Landscape character type is a 
unit of physiographic area having common landscape features of landforms, rock formations, 
water form, and vegetative patterns.

Landscape features can be broken down into four factors: form, line, color, and texture. The form 
of an object is its visual shape or mass. Lines are often defined by edges of objects, landforms, or 
vegetation. Color is defined by both the value or reflective brightness (light, dark) and its hue 
(red, green). Texture is apparent surface coarseness. 

The degrees of diversity in a landscape are called variety classes and are a measure of the scenic 
quality of a landscape. Three variety classes have been established:
* Class A - Distinctive: areas where features of landform, vegetative patterns, water features, and 
rock forms are of unusual or outstanding visual quality. Representative of this class are the state's 
renowned parks, peaks, lakes and reservoirs, e.g., Mount Diablo, Yosemite National Park, 
Lassen Volcanic National Park, Clear Lake.
* Class B - Common: areas where features contain variety in form, line, color, or texture or 
combinations thereof, but which tend to be common throughout the character type and are not 
outstanding in visual quality. 
* Class C - Minimal: areas where features in the landscape have little change in form, line, color 
or texture. Includes all areas not found under Classes A or B. Most agricultural and urbanized 
areas belong in this category.

Visual relationships between elements in a landscape can often be traced to four factors: 
dominance, scale, diversity, and continuity. Specific elements or components in a landscape may 
dominate the view because of position within the landscape, contrast, or importance. Scale is the 
apparent size relationship between landscape components. Diversity is a function of the number, 
variety, and intermixing of visual patterns. Continuity is the uninterrupted flow of patterns in a 
landscape and the maintenance of the visual relationships of connected or related landscape 
patterns. 

Other evaluative criteria of the quality of a landscape include three perceptual factors: vividness, 
intactness, and unity. Vividness is the visual power or memorability of a landscape scene, for 
instance, the view of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco or Mount Shasta in Northern 
California. Intactness is the visual integrity of the natural and human-made landscape and its 
freedom from visual encroachments, for instance, a well-kept pastoral landscape. Unity is the 
visual coherence and compositional harmony of the landscape considered as a whole, often the 
result of carefully designed individual components within a landscape.

3.12.2.2 Viewshed and Sensitivity 
A viewshed is the surface area visible from a viewpoint or series of viewpoints. It is that portion 
of the landscape that would be potentially visually impacted by project activities. Often, the 
potential effects of an action are assessed from selected viewpoints within a viewshed to describe 
the visual change or contrasts that would result from the action. Viewpoints may be selected due 
to the sensitivity of a location or because they present a view that is representative of the 
landscape.

Visual sensitivity is a measure of people's concern for scenic quality. It is a function of the type 
and number of viewers, activities of viewers, visual exposure of the action, and its distance from 
sensitive viewing locations. Three sensitivity levels are defined by the USFS:
* Level 1 - Highest Sensitivity: includes lands seen from primary travel routes where a 
substantial number of viewers have major concerns for scenic qualities; primary recreation areas; 
scenic byways; views from residences; and areas of geological, botanical, or historical 
importance
* Level 2 - Average Sensitivity: includes primary travel routes where a smaller volume of 
travelers have concerns for scenic qualities and/or the travel route or use area is of only local 
importance and has a low use volume
* Level 3 - Lowest Sensitivity: includes all areas seen from travel routes and use areas where few 
users or travelers would have a concern for scenic quality

4. Section 4 FOUR - Environmental Consequences of Actions and Alternatives
This section describes impacts expected from potential FEMA actions and alternatives and 
prescribes mitigation measures that would be implemented to limit adverse impacts. The first 
subsection of each resource area describes the impacts associated with the No Action 
Alternative. The second subsection of each resource area evaluates impacts and prescribes the 
mitigation measures that would be expected to occur for all actions ("General Consequences of 
Proposed Actions"). Some impacts for all actions can be assessed together because many impacts 
and associated mitigation measures are common to all actions. Typically, these impacts and 
mitigation measures are associated with construction or other ground-disturbing activities. The 
third subsection describes the impacts and mitigation measures associated with specific actions 
("Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions"). The actions described in this subsection 
correspond to the major action types described in Section 2 (e.g., nonemergency debris removal; 
constructing, modifying, or relocating facilities, etc.). 

The discussion of the impacts of the actions occurs in terms related to the conditionality of the 
impacts. For instance, an impact may be discussed with the term "would," stating that an impact 
"would" occur. This is intended to mean that the action under discussion would result in that 
impact. In this circumstance, if the impact is adverse, the subgrantee would be required to 
implement mitigation to reduce the adversity of the impact for a FONSI to be applicable for the 
action. An impact may be discussed in terms that it "could," "might," "can," or "may" occur, or 
that the impact "would" occur "if" some other described event occurs. These types of conditional 
statements are intended to describe impacts that, based on FEMA's historical experience with 
typical disasters in California, often occur as a result of an action. If impacts described by these 
conditional statements actually occur for a specific action, then an SEA would be prepared to 
document these impacts and list specific mitigation measures that would be implemented to 
reduce all impacts to a nonsignificant levels. This documentation would provide clarification to 
FEMA program staff and the subgrantee as to the conditions of the grant. 

BMPs are general construction practices that can be employed to reduce adverse effects 
associated most often with ground-disturbing activities and potential impacts to water quality. 
BMPs would be employed during the implementation of actions described in this PEA to reduce 
the impacts of these actions. Typical construction BMPs are described in Table 4-1, which is 
located at the end of Section 4, and are referred to throughout this section. These BMPs are 
practices that are typically employed for FEMA-related projects in California. These BMPs are 
typical stipulations of the SWRCB for reducing impacts to water quality under Section 401 of 
the CWA. Using its historical experience in California, FEMA can apply these BMPs to reduce 
the impacts of actions in many resource areas, such as biological resources. These BMPs are 
generally accepted by other resource agencies, such as the USFWS.

"Construction activities," as used in Section 4, refer to any action involving the repair, 
modification, or demolition of existing human-made facilities or the production of new human-
made facilities. Human-made facilities include buildings; roads; floodwalls; levees; bridges; 
culverts; water storage devices; human-modified waterways; coastal features; and railroads lines, 
utility lines, or other structures associated with electricity, natural gas, domestic water, 
wastewater, or stormwater transport, generation, or processing.

 
4.1 GEOLOGY, SEISMICITY, AND SOILS
4.1.1 No Action Alternative
Geology and soils would not be affected by construction activities, except for minor temporary 
impacts associated with restoration activities. Erosion would not be reduced or eliminated 
through actions that would stabilize soils or remove facilities that exacerbate erosion. Erosion 
and the resulting loss of soil would be increased in areas subject to future wildfires, high winds, 
floods, and rains. Failing to remove debris could cause soil contamination from hazardous 
substances leaching into the soil.

4.1.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
As a result of construction activities related to most of the actions, area soils would be disturbed 
through excavation; heavy equipment use; demolition; site construction; vegetation removal; or 
similar actions. Soil loss would occur directly from disturbance or indirectly via wind or water. 
The subgrantee would implement BMPs, such as developing and implementing an erosion and 
sedimentation control plan, using silt fences or hay bales, revegetating disturbed soils, and 
maintaining site soil stockpiles, to prevent soils from eroding and dispersing off-site. Other 
typical construction BMPs are listed in Table 4-1.

In some cases, landslides could be triggered by some ground-disturbing actions occurring on 
steep slopes. To mitigate this potential, the subgrantee would review an area's landslide potential 
(for example, slopes greater than 45 percent, presence of hillside seeps, or historical slides) 
before implementing the ground-disturbing actions. The subgrantee would mitigate potential 
effects by appropriate siting of facilities and using proper geotechnical construction practices.
The potential exists for many actions to convert agricultural land to other uses, such as by 
constructing a new facility or creating a waterway. For any action involving the conversion of 
farmland, FEMA would prepare the appropriate sections of an AD-1006 Farmland Conversion 
Impact Rating Form for the action and would coordinate with the NRCS to determine the overall 
impact of the conversion, to ensure compliance with the Farmland Protection Act.

4.1.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions

4.1.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to geology, seismicity, and soils for this 
action are discussed in Section 4.1.2. 

4.1.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Upgrading or otherwise modifying buildings
* Providing temporary facilities
* Constructing new facilities or relocating an existing facility

For actions involving human-occupied structures, the subgrantee would review seismic hazard 
maps to evaluate the risk of earthquakes in the area where the action would be implemented. The 
subgrantee would also review local building codes and standards to determine seismic safety 
requirements. The subgrantee would conduct all building construction and modification in 
compliance with the CBC, the A-P Earthquake Fault Zoning Act, the Seismic Hazards Mapping 
Act, the Field Act, seismic-related chapters of the PRC and CCR, and any appropriate county or 
city ordinances regarding geology or geologic resources. Construction to these standards would 
ensure FEMA's compliance with EO 12699.

4.1.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Repairing, stabilizing, or armoring embankments
* Creating, widening, clearing, or dredging a waterway
* Constructing or modifying a water crossing
* Constructing or modifying a water detention, retention, or storage facility
* Constructing or modifying other flood control structures
* Constructing or modifying a coastal feature

Actions that involve work in stream channels or areas with high erosion potential may be 
especially susceptible to soil loss through erosion, bank failure, or landslides. The subgrantee 
would employ temporary mitigation measures to reduce this potential, such as the use of sand 
bags, silt fences, coffer dams, and temporary diversion channels. After the completion of 
construction activities, the subgrantee would apply stream restoration measures to restore the site 
of the action to conditions that are as natural as possible.

4.1.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporates the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control

Mechanical or Hand Clearing of Vegetation
Mechanical clearing and hand clearing of vegetation would increase soil loss and erosion 
through the removal of ground cover. The subgrantee would install erosion protection measures, 
as appropriate, to minimize soil loss. In addition, the subgrantee would avoid the use of 
mechanized equipment on slopes or unstable soils.

Prescribed Burns
Hydrophobic layer development could occur during high- or medium- intensity prescribed burns. 
Hydrophobic soils repel water, which saturates surface and shallow soils and can cause severe 
soil erosion. To mitigate this effect, the subgrantee would take measures to ensure a low-
intensity prescribed burn. The subgrantee would use climatic data, soil moisture data, and 
vegetation moisture data during the planning of the prescribed burn and maintain low soil 
temperatures during the action to produce a low-intensity burn. Soil productivity would be 
expected to increase following a low-intensity prescribed burn as nutrients are cycled into the 
soils. Soil acidity would likely decrease and organic matter would likely increase in soils, also 
increasing the productivity. Loss of groundcover resulting from a prescribed burn would increase 
erosion.

Biological Control
Livestock grazing has the potential to increase erosion and soil loss through the removal of 
ground cover. The subgrantee would install erosion protection measures, as appropriate, to 
minimize soil loss. The subgrantee would monitor grazing locations and modify grazing 
practices to ensure that livestock does not deplete vegetation.

 
4.2 AIR QUALITY
4.2.1 No Action Alternative
Heavy equipment would only be used for activities associated with facility restoration. Ground-
disturbing activities would similarly only consist of actions associated with restoration of 
existing facilities. Consequently, emissions from heavy equipment would be minor, and these 
activities would create minimal quantities of fugitive dust.
No vegetation management activities would occur. Consequently, fire risk in prone areas would 
remain high. Wildfires substantially increase levels of most criteria pollutants and many 
hazardous air pollutants. 

Particulate matter emissions would increase as a result of future wildfires, floods, and winds 
damaging vegetation and leaving soils exposed to wind erosion.

4.2.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Short-term, local impacts to air quality from construction activities would likely include fossil 
fuel use for construction equipment, use of materials containing VOCs, and PM10 emissions 
from soil disturbance and demolition. Fossil-fuel use for construction equipment would produce 
emissions of CO, NOx, SO2, VOCs, PM10, PM2.5, and hazardous air pollutants. VOCs and 
hazardous air pollutants emissions could also occur at construction sites from the use of paving 
materials, paints, thinners, solvents, and other materials. Long-term emissions impacts could also 
occur as a result of relocation or reconstruction of facilities that might include an expansion of an 
existing activity (for example, the relocation/expansion of a power-generating facility).
The relocation or other modifications of previously permitted facilities or the construction of a 
new facility that includes new or modified stationary sources (for example, fossil fuel-fired 
electrical generators) would have the potential to increase the level of air pollutants beyond the 
threshold established by the local air quality district. If this situation occurs, the subgrantee 
would apply for and obtain a preconstruction permit from the local air quality district and use 
BACT, if required. The subgrantee would also be responsible for applying for and obtaining 
permits required under NSR and PSD review, if required. Regardless of whether a permit is 
needed, the subgrantee would employ minimization measures to limit emissions, including 
watering disturbed areas, maintaining and covering spoil piles, scheduling staging area siting to 
minimize fugitive dust, and keeping construction equipment properly tuned. Some local air 
quality districts enforce general prohibitory rules that require such good housekeeping measures 
to be implemented. 

