Geography & Public Safety 
Image - Cityscape
A Quarterly Bulletin of Applied Geography for the Study of Crime & Public Safety 
Volume 1 Issue 2 | July 2008 

Contents 
1 On Traffic Safety and Law Enforcement 
3 Creating a Safer Houston through Crash Mapping 
5 Mapping Programs Target Alcohol-Impaired Driving 
8 COPS Office Funds a Web-Based Application to Examine Drunk Driving 
9 Technical Tips: Creating Base Maps and Layer Files for Cartographic Consistency 
11 Idahos Statistical Analysis Center Helps State Police Solve Personnel Allocation Problem 
15 Resources: Traffic Safety and Law Enforcement 
13 News Briefs 
17 Crime News Events 2008

National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Logo 
Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) Logo


On Traffic Safety and Law Enforcement 

Ned Levine, Ph.D. 
Ned Levine and Associates 
Houston, Texas 

Traffic safety education and enforcement are unappreciated and undervalued aspects 
of modern policing. The vast majority of crashes are caused by driver behavior; yet, 
these issues are not often given a prominent position in an agencys hierarchy or featured 
prominently in the image the agency projects to the public. Even a cursory examination of 
public safety statistics shows its importance: 

	The number of traffic crashes in the United States is almost equal to the number of 
	total reported crimes. In 2005, 10.7 million crashes and 11.6 million crimes were 
	reported. (National Safety Council, 2007; Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2006). 

	The number of fatalities from drunk driving crashes is almost equal to the number of 
	homicides. In 2006, 15,827 persons were killed in crashes in which one or more drivers 
	had been drinking and 17,034 persons were killed from murder or nonnegligent 
	manslaughter (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2008; Federal Bureau 
	of Investigation, 2006). 

Law enforcement officers devote significant time and energy to dealing with traffic safety 
from managing crash scenes and filling out crash reports to creating strategies to reduce 
crash rates. While federal, state, and local governments regularly place their resources in 
roadway engineering and in emergency services, they devote fewer resources and less time 
on public outreach to promote traffic safety education and enforcement. 
Drunk driving is the most important safety problem for officers to target. In 2006, about 
37 percent of all motor vehicle fatalities in the U.S. were caused by crashes in which one or 
more drivers had been drinking (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2008). 

Excessive speeding also causes many crashesclose to 30 percent of all motor vehicle 
fatalities in 2005 were associated with speeding (National Safety Council, 2007). Young 
drivers are also represented disproportionately in motor vehicle crashes. After these principal 
safety problems come others including red light running, truck safety, distracted driving, 
and aggressive driving. Law enforcement plays a critical role in combating these problems, 
by enforcing traffic safety and supporting other activities to improve safety on the roads. 
Geographic information systems (GIS) and other information technologies can help police 
enforce traffic safety. While police departments have long used GIS for crime mapping, 
few departments in the United States use it for law enforcement. Articles in this issue of 

Geography and Public Safety discuss how GIS technologies can be used for traffic safety 
analysis. Tom Beretich discusses how maps have been used to examine drunk driving in 
Albuquerque, New Mexico, and provides an important example of how well-designed 
maps can influence public policy. Jeff Kaufman examines a GIS-based spatial information 
system that was developed in Houston, Texas, by the regional transportation planning 
agency to identify crash hot spots, initiate safety engineering projects, and develop law 
enforcement strategies. Another article describes how an Idaho center used statistical analysis to 
advise state patrolling practices, and a technical piece assists GIS users with common tasks. 

Law enforcement plays a critical role in supporting traffic safety. I hope that this issue 
will facilitate law enforcements and other agencies interest in focusing analyses on traffic 
safety issues. 

References 
Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in 
the United States, 2006. Washington, D.C.: 
Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of 
Investigation, 2007. www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2006/ 
data/table_01.html 

National Highway Traffic Safety 
Administration. Traffic Safety Facts 2006 
Data: Alcohol-Impaired Driving. Washington, 
D.C.: National Highway Traffic Safety 
Administration, 2008. 

National Safety Council, Injury Facts: 2007 
Edition, Itasca, Illinois: National Safety 
Council, 2007, pp. 8690. 


Creating a Safer Houston through Crash Mapping 

Jeff Kaufman 
Houston-Galveston Area Council 
Houston, Texas 

The Need for Crash Mapping 

Traffic safety is often overlooked in the United States. In 2006, police reported 
nearly 6 million motor vehicle crashes nationwide. These crashes resulted in 2.6 
million injuries and more than 40,000 deaths. In addition, 4.2 million crashes resulted in 
property damage.[Footnote 1] Each year, motor vehicle crashes kill 2.5 times as many people as murder 
and nonnegligent manslaughter.[Footnote 2] These numbers should be considered an epidemic, and it is 
necessary that researchers investigate why they happen and find ways to remedy the problem. 

Federal transportation law requires states to collect data on motor vehicle accidents (crash 
data) to identify safety problems and determine appropriate solutions.[Footnote 3] Once those data have 
been collected, however, researchers often disagree about the most effective way to use 
the data. For instance, the Houston, Texas, metropolitan area averages approximately 
100,000 serious crashes a year. Trying to analyze this quantity of data in a strictly tabular database 
(such as Microsoft Access) is a daunting task, even for the simplest of queries. But a process 
called crash mapping can make it simpler. By determining geographic locations of crashes (i.e., 
mapping crashes), the time needed to conduct safety analyses can be reduced from days to minutes. 

The Benefits of Crash Mapping 

Crash mapping allows officers to visualize where traffic safety improvements are needed. 
Safety planners, engineers, and police can use mapping to pinpoint locations where crashes 
occur most frequently and target their efforts to mitigate the problem. With the use of 
geospatial analysis tools such as CrimeStat [Footnote 4], researchers can aggregate crashes on a map to 
identify potential hot spots or larger areas with a high crash incidence. 

Road intersections tend to be prime locations for motor vehicle collisions, so identifying 
intersections with a high crash incidence becomes essential for traffic safety analysts. 
Mapping crash data and using a geographic information system allow analysts to identify 
and select crashes that have taken place in a certain intersection. This selection becomes 
important when analysts work with intersection-related crashes that are recorded not at the 
intersection of two streets but at a nearby address. A tabular search would fail to identify 
those crashes. 

According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, however, the overwhelming majority of fatal crashes occur 
not at the intersection of two roads but somewhere along a roadway, especially on 
heavily traveled freeways. Entire roadways can be analyzed through a geographic 
information system. Urban roads, especially those with a large commercial presence, will 
have multiple access points without any associated traffic control devices. They create 
many opportunities for crashes because of the high volume of traffic entering and 
exiting at these points. Using geospatial crash data allows analysts to assess what 
factors contribute to crashes and examine highway layout. 

Safety problems may not be restricted to a single location or stretch of road but may 
involve an entire neighborhood or commercial district. These hot spots are small areas where 
crashes are concentrated. Hot spots may indicate a larger problem. A simple geographic 
information system may not analyze hot spots effectively because it cannot differentiate 
among multiple crashes that occur at a single location. A program like CrimeStat allows 
analysts to count and aggregate geographic data and identify those locations. 

The Houston Traffic Safety Program 

Transportation planning in the Houston, Texas, metropolitan area is the task of 
the Houston-Galveston Area Council (HGAC). The HGAC began the development of a geographic information system-based crash information system in 
2001. Before then, Houston, like other areas in Texas, used a tabular database 
containing crash records from the Crash Records Bureau of the Texas Department 
of Public Safety. This tabular system required officers to abbreviate the locations 
of crashes because of space limitations in the database. 

Image - DUI Hot SpotsHouston Galleria and Adjacent Areas, 19992001 

Figure 1: Approximately 420 DUI-related serious crashes occurred in a 3-year period in 
the area around Houstons Galleria. Many restaurants, sports bars, and adult entertainment 
establishments in the Galleria area serve alcohol, which may contribute to the high incidence 
of crashes. The figure shows DUI hot spots generated from an analysis. 

When developing the geographic information system, officers translated these abbreviated 
location names into identifiable descriptions that could then be geocoded. The effort 
resulted in an 81 percent geocoding rate for more than 330,000 records between 1998 and 
2001. As a result of this geocoding effort, the HGAC was able to establish a regional traffic 
safety program to address transportation-related safety issues within its jurisdiction. 
The program set three goals: 

1. Identify and monitor safety. At the time of the Houston traffic 
safety programs conception, little attention was paid to transportation 
safety issues in the region. The local governments could not identify 
local safety problems. Although the Texas Department of Transportation 
(TxDOT) monitored the roads under its jurisdiction, this represented only a 
fraction of the regions road system. The geocoding effort allowed the HGAC 
to work with communities to identify problem locations and analyze causes. 

2. Implement safety improvements at hazardous locations. Upon 
identifying locations where crashes frequently occurred, the HGAC met 
with local governments and residents to develop solutions, including the 
following: 
	Conducted preliminary engineering studies of high-accident intersections in Houston, Pasadena, Galveston, and Sugar 
	Land. These studies helped communities review how well intersections were laid out, 
	whether traffic signals functioned properly, how well traffic signs were used, and other 
	intersection issues. The studies also provided 	suggestions for improvements. 
	
	Conducted access management studies with TxDOT and communities near roadways where a high incidence of 
	crashes took place. These studies examined issues such as land use, travel speeds, driveway 
	access, turning options, and the functioning of traffic signals. Researchers wanted to find ways 
	to lower the number of locations where crashes might occur.[Footnote 5] 


	Worked with the Houston Police Department (HPD) to identify locations with a high incidence of 
	red-light running. These studies helped determine the placement of red-light enforcement cameras. 

Image - Red-Light Running Crashes, 19992001 

Red Light Crashes Frequency (Legend): 
115 
1630 
3145 
4662 

Figure 2. A crash analysis map of locations where drivers commonly run red lights. 
The Houston Police Department used the map when installing red-light cameras. 

3. Support other safety efforts. Many people view traffic safety as a road 
engineering problemsolutions may focus on roadway design issues such 
as lane widths or medians, or traffic signal problems (e.g., yellow lights that 
are timed too short, or a lack of traffic signs to warn drivers.) Crash analysis, 
however, shows that the majority of crashes have a behavioral component that engineering 
cannot fix. For instance, the HGACs analysis showed the following: 
	
	39 percent of crashes in the region were speed related (i.e., involved 
	excessive speed or a failure to control speed). 
	
	20 percent of crashes involved a failure to yield. 

	19 percent of crashes involved running a stop sign or a red light. 

	21 percent of crashes involved inexperienced teen drivers. 
 
	7 percent of crashes involved driving under the influence (DUI). 
 
	Nearly 50 percent of the regions auto fatalities were due to DUI. 

In light of these statistics, officers recognized that a comprehensive approach was needed 
to combat the traffic safety problem. They realized that this approach should include 
not only engineers but law enforcement, the medical community, advocacy groups, 
the trucking sector, bicycle and pedestrian planners, and researchers. 

Creating the Houston Regional 
Safety Council 

In February 2006, the HGAC launched a Regional Safety Council to provide a forum 
for practitioners to take an interdisciplinary approach to traffic safety issues. Based in 
part on crash data analysis, the council created five areas of focus and established a 
subcommittee for each: aggressive driving, reducing DUI crashes, freight safety, 
bicycle/pedestrian/child safety, and safety information systems. These subcommittees have developed approaches to help increase 
traffic safety in Houston. 

Examples of these initiatives include the 
following: 
 
	Develop an urban safety corridor, an approach to improve safety on 
	roadways with a history of significant collisions through low-cost engineering 
	improvements (e.g., lane restriping, traffic signs, traffic signal optimization) 
	and increased traffic enforcement. 
 
	Create a NOZONE campaign to inform drivers of blind spots on trucks. 
 
	Create a program to allow drivers to dial *DWI on cell phones to report 
	suspected drunk drivers. 
 
	Start a bilingual commercial drivers license educational outreach program. 
 
	Host two regional safety conferences and develop a statewide conference. 
	Although these initiatives are still in development, the councils presence has 
	created a critical dialog on traffic safety. 