Before approval of any federal action, the GCR requires that the responsible federal agency 
make a determination of conformity with the SIP. FEMA would review all actions to determine 
whether they qualify for one of the exemptions listed in the GCR. Many of the contemplated 
actions would likely qualify for an exemption either because the action would be one of the 
specifically exempted activities under the GCR or because expected emissions from the activity 
would fall below specific emission thresholds at which a conformity analysis is required. In the 
event that a proposed action is not found to be exempt, FEMA would conduct an air quality 
analysis in conformance with GCR requirements to demonstrate that the proposed action would 
not result in any of the following:
* Adversely affect or delay air quality plan maintenance
* Contribute to any new violations of an air quality standard
* Increase the frequency or severity of an existing violation
* Delay achieving attainment or emission reductions in any area
FEMA would document the results of this air quality analysis in an SEA.

4.2.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.2.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Haul vehicles associated with debris removal would result in fossil fuel emissions. These would 
likely only be problematic at staging areas or at intersections in residential/commercial areas 
where local CO "hot spots" could occur. Particulate matter emissions would likely increase from 
debris handling, as would emissions of asbestos and other hazardous air pollutants.

4.2.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Upgrading or otherwise modifying buildings
* Providing temporary facilities
* Repairing, realigning, or otherwise modifying roads, trails, utilities, and rail lines
* Constructing new facilities or relocating existing facilities
* Relocating the function of an existing facility

Upgrading or Otherwise Modifying Buildings; Repairing, Realigning, or Otherwise Modifying 
Roads, Trails, Utilities, and Rail Lines
New heating systems and insulation in buildings are likely to be more energy efficient than older 
facilities and hence reduce fossil-fuel emissions. New utility systems such as power plants, 
electricity transmission stations, and wastewater treatment plants are also expected to be more 
energy efficient than older facilities.

Providing Temporary Facilities
Impacts from this action would include the operation of fossil-fuel burning equipment to provide 
heat and hot water to the facilities. Increased emissions would also result from automobile and 
truck traffic associated with the use of the facilities, particularly if they are not located in the 
immediate area previously occupied by the populations that the facilities served.
Once the temporary facilities are no longer needed, the facilities would be removed and the land 
would be restored to its original use. These activities may result in short-term local emissions 
from heavy equipment, ground disturbance, and demolition.

Constructing New Facilities or Relocating Existing Facilities; Relocating the Function of an 
Existing Facility
New heating systems and insulation in buildings are likely to be more energy efficient than older 
facilities and hence reduce fossil-fuel emissions. New utility systems such as power plants, 
electricity transmission stations, and wastewater treatment plants are also expected to be more 
energy efficient than older facilities.

In addition to the short-term impacts associated with construction and demolition, relocation of 
facilities or functions could impact air quality by increasing traffic or altering traffic patterns, 
increasing utility use, or introducing new activities with the potential to affect air quality.

4.2.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to air quality for these actions are discussed 
in Section 4.2.2.

4.2.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
Mechanical or Hand Clearing of Vegetation
The use of mechanical vehicles and fuel-powered chain saws to clear vegetation would also 
increase emissions

Herbicidal Treatments
The application of herbicides could increase emissions of VOCs, federal hazardous air 
pollutants, or state toxic air contaminants. Use of USEPA-approved herbicides according to 
manufacturer's specifications would result in negligible emissions.

Prescribed Burns
The use of prescribed burns would likely have a negative impact on air quality by causing a 
temporary increase in emissions of CO, PM10, PM2.5, NOx and VOCs. Unless substantial 
acreages are involved, the quantity of emissions associated with routine prescribed burning is 
generally negligible. The subgrantee would contact the local air district and obtain a burn permit 
before initiating this action. Burn permits issued by the air district typically authorize prescribed 
burning for a defined period of time. Preauthorized burning is only permissible on days that are 
designated "Burn Days" by the air district. Burn permits also stipulate certain measures that must 
be taken to ensure effective combustion and dispersal of emissions, which the subgrantee would 
follow.

 
4.3 WATER RESOURCES
4.3.1 No Action Alternative
Since no new facilities would be built and existing facilities would not be improved, the No 
Action Alternative would not impact water resources excepting minor, temporary impacts 
associated with restoration activities. Existing patterns of drainage would remain, and wetlands 
would not be permanently affected. Because no hazard mitigation measures would be 
implemented, flood-prone areas and the facilities located in those areas would remain subject to 
future flooding. Water quality would continue to be subject to degradation from erosion, 
sedimentation, and contamination from pollutants released when floods affect buildings, 
equipment, and utilities.

The potential for large-scale wildfires would remain. If such fires were to occur, the hydrology in 
the burned watersheds would be substantially affected. Runoff volume and velocity would 
increase due to the lack of vegetation and the presence of hydrophobic soils. Runoff would cause 
unstable soils and debris to wash into streams and other water bodies, affecting water quality.

4.3.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Temporary impacts to water quality could occur due to the operation of heavy equipment, 
disturbance of soils, placement of rock or soil in water sources, and dewatering of water sources 
during construction activities. The subgrantee would employ BMPs, as necessary, to limit these 
impacts. BMPs would consist of one or more of the following: developing and implementing an 
erosion and sedimentation control plan; using silt fences, hay bales, and similar measures to 
prevent soils from entering water bodies; revegetating disturbed soils to provide stability and 
runoff filtration after construction activities are complete; and maintaining soil stockpiles 
adjacent to waterways. Other typical construction BMPs are listed in Table 4-1.

Actions taken to prevent future flood damage to facilities, including acquisition and demolition; 
upgrading to meet current codes and standards, particularly through structure elevation; 
floodproofing; realignment; relocation; and bank stabilization using bioengineering techniques 
would have generally beneficial impacts on water quality. These actions would reduce the 
potential for erosion and sedimentation, and reducing the risk of flood damage to facilities would 
reduce potential exposure to debris and sources of pollutants.

If an action would take place within or affect identified flood hazard areas, FEMA would ensure 
that the action complies with EO 11988 and 44 CFR Part 9. Such an action would only be 
selected if no practicable alternative to the action exists and the action would decrease the risk of 
future flood damage. Under EO 11988 and 44 CFR Part 9, FEMA would notify the public and 
minimize potential impacts. The subgrantee would be required to conduct detailed engineering 
analysis of floodplain changes, obtain concurrence from affected communities, individually 
notify all property owners affected by increases in flood elevations, and request that FEMA 
update the NFIP maps to reflect changes in flood hazard information. The subgrantee would 
budget appropriate additional funds for operation and maintenance of the facility. Because 
actions that would occur within or affect identified flood hazard areas require public notification 
of the details of the actions, FEMA would prepare an SEA for any such activities. FEMA would 
conduct the public notification required under EO 11988 and 44 CFR Part 9 as part of the public 
involvement process for the SEA and SEA FONSI.

If an action would take place within or affect a wetland, FEMA would ensure that the action 
complies with EO 11990 and 44 CFR Part 9. Such an action would only be selected if no 
practicable alternative to the action exists. Under EO 11990 and 44 CFR Part 9, FEMA would 
notify the public and minimize potential impacts. Such an action would also require FEMA to 
prepare an SEA to satisfy the requirement that FEMA notify the public of the details of the 
action, as discussed for all actions that occur within or affect a floodplain. FEMA would conduct 
the public notification required under EO 11990 and 44 CFR Part 9 as part of the public 
involvement process for the SEA and SEA FONSI.

Actions that affect natural waterways or stormwater runoff patterns would require a Streambed 
Alteration Agreement from the CDFG. The subgrantee would apply for and obtain the necessary 
permit before initiating any work. The subgrantee would also comply with any stormwater or 
effluent permitting requirements under Section 401 and 402 of the CWA, such as NPDES, or the 
Porter-Cologne Act.

Actions that affect wetlands and other waters of the United States or navigable waters of the 
United States would require coordination with the USACE to ensure compliance with Section 
404 of the CWA and Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbor Act. The subgrantee would be 
responsible for applying for and obtaining required Section 404 and Section 10 permits. Further, 
the subgrantee would be responsible for obtaining a water quality certification from the SWRCB 
or RWQCB for any project subject to Section 404 permitting.

Actions that affect a wild, scenic, or recreational river, as defined by the Wild and Scenic Rivers 
Act, would require that FEMA prepare an SEA.

For actions that occur within or affect the coastal zone, the subgrantee would be responsible for 
coordinating with the California Coastal Commission and obtaining a federal consistency 
determination from the California Coastal Commission in compliance with the CZMA and the 

California Coastal Act.
4.3.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions

4.3.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to water resources for this action are 
discussed in Section 4.3.2.

4.3.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to water resources for these actions are 
discussed in Section 4.3.2.

4.3.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Repairing, stabilizing, or armoring embankments
* Creating, widening, clearing, or dredging a waterway
* Constructing or modifying a water crossing
* Constructing or modifying a water detention, retention, or storage facility
* Constructing or modifying other flood control structures
* Constructing or modifying a coastal feature

Repairing, Stabilizing, or Armoring Embankments
Using natural materials, vegetation, and bioengineering techniques to repair, stabilize, or armor 
embankments could result in impacts to water quality and hydrology. These impacts would not 
likely be adverse because planted vegetation and root wads may provide mitigation from erosion 
of fill material and can restore a more historical hydrological flow pattern to a waterway. The use 
of "hard" engineering techniques could have adverse effects to water quality and hydrology. A 
technique to mitigate these impacts could be to use bioengineering techniques in combination 
with hard engineering techniques. For instance, vegetation could be planted among rock and 
geotextiles on a repaired stream embankment to reduce the potential for soil erosion and to alter 
hydrology so as to reduce the potential for downstream scouring impacts.

Creating, Widening, Clearing, or Dredging a Waterway
This action would beneficially impact water quality if the floodplain is altered to draw 
floodwaters away from developed areas and into a watercourse. Watercourses constructed or 
modified using natural materials and vegetation and bioengineering techniques would also have 
beneficial impacts on water quality. Adverse impacts would occur if the realignment of existing 
channels, removal of material from existing channels, or construction of concrete channels 
increases flows beyond the capacity of natural waterways, causing sedimentation and increased 
flooding effects at downstream locations. Increased flow rates under such conditions would also 
prevent settling of silt and other suspended materials and could increase scouring and erosion if 
nearby in-stream features exist. Water quality could also be adversely impacted if the new or 
improved waterway prevented floodwaters from occupying natural floodplains, where silt and 
other suspended material would otherwise settle out.

Constructing or Modifying a Water Crossing
Modifications to water crossings typically involve measures to increase flow efficiency and 
reduce the potential for scour and erosion. By increasing flow efficiency, such measures would 
reduce the risk of flooding to areas adjacent to the crossing, which could have a beneficial 
impact on water quality by potentially moving waters away from developed areas and reducing 
the area exposed to pollutant sources. Measures that reduce scour and erosion would also have a 
beneficial impact on water quality by reduction of sedimentation. Adverse impacts would occur 
if the modifications caused discharges downstream of the structure to increase substantially, 
causing increased flooding at downstream locations. Water quality could also be adversely 
impacted if the new or modified water crossing prevented floodwaters from occupying natural 
floodplains, where silt and other suspended material would otherwise settle out.
New water crossings have the potential to impact water quality and hydrology by increasing flow 
velocities around in-stream features such as piers and headwalls. This scenario would increase 
the potential for scour and erosion, which would increase sedimentation and worsen water 
quality. In-stream features also increase the potential for debris to be trapped, which could also 
impact water quality.