Authors Note 

Geographic information systems provide an efficient, visual approach to analyzing 
traffic safety. Traffic data can be compared with information about high-travel 
times, roadway configurations, or nearby liquor establishments. Analysts can use 
this information to target areas for safety projects or identify hazards that lead to 
certain types of crashes. In addition, the visual displays created by geographic 
information systems allow decision-makers and the general public to see and 
understand the problem, giving officers the consent they need to take action. 

Currently, Houston is one of only a few metropolitan areas in the United States 
taking this approach to traffic safety. For more information about the HGACs 
Traffic Safety Program, see: http://www.h-gac.com/trafficsafety. 

Footnotes 

1 National Center for Statistics and Analysis. Traffic Safety Facts, 2006 Data. Washington, 
D.C.: National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, March 2008. 

2 Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in the United States, 2006. Washington, D.C.: Federal 
Bureau of Investigation, September 2007. 

3 Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), 23 U.S.C.  148. 

4 Ned Levine & Associates. CrimeStat: A Spatial Statistics Program for the Analysis of Crime Incident 
Locations (v 3, 1). Houston, Texas: Ned Levine & Associates; Washington, D.C.: National Institute of 
Justice, March 2007. 

5 Solutions may include eliminating multiple driveways that lead to a property, constructing medians, and 
preventing left turns at certain locations. 6 Houston-Galveston Area Council. State of Safety 
in the Region: Report of the Regional Safety Council 2007. Houston, Texas: Houston-Galveston Area 
Council, February 2007. 


Mapping Programs Target Alcohol-Impaired Driving 

Tom Beretich 
DWI Resource Center 
Albuquerque, New Mexico 

Motor vehicle accidents continue to be the leading cause of death for Americans between ages 1 and 
44, and alcohol plays a large role in many of these fatalities.[Footnote 1] In 2005, 39 percent of all motor vehicle fatalities 
were alcohol related, making impaired driving the most frequently committed violent crime in the United States.[Footnote 2]

Stopping drunk driving requires a community policing effort with local solutions and cooperation 
among many community members, including law enforcement, public officials, liquor compliance agencies, judges, and community activists. 
Many metropolitan law enforcement agencies designate personnel to address impaired driving, and most 
urban agencies have used geospatial analysis tools for crime mapping, but few agencies of any size are 
applying geographical principles to preventing driving while intoxicated (DWI). Providing local law 

enforcement agencies with visual tools to identify and analyze DWI hot spots can help agencies allocate 
resources and significantly influence traffic safety policy decisions. 

Using Crime Mapping As a Public Awareness Tool 

The DWI Resource Center in Albuquerque, New Mexico, was formed to reduce the social and 
economic impact of drunk driving through research, public awareness, education, and prevention programs. 
In November 2005, the center conducted a survey of Albuquerque neighborhood associations to 
determine the general publics awareness of local DWI issues. The survey results were surprising 
most citizens identified DWI as a significant problem in Albuquerque, but few believed it was a problem in 
their own neighborhood. 

Figure 1 - 2004 DWI Arrestees by Residence; Albuquerque, NM

Figure 2 - Albuquerque Downtown Area

To counter inaccurate public perceptions, the center created a series of maps that showed the 
location of alcohol-involved crashes, liquor outlets, and where DWI offenders reside in 
each neighborhood (Figures 1 and 2). The maps caught the attention of both citizens 
and the media and changed public awareness. As a result, the center began to develop maps 
for local law enforcement agencies and public policy planners to use as decision-making tools. 
The center surveyed agencies to understand the best way to develop the maps and learned the 
following: 

 
	Tools should help agencies deploy their limited law enforcement resources more efficiently. 
 
	Officers need data to support their street knowledge. 
 
	Agencies must follow guidelines (City of Las Cruces v. Betancourt) when determining locations of sobriety 
	checkpoints.[Footnote 3]

Resource Center Advances Mapmaking Methods 

Traditional maps had limitations. Most either showed alcohol-related crash fatalities or DWI 
crash locations. These maps were statistically limited, and did not consider alternative 
factors that may have contributed to crash rates, such as traffic volume or road conditions. 
The centers new maps examined DWI hot spots relative to overall accident hot spots and 
highlighted how alcohol-involved crashes at different intersections contributed to total crash 
volume. Additionally, the size and shape of the distribution curve (see Figure 3) for alcohol-
involved crashes differed significantly from that of total crashes during a 24-hour period. The 
maps charted crashes that occurred between 7 p.m. and 5:59 a.m., when 64 percent of alcohol-involved crashes occur.[Footnote 4]

Image - Hourly Distributions of CrashesBernalillo County 19982005. 

Figure 3. *For the purpose of illustration ,we chose to show crash distributions by shifting the x-axis time 
scale and starting from 6:00 a.m. and ending at 5:59 a.m. the next day. This reflects actual driving 
schedules more closely than a simple 023 hourly time scale. 

Crash data on the map were color coded. Green represented a low percentage of 
alcohol-involved crashes as a percentage of total crashes; yellow, a low-to-medium 
percentage of alcohol-involved crashes; orange, a medium-to-high percentage of alcohol-involved 
crashes, and red represented a high percentage of alcohol-involved crashes as a percentage of total 
crashes. In addition to the color scheme, the maps identified intersections with small, 
medium, and large numbers of crashes, illustrated by increasing dot size. Maps also showed licensed liquor outlets by both 
density and location. During the mapping process, the centers staff noticed a visual 
correlation between DWI crashes at hot spot intersections and clusters of DWI offenders 
living near those hot spots. For this reason, they began to include offender residences on 
the map. 

Are the Maps Useful? 

The DWI crash maps served as an effective tool for law enforcement agencies and 
public policy planners. Feedback from law enforcement agencies shows that they use the maps to more effectively 
deploy limited personnel resources. Law enforcement agencies in Bernalillo, McKinley, and Rio Arriba Counties in 
New Mexico reported positive results when they deployed personnel to map locations 
with high numbers of alcohol-involved crashes, residences of DWI offenders, and liquor outlet clusters. Although these 
deployment strategies are not new, the ability to visualize these variables coherently 
and concurrently on a single map has allowed law enforcement to make decisions much more rapidly. As a result, the DWI 
Resource Center, funded under a grant from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (the COPS Office), will 
build a web-based resource deployment tool. The tool will provide options for law 
enforcement shifts at priority locations throughout the day, taking into account 
staff numbers and work hours. In addition, the web-based tool will create color-coded 
maps, updated by the hour to display crash probabilities. 

The centers crash maps have also assisted law enforcement agencies in court by providing documentation that locations 
selected for sobriety checkpoints meet the standard established in the New Mexico Supreme Court decision City of Las Cruces v. Betancourt.[Footnote 5] 
The ruling establishes eight guidelines to determine the reasonableness of a checkpoint, including location and 
time, two data points provided by the centers maps.[Footnote 6] Because the centers maps are based on data 
provided through the New Mexico Traffic Safety Bureau, the court views the data as reliable and officers are 
better equipped to justify both the location and time of sobriety checkpoints. 

Implications for Public Policy 

The DWI crash maps have significant public policy implications. For example, 
when the center furnished the city of Albuquerques mayors office with maps 
illustrating the top five intersections in the city where DWI-related deaths and property 
damage occur, the mayors office was able to refine its resource allocation strategy. 
The strategy included potential public safety infrastructure investments at each 
intersection, including speed cameras, traffic controls, and possible public transportation 
improvements. The city also launched a public awareness campaign to notify businesses and 
schools within a 1-mile radius of these high-crash intersections. 

The crash maps also helped citizens and policymakers in liquor license hearings 
illustrate how a proposed new license may affect alcohol-involved crashes in the area. 
Maps gave policymakers a visual representation of the correlation between alcohol-involved 
crashes and liquor outlet density throughout the city, and allowed them to weigh public 
safety concerns against business interests. In at least one hearing, the map presentation strongly 
influenced the denial of a liquor license transfer. 

The center learned several valuable lessons while creating DWI crash maps. Law enforcement 
agencies value data integrity and analytical precision, so the center chose not to overly 
modify data that went into the final product. The data points on the map primarily represent 
the latitude and longitude values where crashes occurred. Advanced statistical techniques and 
measures could have provided information about hot spots and other areas of interest to 
law enforcement, but the center chose to allow law enforcement agencies to make their own 
inferences and deployment decisions based on their visual interpretation of the maps. 

Portraying data in this manner allows the map user to make decisions by drawing on personal 
and group experiencevariables that cannot be accounted for with statistical techniques. 
For example, law enforcement officers might be aware of secondary escape routes or side roads 
in residential areas that impaired drivers used to avoid officers or sobriety checkpoints. 

Conclusion 

Crash maps help facilitate deployment decisions without providing so much statistical 
information that officers would find them difficult to use. They allow officers to use their 
experience to interpret the maps and create solutions. In New Mexico, these maps have 
helped law enforcement and policymakers craft data-based solutions to reduce DWI 
deaths and injuries. 

The COPS Office is funding the development of a web-based application to help police 
fight drunk driving in New Mexico.[Footnote 7] This application will be used in conjunction with 
the centers crash maps. It will allow users to analyze DWI data most vital to their needs, 
providing a list of dangerous intersections or road segments based on the parameters they 
input into the application. These mapping technologies have long-term, significant public 
policy implications for stopping drunk driving in communities nationwide. 

For more information about the DWI Resource Center, see http://www.dwiresourcecenter.org/. 

Footnotes 

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National 
Vital Statistic Reports, Vol. 54, No. 19, June 28, 2006. This is the most recent year for which data 
are available. 

2 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic 
Safety Facts: Laws, DOT HS 810 721W, February 2007. 

3 These checkpoints were established by a New Mexico Supreme Court decision (City of Las Cruces v. 
Betancourt, 105 N.M. 655, 735 P.2d 1161 (1987). 

4 For the area and years in question, 5.6 percent of all crashes involved alcohol. 

5 105 N.M. 655, 735 P.2d 1161 (1987). 

6 Ibid. 

7 For more information, see the related article on the 
Operational Deployment and Reporting Application. 


COPS Office Funds a Web-Based Application to Examine Drunk Driving 

Community policing efforts can help reducecar crashes that happen because of drunk
driving. In an effort to prevent alcohol-related traffic fatalities, the Office of Community
Oriented Policing Services is funding the  development of a web-based application that law
enforcement agencies and public officials can use to examine local incidents of drunk driving. 

The application, called the Operational Deployment and Reporting Application (ODRA), will provide analysis 
of driving while intoxicated (DWI) data specific to the needs of individual stakeholders and local jurisdictions. 
Users can select parametersincluding the jurisdiction and the date and time of crashes 
and ODRA will create a list of the most dangerous intersections and road segments in the jurisdiction, 
ranked by the number of alcohol-involved crashes. Officers can use the application to find DWI hot spots, 
which will help them develop tactics and deploy resources to stop drunk drivers before they cause crashes.

Initially, ODRA will be developed and tested in New Mexico. The source code and application will be free and 
available online when testing is complete.


TECHINCAL TIPS 

Creating Base Maps and Layer Files for Cartographic Consistency 

Phil Mielke 
Redlands Police Department 
Redlands, California 

Crime analysts create maps that focus on a specific problem. An analysts goal in creating a map should be to show 
how the data that matter to the audience are significant. He or she accomplishes this by establishing cartographic standards 
that officers can follow to understand the geographic elements of the problem in question. 

As time passes, data will change. Consequently, a geographic representation of the problem will change. The way the 
problem is represented should be consistent. This article will discuss how to create consistent standards when making a map. It 
includes instructions for creating layer files, describes base map production, and provides useful tips for making maps. 

Before Creating a Map 

Analysts must carefully think about how to construct a map before beginning the process. Requests may come from 
inexperienced clients who are unsure what they are asking for and how to ask for what they want. Analysts should be able to 
clear up any misconceptions so the clients get what they want or understand what is possible. 

Analysts may wish work with a client to develop the maps mission statement. To accomplish this, they should consider the 
following: 
 
	The audience. Will this map be shown to the public? 
 
	The decisions the map will influence. Will this map support short-term decisions or long-term goals? 

 
	The data at the analysts disposal. Will aerial photography, building outlines, 
	or census data enhance the product or distract the viewer? 
 