Constructing or Modifying a Water Detention, Retention, or Storage Facility
Constructing a detention or retention basin would alter the floodplain characteristics by 
decreasing the extent of the floodplain downstream of the basin and increasing the extent of the 
floodplain around the sediment pool. Depending on the design of the storage structure inlet, this 
action could alter the volume and velocity of watercourses downstream from the structure and 
could also affect the natural flow of sediment and hence water quality. The potential for filling or 
draining wetlands is especially high for this action.

This action could beneficially impact water quality by potentially moving waters away from 
developed areas, reducing the area exposed to pollutant sources, and into other land uses 
consistent with floodplain management. In addition, this action would allow particulate matter 
carried in stormwater runoff to settle and would increase the potential for groundwater recharge.

Constructing or Modifying Other Flood Control Structures
Constructing or modifying a flood control structure would alter floodplain characteristics by 
decreasing the extent of the floodplain. This action may beneficially impact water quality by 
potentially moving waters away from developed areas, reducing the area exposed to pollutant 
sources, and into other land uses consistent with floodplain management. Adverse impacts would 
occur if discharges downstream of the structure were increased substantially, causing erosion and 
increased flooding at downstream locations, or if flood elevations on adjacent properties were 
increased. Water quality could also be adversely impacted if the structure prevented floodwaters 
from occupying natural floodplains, where silt and other suspended material would otherwise 
settle out.

Constructing or Modifying a Coastal Feature
Measures to stabilize coastlines have the potential to beneficially impact water quality by 
reducing erosion. However, some coastal features, such as seawalls, revetments, groins, jetties, 
and levees, would accelerate erosion by disrupting the natural flow of sediments or by 
concentrating the force of waves. Activities to construct or modify a coastal feature must comply 
with the CZMA and California Coastal Act, as described in Section 4.3.2.

4.3.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control
Vegetation management actions have the potential to result in adverse impacts to hydrology and 
water quality due to the following: 
* Reduction in vegetation to hold soils in place
* Soil disturbances and pollutant spills caused by use of vehicles and construction equipment
* Waste from animals, such as goats, used to clear vegetation
* Release of herbicides into water bodies
The subgrantee would implement the following mitigation measures, as applicable, to minimize 
impacts to hydrology and water quality:
* Expansion of fuel breaks in a blended mosaic fashion to integrate more densely vegetated areas 
with areas of thinned vegetation
* Designation of vehicle parking areas on paved surfaces and established roads
* Management of grazing to minimize the number of animals required to control vegetative 
growth and use of alternate methods before allowing grazing within 100 feet of water bodies 
* Use of herbicides approved by the USEPA and application of chemicals using manufacturer's 
recommended methods and methods that minimize chemical use and runoff
* Revegetation of cleared areas with native fire-resistant species

 
4.4 BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
4.4.1 No Action Alternative
Repair, restoration, and continued use of a facility would occur within the existing footprint of 
the facility, and the facility would continue to operate at the same capacity. Existing access 
routes to the facility would continue to be used. No vegetation, wetlands, or wildlife would be 
adversely affected in the long term. Minor, temporary impacts could occur from restoration 
activities. Federally listed threatened or endangered species would not be adversely affected, nor 
would suitable habitat for such species be adversely affected, except where degradation of the 
environment, including critical habitat, continues after the disaster or where restoration activities 
cause an impact. No federal undertaking would occur under this alternative; therefore there is no 
requirement for compliance with Section 7 of the ESA.

Because fire hazard mitigation would not be implemented, if a fire were to occur in the future 
due to the lack of vegetation management, it would result in the loss of terrestrial wildlife 
habitat. Furthermore, indirect impacts would occur to aquatic habitat and resources as fire 
residue and eroded soils would be washed into local streams and reservoirs. These indirect 
impacts associated with the loss of existing vegetation would continue until adequate vegetation 
is reestablished within the burnt area. Without vegetation management, fires would be 
anticipated to burn hotter and faster and affect a wider area, resulting in more tree kills, trapped 
species, and damage to the natural environment. 

4.4.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Except for actions affecting riparian habitat or waterways, actions that involve modification or 
construction within or immediately adjacent to the footprint of an existing facility would not 
substantially disturb the biology of the area of the action, assuming that the facility would not 
substantially increase in size; existing access routes are used; and staging areas are returned to 
original conditions. Wildlife resources in the immediate vicinity of the activities could be 
adversely affected by the ingress and egress of equipment and personnel during construction. 
Potential impacts would be short term and could include displacement or mortality of individual 
wildlife. Displaced individuals would likely return following construction, except in instances 
where increased use raises noise levels, quantities of light pollution, or frequency of human 
presence. 

Actions undertaken in previously undisturbed areas, such as realignment or relocation of 
facilities or construction of temporary or permanent facilities, could adversely affect biological 
resources. Vegetation would be removed and displacement or mortality of individual wildlife 
could occur. The subgrantee would minimize impacts to biological resources through proper 
siting and design. Except for staging areas on hardened surfaces, the subgrantee would seed or 
sod staging areas with native vegetation. Beneficial effects would be expected in the areas 
previously occupied by relocated facilities, assuming that these areas are restored to natural 
conditions once demolition is complete.

For all actions, FEMA would be responsible for evaluating the area in which the action is 
implemented for the presence of federally listed or proposed threatened or endangered species 
and their habitat. If FEMA determines that a special-status species or its habitat has the potential 
to be affected by an action, FEMA would comply with Section 7 of the ESA, as appropriate. 
Toward this end, if a PBO/PITS from the USFWS exists that covers the species that could be 
impacted, FEMA and the subgrantee would ensure that conditions contained in the appropriate 
PBO/PITS are met. If FEMA and the subgrantee cannot meet the conditions in the PBO/PITS for 
the species in question, FEMA would consult with the USFWS under Section 7 of the ESA, as 
appropriate, and document the results of the consultation in an SEA. Similarly, if a PBO/PITS 
that covers the potentially impacted species does not exist, FEMA would consult with the 
USFWS under Section 7 of the ESA, as appropriate, and document the results of the consultation 
in an SEA. If ESA-listed salmonids and/or critical habitat could be affected, FEMA and the 
subgrantee would follow the specific criteria and guidelines agreed to by FEMA and NOAA 
Fisheries in their Programmatic Consultation under Section 7 of the ESA to avoid adverse 
impacts to salmonids and/or critical habitat. If an action cannot meet the specific criteria and 
guidelines developed by FEMA and NOAA Fisheries; if the action would be likely to adversely 
affect salmonids and/or critical habitat, which would be considered a Category 3 action as 
defined in the August 2003 Programmatic Biological Assessment; or if NOAA Fisheries 
determines that a Category 2 action would be likely to adversely affect listed salmonids and/or 
critical habitat, FEMA would consult with NOAA Fisheries under Section 7 of the ESA, as 
appropriate, and document the results of the consultation in an SEA. Please refer to Appendix F 
for a copy of the Programmatic Biological Assessment sent to NOAA Fisheries and Appendix G 
for a copy of the NOAA Fisheries concurrence letter.

For actions that have the potential to adversely affect EFH, FEMA would ensure consultation 
with NOAA Fisheries to comply with the Sustainable Fisheries Act. In most instances, 
consultation with NOAA Fisheries in compliance with the Sustainable Fisheries Act would be 
conducted as part of the Section 7 (ESA) consultation process. In instances where the Section 7 
consultation process does not fully address FEMA's need to consult with NOAA Fisheries under 
the Sustainable Fisheries Act, FEMA would prepare an SEA documenting the results of this 
consultation.

If the action has the potential to affect migratory birds, marine mammals, or species protected 
under the CESA or National Plant Protection Act, the subgrantee would be responsible for 
coordination with the USFWS, NOAA Fisheries, or CDFG, as appropriate.

4.4.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.4.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Debris removal activities have the potential to spread invasive species by facilitating the 
movement of invasive species that may be a part of the removed debris to areas not previously 
occupied by those particular species. To facilitate compliance with EO 13112, the subgrantee 
would be responsible for ensuring that all trucks carrying debris are covered while in transit. For 
actions the involve removing debris from riparian habitat and waterways, short-term impacts 
would include decreases in water quality due to discharge of sediment into waters when 
conducting work directly in or adjacent to water; disruption of flow patterns through dewatering 
part or all of a stream channel; removal of riparian vegetation and riparian wildlife habitat 
through the use of machinery; and displacement or mortality of individual wildlife through the 
use of machinery. Impacts to water quality and hydrology would indirectly affect hydrophytic 
plants in or near the affected waters and wildlife species that live in or drink from the affected 
water or use the affected vegetation for habitat or food due to actions conducted directly in 
water. 

To minimize adverse impacts, the subgrantee would not operate heavy equipment in flowing 
water whenever other methods are feasible. The subgrantee would employ BMPs, such as those 
shown in Table 4-1, to limit the effects of erosion and sedimentation. 
In the event that nonemergency debris operations may occur in a natural stream or other water 
body or be facilitated by the control or modification of the water body, the action would be 
required to comply with the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act. FEMA would consult with the 
USFWS or NOAA Fisheries (as appropriate) and the CDFG to develop measures to mitigate 
action-related losses of fish and wildlife resources. FEMA would document these measures in an 
SEA.

4.4.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts in this section incorporate the following type of actions:
* Repairing, realigning, or otherwise modifying roads, trails, utilities, and rail lines
Activities related to these actions, such as working on roads adjacent to waterways, could affect 
riparian habitat and waterways. Impacts to riparian habitats and waterways as a result of these 
actions are discussed in Section 4.4.3.1. Appropriate mitigation measures are discussed in 
Section 4.4.3.1. An additional mitigation for these actions when they affect riparian habitat and 
waterways is for the subgrantee, when feasible, to substitute bioengineering techniques for 
"hard" engineering solutions such as riprap.

4.4.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Repairing, stabilizing, or armoring embankments
* Creating, widening, clearing, or dredging a waterway
* Constructing or modifying a water crossing
* Constructing or modifying a water detention, retention, or storage facility
* Constructing or modifying other flood control structures
* Constructing or modifying a coastal feature
These actions could affect riparian habitat and waterways. Impacts from these actions occurring 
within riparian habitats and waterways are partially discussed in Section 4.4.3.1. Appropriate 
mitigation measures are discussed in Section 4.4.3.1. In addition, long-term impacts would 
include altering flow patterns and discharge rates with culverts, bridge piers, in-stream weirs, 
concrete channels, or channel excavations. Permanent indirect impacts resulting from potential 
water quality and hydrology changes discussed in Section 4.4.3.1 would occur to vegetation and 
wildlife.

Expanding or constructing water storage structures has the potential to permanently convert 
vegetation types within the footprint of the area to be permanently or seasonally inundated.
A potentially beneficial impact to vegetation and wildlife would occur as the result of actions 
such as stabilizing an embankment or modifying a water crossing that reduce scour and 
sedimentation. Decreased scour and sedimentation could allow the development of late 
successional growth and multilayered, multiaged habitats.

4.4.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Prescribed burns
* Herbicide treatment
* Biological control
Under these actions, invasive, nonnative species have the potential to become established in 
areas where vegetation management has been performed. Therefore, the subgrantee would be 
responsible for monitoring and maintaining fuel breaks and fuel management zones and 
continuing to treat these areas as necessary to maintain appropriate vegetation densities and 
species composition. Without proper maintenance, these areas could create an increased fire risk 
compared to pre-action conditions. An alternative to periodic clearing is planting native, fire-
resistant species.

Sensitive plant populations such as federal or state threatened and endangered plants in the 
vicinity of vegetation management activities could be impacted by these actions. Actions would 
be designed to avoid native plant species populations and individuals. 
Vegetation management activities could eliminate individual mature native trees such as oaks 
that are often a resource of local concern. The subgrantee would implement locally identified 
mitigation measures to reduce or avoid impacts where possible. If native trees cannot be 
salvaged, the subgrantee would compensate for their loss in accordance with local mitigation 
guidelines.

Mechanical or Hand Clearing of Vegetation
Mechanical-clearing and hand-clearing activities would not necessarily disturb the overall 
biology of an area because thinning and removing vegetation would decrease the quality of 
habitat for some species and increase the quality of habitat for others. These changes would be 
expected to be small when compared to the overall habitat quality in the general area.