	The data the analyst has not yet gathered. Supporting data should be 
	collected and made a constant for each specific problem. For example, knowing 
	streetlight locations will affect an officers understanding of night vehicle burglaries. 
	Take into account what the map should accomplish and construct a solid statement 
	that clearly communicates this. List the data used and dates when the crime took 
	place. Send the statement to the client for verification. 

Developing a Base Map 

If an analyst takes the time to develop a clear base map, it will reduce the time it takes to create related maps in the future. A 
base map contains crucial information that allows a maps user to immediately identify geographic regions within a city. 

A clear base map will have subdued coloration (color choices), to emphasize the incidents or focus of the map. An analyst 
should test the base maps appearance in grayscale. The analyst should match the audiences mental map as much as 
possible and think about the cartographic representation of main transportation routes and landmarks. Landmarks should include 
school parcels,[Footnote 1] parks, stations, substations, and other government facilities. Parcels, building outlines, and light poles may be 
useful to display on large-scale maps for tactical planning. 

Frequently, analysts will support tactical operations that focus on a problem in a small area. The base map document should 
utilize scale levels (for example, the area and level of detail displayed on a map, the zoom level). This can help determine on 
which scale certain layers will be visible and which predefined labels show. It reduces production time if, when analysts zoom to 
the focus on a certain part of the map, they know that the base map will turn layers off and on and label accordingly. A regions size 
may vary, but four or five scale levels should be able to clearly facilitate the needs of most 
requests. See Figures 1, 2, and 3. 

Scale Levels with Base Maps 

Image - Figure 1.1:40000 scale. Major streets are larger and labeled. Smaller streets are subdued and not labeled. 


Figure 2. 1:50000 scale. All streets are labeled and symbolized equally. Building outlines
and parcels are visible. Address numbers are labeled. 

Figure 3. Scale ranges can be set in the mapping program ArcMap[Footnote 2] by right-clicking 
the layer and selecting Visible Scale Range. Zoom in to the point where symbols 
in the layer should become invisible if the maps user zooms farther, and select Set 
Maximum Scale. 


Using Layer Files 

Layer files are files that enable crime analysts to save a query without filling a computers 
hard drive with shapefiles (for example, files that contain the GIS-linked database 
information about crime and public safety incidents in an area). Problems often arise 
when analysts query the master incident data source (the complete database) and then 
export the relevant data, making these data a separate shapefile mapped with separate 
symbols on the resulting map. This causes three problems that can be averted by creating 
layer files in ArcMap: 

	Problem 1. For every map project, an analyst creates a backlog of files that must be supported 
	and sustained. Depending on the map document and the request, this could result in 
	5 or 10 extra megabytes of data that must be stored and rarely retrieved. Considering that 
	most analysts fill multiple requests daily, this can fill their hard drives in a short time. Hard 
	drive cleaning can be a tricky process because it can be difficult to tell which data are vitally 
	important. 

	Problem 2. An analyst can squeeze only a small amount of information into a file name. 
	Complex queries involving date, time, offense type, geography, and a host of other variables 
	can not be documented easily within a file name. Referencing shapefiles from previous 
	maps and queries introduces uncertainty into the product. 

	Problem 3. Incident databases change. New streets require new geocoding. Records 
	departments recode offense types. Reports may take longer to arrive into the incident database 
	than the previous query allowed. A shapefile exported from the master incident database 
	does not account for retroactive changes to the main incident database. 

Layer files in ArcMap (.lyr) are small in size (less than 20 kilobytes) and serve as a 
combination of a saved query, the symbols used to denote incidents on the map (the 
symbology), and the label classification (for example, zoom level, font type). A layer file 
references a master incident data source by the stored query. Each query can be changed 
to include different types of crime or different dates and times when crime was committed. 

By referencing the master incident data source, the layer file acts as a dynamic query[Footnote 3] that will 
allow for naturally occurring changes in the data source. For instance, say an officer wants 
to know where traffic accidents occurred in September. If after creating the query, the 
master incident data source is updated to include extra incidents, the layer file acts as 
a dynamic query and can incorporate the new data into the resulting map. 

Analysts can find information about the initial query and the data source being 
referenced under the layers properties tab. Checking these parameters removes 
the guesswork involved in saving and sharing layer files within a crime analysis 
unit. Analysts should use consistent symbologies (symbols) when creating maps, 
so that officers can quickly understand the problems displayed. 

Creating Layer Files for Hot Spot Data 

Spatial Analyst, an extension of the Environmental Systems Research Institutes[Footnote 4] ArcGIS software, produces a 
Kernel density estimation (KDE) raster file, a spatial analysis technique that groups crime incidents and shows crime hot spots. 
When creating layer files, a crime analysis unit must establish standards for the KDEs search radius and grid cell size, or the result 
is visual ambiguity. Hot spots will vary too much in size and density value when different search radii are used.[Footnote 5] 

The symbology of this raster file is often created by using a classified schema, a program function that will automatically 
produce color values. These color values are classified using a statistical model, known as natural (Jenks) breaks.[Footnote 6] The areas of higher 

crime density are automatically colored with a darker hue and an analyst typically displays the crime hot spots illustrated 
by the natural breaks model. This process helps show where certain incidents are occurring in higher density at a given time, 
but does not allow analysts to consistently symbolize incident densities from two different time periods. 

For example, assume that in September, a total of 62 vehicle crimes took place in a given area, while in October, 44 crimes 
occurred in the same area. Fifteen vehicle crimes occurred on a single street in September, whereas in October, nine vehicle 
crimes occurred in a single parking lot. Using the values given automatically from the natural (Jenks) breaks for both densities, 
the analyst might depict the hot spots as equally dense from September to October. The officer, seeing the darkest hue of the hot 
spot, thinks that the parking lot in October is just as bad as the street in September. 

To create a map that can compare data from different time periods, follow these steps: 
 
	Pick the KDE raster that will give the highest density values. For example, if 
	September has the highest number of vehicle crimes, use Septembers density raster. 
 
	Use the automatic natural breaks to separate the highest-value density. Make sure the lowest density values will 
	not symbolize single crime events, and add a higher range of values to allow for time periods that 
	may have higher densities of crime. Save the layer file. 

 
	Use this layer file as a standard for creating other density rasters of the 
	same crime type and time period (for example, monthly vehicle crimes). 
	Import this layer file into maps made from other density rasters. 

Conclusion 

Producing consistent cartographic products will allow a maps user to develop familiarity with the way information 
is portrayed. Using layer files and base maps not only ensures that information is portrayed consistently, but saves valuable 
production time. 

Footnotes 

1 Consider displaying the 1,000-ft. buffer of schools, depending on laws regarding enhancing drug 
charges near schools. 

2 ArcMap is a component of Environmental Systems Research Institutes Geographic Information System 
software. 

3 A layer file acts as a dynamic query if an analyst creates a definition query for the layer file (using the 
properties tab). 


4 See the Environmental Systems Research Institute web site: www.esri.com. 

5 See www.eastvalleycompass.org/radiustest.html to learn how about different types of displays for 
search radius sizes. 

6 Natural (Jenks) breaks is a statistical model for determining the best arrangement of values into 
classes. 


Idahos Statistical Analysis Center Helps State Police Solve Personnel Allocation Problem 

Janeena Wing 
Idaho State Police 
Meridian, Idaho 

When the Idaho State Police needed to know how many troopers should patrol state roads, the Idaho Statistical Analysis Center (ISAC) 
used geographic mapping technologies and collaborative data to answer the question. 

Statistical Analysis Centers (SAC) collect and distribute criminal justice data and research and evaluate statewide 
policy issues. The U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics offers grant funds to encourage SACs to analyze topics of concern, 
such as human trafficking, cybercrime, domestic violence, and emerging drug trends. Many SACs also help maintain 
national data sets, including National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data and state crime victimization research. 

Currently, 53 states and territories have SACs. Each states governor decides where to locate the SAC. 
The governor may choose to place the SAC in the governors office, the state highway patrol, 
the state department of corrections, or a university. 

The Idaho Statistical Analysis Center 

Since its inception in 1978, the ISAC has been housed in the Idaho Department of Law Enforcement, 
which became the Idaho State Police in July 2000. ISAC provides statistical support, data analysis, 
program planning, evaluation research, and technical support to local, state, and national criminal 
justice agencies. 

ISAC is currently working on several projects, including evaluations of B/JAG[Footnote 1] and STOP[Footnote 2] grant 
programs, a state victimization study, and projects that analyze NIBRS data to gain a better 
understanding of Idaho crime trends. 

Patrolling Idahos Interstates and HighwaysHow Many Troopers Are Needed? 

The Idaho State Police wanted to determine how many troopers would be needed if a 
trooper were to pass every mile of the states interstates and highways once a day. They 
also wanted to know the number of troopers needed to provide adequate coverage for 
calls for service and interagency assistance in each region of the state. To answer the Idaho 
State Polices questions, ISAC began a police allocation study in March 2007. 

ISAC collected information on state and federal roadways in Idaho from a variety of sources, 
including the following: 
 
	Idaho Department of Transportation data on crashes and average traffic for each 
	milepost for 2004 through 2006. 
 
	Idaho State Police computer-aided dispatch system information on calls for service for 
	each milepost for 2004 through 2006. ISAC used the information to categorize roads 
	by frequency of traffic, crashes, and calls for service, using three tiers (high [1], medium 
	[2], and low [3]). Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 
	software, then plotted geographically using Geographic Information Systems software, as 
	shown in Figure 1. 

The ISAC analysis determined that Tier 1 roads needed a trooper to pass by each milepost 
once every 4 to 6 hours. Tier 2 roads needed a trooper to pass by each milepost every 8 to 12 
hours. Tier 3 roads needed a trooper to pass by each milepost once every 24 hours. 

Image - Figure 1: Tiered Mileposts on State and Federal Roads in Idaho. 

After establishing the number of times troopers needed to travel between distant points, 
ISAC estimated the average patrol speed possible through all rural and urban areas. The 
geography of each area played an important role in understanding how fast a trooper 
could travel between distant points on Idaho roadwaysrural roads might wind through narrow 
river canyons and high mountain passes, and officers on urban roads might encounter heavy traffic. 
ISAC calculated the optimum average speed for each milepost and determined the best possible routes troopers 
could take to ensure that all mileposts were passed at least once a day. 

Based on geography and traffic flow, Tier 1 roads had an average patrol speed of 10 miles 
per hour, Tier 2 roads had an average patrol speed of approximately 35 miles per hour, and 
Tier 3 roads had an average patrol speed of 55 miles per hour. 

A mathematical equation incorporating average patrol speeds and the number of patrols per day 
allowed ISAC to determine how many troopers were needed to patrol each mile of freeway. 
Figure 2 shows this equation, which was developed by Northwestern University. 

Figure 2: Equation to Determine the Number of Troopers Needed per Highway Mile. 
N = HM x HC / 7 x PS x SH x PI

N = Number ofTroopers 
HM = Highway Miles 
HC = Hours of Coverage Per Week 
PS = Average Patrol Speed (includes stationary patrol 
SH = Shift Length 
PI = Performance Objective Patrol Interval 

Using this equation, ISAC estimated that the Idaho State Police would need to hire 
88 additional troopers. Idaho would then have 231 state troopers, up from the 143 
mandated by the state legislature. 

Conclusion 

State SACs actively work to establish national and state networking relationships 
and research partnerships. The Idaho study was possible because of the 
collaborative opportunities available to ISAC. Combining criminal justice data 
sets with geographic mapping systems can provide meaningful research that effectively 
influences policy and practice. 

The Edward Byrne Memorial Justice Assistance Grant (JAG) Program (42 U.S.C. 3751 (a)) is the primary provider 
of federal criminal justice funding to state and local jurisdictions. JAG funds support 
all components of the criminal justice system, including multijurisdictional drug 
and gang task forces; crime-prevention and domestic violence programs; and courts, corrections, treatment, 
and justice information sharing initiatives. The Services, Training, Officers and Prosecutors (STOP) 
Violence Against Women formula grant program provides federal financial assistance to states to 
develop and strengthen law enforcement activities, prosecution strategies, and victim services in 
cases involving violent crimes against women. 

Footnotes 

1 The Edward Byrne Memorial Justice Assistance Grant (JAG) Program (42 U.S.C. 3751 (a)) is 
the primary provider of federal criminal justice funding to state and local jurisdictions. JAG funds 
support all components of the criminal justice system, including multijurisdictional drug and 
gang task forces; crime-prevention and domestic violence programs; and courts, corrections, 
treatment, and justice information sharing initiatives. 