Prescribed Burns
Potential short-term impacts to wildlife, such as displacement or mortality of individuals, could 
occur from implementing a prescribed burn. Some biological communities are evolutionarily 
adapted to periodic fires, and many native species reproduce or forage most effectively several 
years after a fire. Fire suppression practices for the past 100 to 150 years have led to the 
alteration of habitats and ecosystems that evolved with periodic fire disturbances. Fire-intolerant 
species have thrived in areas once dominated by fire-resistant and fire-tolerant species, thereby 
changing the species composition of the community (wildlife and vegetation), the nutrient 
distribution of the soil, and the spatial and canopy structure of the community. Therefore, 
prescribed burns would have a beneficial impact on fire-tolerant species or biological 
communities by returning burned areas to more natural states.

Prescribed burns would allow the opportunity for type conversion, i.e., a situation where one 
vegetation category is permanently replaced by another. Where invasive species dominate an 
area to be burned and when measures are taken to ensure that invasive species do not recolonize 
the area, this impact can be considered beneficial. However, desirable native species can also be 
eradicated, especially when native seed stock is damaged or depleted by the reoccurrence of 
wildfire soon after a prescribed burn. 

Generally, all but the smallest animals are able to avoid the direct effects of a prescribed burn. 
The availability of nearby habitat and the regeneration rate of the burnt area would determine 
whether displaced wildlife will survive to repopulate the area after the prescribed burn.
The season and intensity of prescribed burns can greatly influence a fire's effect on individual 
species and biological communities. For example, conducting prescribed burns in summer or fall 
is less damaging to native plants and wildlife than in spring. Where possible, the subgrantee 
would conduct prescribed burns to replicate historic fire patterns and to maximize eradication of 
nonnative, highly flammable species while retaining native, fire-resistant species.

Herbicide Treatment
Herbicide treatment has the potential to directly affect nontarget plant and animal species by 
causing mortality and morbidity. Indirect impacts to wildlife include loss of habitat due to effects 
on nontarget plant species. These activities could eliminate individual mature native trees such as 
oaks that are often a resource of local concern. To minimize these potential impacts, the 
subgrantee would ensure that herbicide treatments are only applied by licensed applicators who 
follow the manufacturer's specifications for use. Actions would be designed to avoid native plant 
species populations and individuals. 

Biological Control
The potential exists for livestock (especially sheep and goats) to deplete vegetation in an area 
proposed for grazing. Further, the presence of grazing livestock has the potential to displace 
natural wildlife species or disrupt their usual feeding and nesting patterns. 
The subgrantee would select the livestock breed, stocking rate, and grazing duration and monitor 
the quantity and quality of residual vegetation to obtain the desired amount of vegetation 
management without overgrazing. To avoid loss of desirable plants, such as sensitive species or 
locally protected species (e.g., oak trees), the subgrantee would fence or otherwise protect the 
area to be grazed to avoid such plants. The subgrantee would avoid grazing programs during 
seed production of nontarget species. 

 
4.5 CULTURAL RESOURCES
4.5.1 No Action Alternative
Under the No Action Alternative, no cultural resources review would be required under Section 
106 of the NHPA or the appropriate PA.

Damaged historic structures would be repaired or otherwise restored to predisaster conditions. 
Structures located in high hazard areas, such as floodplains, could continue to be at risk from 
damage in future events. If damaged in future events, some structures could be demolished and 
replaced through undertakings by state or local governments or private entities, causing the loss 
of irreplaceable resources. Other structures could be repaired without adherence to guidelines to 
ensure that the work would be sensitive to the historic characteristics of the structure or its 
surroundings. If activities under the No Action Alternative do not include a federal role, then no 
consideration of the action's impact on historic structures may be required and buildings could 
likely be demolished or repaired before identification, evaluation, or treatment studies. 
Archaeological resources associated with built environment resources, or coincidentally in close 
proximity to such resources, could also be affected by repair, demolition, or other related 
activities that could result in ground disturbance.

4.5.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Direct physical impacts could occur when historic structures are demolished, modified, 
upgraded, realigned, or relocated. These impacts could occur not only to buildings but also to 
historic bridges, roads, rail lines, and other facilities. The original setting, design, and 
construction materials of such facilities may be affected. Direct physical impacts could occur to 
subsurface historic and prehistoric archaeological sites when ground-disturbing activities are 
conducted. Indirect impacts to historic properties could occur when nearby facilities are modified 
or relocated or when temporary facilities are constructed.

For all actions, FEMA would be responsible for complying with Section 106 of the NHPA. 
Toward this end, FEMA would consult with the SHPO, federally recognized Native American 
groups, and any other interested parties, as directed in the appropriate disaster-specific PA for 
actions associated with disasters that have already occurred, to identify the area of potential 
effect, the presence or absence of cultural resources, the effects the action would have on cultural 
resources, and the appropriate measures to avoid or mitigate impacts to cultural resources. 
Similarly, as described in the nondisaster-specific PA, FEMA would consult with the SHPO, 
Native American groups, and any other interested parties as directed in the nondisaster-specific 
PA. If FEMA is unable to consult with these parties within the framework of an existing disaster-
specific PA or the nondisaster-specific PA, FEMA would consult with SHPO, Native American 
groups, and any other interested parties following the standard Section 106 process and 
document the results of this consultation in an SEA.

As part of the NHPA Section 106 process detailed in the applicable PA, FEMA would consult 
with federally recognized Native American groups and other Native American groups identified 
by the Native American Heritage Commission regarding all legitimate concerns involving Native 
American groups' access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects, and ability to worship. 
This consultation would result in FEMA's compliance with the American Indian Religious 
Freedom Act.

As stated in Section 3.5.1.1, the actions described in this PEA typically do not occur on federally 
managed lands. If an action were to occur on federally managed land that would invoke the 
requirement to comply with additional cultural resource management or protection laws (such as 
the Archaeological Resources Protection Act or the Antiquities Act), the land-managing agency 
would be responsible for compliance with such laws.
The subgrantee would be responsible for compliance with the California Native American 
Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, cultural resource-related sections of the PRC, 14 CCR 
4308, and any applicable county or city ordinances.

4.5.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.5.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to cultural resources for this action are 
discussed in Section 4.5.2.

4.5.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to cultural resources for these actions are 
discussed in Section 4.5.2.

4.5.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to cultural resources for these actions are 
discussed in Section 4.5.2.

4.5.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Prescribed burns

Mechanical or Hand Clearing of Vegetation
Mechanical clearing of vegetation could cause direct physical impacts to cultural resources such 
as historic fences, abandoned cabins, and archaeological sites due to surface disturbance from the 
use of heavy equipment. Indirect effects may also result if vegetation is removed and 
archaeological sites are openly exposed, increasing the likelihood of vandalism, looting, and 
natural hazards such as erosion. Hand clearing of vegetation would be less likely to result in 
direct impacts to cultural resources, because the action involves the use of hand tools and 
physical effort instead of heavy equipment. However, similar indirect impacts could occur.

Prescribed Burns
Prescribed burns may have direct physical effects on cultural resources as well as the indirect 
effects described above for other methods of vegetation management. Measures to avoid or 
mitigate impacts to cultural resources would be developed as part of an SEA.

 
4.6 SOCIOECONOMICS AND PUBLIC SAFETY
4.6.1 No Action Alternative
Disasters disrupt the social and economic framework of the communities they strike. 
Communities would rely on insurance, lending, and state and local revenues to restore their 
socioeconomic infrastructures. The use of insurance, loan, and state and local treasury funds 
would have an adverse impact on the local economic health.

If a substantial number of residents and businesses are affected to a substantial degree, the 
indirect economic consequences could be felt by entire communities. Residents and businesses 
that suffer financial hardships from damage are likely to alter their purchasing habits by reducing 
expenditures, especially on nonessential goods and services. Residents and businesses that 
migrate out of the area would likely terminate financial transactions in the community. The 
profitability of businesses providing these goods and services would then decrease. Businesses 
that decline or fail would lay off employees, thus increasing unemployment. Failing businesses, 
reduced expenditures, and migration of residents would decrease local tax revenues and, 
therefore, either increase tax rates or decrease budgets for local governments' services.
Private contractors would receive economic benefits from repairing damaged facilities under this 
action. If local companies are used for labor and materials, some economic benefits would trickle 
down to other sectors of the community. Except for unusually large actions, however, these 
beneficial impacts would have a negligible effect on the local economy as a whole.

4.6.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
The proposed actions would have beneficial impacts on socioeconomic resources and safety. 
These impacts consist of restoring disaster-damaged facilities and patterns of traffic, residential 
use, and commercial activity; reducing the potential for disaster-related losses to residents, 
businesses, and government facilities; decreasing risks to human safety for persons inhabiting or 
using facilities that are protected from future damage as a result; and reducing the corresponding 
indirect impacts described in Section 4.6.1. The proposed actions could have the effect of 
increasing property values.

Private contractors would receive economic benefits from construction activities. If local 
companies are used for labor and materials, some economic benefits would accrue to other 
sectors of the community. Except for unusually large actions, however, these beneficial impacts 
would have a negligible effect on the local economy as a whole.

Most actions would generally have localized effects and are not expected to have adverse 
impacts on a disproportionate number of minority or low-income persons. To comply with EO 
11898, FEMA would study demographic and economic indicators for local residents to 
determine if minority or low-income persons would be disproportionately affected. If an action 
would result in impacts to minority or low-income persons that do not comply with EO 11898, 
these effects would be documented in an SEA.

For all actions, the subgrantee would be responsible for compliance with CEQA.

4.6.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.6.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to socioeconomics and public safety for this 
action are discussed in Section 4.6.2.

4.6.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Acquiring and demolishing existing facilities
* Constructing new facilities or relocating existing facilities; relocating the functions of existing 
facilities

Acquiring and Demolishing Existing Facilities
Participation in an acquisition program is a voluntary choice. By choosing to participate, many 
owners of acquired properties would migrate from their current locations. An adverse impact 
would occur to residents and business owners whose compensated property value, savings, and 
credit are not sufficient to purchase or build comparable structures. Residents who migrate to 
distant communities could be subject to financial burdens as a result of changes in commutes and 
possibly employment. Additional impacts to businesses that move to distant communities include 
potential losses of customers, employees, and site-specific resources or services. Nonetheless, 
the choice to participate would be up to the individual. The subgrantee would be responsible for 
implementing property acquisition actions in compliance with the Uniform Relocation Act, 
URARPAPA, and Chapter 16 of the California Government Code, which would mitigate these 
potential impacts to some extent. The subgrantee would work with other federal agencies (such 
as the Small Business Administration) and lending institutions to mitigate impacts to displaced 
residents and businesses by attempting to secure partially subsidizing loans, offering low-interest 
loans, and granting rent subsidies to renters forced to relocate. The migration of residents and 
businesses outside of the community and the financial burden on residents and businesses that 
remain would indirectly affect the local economy as described in Section 4.6.1.

Renters and home/business owners that are not offered buyouts could be affected to a greater 
extent because of their lack of choice regarding acquisition actions. Tenants in rental properties 
that are acquired could be adversely affected if their income is not sufficient to pay rent in 
comparable units or if rental units are not available. Similarly, home owners and business owners 
that are not part of acquisition programs may find it economically infeasible to relocate and must 
remain in the community. The relocation of employers, employees, customers, and businesses 
selling goods and providing services could present substantial economic impacts to residents and 
business owners. Specific impacts and potential mitigation for these impacts would be discussed 
in an SEA.

Conversely, acquisition and demolition actions would decrease potential property damage and 
risk to human safety from future disasters. For property owners and tenants who relocate out of 
high-hazard areas, property acquisition actions would also decrease potential property damage 
and risk to human safety from future disasters. These measures would prevent future financial 
losses to residents, businesses, and governments, and the indirect impacts described in Section 

4.9.1 would be less likely to occur.
Constructing New Facilities or Relocating Existing Facilities; Relocating the Functions of 
Existing Facilities
Relocating the function of buildings to alternative structures has little potential to adversely 
affect socioeconomic resources. In most cases, this action would result in people and property 
being relocated outside of high-hazard areas and therefore decreasing the potential for future 
damage and risk to human safety. The indirect impacts described in Section 4.6.1 would be less 
likely to occur. Residents would likely require interim housing, and businesses would be 
impacted by loss of sales due to momentary closings. However, these temporary impacts would 
be mitigated by the subgrantee relocating residents and businesses in compliance with the 
Uniform Relocation Act, URARPAPA, and Chapter 16 of the California Government Code.
Nonetheless, relocating public facilities could adversely impact demographics and housing in 
some extreme cases, which would be evaluated in an SEA, where appropriate. Examples of such 
cases would include residents of a community that react to their school being relocated by 
moving closer to the site of the alternate school, or the relocation of a county jail resulting in jail 
employees moving closer to the alternate jail. Businesses that depend on the proximity of their 
offices to the building proposed for relocation may also be affected; for example, notary publics 
and bail-bond providers are usually located within blocks of a courthouse. Residents and 
businesses that move under these circumstances would suffer economic consequences; most 
would not be eligible for funding under the Uniform Relocation Act, URARPAPA, and Chapter 
16 of the California Government Code. If a substantial number of residents and businesses are 
affected to a substantial degree, the indirect economic consequences could be felt by entire 
communities, as described in Section 4.6.1.

Providing alternate roads and water crossings would impact road users. For road users other than 
residents, businesses, and governmental agencies that front on roads to be closed, socioeconomic 
impacts are expected to be minor changes in transportation costs due to increased distance 
traveled. Substantial impacts on residents, businesses, and governmental agencies that front on 
roads to be relocated would be documented in an SEA. The subgrantee would mitigate for those 
affected by constructing private driveways to connect properties with existing roads and by 
acquiring or relocating properties. Acquisition and relocation in such circumstances would be 
mitigated by the subgrantee through compliance with the Uniform Relocation Act, URARPAPA, 
and Chapter 16 of the California Government Code.

4.6.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Repairing, stabilizing, or armoring embankments
* Creating, widening, clearing, or dredging a waterway
* Constructing or modifying a water crossing
* Constructing or modifying a water detention, retention, or storage facility
* Constructing or modifying other flood control structures
* Constructing or modifying a coastal feature
These actions could result in increased flood elevations on private property. This situation would 
lead to decreased property values, increased flood insurance premiums, and increased cleanup 
and repair costs from future floods. As stated in Section 4.3.2, concurrence from property owners 
is required to increase flood elevations. Therefore, these impacts would occur to voluntary 
recipients. Where entire communities are affected, the indirect impacts described in Section 4.6.1 
could occur.

4.6.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control
Vegetation management actions would decrease the hazard of wildfires and, thus, positively 
impact public safety and reduce property damage. These actions would not have population 
impacts because they would not require the relocation of people or induce a large influx in 
population. None of the vegetation management actions would create a need for new housing. 
These actions would potentially impact property values if visual resources in the area of the 
actions are affected or if noise levels are permanently increased. In cases where visual resources 
or noise are adversely affected in residential areas, the subgrantee would conduct an economic 
analysis to determine potential impacts to property values. The local economy would potentially 
be positively impacted if materials are purchased at local businesses and local contractors are 
hired.

The subgrantee would be responsible for maintenance of areas treated by vegetation management 
actions. Unless actions are designed to require little long-term maintenance, subgrantees would 
incur a financial burden to pay the annual costs to maintain these areas. Without proper 
maintenance, the threat of future fire could even be increased as a result of these actions, thus 
adversely impacting public safety and increasing property damage.

 
4.7 LAND USE AND PLANNING
4.7.1 No Action Alternative
Because no new facilities would be built and existing facilities would not be modified, the No 
Action Alternative would not affect land use or zoning. Restoration of exiting facilities would 
not impact land use or zoning.

4.7.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Any action that includes constructing, modifying, or relocating facilities has the potential to 
result in a direct change in land use or cause a conflict with the local zoning ordinance or general 
plan. In addition, actions that include creating or widening a waterway or constructing or 
modifying a water detention, retention, or storage facility have the potential to affect land use. 
Before implementing any action, the subgrantee would be required to review zoning ordinances 
and the local county and city (if applicable) general plan(s) to ensure that the action is 
compatible. If the action is not compatible with zoning ordinances and the general plan, the 
subgrantee would be responsible for obtaining a conditional use permit, a zoning variance, or 
some other legal solution to rectify the nonconforming use, such as having the local planning 
authority amend land use maps or the general plan.

The subgrantee or a legal representative must have ownership or other legal authority (such as 
possessing an easement) to undertake any action.

4.7.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to land use for all specific actions are 
discussed in Section 4.7.2.

 
4.8 PUBLIC SERVICES AND RECREATION
4.8.1 No Action Alternative
Under the No Action Alternative, no improvements would be made to public facilities. 
Restoration of exiting facilities would not impact public services or recreational opportunities. 
However, public services would not be protected from damage caused by future disasters. 
Without the benefit of mitigation measures, these public services may be adversely impacted to a 
greater degree. 

4.8.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Temporary construction impacts to public services and recreation may be expected; however, 
these impacts would be short term and negligible. Mitigation measures to avoid temporary 
impacts to public services may include timing construction activities to minimize impacts to 
public utility users or providing alternate locations for recreational opportunities. The subgrantee 
would be responsible for implementing such measures. In many cases, the proposed actions 
would lead to positive impacts to public services by reducing the impact caused by future natural 
disasters.

The sites of properties that are acquired and demolished are frequently made into public parks, 
resulting in a beneficial impact to recreational services.

4.8.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.8.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to public services and recreation for this 
action are discussed in Section 4.8.2.

4.8.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Constructing new facilities or relocating existing facilities
* Relocating the functions of existing facilities
* Upgrading or otherwise modifying buildings
* Repairing, realigning, or otherwise modifying roads, trails, utilities, and rail lines
Constructing New Facilities or Relocating Existing Facilities; Relocating the Functions of 
Existing Facilities

Relocating the function of flood-prone facilities to existing facilities would likely directly affect 
public services. Beneficial impacts would occur by reducing the risk of future flood damage to 
the relocated facility. Adverse impacts associated with this action would involve changes in the 
time and distance required to access public services. Relocation of schools would involve 
students having longer or shorter bus rides or students being bused instead of walking. The 
relocation of police and fire stations to existing facilities would likely increase average response 
times for some and decrease them for others. Recreational facilities would be closer to some 
users and more distant to others. Because utility service is not as dependent on proximity to 
users, no direct impacts would occur.

School functions are frequently relocated to an operating school. Impacts from this action could 
include increasing class size and school density, holding classes in trailers, phasing classes or 
grades to share space, and integrating students from disparate grades. These impacts could 
adversely influence the educational experience for students but would allow schools to operate 
during flood events.

Relocating flood-prone facilities could cause indirect impacts to public services. For example, a 
relocated school or other public facility with a substantial number of occupants could require 
changes to existing fire or police services and utility connections. Utilities would have to be 
removed from acquired property, including buildings with utility connections and roads that 
share easements with utility lines.

Upgrading or Otherwise Modifying Buildings
Improving public facilities and utilities by elevating or floodproofing has the potential to directly 
impact public services. These improvements would benefit the public service facility by reducing 
the risk of future flood damage. On the other hand, the public service facility would likely be 
forced to close temporarily so that the improvements can be made. In many cases, the function of 
the temporarily closed facilities would be relocated to an existing facility for the duration of the 
improvements.

Repairing, Realigning, or Otherwise Modifying Roads, Trails, Utilities, and Rail Lines
Repairing, realigning, or modifying roads would indirectly affect public services because of the 
temporary closure of roads. School buses and police and fire vehicles could be forced to take 
alternate routes and could likely experience delays.

4.8.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Constructing or modifying a water crossing
Constructing or modifying a water crossing would indirectly affect public services because of the 
temporary closure of roads or water crossings. School buses and police and fire vehicles could be 
forced to take alternate routes and could likely experience delays.

4.8.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control

Expanding fuel breaks or fire reduction zones could affect public services by causing the 
temporary closure of a public facility, road, or bridge. School buses and police and fire vehicles 
could be forced to take alternate routes or experience delays; however, these impacts are 
expected to be temporary. Additionally, the time period that public services would be 
temporarily impacted from this action would be less than the time period of impact in the case of 
a wildfire in the same area. 

More than other public services, some recreational facilities have the potential to be impacted by 
this action, particularly by prescribed burns. A natural park or forest could experience an 
extended closure to conduct a burn or mechanized clearing or even implement a grazing 
program. The natural beauty of the facility and its enjoyment for users could be damaged for 
many years following the action. Smoke from prescribed burns and noise from mechanical 
equipment could decrease a natural experience for recreational users who are not even in the 
immediate vicinity of such an action. The subgrantee would be responsible for adequately 
notifying the public of vegetation management actions that have the potential to impact 
recreational users. Methods of notification could include posting fliers at information centers, 
trailheads, and restrooms of recreational areas and updating recorded telephone and radio 
information. With implementation of these mitigation measures, the benefits of decreasing the 
risk of future wildfires would outweigh these impacts.

 
4.9 TRANSPORTATION
4.9.1 No Action Alternative
Restoration activities to damaged facilities would potentially result in temporary detours, delays, 
and congestion. Under this alternative, FEMA would not assist with actions that would reduce 
damage in future disasters; therefore, any benefit to transportation would not be realized. 
Without these actions, future disaster events have the potential to cause additional damage and, 
therefore, additional congestion, delays, and detours from repair equipment and closures.

4.9.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
In general, the implementation of the proposed actions would result in temporary, minor impacts 
to transportation. To minimize adverse impacts to traffic and circulation, the subgrantee would 
be required to implement the following mitigation measures or more stringent measures if so 
required by local law or ordinance:
* Traffic along adjacent roadways would be temporarily rerouted as necessary during 
construction activities. Traffic lane closures would be coordinated with appropriate community 
officials.
* To the maximum extent feasible, construction-related vehicles would be prohibited from 
parking on residential streets.
* Construction equipment and vehicle staging would be located to hinder the traffic flow as little 
as possible in the areas where the actions are implemented.
* Adjacent residential neighborhoods and commercial/industrial areas would be notified in 
advance of construction activities and any rerouting of local traffic. Notification would identify a 
local contact.

4.9.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.9.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Debris removal has the potential to result in temporary traffic congestion and delay. The 
subgrantee would be responsible for planning haul routes and siting staging areas to minimize 
inconvenience to the community.

4.9.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Providing temporary facilities
* Constructing new facilities or relocating existing facilities
* Relocating the functions of existing facilities
* Repairing, realigning, or otherwise modifying roads, trails, utilities, and rail lines

Providing Temporary Facilities; Constructing New Facilities or Relocating Existing Facilities; 
Relocating the Functions of Existing Facilities
These actions have the potential to affect traffic and transportation. Traffic volumes would 
increase in the vicinity of the replacement facility and decrease in the vicinity of the existing 
facility. The subgrantee would review affected roads and public transportation routes to 
determine if existing roads and services would adequately handle the proposed actions.
Detouring road users to alternate routes would also impact transportation networks. The 
subgrantee would review affected roads and public transportation systems using these roads to 
determine if proposed detours could serve an increased number of users. The subgrantee would 
coordinate detour routes and signs with appropriate transportation planning agencies.
Repairing, Realigning, or Otherwise Modifying Roads, Trails, Utilities, and Rail Lines
Construction, realignment, or modification of roads would directly impact the road being 
constructed, realigned, or modified. However, these actions would also indirectly impact other 
transportation routes in the area. The subgrantee would review traffic patterns to determine if 
modifications are required to other roads. The subgrantee would coordinate these actions with 
appropriate transportation planning agencies.

4.9.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Constructing or modifying a water crossing
Construction or modification of water crossings would directly impact the water crossing being 
constructed or modified. However, these actions would also indirectly impact other 
transportation routes in the area. The subgrantee would review traffic patterns to determine if 
modifications are required to other roads or water crossings. The subgrantee would coordinate 
these actions with appropriate transportation planning agencies.

4.9.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control
Prescribed burns, vegetation removal, and other vegetation management actions would cause 
congestion, delays, and possible detours from heavy equipment where roads would be used to 
access areas scheduled for vegetation management. Public and private roads passing through or 
bordering areas proposed for prescribed burns would be temporarily closed during the burn. The 
degree of congestion, delays, and detours would depend on the location and extent of the 
activities associated with an action, but all impacts would be temporary. The subgrantee would 
coordinate detour routes and signs with the appropriate transportation planning agencies.

 
4.10 NOISE
4.10.1 No Action Alternative
Under the No Action Alternative, no permanent changes to noise levels are expected. Activities 
associated with facility restoration would likely temporarily increase noise levels.

4.10.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Construction activities would typically result in temporary noise from construction equipment. 
Demolition of structures on property acquired by FEMA would also create temporary noise. 
Construction activities would comply with local noise ordinances and state and federal standards 
and guidelines. Special precautions may be required around noise-sensitive receptors such as 
funeral homes, schools, or hospitals. These precautions, which would be implemented by the 
subgrantee, may include special work hours or public notification.
Construction of new facilities may introduce permanent noise sources, including traffic; 
however, the impact of this change depends on the land uses involved. The subgrantee would 
comply with local noise ordinances and state and federal standards and guidelines for potential 
impacts caused by constructing noise-generating facilities. 

4.10.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.10.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to noise from this action are discussed in 
Section 4.10.2.

4.10.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to noise from these actions are discussed in 
Section 4.10.2.

4.10.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to noise from these actions are discussed in 
Section 4.10.2.

4.10.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control
Vegetation attenuates noise more than open space. Therefore, removal of vegetation could 
increase noise at some receptors, such as in an area where a forest separates residences from a 
highway.

4.11 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS AND WASTES
4.11.1 No Action Alternative
The restoration of exiting facilities is not expected to impact hazardous materials and wastes. In 
general, hazardous materials at the sites of potential actions (for example, USTs and toxic release 
sites) would not be altered from their existing condition under this action. In circumstances 
where hazardous materials and wastes are involved in restoration activities, public or private 
entities responsible for restoration are expected to follow all applicable local, state, and federal 
regulations for use, storage, handling, and disposal of these substances.

4.11.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Construction activities may disturb hazardous materials present at the site of an action. The 
subgrantee would conduct a site assessment (such as a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment) 
to determine if such materials are present. USTs would also be identified as part of this study. 
The subgrantee would follow local, state, and federal regulations for the handling and disposal of 
hazardous materials or for removing USTs. The subgrantee would coordinate with the AQMD, 
SWRCB, CARB, and USEPA, as appropriate. The removal and proper disposal of the materials 
would result in a beneficial effect to the community.

4.11.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.11.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Debris removal would likely result in the transport and disposal of hazardous waste. The 
subgrantee would be responsible for ensuring that all disaster debris is handled, transported, and 
disposed of in compliance with federal, state, and local regulations.

4.11.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Existing facilities may have been constructed using materials considered hazardous such as 
asbestos and lead. The following actions may be affected by the presence of such materials:
* Upgrading or otherwise modifying buildings
* Acquiring and demolishing existing facilities
* Relocating the functions of existing facilities
* Constructing new facilities or relocating existing facilities
Construction and demolition activities could release dust-containing contaminants or cause 
workers to come in contact with contaminants. Additionally, contaminated materials must be 
disposed of properly. The subgrantee would complete testing, abatement, handling, and disposal 
in accordance with local, state, and federal regulations. The subgrantee would coordinate with 
the AQMD, CARB, and USEPA, as appropriate.

4.11.3.3 Actions Involving Watercourses and Coastal Features
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to hazardous materials and waste for these 
actions are discussed in Section 4.11.2.

4.11.3.4 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control
Vegetation management actions may involve the storage and use of potentially hazardous 
materials, such as chemical treatments, fuel, and fire-suppression materials. If used and stored in 
accordance with local, state, and federal regulations, herbicides and other chemical treatments 
would not be expected to result in adverse impacts related to human health or the natural 
environment. Prescribed burns could ignite hazardous materials or wastes within the burn area. 
Similarly, mechanical clearing could also disturb hazardous materials or wastes. Therefore, the 
subgrantee would be responsible for conducting a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment on 
areas proposed for prescribed burning or mechanical treatment before any action is taken.

 
4.12 VISUAL RESOURCES
4.12.1 No Action Alternative
Restoration activities would result in minor, temporary visual impacts associated with 
construction equipment. No impacts would occur to existing visual resources from improvements 
or new construction. The potential for future damage, and the effects of that damage on visual 
resources, would remain.

No vegetation management activities would occur. Consequently, risk in fire-prone areas would 
remain high. Future wildfires would have substantial short-term (air quality) and long-term 
(burnt vegetation) impacts on visual resources.

4.12.2 General Consequences of Proposed Actions
Short-term impacts to visual resources would be expected due to the presence of heavy 
equipment, the presence of debris and construction materials, and the disruption of the site 
during construction. However, the subgrantee would implement BMPs during construction 
activities and conduct site cleanup and restoration following the completion of construction, 
which would limit these impacts.

Modifications to existing facilities would generally not have substantial impacts on visual 
resources. Impacts that do occur would be limited to the immediate vicinity of the action. For 
example, use of concrete to armor the bank of the stream in an area that was riprapped before the 
disaster would affect the visual quality of the immediate area of the action.

Construction of new facilities and relocation or realignment of existing facilities could affect 
visual resources if the action is undertaken in an area that was previously undisturbed or in a 
developed area where land use differs substantially from that of the action. For example, 
construction of a rock revetment to limit shoreline erosion could have an impact on visual 
resources associated with the shoreline. Similarly, construction of a floodwall to protect a 
developed area could have an impact on visual resources if the presence of that wall would have 
an effect on the views from, and of, that area. These impacts would be limited to the immediate 
vicinity of the action. The subgrantee would take prudent measures, such as maintaining existing 
stands of trees and revegetating with native plants where possible, to minimize long-term 
impacts to visual resources.

FEMA would evaluate each action using USFS, Federal Highway Administration, or other 
federal agency guidelines, as appropriate. If visual impacts are found to be an issue for an action, 
the results of the evaluation would be documented in an SEA.

4.12.3 Consequences Attributable to Specific Actions
4.12.3.1 Nonemergency Debris Removal
Impacts and appropriate mitigation measures related to visual resources for this action are 
discussed in Section 4.12.2.

4.12.3.2 Constructing, Modifying, or Relocating Facilities
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Providing temporary facilities 
* Acquiring and demolishing existing facilities
* Upgrading or otherwise modifying buildings

Providing Temporary Facilities
Temporary facilities located on land not previously disturbed or on a site that is not located in a 
compatible residential area would have a potentially adverse impact on the visual resources of 
the area where the action is implemented. This impact would be short-term in the event that 
temporary facilities are removed when no longer needed and the land is restored to its original 
use.

Acquiring and Demolishing Existing Facilities
Existing facilities would be demolished and removed. The resulting space would be graded to 
conform with adjacent topography and converted to open space, parks, or recreational use. If the 
adjacent areas consist of vegetated areas or other open space, this conversion from the built 
environment to the natural environment would have a beneficial impact on visual resources. 
However, the removal of structures from a neighborhood could disrupt continuity; the resulting 
gaps would impair the view of the neighborhood and could result in blight in the long term.

Upgrading or Otherwise Modifying Buildings
Exterior modifications to structures would have an impact on visual resources. In most cases, the 
impact would be minor and would not include effects to neighboring structures. However, the 
elevation of a structure above flood levels could adversely impact the surrounding structures, if 
they are not similarly elevated, by cutting off views and disrupting continuity in the profile of 
adjacent structures.

4.12.3.3 Vegetation Management
Impacts in this section incorporate the following types of actions:
* Mechanical or hand clearing of vegetation
* Herbicidal treatments
* Prescribed burns
* Biological control 

The removal of vegetation along highways and in residential, commercial, and recreational areas, 
such as through the expansion of existing fuel breaks or fuel-reduction zones, has the potential to 
impact visual resources. A fuel-reduction zone or shaded fuel break would have a lesser impact 
on visual resources than a fuel break because the former involves only the selective removal of 
understory vegetation. 

Depending on the maintenance schedule of the fuel break or fuel-reduction zone, the impact to 
visual resources could be short term or permanent. Actions that include revegetation with native, 
fire-resistant species would yield long-term beneficial impacts to visual resources, while a poorly 
maintained action could cause permanent adverse impacts to visual resources if invasive, 
nonnative species come to dominate the cleared or burned area. The subgrantee would be 
responsible for any long-term monitoring of the area affected by a vegetation management 
action.

Implementation of a prescribed burn could reduce visual quality from highways, residences, 
businesses, and recreational areas because of the presence of highly visible blackened areas. 
Although this impact would decrease over time, the impact could be noticeable for several years.
The use of biological control would change the visual context of an area by adding livestock and 
fencing to the viewshed. The visual texture of areas under biological control could be changed 
relative to adjacent areas not being controlled in a way that results in a patchwork-type pattern in 
the viewshed. 

 
4.13 COMPARISON OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
Table 4-2 provides a matrix and summary of impacts by resource area for each action. The table 
shows the general consequences of all actions and the impacts attributable to the specific actions.

Tables

Table 4-1 
Typical Construction BMPs

General 
Principles:	Fit grading to the surrounding terrain.

		Time grading operations to minimize soil exposure.

		Retain existing vegetation whenever feasible.

		Vegetate and mulch or otherwise stabilize disturbed areas.

		Direct runoff away from disturbed areas.

		Minimize the length and steepness of slopes.
		
		Keep runoff velocities low.

		Prepare drainageways and outlets to handle concentrated runoff until permanent drainage 
		structures are constructed.

		Trap sediment on site.
		Inspect and maintain control measures frequently.

Structural 
Control 
Measures:	Where possible maintain runoff water within its natural course and direction of flow. 

		Design and maintain access roads to prevent ponding and damage from water flow.

		Limit cut and fill slopes to an inclination of 2:1 or flatter, and include benching to reduce slope 
		length on longer slopes.

		Direct concentrated flow to stabilized channels and drains.

		Roughen slope surfaces to slow down flow velocities and enhance water infiltration, which in 
		turn will enhance vegetation establishment.

		Divert stormwater away from denuded areas and use properly installed temporary berms, earth 
		dikes, silt fences, sediment traps, inlet protection, and sediment basins to limit the discharge of 
		sediment and pollutants from the site.

Soil 
Stabilization 
Practices:	The following methods typically apply to areas that are disturbed by grading and will not be 
		redisturbed for a minimum of 21 days. These areas should be stabilized by the 14th day after 
		the last disturbance:
		- Use of a hydraulically applied bonded fiber matrix on slopes 3:1 or steeper
		- Use of a 3-step straw mulch application on slopes 4:1 to 3:1
		- Use of a one-step hydraulic mulch, seed, and binder application on slopes 4:1 or flatter

Stormwater 
Management 
Controls:	Wherever possible, stormwater runoff from undeveloped areas should be kept separate from 
		runoff from developed areas, and should be retained in natural conveyances or routed through 
		properly lined drainage conveyances. Discharge locations should be provided with appropriate 
		energy dissipation to prevent scour.

Table 4-2 
Impact Matrix of Actions and Alternatives by Resource Area

5. Section 5 FIVE - Public Participation Process
The Draft PEA was circulated to the interested public and government agencies for review and 
comment. Initially, the Draft PEA was circulated for agency review from April 30, 2003 to June 
2, 2003. A list of these agencies is provided in Appendix I. The Draft PEA was then circulated 
throughout California and posted on the FEMA website for general public review from July 14, 
2003 to July 29, 2003. Two comment letters were received during these comment periods on the 
Draft PEA. Copies of these letters are provided in Appendix J. Comments which offered new 
information, addressed errors, or addressed facts relevant to the content of the Draft PEA 
resulted in revisions to the text of the Draft PEA. These revisions to the Draft PEA have not 
resulted in substantial changes to the proposed actions or alternatives, to the environmental 
impact analysis, or in mitigation activities. This Final PEA document contains the revisions 
made to the original Draft PEA. This Final PEA will be circulated to all recipients of the Draft 
PEA and will be posted in the FEMA website.

In addition to the circulation of the Draft PEA, subsequent SEAs will go through the appropriate 
level of public review before individual FONSIs are issued, and a Cumulative Public Notice will 
be published at the Presidential Declaration of each future disaster subject to this PEA. Appendix 
K contains the Cumulative Public Notice for the initial disaster (FEMA-1203-DR-CA) which is 
provided as an example of Cumulative Public Notices that will be published for future disasters.

6. Section 6 SIX - References
6.1 DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED ACTIONS AND ALTERNATIVES
(SECTION 2.0)
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6.2 GEOLOGY, SEISMICITY, AND SOILS (SECTION 3.1)
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Mualchin, L. 1996. Development of the Caltrans deterministic fault and earthquake hazard map 
of California. Engineering Geology 42:217-222.
National Earthquake Information Center. n.d. URL: http://neic.usgs.gov. World Data Center for 
Seisomology, U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazard Program, Denver, CO.
Ogden Beeman and Associates. 1992. Sediment Budget Study for San Francisco Bay, Final 
Report. Prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco District. 
Poland, J.F., Lofgren, B.E., Ireland, R.L., and Pugh, R.G. 1975. Land subsidence in the San 
Joaquin Valley, California, as of 1972. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 437-H.
Ritter, J.R., and Dupre, W.R. 1972. Maps showing areas of potential inundation by tsunamis in 
the San Francisco Bay region, California. U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies 
Map MF-480, scale 1:125,000.
Sharp, R.V., Rymer, M.J., and Lienkaemper, J.J. 1986. Surface displacement on the Imperial and 
Superstition Hills faults triggered by the Westmorland, California, earthquake of 26 April 1981. 
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 76:949-965.
Shreve, R.L. 1987. Blackhawk landslide, southwestern San Bernardino County, California. In 
Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America Centennial Field Guide, Hill, M.L. ed., 
Volume 1, pp. 109-114. Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO.
Stover, C.W., and Coffman, J.L. 1993. Seismicity of the United States 1568-1989 (Revised). 
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1527.
Toppozada, T.R., Bennett, J.H., Hallstrom, C.L., and Youngs, L.G. 1992. 1898 "Mare Island" 
earthquake at the southern end of the Rodgers Creek fault. In Proceedings of the Second 
Conference on Earthquake Hazards in the Eastern San Francisco Bay Area, Borchardt, G., 
Hirschfeld, S.E., Lienkaemper, J.J., McClellan, P., Williams, P.L., and Wong, I.G., eds., pp. 385-
392. California Department of Conservation, Division of Mines and Geology.
Toppozada, T., Branum, D., Petersen, M., Hallstrom, C., Cramer, C., and Reichle, M. 2000. 
Epicenters of and areas damaged by M 5 California earthquakes, 1800-1999. California Division 
of Mines and Geology Map Sheet 49, scale 1:1,000,000.
Urhammer, R.A. 1991. Northern California seismicity. In Neotectonics of North America, 
Slemmons, D.B., Engdahl, E.R., Zoback, M.D., and Blackwell, D.D., eds., pp. 99-106. 
Geological Society of America Decade Map 1. Boulder, Colorado.
U.S. Geological Survey, Southern California Earthquake Center, and California Division of 
Mines and Geology. 2000. Preliminary report on the 16 October 1999 M 7.1 Hector Mine, 
California, earthquake. Seismological Research Letters 71:1-23.
Wakabayashi, J., and Smith, D.L. 1994. Evaluation of recurrence intervals, characteristic 
earthquakes and slip-rates associated with thrusting along the Coast Range-Central Valley 
geomorphic boundary. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 84:1960-1970.
Wallace, R.E. 1990. The San Andreas Fault System, California. U.S. Geological Survey 
Professional Paper 1515.
Wicks, C.W., Thatcher, W., Monastero, F.C., and Hasting, M.A. 2001. Steady state deformation 
of the Coso Range, eastcentral California, inferred from satellite radar interferometry. Journal of 
Geophysical Research 106:13,769-13,780.
Youd, T.L. 1973. Liquefaction, flow, and associated ground failure. U.S. Geological Survey 
Circular 688.
Youd, T.L., and Hoose, S.N. 1978. Historical ground failures in Northern California triggered by 
earthquakes. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 993.
Yu, E., and Segal, P. 1996. Slip in the 1868 Hayward earthquake from analysis of historical 
triangulation data. Journal of Geophysical Research 101:16,101-16,118.
6.3 AIR QUALITY (SECTION 3.2)
California Air Resources Board (CARB). 2003. Ambient air quality standards. URL: 
http://www.arb.ca.gov/aqs/aaqs2.pdf. Last updated March 26. California Environmental 
Protection Agency, Sacramento, CA. 
6.4 WATER RESOURCES (SECTION 3.3)
California Department of Water Resources. n.d. World Wide Web home pages (links to the four 
California groundwater districts). URL: http://www.dwr.water.ca.gov/about/websites.html. 
Sacramento, CA.
California Environmental Resources Evaluation System. 1997. Watershed information technical 
system: About the watershed regions. URL: 
http://www.ceres.ca.gov/watershed/geographic/about_regions.html. Last updated August 26. 
California Resources Agency, Sacramento, CA. 
National Park Service. 2003. Wild and scenic rivers by state. URL: 
http://www.nps.gov/rivers/wildriverslist.html. Last updated January 24. U.S. Department of the 
Interior, Washington DC. 
U.S. Department of Energy. 1996. EH-41 Environmental law summary: Coastal Zone 
Management Act. URL: http://tis-nt.eh.doe.gov/oepa/law_sum/CZMA.htm. Posted January 25. 
Office of Environmental Policy and Guidance. 
Water Education Foundation. 1987. California Water Map. August.
6.5 BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES (SECTION 3.4)
Mayer, K.E., and Laudenslayer, W.F. 1988. A Guide to Wildlife Habitats of California. 
California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento, CA. 
Steinhart, P. 1990. California's Wild Heritage: Threatened and Endangered Animals in the 
Golden State. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books.
6.6 CULTURAL RESOURCES (SECTION 3.5)
Chartkoff, J., and Chartkoff, K.K. 1984. The Archaeology of California. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford 
University Press.
6.7 SOCIOECONOMICS AND PUBLIC SAFETY (SECTION 3.6)
No references cited.
6.8 LAND USE AND PLANNING (SECTION 3.7)
CALFED. 2000. Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement/Environmental Impact 
Report. CALFED Bay-Delta Program. July.
6.9 PUBLIC SERVICES AND RECREATION (SECTION 3.8)
CALFED. 2000. Final Programmatic EIS/EIR. July.
California Department of Conservation. 2001. 2000 Annual Report of the State Oil and Gas 
Supervisor. Publication No. PR06. Sacramento, CA.
California Energy Commission. 2001. California natural gas facts and figures. URL: 
http://www.energy.ca.gov/naturalgas/natural_gas_facts.html. Last updated January 31. 
Sacramento, CA.
California State Census Data Center. n.d.a. State and county summary (Excel table). URL: 
http://www.dof.ca.gov/HTML/DEMOGRAP/State-County%20Summary.xls. Census 2000. 
California Department of Finance Demographic Research Unit, Sacramento, CA.
California State Census Data Center. n.d.b. Table 2: Population by race/ethnicity, incorporated 
cities by county (Excel table). 
URL: http://www.dof.ca.gov/HTML/DEMOGRAP/table2.xls. Census 2000, PL 94-171. 
California Department of Finance Demographic Research Unit, Sacramento, CA.
Water Education Foundation. 1987. California Water Map. August. 
Water Education Foundation. 2003. A briefing on California water issues. URL: 
http://www.water-ed.org/cabriefing.asp. Sacramento, CA. Last updated January.
6.10 NOISE (SECTION 3.10)
CALFED. 2000. Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement/Environmental Impact 
Report. CALFED Bay-Delta Program. July.
California Governor's Office of Planning and Research (OPR). 1998. General Plan Guidelines. 
Sacramento, CA. November.
Crocker, M. 1997. Encyclopedia of Acoustics. Four volumes. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley Publishing.
Federal Transit Administration. 1995. Transit Noise and Vibration Impact Assessment Final 
Report. Table 5-7. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit 
Administration, Office of Planning. Prepared by Harris Miller Miller & Hanson Inc., Burlington, 
MA. April.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). 1985. The Noise Guidebook. 
Office of Environment and Energy, Environmental Planning Division. 
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1974. Information on Levels of Environmental 
Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and Welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety. EPA 
550/9-74-004. Washington, DC. March.
6.11 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS (SECTION 3.11)
California Air Resource Board (CARB). 1997. URL: 
http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxocs/asbestos/reginfo,htm.  Last updated September 9, 2002. 
Compliance Division. November.
State Water Resource Control Board (SWRCB). 1997.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1992. A Guide to Normal Demolition 
Practices Under the Asbestos NESHAP. EPA 340/1-92-013. Office of Air Quality Planning and 
Standards, Stationary Source Compliance Division, Washington, D.C. September.
6.12 VISUAL RESOURCES
Federal Highway Administration. 1986. Memorandum to Regions, Esthetics and Visual Quality 
Guidance Information, August 18.
U.S. Forest Service (USFS). 1974. National Forest Landscape Management, Volume 2, Chapter 
1, The Visual Management System. Agriculture Handbook 462. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, DC.

Appendix A
Example of a Memorandum for an Action Where the PEA Is the Only Documentation Necessary 
to Comply with NEPA

Memorandum of National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) Compliance Under the Federal 
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Programmatic Environmental Assessment (PEA) for 
Typical Recurring Actions; Flood, Earthquake, Fire, Rain, and Wind Disasters in California

Goldenburg School District (FIPS #999-99999-99)
City of Goldenburg, Goldenburg County, California
Library Building Construction and Operation, Mary's Elementary School
FEMA-9999-DR-CA, PW #999

Goldenburg School District, through the California Governor's Office of Emergency Services, 
has applied to the FEMA Public Assistance Program for funding to construct and operate a new 
library building at Mary's Elementary School, Goldenburg, Goldenburg County, California, to 
replace the building that was destroyed by a wind disaster in January 2005. The wind event in 
January 2005 resulted in the hurling of debris from an adjacent hillside against the original 
library building with such a force as to completely destroy the building.

The proposed action involves the construction and operation of a new library building at a new 
location at Mary's Elementary School. Goldenburg School District has proposed to construct the 
new library building at a location adjacent to the rest of the campus buildings, specifically the 
vacant area between Building B and the gymnasium. Since this area was the location of Building 
F until it was demolished in 2002, the site has been previously disturbed and retains utilities 
connections. The new library building would be a pre-fabricated structure and would be 
approximately the same size and have the same functions and use as the original library building. 
Construction would occur in the summer of 2005.

FEMA reviewed the proposed action and its potential impacts and mitigation and determined 
that PEA and the PEA Finding of No Significant Impact fully and accurately describe the 
Proposed Action and its potential impacts and mitigations. Thus, no further documentation is 
required by FEMA to comply with NEPA. As Goldenburg School District has no other proposed 
projects for Summer 2005, no cumulative impacts would occur from the Proposed Action.

SUMMARY OF MITIGATION MEASURES
Goldenburg School District would be required to incorporate the following mitigation measures 
into the Proposed Action. These mitigation measures were extracted from the PEA and 
complimentary programmatic documents.
* Appropriate construction BMPs would be implemented.
* Construction activities would be limited to normal business hours. Special precautions may be 
required around children, which are considered sensitive noise receptors. These precautions, 
which would be implemented by the subgrantee, may include special work hours and public 
notification.
* The subgrantee would follow state and federal regulations for the handling and disposal of 
hazardous materials. The subgrantee would coordinate with the Air Quality Management 
District, State Water Resources Control Board, Air Resources Board, and USEPA, as 
appropriate.

Preparer:		
Title:		
Date:		

Appendix B
Example of a Supplemental Environmental Assessment
Supplemental Environmental Assessment to the Programmatic Environmental Assessment 
(PEA) for Typical Recurring Actions; Flood, Earthquake, Fire, Rain, and Wind Disasters in 
California
Feather Creek Open Space District (FIPS #777-77777-77)
Feather County, California
Miller Trail Reconstruction Project
FEMA-777-DR-CA, PW #777
May 1, 2004

B1.0	INTRODUCTION
The Feather Creek Open Space District (FCOSD), through the California Office of Emergency 
Services (OES), has applied to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Public 
Assistance (PA) Program for funding to repair a damaged section of trail along the Miller Trail 
in the Ridge Road Open Space Preserve (the Preserve) (see Figures 1, 2, and 3). The 2004 storm 
event caused a culvert to be destroyed and the section of Miller Trail adjacent to the culvert and 
running directly above the culvert to be damaged. The culvert and trail section are impassable 
and require repair to allow recreation and land management access to the area. 
The area of the proposed action is located within the Preserve near the intersection of Subalpine 
Road and Ridge Road Boulevard. The Preserve has a total of 1,612 acres and supports 
approximately 10 miles of mixed-use trails (Figure 2).

B1.1	Scope of Document
FEMA has prepared the Final Programmatic Environmental Assessment for Typical Recurring 
Actions; Flood, Earthquake, Fire, Rain, and Wind Disasters in California (PEA), which assesses 
common impacts of the action alternatives that are under consideration at the proposed project 
site (FEMA 2003). The PEA adequately assesses impacts from the action alternatives for most 
resource areas, but for the specific actions of this particular project, additional impacts would 
occur to biological resources that are not fully assessed in the PEA. Therefore, for this specific 
project to comply with NEPA, this Supplemental Environmental Assessment (SEA) has been 
prepared to tier from the PEA and fully assess the additional impacts to biological resources that 
are not adequately addressed in the PEA. This SEA hereby incorporates the PEA by reference, in 
accordance with 40 CFR Part 1508.28. Impacts from the proposed action alternatives that were 
not adequately addressed in the PEA are addressed in Section 3 of this SEA.

B1.2	Purpose of and Need for Action
The basic purpose of and need for the action is described in Section 1.6 of the PEA. Specific for 
the proposed action, a short section of Miller Trail was damaged in the 2004 storm events. A 
damaged culvert and adjacent trail washout have rendered the trail impassable for recreation and 
land management. Therefore, FCOSD has determined that action is needed to repair the trail.

B2.0	DESCRIPTION OF THE PURPOSED ACTIONS AND ALTERNATIVES
B2.1	Proposed Action Alternatives
As defined under the PEA, this proposed project falls under the action alternative: Repair, 
Realign, or Otherwise Modify Roads, Trails, Utilities, and Rail Lines; and Construct or Modify a 
Water Crossing. The proposed action would be an "improved project," as described in Section 
1.1.3 of the PEA. The proposed action consists of the following activities: 
* Replace the damaged, existing 24-inch-diameter culvert with an approximate 36-inch-diameter 
culvert along an ephemeral drainage.
* Reconstruct the Miller Trail adjacent to the culvert work area and directly over the top of the 
culvert.
* Replace vegetation by hydroseeding exposed soils with local, native seed and inundating with 
local native acorns (in tubes) to promote oak regeneration.

Fill material to be used would consist of native soil currently in the possession of FCOSD. 
Construction equipment required for the project would access the repair sites from the existing 
trail alignment. A staging area identified as "Staging Area 1" on Figure 3 would be located 
adjacent to the current trail alignment, approximately 400 feet southeast of the project work site. 
The staging area would be used to temporarily store construction materials, and no subsurface 
disturbance is anticipated. Some small limbs may be removed from shrubs or trees within the 
staging area, but no trees would be removed from the staging area. The construction period for 
the proposed project is scheduled for the summer of 2005 and is expected to last approximately 1 
month.

B2.2	No Action Alternative
Under the No Action Alternative, repairs to the Miller Trail would not occur. The trail would 
remain hazardous to use for both recreational and emergency purposes. During heavy rain 
events, the culvert for the ephemeral drainage would continue to improperly function, causing 
the trail to become flooded, leading to further destruction of the culvert and adjacent areas of the 
Miller Trail. 

B3.0	AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
B3.1	Resources Adequately Described and Impacts Assessed in the PEA
The PEA has adequately described the affected environment and impacts of the proposed 
projects for all resource areas, except biological resources. Therefore, the affected environmental 
and environmental consequences for biological resources are described in the following section, 
which is intended to supplement the information contained in the PEA.
Necessary mitigation measures, either stipulated in the PEA or based on the results of the 
impacts analysis for biological resources, that are appropriate for the action alternatives are 
discussed in Section 4.

B3.2	Biological Resources
Vegetation types and wildlife species at the project area were identified in a reconnaissance-level 
field survey conducted on January 3, 2005. The Miller Trail passes through chaparral and 
second-growth mixed evergreen forest as it descends into the Feather Creek watershed. Mixed 
evergreen forest is found primarily on the north-facing slopes of the Preserve, while chaparral is 
present on the drier south-facing slopes. The staging area for the proposed action is located in the 
transition zone between mixed evergreen forest and chaparral. Aquatic habitat in the vicinity of 
the project area includes Feather Creek and the ephemeral drainage in the project area. The 
proposed action would require work in the ephemeral drainage. No trees would be removed as a 
result of the proposed action. 

Threatened and Endangered Species
Information concerning threatened, endangered, or other special-status species that may occur in 
Feather County was obtained from the Sacramento Office of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
(USFWS). In addition, the California Department of Fish and Game's (CDFG) Natural Diversity 
Database was searched for known occurrences of special-status species within the adjacent 
USGS 7.5-minute quadrangles (CDFG 2004). Field reconnaissance surveys of the project area 
were conducted on January 3, 2005, to identify habitats in the study area and vicinity. A 
literature review was also conducted to identify habitat requirements/distribution for listed 
species, and persons knowledgeable about the project area and species were contacted for 
information regarding selected species.

As a result of the field and background review, FEMA determined that the proposed project area 
and vicinity would provide suitable habitat characteristics for the marbled murrelet 
(Brachyramphus marmoratus), a federally listed species. 

The project site is more than 11.2 miles inland and offers marginal habitat for murrelets due to 
the age class and composition of the forest canopy. No direct impacts would occur to murrelet 
nests or nesting sites. However, potential nest trees are present within 0.5 mile of the project 
area, particularly on the northwest-facing slope above Feather Creek (FCOSD 2001). Large 
Douglas firs compose the overstory in this area, and some have branches large enough to be 
suitable for nesting marbled murrelets. Due to known occurrences of marbled murrelet in other 
preserves and parks near the proposed project, and the presence of suitable nesting sites within 
0.5 mile of the project area, it is feasible that that the project could result in noise impacts or 
disturbance to nesting murrelets during construction activities. In addition, food scraps or related 
debris associated with construction crews could attract murrelet predators, making murrelets in 
the area more prone to predation. 

The project area does not fall within the delineated Critical Habitat for marbled murrelet. The 
nearest delineated Critical Habitat for marbled murrelet to the project area is located within Unit 
14 (T 07S, R 3W, Sections 31 and 32), approximately 2 miles southwest of the project area.

Coordination With U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
FEMA determined that the proposed action may affect marbled murrelet, a federally listed 
species within the jurisdiction of the USFWS. Marbled murrelet is not covered by a 
Programmatic Biological Opinion / Programmatic Incidental Take Statement with the USFWS. 
Therefore, FEMA requested an informal consultation under Section 7 of the federal Endangered 
Species Act of 1973 (as amended), proposing avoidance and minimization measures to reduce 
potential impacts to marbled murrelets to a level that would not adversely affect the species.
On April 29, 2005, the USFWS replied to the informal consultation request (Appendix B) made 
by FEMA. The USFWS issued the opinion that the proposed measures to avoid and minimize 
potentially adverse affects to marbled murrelets were acceptable and agreed with FEMA's 
determination that these measures would result in no adverse affects to the species. FCOSD 
would be responsible for ensuring that all the avoidance and minimization measures, which are 
described in Section 4, would be implemented. 

B3.3	Cumulative Impacts
No other proposed projects are planned in the Preserve. No other related projects are planned in 
the project vicinity or in nearby areas of the Lambert Creek watershed. Therefore, no substantial 
adverse cumulative impacts are expected to occur under the No Action Alternative or 
Alternatives 1 and 2.

B4.0	MITIGATION, MINIMIZATION, AND AVOIDANCE MEASURES
FCOSD is responsible to comply with all the below mitigation measures.
The following mitigation, minimization, and avoidance measures have been extracted from the 
PEA and are applicable for the action alternatives:
Geology, Geohazards, and Soils
* Prepare a geotechnical report to assess the engineering feasibility and risks from landslides.
* Implement construction BMPs to reduce erosion and sedimentation.
Air Quality
* To reduce potential air quality impacts from construction, minimization measures would be 
employed to limit emissions. These measures include watering disturbed areas, maintaining and 
covering spoil piles, scheduling the siting of staging areas to minimize fugitive dust, and keeping 
construction vehicles tuned properly.
Water Resources
* Implement construction BMPs to reduce potential impact to water resources.
* Where the work is within jurisdictional waters of the U.S., FCOSD would be responsible for 
applying for and obtaining a permit from the USACE under Section 404 of the federal Clean 
Water Act. A copy of the letter from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to FEMA regarding the 
proposed project is included in Appendix B. Nationwide Permit number 3 (Maintenance) or 18 
(Minor Discharges) would be applicable to the proposed project. 
* FCOSD would be responsible for complying with Section 401 of the Clean Water Act, which 
is regulated by the Regional Water Quality Control Board. A certification or waiver of water 
quality consistent with Section 401 of the Clean Water Act would be required for the proposed 
project. 
* FCOSD would be responsible for a 1601 Streambed Alteration Agreement with the California 
Department of Fish and Game would be required for the proposed project. 
The following mitigation, minimization, and avoidance measure are specific to the impacts 
assessed for the Proposed Action Alternatives: 
Biological Resources
* FCOSD would implement the following avoidance and minimization measures to minimize 
adverse impacts to marbled murrelets:
- No platform trees or mature second-growth trees suitable for murrelets would be removed from 
the project area.
- Work conducted during the later portion of the breeding season (July 15-September 15) would 
not begin until 11/2 hours after sunrise, and would end by 1730 hours to avoid the time period 
when murrelets would be most likely to travel through the Preserve (dawn to dusk).
- All trash and construction-related debris would be removed from the project site to avoid 
opportunistic predators of marbled murrelets.

B5.0	REFERENCES
California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG). 2003. Rarefind 2, a program allowing access 
to the California Natural Diversity Database. Visited January 23.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2003. Final Programmatic Environmental 
Assessment (PEA) for Typical Recurring Actions; Flood, Earthquake, Fire, Rain, and Wind 
Disasters. 

Appendix C
Memorandum of Understanding With the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Appendix D
Agreement Regarding Section 7 Consultation on the Endangered Species Act When the U.S. 
Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Serves as Lead Agency

Appendix E
Programmatic Biological Opinion/Programmatic Incidental Take Statement for FEMA-1155-
DR-CA

Appendix F
Programmatic Biological Assessment for the National Marine Fisheries Service

Appendix G
National Marine Fisheries Service Concurrence Letter

Appendix H
Programmatic Agreement With the California State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) for 
Future Declared Disasters

Appendix I
List of Agencies to Receive Copies of Draft and Final Programmatic Environmental 
Assessments
Federal Agencies
James Connaughton, Director 
Council on Environmental Quality
722 Jackson Place, NW
Washington, DC 20503
Don Klima
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
12136 W. Bayaud Avenue, #330
Lakewood, CO 80228
John W. Keys III, Commissioner
Bureau of Reclamation 
U.S. Department of the Interior 
1849 C Street NW
Washington, DC 20240
David Tomsovic
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 9
Office of Federal Activities
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
Jim Bartel, Field Supervisor 
Carlsbad Field Office
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
6010 Hidden Valley Road
Carlsbad, CA 92009
Diane K. Noda, Field Supervisor
Ventura Field Office
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
2493 Portola Road, Suite B
Ventura, CA 93003
Rod McInnis, Acting Regional Administrator
National Marine Fisheries Service
Southwest Region
501 West Ocean Blvd., Suite 4200
Long Beach, CA 90802-4213
Wayne White, Field Supervisor
Sacramento Office
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
2800 Cottage Way, W-2605
Sacramento, CA 95825
Andy Rosenau, Chief
Regulatory Branch
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Sacramento District
325 J Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
Acting Chief
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Los Angeles District
Regulatory Branch
911 Wilshire Boulevard, 11th Floor
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Calvin Fong, Branch Chief
Regulatory Branch
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
San Francisco District
333 Market Street, 8th Floor
San Francisco, CA 94105

State Agencies
Dallas Jones, Director
Governor's Office of Emergency Services
P.O. Box 419047
Rancho Cordova, CA 95741-9047
Attention: Dennis Castrillo
Dr. W. Knox Mellon 
State Historic Preservation Officer 
Office of Historic Preservation
Department of Parks and Recreation 
P.O. Box 942896 
Sacramento, California 94296
State Clearinghouse
Governor's Office of Planning and Research
1400 Tenth Street, Suite 222
Sacramento, CA 95814

Appendix J
Comment Letters On The Draft PEA

Appendix K
Cumulative Public Notice Published For The FEMA 1203-DR-CA Disaster