2 The Services, Training, Officers and Prosecutors (STOP) Violence Against Women formula grant 
program provides federal financial assistance to states to develop and strengthen law enforcement 
activities, prosecution strategies, and victim services in cases involving violent crimes against women. 


NEWS BRIEFS

Web Site Maps Crime and Public Safety Information in Chicago, New York, and San Francisco 

If Chicago residents want to know what neighborhoods are safe to stroll in 
at night, they may want to check out everyblock.com. The web site, launched 
in January 2008, provides city maps that track crime incidents and neighborhood 
safety information, including restaurant inspections and liquor licenses. This 
information is free for use by officers, city officials, and the general public. 
Everyblock.com expands on the concept of chicagocrime.org, providing crime and 
public safety information for Chicago, San Francisco, and New York City. 

The idea for such mashup sites began in 2005, when a number of web developers 
customized Google Maps to include other types of information. At this time, 
a programmer named Adrian Holovaty designed chicagocrime.org, a site that fused 
map data with crime data from the Chicago Police Department. Users could find where 
crime occurred and search for specific locations or types of incidents. In January 

2008, Holovaty replaced the chicagocrime. org site with everyblock.com. The new site 
has an improved crime mapping interface and provides information that includes 
building code violations, graffiti cleanup, restaurant inspections, and more. 

Holovatys chicagocrime.org has inspired numerous other mashup web sites that 
provide crime data and public safety information. Some of these sites also 
provide information about traffic incidents and construction, which allows motorists 
to plan their daily commutes. For example, a site called DalTrans provides information 
about traffic, construction, and accidents in and around Dallas. Another site, CrashStat, 
maps dangerous intersections in New York City. This information can help city officials 
decide where and when to change traffic patterns or erect signs. 

Mashup sites have proliferated, partly because of how easily they can be developed. Police 
departments now often use mashups to make crime information available to the public. 

For more information, see www.everyblock.com, www.crashstat.org, and http://dfwtraffic.dot.state.tx.us/dfwweb/. 


Police Departments Partner With Crime Mapping Web Site 

Public Engines, Inc., has integrated Google Maps into its crimereports.com site, which 
creates maps of crime incident data from participating jurisdictions and makes 
them available to the public. So far, 40 police jurisdictions have partnered with 
Public Engines, Inc. The web site provides police departments with an easy-to-use 
web service for publishing and sharing crime data. Maps are available at www.crimereports.com. 


Intelligent Communication Systems Target Road Hazards and Bad Weather 

Intelligent technology can warn drivers of hazards on the road. A consortium of European 
automotive companies, public authorities, and research institutes are working together to 
develop an intelligent transportation system that tells drivers where hazards may occur and 
increases their spatial awareness of the roads on which they are driving. 

The system will use global positioning systems technology, wireless communication systems, 
and sensors to warn drivers about hazards outside their field of vision. Collaborators 
hope it can help reduce the risk of automobile collisions and stop multivehicle pileups. 

For more information, see www.prevent-ip.org. 


Boston Police Change Protocol for Handling 911 Calls 

When someone calls 911 and requests help, officers may find that more than one location 
on their maps match a given address because streets in different parts of the city have the 
same name. To help deal with the problem, Boston police officers have begun sending 
officers to all locations that come up as matches. This helps them prevent mix-ups and 
ensures that all calls receive a prompt response. 


Cell Phones Help Detectives Locate Crime Suspects and Victims 

On June 5, 1998, Denise Murrays daughter Stephanie was impaled with a metal rod 
on Interstate 95 in southern Florida. Her daughter survived the incident, but emergency 
dispatchers had to ask for her location 23 times before they were able to locate her. 

Today, global positioning system tracking technology is commonly available on cell 
phones, a feature that would have made it possible for Florida officers to track Murrays 
location more quickly. This technology can also be used by law enforcement to track criminals 
in investigations or find missing persons. 

For more information, see http://www.topix. 
com/content/trb/2008/03/cell-phones-becometools-for-helping-detectives-find-crime-suspects. 


Resources:Traffic Safety and Law Enforcement

Major Safety Organizations 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,Traffic Safety Program 
Documents fatalities and injuries and addresses behavioral and educational aspects of traffic safety. 
Issues include child passenger safety, seat belt use, impaired driving, teenage drivers, motorcycle 
safety, and new drivers. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/portal/site/nhtsa/menuitem.5928da45f995923816010 
31046108a0c. 

Federal Highway Administration, Safety Division 
Funds programs on intersection safety, roadway safety, pedestrians, bicyclists, child safety (safe routes 
to school), older drivers, and many other issues. http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov. 

National Safety Council 
Nonprofit organization that compiles annual statistics on motor vehicle safety and constructs annual 
estimates of the cost of motor vehicle fatalities, injuries, and property damage. It produces an annual 
report called Injury Facts. http://www.nsc.org. 

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Standing Committee on Highway Traffic Safety 
Nonprofit organization that is involved in setting national roadway safety engineering standards, which 
are accepted by most states. http://www.transportation.org/?siteid=35&pageid=2331. 

Transportation Research Board 
Part of the National Academies of Science, the board sponsors many studies on traffic safety. 
http://www.trb.org. 

AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety 
Nonprofit organization that produces reports on various aspects of safety including child safety, bicycle 
safety, driver education, young drivers, aggressive driving, safety culture, and many other topics. 
http://www.aaafoundation.org. 

Governors Highway Safety Administration 
Nonprofit organization that represents the highway safety offices. It produces publications on various 
policy-oriented safety topics including community guidebooks and countermeasures that work. 
http://www.ghsa.org. 

Insurance Institute for Highway Safety 
Nonprofit organization that conducts studies for the insurance industry including crashworthiness, red-
light running, impaired driving, motorcycle safety, and teenage drivers. http://www.iihs.org. 

International Association of Chiefs of Police,Traffic Safety Management Program 
The IACP technology clearinghouse has many publications dealing with traffic safety including red-light 
running enforcement, road safety audits, work zone safety, and other topics. http://www.iacptechnology. 
org/TrafficSafety.html. 

Most states have offices that specialize in safety. The offices are located either in the state police or in 
the states transportation department (or both). See the URL for the individual state. 


Major Publications Relevant for Traffic Safety Best Practices 

AECOM Consulting Transportation Group, Bellomo-McGee,
and Ned Levine & Associates. Considering Safety in the Transportation Planning Process. 
Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 2002. 
http://tmip.fhwa.dot.gov/clearinghouse/docs/safety/.

Federal Highway Administration 
Highway-Railroad Grade Crossing. Washington, D.C.: FHWA Safety Division, U.S. Department 
of Transportation, 2006. http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/xings/index.htm 

Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration 
Report to Congress on the Large Truck Crash Causation Study. MC-R/MC-RIA. Washington, 
D.C.: March 2006. 

International Association of Chiefs of Police 
IACP Technology Clearinghouse. Alexandria, Virginia: International Association of Chiefs of 
Police, 2006. http://www.iacptechnology.org/TrafficSafety.html. 

National Cooperative Highway Research Program 
Crash Records Systems: A Synthesis of Highway Practice. Washington, D.C.: NCHRP Synthesis 
350, Transportation Research Board, 2005 http://www.trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=5840. 

National Cooperative Highway Research Program 
Guide for Reducing Aggressive Driving Collisions. 2003. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/ 
nchrp/nchrp_rpt_500v1.pdf. 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 
Strategies for Aggressive Driver Enforcement. 2001. 
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/enforce/aggressdrivers/toc.html. 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 
Studies on Aggressive Driving. Multiple years. 
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/enforce/aggredriver.html. 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 
National Survey of Speeding and Other Unsafe Driving Actions: 
Volume I: Methodology.
Volume II: Driver Attitudes & Behavior.
Volume III: Countermeasures.
Washington, D.C.: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 
U.S. Department of Transportation, 1998. 
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/aggressive/unsafe/ 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 
Initiatives to Address Impaired Driving. December 2003. 
http://trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=2163. 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 
4313FA Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (CODES). Washington, D.C.: National Highway 
Traffic Safety Administration, U. S. Department of Transportation, 1997. 

Case Studies of GIS-Based Traffic Safety Information Systems 
	1. Houston-Galveston Area Council traffic safety planning program. 
	http://www.h-gac.com/taq/planning/default.aspx. 

	2. Southeast Michigan Council of Governments traffic safety planning program. http:// 
	www.semcog.org/Safety.aspx. 


Crime News Events 2008 

Dealing with crime problems in a local law enforcement agency sometimes means reaching out to 
other local agencies (e.g., city planning) to come up with a solution. The events listed here are good 
opportunities to learn what mapping professionals and those in related areas are doing, get new ideas, 
and present your work. 

NIJ Conference 2008 
July 2123, 2008 in Washington, D.C. 
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/events/nij_conference/welcome.htm
 
GeoWeb 2008 Conference 
July 2125, 2008 in Vancouver, B.C., Canada 
http://www.geoweb.org/ 

2008 ESRI International User Conference 
August 48, 2008 in San Diego, California 
http://www.esri.com/events/uc/index.html 

NSGIC 2008 Annual Conference 
September 711, 2008 in Keystone, Colorado 
http://www.nsgic.org/events/2008_conference.cfm 

GIScience 2008 
September 2326, 2008 in Park City, Utah 
http://www.giscience.org/ 

2008 California Crime and Intelligence Analysts Association Training Conference 
September 2326, 2008 in Pleasanton, California 
http://www.baciaa.org/2008ConferencePage.htm 

Urban and Regional Information Systems Association (URISA) 46th Annual Conference 
October 710, 2008 in New Orleans, Louisiana 
http://www.urisa.org/conferences/aboutannual 

24th Annual New York State GIS Conference 
October 67, 2008 in Liverpool, New York 
http://www.esf.edu/nysgisconf/default.htm 

2008 IACA/FCIAA Conference 
October 1316, 2008 in St. Pete Beach, Florida 
http://www.iaca.net/Conference2008.asp 

Applied Geography Conference 
October 1518, 2008 in Wilmington, Delaware 
http://appliedgeog.binghamton.edu/ 

Tenth Crime Mapping Research Conference 
August 2009 in New Orleans, Louisiana 
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/maps/ 


17 

July 2123, 2008 
Crystal Gateway Marriott 
Arlington, Virginia 
For more information, visit 
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/2008.htm 
Featuring the plenary panel 
Making Smarter Decisions: 
Connecting Crime Mapping with City Officials 
August 2009 


COPS Grant Information at your fingertips 

The COPS Office Response Center provides information on the following: 

	COPS Grants 
	Grant Applications 
	Grant Management 
	COPS Online, passwords, financial status reports, etc. 
	Community policing training available from the Regional Community Policing Institutes 
	COPS Publications 
	Contacting your state Grant Program Specialist or Staff Accountant 

To contact the COPS Office Response Center: 

Phone: 800.421.6770 
Fax: 202.616.8594 
E-mail: askcopsrc@usdoj.gov 

Mailing address:
COPS Office Response Center
1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20530

Hours of Operation: 

Monday to Friday, 9:005:00 Eastern Time 
After-hours voicemailcall returned next business day 
Information available 24 hours a day at www.cops.usdoj.gov 

Ask us for materials to address a specific problem in your community. 

www.cops.usdoj.gov 


COPS Editorial Staff 
Nicole Scalisi 
Research Analyst 
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

Judith Beres 
Editor 
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

Sandra Sharpe 
Production 
Ofice of Community Oriented Policing Services 

MAPS Editorial Staff 
Ron Wilson 
Program Manager/Social Science Analyst 
National Institute of Justice 

Katie Filbert 
Research Associate (Contractor) 
National Institute of Justice 

Ariel Whitworth 
Communications Editor 
National Criminal Justice Reference Service 


Image - Cpmmunity Oriented Policing Services (COPS) Logo

U.S. Department of Justice 
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 
1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W. 
Washington, DC 20530 
To obtain details on COPS programs, call the 
COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770 
Visit COPS Online at www.cops.usdoj.gov 

National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Logo

Visit NIJ Online at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij