Title  : IAIOES07 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL ECOSYSTEMS AND
         BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Type   : IAI Newsletter
NSF Org: GEO
Date   : August 8, 1995
File   : iaioes07

THE INTER-AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR
GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH

 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP
ON TROPICAL ECOSYSTEMS AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL
CYCLES

April 4-7, 1994
S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos, SP, Brazil

TABLE OF CONTENTS

=46OREWORD          1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY        4

I.  BACKGROUND          9      =09
 1. The Need for Research       9   =09
 2. Global Implications       10    =09

II.  THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE    12

III.  ISSUES AND PRIORITIES      14   =09
 1. Land Use Change       16    =09
 2. Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry   17
 3. Water and Energy Cycles      18  =09

IV.  RESEARCH QUESTIONS      20   =09
 1. Land Use Changes       20   =09
 2. Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry    21
 3. Water and Energy Cycles      23 =09

V.  APPROACH        25
  1. Land Use Changes       25   =09
  2. Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry   28
  3. Water and Energy Cycles      29 =09
  4. The Role of the IAI       30   =09

VI.   NEEDS AND PROBLEMS      32
=09
VII.  RELATED PROGRAMS      34    =09

VIII. REFERENCES        36

APPENDIX 1: IAI Initial Scientific Themes   39
=09
APPENDIX 2: Acronyms       40

APPENDIX 3: Workshop Participants    41

=46OREWORD

 This report summarizes the findings of a workshop on
Tropical Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Cycles, held April 4-7,
1994, in S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos, Brazil.  The workshop was
convened by the Inter-American Institute for Global Change (IAI)
and the Ministry of Science and Technology of Brazil through the
Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE).  This was
the fourth workshop held in a thematic series on global change
issues.

  More than 70 scientists from nine countries of the
Americas met in plenary the first day and a half to review the
current knowledge of the subject.  The next two days were spent
in group discussions aimed at setting general guidelines and
recommendations for a scientific agenda on the theme.  Three
working groups were established:  (1) Land Use Changes,  (2)
Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry, and (3) Water and
Energy Cycles.   As with other workshops, the working groups met
periodically in plenary to discuss their progress, and then
synthesized their findings into a final report.

    Created in May of 1992, the IAI is designed to evolve into
a network of research facilities throughout the Americas which
will augment research capabilities and promote education and
training within the scientific fields most important to current and
future global change research.  At this writing, 16 nations have
signed the agreement establishing the Institute, recognizing that
no one nation can adequately study the complex global
environmental mechanisms on this planet.  The signatory nations
agree that a greater understanding of these mechanisms may be
achieved by a regional and international pooling of information.

  The IAI agreement notes the importance of an evolving
scientific agenda that reflects an appropriate balance among the
biogeographic areas of scientific importance.  It also stresses the
need to address in an integral fashion the physical, economic, and
social issues relating to global change.  Seven broadly defined
research topics have been identified as priorities for special
focus.  To identify the most pressing scientific questions and
socioeconomic issues within those seven priority topics, a group
of physical and social scientists met in Silver Spring, Maryland, in
the United States on March 5-6, 1992.  The resulting document,
the Report of the Meeting of Scientific Experts, provided the basis
for a series of seven workshops on scientific program
development, intended to advance the science agenda of the IAI.

  Besides this workshop on tropical ecosystems and
biogeochemical cycles, six others were held on the following
subjects:  Comparative  Studies of Oceanic, Coastal, and Estuarine
Processes in Temperate Zones (Montevideo, Uruguay), High
Latitude Processes (Buenos Aires, Argentina),
Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-Tropical
Americas (Panam=E1 City, Panam=E1),  ENSO and Interannual Climate
Variability (Lima, Per=FA), Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems
(Durham, N.C. USA), and Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity
(Guadalajara, M=E9xico).

  This report on tropical ecosystems and biogeochemical
cycles discusses possible plans for scientific strategies and
suggests the infrastructure that might be necessary to undertake
further investigations.  It proposes improvements in regional
communication systems and identifies priorities in further
education and training.  It is only a proposed guide to action.  The
next step, as stated in the science plan, is to develop an
implementation plan, a definite program for the topic.

  Sincere thanks must be extended to those who helped in
organizing the workshop and preparing this report.  Special
acknowledgment must be given to the local organizing committee
for conducting the workshop in S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos.  Those
committee members were:  Dr. Get=FAlio T. Batista, the workshop
convener; Dr. Thelma Krug, logistics coordination; Eng. M=E1rcio
Nogueira Barbosa, Etel Arbex, C=E9lia R. T. da Silva, Dr. T=E2nia M.
Sausen, L=EDgia Froes, Carlos A. Viera, Geol. Paulo R. Martini from the
National Institute for Space Research (INPE), and Dr. Luis
Bevilacqua and Simone Scholze from the Ministry of Science and
Technology of Brazil.

 =09

  Also acknowledged with much gratitude are those
institutions whose contributions allowed the workshop to occur.
These include:  National Institute for Space Research (INPE,
Brazil), National Science and Technology Funding Agency (FINEP,
Brazil), Foundation for Science, Technology and Space Applications
(FUNCATE, Brazil).

     Gratitude must also be expressed to Dr. Carlos Nobre from
INPE and Dr. Lu=EDs Ant=F4nio Martinelli from the University of S=E3o
Paulo for their contribution in the preparation of this report, in
addition to the working group chairperson and co-chairperson
who led discussions and whose written reports and stimulating
verbal contributions ultimately led to the drafting and completion
of this report.

  Additionally, I would like to express my most sincere
thanks to Dr. Robert Corell (National Science Foundation), Dr.
Michael Hall, James Buizer, Lisa Farrow and Claudia Nierenberg
(NOAA/OGP) for their constant enthusiasm and support during the
development of this workshop. Finally, I would like to
acknowledge the commitment, dedication and enthusiasm of my
staff members, Raquel Gomes, Marcella Ohira and D=E9lia
Levandoski, without whose support in preparing this report would
have been impossible to accomplish.
=09

   Rub=E9n Lara Lara
   IAI Executive Scientist

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

  This fourth workshop in the thematic series on global
change was convened by IAI and the Ministry of Science and
Technology of Brazil through the Brazilian National Institute for
Space Research (INPE) . More than 70 scientists from nine
countries of the Americas met in plenary the first day and a half
to review the current knowledge on the subject of tropical
ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles.  The next two days were
spent in group discussions aimed at setting general guidelines and
recommendations for a scientific agenda on the theme.
Presentations in plenaries included discussion of land use changes
and their interactions with the carbon-water-energy cycles,
exchange of trace gases between ecosystems and the
atmosphere, greenhouse gas emissions, ocean-atmosphere-land
interactions, paleoclimates in the tropics, and the human
dimensions implicated in global change.  The socioeconomic
aspects and the role of field research and community involvement
in global change research relevant to the Americas were also
covered.
=09
  Following the plenaries, participants divided into three
working groups:

(1) Land Use Changes;
(2) Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry; and
(3) Water and Energy Cycles.

  As with other workshops, the working groups met
periodically in plenary to discuss their progress.  The major
findings of the groups were as follows:

Land Use Changes

 =09What are the effects of land use and  cover change
(LUCC) on biogeochemistry (BGC) water and energy cycles, and in
turn, their effect on LUCC?  This group decided that special
research efforts should be undertaken to define the driving
forces, the models, and the scales of this theme.  To accomplish
this, the following issues need to be clarified:
 * current land use change distribution of the tropical region
 * rate and pattern distribution of land cover conversion
 * knowledge of the effects of LUCC on sustainable development
 * criteria for measurement of sustainability
 * models for measurement of sustainability
 * models for LUCC  processes
 * methods of disseminating information to decision makers

  The group discussed appropriate scales in spatial and
temporal domains, the linkage of IAI action with on-going
international programs by examining methods of providing data,
and analysis of modeling efforts.  UNEP GRID was identified as one
prospect for linkage.  The group also outlined a framework for
integrating regional scale analysis with local case studies through
modeling, comparative synthesis and links with BGS and water
and energy cycles.  This integration would require basin data from
remote sensing, physical/natural resource surveys, census,
statistics, and field surveys.  Important issues such as the need
to separate the concept of land cover from land use change were
also identified.  Land cover change is a function of land use
change, and any recommendations regarding LUCC must take the
human dimension into account.

Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry

  This group discussed a broad range of issues,
including:
(a) land-atmosphere interactions (carbon and nutrient cycles);
(b) land-water interactions (rivers and lakes, wetlands, coastal
and estuarine processes, and ground water);
(c) water-atmosphere interactions (coastal, estuarine, oceans);
(d) agricultural landscapes (biogeochemical successes and
consequences of intensification);
(e) functional significance of biodiversity;
(f) biogeochemistry of restoration (methodology, evaluation, and
consequences); and
(g) pollution and contamination.

  Three sets of priorities were identified:

(1) Baseline Studies--Consequences of Land Use Change
Important issues are:
(a) links of carbon and H2O;
(b) links of N.P.S. (bio-elements);
(c) physiologically mediated processes (fast processes);
(d) decomposition, soil, and ground water (slow processes);
(e) trace gas release;
(f) links to atmospheric properties, e.;g. radiative balance;  and
(g) sensitivities to climate.  For these studies, systematic data
sets are needed and IAI should inventory existing data, facilitate
access, and identify further data needs.

(2) Biogeochemical Aspects of Restoration:
This should include methodology development, regional
applicability, monitoring of consequences, and evaluation of
outcomes.  Since this is a new scientific arena for tropical
ecosystems, an additional workshop is suggested for further
evaluation.  Another priority for inquiry, which further
recommends an additional workshop, is "biogeochemical aspects
of urbanization".  This should include economic and social
considerations, impacts on systems, and the need for resources.

(3)  Future Issues
As IAI develops the initial priorities on BGC of the tropics, the
following issues should be considered: industrialization, history of
land use, biodiversity, human health impacts, water rights and
water management, and biotechnology.

  As a strategy for covering the above priorities, the
group proposed transect-based studies across the spectrum of
land use types, including comparisons of "pristine" and
transformed ecosystems.  These studies would function through
(1) long-term research in selected sites with intensive process
studies in a small network and extensive studies in a larger
network; (2) process model development, and (3) case studies
with regional applicability.

Water and Energy Cycles

  This working group identified the following scientific
questions:
(1) What are the relative roles of regional evapo-transpiration
and horizontal transport of water vapor in determining
precipitation over Amazonia?  How are energy and water
balances affected by changes in the vegetative cover of the
basin?
 (2) What is the impact of biomass burning on the redistribution of
nutrients; modification of regional and global surface
temperatures, and regional and global geochemical changes?
(3) How do the distributions of soil moisture, climate variability,
and other climatic factors control the distribution of biomes in
the tropical Americas?
(4) What micrometeorological measurements must be made to
adequately specify the exchange processes between soil-
vegetation and atmosphere?
(5) What is required to predict the surface and subsurface
hydrologic flows of the Amazon basin?
=09
  The following policy-relevant questions were
identified:

(1) Variations in moisture transport out of the Amazon basin can
have major impacts on hydro-electric power generation outside
the basin (e.g. Itaipu) and present energy policy does not take
into account changes in the hydrologic cycle.
(2) Quantification of the water and energy cycles in the basin may
eventually help to develop sustainable agriculture in the humid
tropics.
(3) Variations in moisture transport out of the Amazon basin will
have major impacts on agricultural practices in the extra tropics
(e.g. "cerrado").
(4) Biomass burning in Amazonia has both regional and global
policy implications.
(5) Transport of industrial contamination (e.g. mining activities)
can impact human and agricultural development.

Recommendations and the Role of the IAI

   To meet data collection and management needs, IAI
should develop regional and disciplinary data bases using a
centralized  management to control quality, continuity, archiving,
and integration.  Priority should be given to compilation of
information on national and regional activities, using
standardized information and allowing access to data sets
through installation of appropriate hardware and software,
missing throughout much of the tropics.
=09
  An assessment of community readiness determined
that a basic personnel infrastructure exists to address several
issues, but great regional gaps were identified.  A need exists for
IAI to convene a series of workshops on specifics such as biomass
measurements, or biogeochemical aspects of ecosystem
restoration (or urbanization).  Training and education is also
needed for researchers, technicians, and decision makers.  There
is also a need to guarantee access to Internet not only to improve
communication but also to serve as an education tool.  Short-term
fellowships (1-4 months) for training courses and Doctoral/Post-
doctoral fellowships (1-4 years) involving multinational,
multicultural research within IAI priorities would be helpful .
Outreach to society should include education seminars, production
of educational materials, and  training for solutions that shows
the link between local and global change.

  Another major finding of this workshop was that IAI
should benefit from science planning already in existence, such as
the proposal of the Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere
Experiment in the Amazon Basin planned for the 1996-98 time
frame.  This proposal covers some of the scientific priorities
identified by the three working groups.  IAI could compliment this
experiment by coordinating the regional activities and stressing
the human dimensions aspects.

=09

I. BACKGROUND

  "Save the rain forest" has been a popular environmental
cry for a number of years.  Yet few who voice the concern fully
appreciate the complex processes underway in tropical
ecosystems, and the importance that such areas play in the global
atmosphere.  Even the scientific world recognizes its lack of
understanding of the factors that control fluxes in a broad range
of atmospheric gases connected to the tropical Americas.  Lacking
that understanding makes it difficult to predict how global
change, including climate change, land-cover change, and land-
use change, will affect future fluxes.

  Tropical ecosystems of the Americas in the Amazon
Basin, Central America, and the Caribbean, encompass the range
of terrestrial and marine systems between the tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn.  This workshop emphasizes the terrestrial portion
of the Amazon system, but recognizes the role of the other
tropical systems in terms of their regional importance, breadth of
our existing knowledge, and interest in comparative studies.
These regions must be addressed separately.

The Need for Research

  The Amazon Basin represents a unique natural
laboratory, containing rain forest, savannah, and cerrado.  With
an area of six million square kilometers, it contains the largest
stand of tropical rain forest in the world and contributes 20 per
cent of the global river discharge to the oceans.  It is a classic
river basin, with a central plain bordered by highlands and a
terrestrial drainage network within which the main stream and
its extensive flood plain receive inputs from a series of different-
sized tributaries.  It is mostly undisturbed by anthropogenic
activity and represents a series of hydrological and chemical
regimes which are typical of world rivers.

  One of the most publicized linkages between global
change and the Amazon basin is the emission of greenhouse
gases, particularly the carbon dioxide associated with the burning
of  vegetation.  But these emissions are also symptomatic of the
broader issues of the natural hydrological and biogeochemical
cycles in the basin, which ultimately must support, and are in turn
affected by, human development.  The tropical soils and
vegetation are thought to represent globally significant sources
of a broad range of atmospheric gases, including reactive
hydrocarbons, CO, N2O, NO, and CH4. What are the effects of land
conversion on trace gas fluxes, ecosystem carbon dynamics, and
the oxidizing potential of the atmosphere? Land use changes can
also have significant socioeconomic impacts through changes in
soil fertility and agricultural sustainability in the tropical areas.

Global Implications

  The Amazon basin, because of its size and equatorial
position, is a major heat source for the general circulation of the
atmosphere.  Changes in land cover will alter the exchange
processes of sensible and latent heat and momentum between
the surface and the adjacent atmosphere.  If large changes in
land cover occur in the future in the Amazon, it may change the
general circulation of the atmosphere, promoting climatic
changes on a global scale (Dickinson, 1984; Dickinson and
Henderson-Sellers, 1988).  Therefore it becomes important to
understand how these exchanges take place when land surface
covers change.  And such changes are expected as  populations
continue to increase.

  By the year 2000 the world's population is expected to
reach 6.2 billion, up from some 5.6 billion today.  Half the total,
some 3.1 billion, will be living in less-developed countries which
are generally located in the tropics.  The consequences of this
steadily increasing population in these areas has already been
experienced in the form of deterioration of the urban
environment and devastation of the tropical forests.

  Important issues related to deforestation include the
increase in sediment yield from deforested land, and the general
disruption of nutrient cycling between land and water (Lean and
Warrilow, 1989; Nobre and Sellers, 1990).  Any attempt to develop
these humid tropical areas on a sustainable basis must be
preceded by a thorough understanding of the dynamics of water
and sediment on a watershed basis.

  A separate Inter-American Institute (IAI) workshop has
been held on the subject of biodiversity, but the functional
significance of biodiversity in tropical ecosystems interested this
workshop as well.  Available data indicate that the Americas
support a disproportionate share of the world's species of
organisms for many major taxonomic groups and an exceptionally
rich array of ecosystems.  Latin America alone supports more
than a third of the world's plant species and a high percentage of
the world's bird and mammal species.  The Caribbean is the second
richest coastal region in the world for marine biota.  All the
economies of the Americas are strongly based on the utilization
of their biotic resources.  The biodiversity that is stored in the
ecosystems of the Americas represents an untapped resource of
incalculable socio-economic and biological value to future
generations.

   Humans are a powerful force on the planet, with the
power to drastically alter and degrade ecosystems.  The challenge
is to develop and maintain into the future the scientific capability
to assess and respond to changing conditions.  Long-term
research in response to the issues listed above should result in
the capability to synthesize existing information and predict
possible consequences of alternative land-use practices. Such
information should then be used in long-term planning.

II. THE CURRENT STATE
   OF KNOWLEDGE

  Change is nothing new to the Amazon region.  Evidence
from core sediment samples obtained at Katira, in the southern
Amazonian state of Rondonia, shows this presently forested area
was dominated by grassland during the last glacial period. Carbon
dating coupled with pollen diagram analyses show that an early
rain forest was replaced by savanna about 40,000 years ago, and
that in turn was replaced by rain forest nearly 20,000 years
before the present.  Pollen analysis in the Caraj=E1s mountain range
at the eastern edge of the present Amazonian forest suggests the
occurrence of two drier periods when savannas extended,
alternating with wetter intervals when forest dominated and the
levels of permanent lakes in the area were high.  During the
Holocene, vegetative changes detected in Amazonia were
associated with marked changes in rainfall which  caused higher
and lower flooding levels on the Amazon River (Absy et al., 1989).

  Human effects on the area are also not entirely new.
Many areas previously thought to be "virgin" are now understood
to be anthropogenic.  What is different with contemporary
impacts are the unprecedented rates and spatial scales of
alteration to the terrestrial environment.  Recent deforestation is
now becoming a factor in altering the ecosystem structure of
certain sub-basins, where potential regional impacts include
changes in hydrology and sediment and nutrient transport.  Some
of these impacts extend far beyond the region of their origin.

  The Amazon is one of the largest evaporative basins on
earth.  There is evidence, derived both from classical
hydrometeorological and isotope hydrology studies, that the
basin itself plays a major role in water recycling within the basin.
Roughly 50 per cent of the precipitation in the basin is re-
evaporated water from the basin itself.  Computer simulations
indicate that replacement of the forest by shorter vegetation
such as pasture and crops may lead to reduction in
evapotranspiration and precipitation, and an increase in
temperature over a very wide area.  Thus, the very existence of
the forest may depend on the influence it exerts on the
precipitation.  The magnitude of the process is such that the
water and energy balances of the Amazon affect neighboring
regions and even global scale processes ("Global Tropospheric
Experiment/Amazon Boundary Layer Experiment", 1988).

  Reliable numbers for deforestation and habitat
fragmentation exist for the Brazilian Amazon.  Poorly known and
probably variable by region are the effects of deforestation on
rainfall recycling and nutrient stocks.  The oldest agricultural
frontier of the Brazilian Amazon, east of Belem, is more than 65
per cent covered by secondary forests, part of a continuing
short-fallow shifting agriculture.  An indicator of rainfall
recycling capacity is the leaf area index (LAI), reportedly 5.0 for
these secondary forests at 4-5 years of age, very near the value
of 5.7 forLAI in primary forest near Manaus.  The numbers
suggest little difference in rainfall between primary forest and
fragmented, partly cropped, secondary forest.

  Wood harvesting facilitates biomass burning, but fires
have also occurred naturally over the millennia (Tans et al., 1990).
During the 1982-83 El Ni=F1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), in drier
parts of the Amazon Basin near Santar=E9m and near the
Bel=E9m/Bras=EDlia Highway, fires penetrated into dense primary
forest where mechanized wood harvesting had taken place.
Landsat images indicated that the fires penetrated well beyond
the limits of skidder trails, indicating that infrequent fires have
happened in the past without the catalytic effect of intensive
logging.

  Natural variability in forest density and variability due
to human effects must be carefully quantified before science can
claim to perceive the long distance effects of human
deforestation on basin-wide rainfall and runoff, or of trace gases
on productivity of tropical forests.  Uncertain as well are the
possible effects of temperature changes, in the event of global
warming, on the tropical ecosystems (further information on the
state of knowledge can be acquired from Salati, 1985; Detwiler
and Hall, 1988; Fearnside, 1990a,b,1992; Houghton, 1991; Erwin,
1988).

III. ISSUES AND PRIORITIES

  It was suggested at the workshop that tropical
ecosystems could be broken down into five major topics of study
in the process of advancing the scientific agenda on this subject.
Those five major subjects are as follows:

(1) Land-Atmosphere Interactions:

   Despite the importance of tropical soils and vegetation
as sources of atmospheric gases such as CO, N2O, and CH4, the
scientific community lacks a quantitative understanding of the
exchange of these gases between land and the atmosphere.
Lacking this understanding makes it difficult to predict how
changes in climate and land cover might affect these exchanges.
How, for example, might changes affect the capacity of tropical
ecosystems to store carbon?
=09
  Addressing these topics requires an improved
understanding of the following:

(1) carbon stocks in the vegetation and soils of "undisturbed"
ecosystems, especially tropical forests;
(2) the dynamics of carbon flux from the land to the atmosphere
associated with forest clearing for agriculture;
(3) the rate of tropical forest clearing for agriculture;
(4) the rate of carbon accumulation on land associated with
forest regrowth following the abandonment of agriculture.

(2) Land-Water Interactions

  Drainage basins are natural units of the terrestrial
landscape and they have served as important research foci in
studies of the environment.  Two primary topics were suggested
for research on land-water interactions:

(1) the movement of carbon and nutrients between land and =09
water, and
(2) the processing of carbon and nutrients in water systems.
(3) The Functional Significance of Biodiversity

  How important are individual species to the
biogeochemical  integrity of an ecosystem?  Studies of the
functional significance of biodiversity can be done in forests that
have undergone selective harvest or in lakes where a fish species
has been harvested to extinction.  Alternatively they can be done
in ecosystems that have been "invaded" by an exotic species.

(4) The Biogeochemical Aspects of Ecosystem Restoration

  Humans have the power to drastically degrade
ecosystems and attempts have been made to restore damaged
ecosystems.  But restoration is complex and difficult.  What is the
"end state" of a restoration?  How do we know if it is
sustainable?  Restoration could play an important role in the
management of tropical ecosystems in the future, be it forest
lands that have been degraded by poor harvesting practices,
rivers polluted by mining activities, or coastal ecosystems
damaged by careless urban development.  A key challenge is to
develop biogeochemical indices to evaluate the success of
ecosystem restoration efforts.

(5) Element Interactions and Sustainable Development

  In order to meet the growing demands for food and fiber
in tropical regions, some fraction of the current area of natural
ecosystems must come under intensive management.  If managed
well, the need to exploit the remaining natural ecosystems may
be diminished.  If, on the other hand, they are managed poorly
they will be unable to meet the demands placed on them and
more natural ecosystems will have to be converted to human use.
With knowledge of the interaction of element cycles such as the
interaction between C, N, and P, the degradation of managed
systems might be minimized and perhaps more natural systems
could be preserved.

  After plenary sessions reviewing the issues facing
tropical ecosystems, the workshop divided into three active
working groups:
=09
(1) Land Use Change
(2) Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry
(3) Water and Energy Cycles
  Following are some of the results of their discussions.

Land Use Change

  Land cover change is one of the more important
components of global change.  It has an important influence on
hydrology, climate, and global biogeochemical cycles.  In addition
to its importance as a driving variable, it is also an important
aspect of global change in its own right.  Arguably, in the
broadest sense of global change, land cover change will be more
important than climate change over the next 20 to 50 years.
Moreover, it is land cover change which directly affects human
habitability.  It is an issue with far-reaching policy implications,
either internationally, nationally, or locally.  Indeed, land cover
change is as inextricably linked to policy and sustainable
development as it is to basic research issues.

  The over-arching/organizing theme is:  What are the
effects of land use and cover change (LUCC) on biogeochemistry
(BGC), water and energy cycles, and in turn their effect on LUCC?
Special research efforts should be placed to define the driving
forces, the models and the scales of this theme.  We must
improve our knowledge of the following:                     =09
(a) land use change distribution over the tropical Americas,
(b) rate and pattern distribution of land cover conversion,
(c) effects of LUCC on sustainable development,
(d) criteria for measurement of sustainability,
(e) models for LUCC processes.

  We must also determine the best means of
disseminating information to decision makers.

  This working group discussed appropriate scales in
spatial and temporal domains, and the linkage of IAI action with
on-going international programs by examining the data provision
efforts, analysis and modeling efforts. The group also outlined a
framework designed to integrate regional scale analysis with
local case studies through modeling, comparative synthesis and
links with BGC, and observation of water and energy cycles.  This
information could be based on input data from remote sensing,
physical/natural resource surveys, census statistics and field
work surveys.
  It was deemed important to separate the concept of
land cover from land use change.  Land use change by humans
alters land cover, which in turn may alter the characteristics of
the area itself, such as altering precipitation, drying out the soil,
etc. Therefore, LUCC constitutes global change and even though it
is a major cross cutting theme to BGC, water and energy cycles
studies, it was concluded that it has its own right to be on the IAI
agenda.

Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry

  The broad range of issues discussed here included:

(a) land-atmosphere interactions such as carbon and nutrient
cycles,
(b) land-water interactions (rivers and lakes, wetland processes,
coastal and estuarine processes, and ground water),
(c) water-atmosphere interactions (coastal, estuarine, and
oceans),
(d) agricultural landscapes (biogeochemical successes,
consequences of intensification),
(e) functional significance of biodiversity (conservation of
function, functions of species),
(f) biogeochemistry of restoration (methodology, evaluation,
conse- quences), and
(g) pollution and contamination.

   Three sets of priorities were identified:

I. Baseline studies--Consequences of Land Use Change:
Important issues are:

(a) links of C and H2O,
(b) links of N, P, S (bio-elements),
(c) physiologically mediated processes (fast processes),
(d) decomposition, soil and ground water (slow processes),
(e) trace gas release (CH4, N2O, reactive gases),
(f) links to atmospheric properties (e.g. radiative balance),
(g) sensitivities to climate (baseline models and experiments).

  For these studies, systematic data sets are needed and
IAI should make inventory of existing data, facilitate access, and
identify further needs of data gathering.
II. Biogeochemical Aspects of Restoration:
This should include methodology development, regional
applicability, monitoring of consequences, and evaluation of
outcomes.  As a new scientific area for the tropical ecosystems,
there is a need for an additional workshop to further evaluate
this priority item.  Another priority is the "biogeochemical aspects
of urbanization" which should include economic and social
aspects, impacts on systems, and needs for resources.  Again,
there is a need for another workshop to develop this item
further.

III. Future Issues:
As IAI develops its initial priorities on BGC in the tropics the
issues worth considering should include industrialization, history
of land use, biodiversity, human health impacts, water rights and
management (quantity and quality), and biotechnology.

Water and Energy Cycles

  The specification of the cycles of water and energy are
fundamental to the understanding of any ecosystem.  In tropical
ecosystems the hydrological cycle is intimately tied to energy
transformation processes, such as the transformation of radiant
energy from the sun into latent energy of water vapor.  This
process is especially important in tropical rainforest
environments, where evapotranspiration from forest trees can
amount to a major fraction of the total moisture condensed as
rainfall.

  This working group determined that important issues
included evapo-transpiration and horizontal transport of water
vapor as important players in precipitation over Amazonia.  The
effects of land use changes and biomass burning were also
discussed and appropriate research questions devised (discussed
later in this report).
=09
  The group also identified the following policy-relevant
issues:

(1) Variations in the moisture transport out of the Amazon basin
can have major impacts on hydro-electric power generation
outside the basin (e.g. Itaipu hydro-electric power plant in
southern Brazil) and present energy policy does not take into
account changes in the hydrologic cycle.
(2) Quantification of the water and energy cycles in the basin may
eventually help to develop sustainable agriculture in the humid
tropics.
(3) Variations in moisture transport out of the Amazon basin will
have major impacts on agricultural practices in the extra tropics.
(4) Biomass burning in Amazonia has both regional and global
policy implications (e.g. human health, agriculture, transportation,
global climate).
(5) Transport of industrial contamination (e.g. mining activities)
can impact human and agricultural development.

   The three groups concurred in plenary that in terms of
data collection and management needs, IAI should develop
regional and disciplinary data bases using a centralized
management for archival continuity, integration, and quality
control.  Priority should be given to initiating a compilation of
information on national and regional activities, with
standardization of information across countries and followed by
accessibility to data sets through installation of appropriate
hardware and software, a major need in the tropical region as a
whole.
=09

IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
  =09
  The driving force of the workshop, as suggested to
participants, was not curiosity about how nature works, but the
need to figure out how tropical ecosystems and biogeochemical
cycles are changing so that society can do something about
minimizing adverse impacts.  Studies of fundamental ecosystem
processes are critical, but the studies should be linked to
solutions, even though those solutions may be decades away.

  The following research questions were proposed in
connection with discussions by the working groups.

Land Use Changes

  This working group identified seven basic scientific
questions around which a research program in land use and cover
change could be focused.  The emphasis was on tropical forest
ecosystems.  All of these questions fall within the following over-
arching organizing question:What are the effects of land use and
cover change on biogeochemistry and water and energy cycles,
and in turn what are their effects on land use and cover change?

  The seven research questions are:

(1) What is the current distribution of land cover and how can it
best be described and mapped for analysis of biogeochemical
cycles, water balance and energy fluxes?  This question must be
considered at two scales of analysis.  First, at fine scales from
1:100,000 to 1:500,000 for the precise quantification of land cover
conversions, such as deforestation, and for use in planning and
policy analysis.  Second, at coarse scales of l:1,000,000 to
l:5,000,000 for regional assessments, analysis of vegetation
dynamics, and the like.

(2) What are the rate and temporal dynamics of land cover
change, considered over a range of time scales, including:
--the paleonological record (scale of -103 years)
--the historical record (scale of -102 years)
--the contemporary record (scale of -101 years)
--inter-annual dynamics (scale of -100 years)
--seasonal dynamics (scale of -10-1 years)

(3) What is the relationship between land cover change and land
use change?  This question calls forward several important and
necessary ancillary questions, in particular, how do changes in
land use drive land cover change?  To pursue this question, it is
necessary to know what suite of human activities affect land use
and cover change at different scales, from within and outside the
region of analysis.  It will be important to develop a method of
comparative analyses, whereby different conditions and driving
forces in different locations can be compared and contrasted.

(4) What is the relationship between LUCC and economic and
national development at different scales?  And, how are LUCC
processes coupled to regional sustainable development?

(5) What are the appropriate criteria for measurement and
evaluation of sustainability of various land uses and land use
practices, measured in terms of biogeochemistry and water and
energy balance?

(6) What is the best approach to the development of models of
the LUCC process, which provides credible spatial and temporal
predictions?

(7) How can basic information on LUCC and model results be put
into the hands of decision makers working at a range of scales
from the community to the international arena?

Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry

   The most important question may be: How does tropical
forest conversion, selective logging, agricultural practice and
abandonment, and secondary sucession influence regional trace
gas fluxes, carbon and nutrients dynamics, and the prospect of
sustainable land use?  Subsidiary questions could include, but
should not be limited to:

(1) Are tropical forest regions net sources or sinks for carbon, and
what is the size of the flux?
(2) How much carbon is stored in forest biomass and soils?
(3) Are land conversion/management practices in tropical systems
a significant cause of increases in atmospheric N2O?
(4) What are the long-term impacts of land conversion on the
agricultural and ecological sustainability of the Amazon Basin?
(5) What is the subsidy for agriculture and pastures that nature
provides in nutrients released by biomass burning?
(6) What is the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem function and its
potential cost as a function of land use?

  What is the role of tropical ecosystems deforestation
and consequent land management practices on atmosphere-
biosphere exchange rates for greenhouse gases, N2O, and CH4, and
for gases important to atmospheric chemistry (NO, O3, CO, non-
methane hydrocarbons)?

  IAI should address important uncertainties concerning
the ecological and biogeochemcial processes, specially the
controlling of carbon and trace gas dynamics in converted
ecosystems. The role of secondary vegetation on the region's
carbon balance is unkown. Information on regrowth rate, the
controls on carbon accumulation, the spatial distribution and
extent of various age classes of regrowth, and species involved
and their recruitment rate need to be understood.  Better
measures of the above and below ground biomass of these
ecosystems are needed.

  Research efforts should also emphasize natural
ecosystems and their repsonse to pertubations due to human
acitivities and to climate changes on carbon dynamics and net
carbon storage, sources and sinks of greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O,
CH4), taking into account the associated ecological controls and
climate feedbacks through the Amazon biota.

  Ecological studies should focus on the definition of rates
of key biological processes and on the determination of functional
relationship with environmental conditions, to elucidate the
factors that regulate net rates of exchange of important gases
with soils and vegetation. Ecological and soil studies at various
sites should be coupled with ecological simulation models to be
combined with satellite-derived and other sources of land use
data, to obtain improved estimates of regional fluxes of
important gases.

  Answers to these questions will require the integration
of physical, biological, and socioeconomic studies at local to
global scales.

Water and Energy Cycles
=09
  The priority scientific questions related to hydrological
and energy cycles in tropical ecosystems are:

(1) What are the relative roles of regional evapotranspiration  and
horizontal transport of water vapor in determining precipitation
over Amazonia?  How are the energy and water balances affected
by changes in the vegetation cover?
=09
  This question is central to determining whether a major
deforestation in Amazonia will change the rainfall distribution
and if such a change will affect the larger-scale circulation of the
tropical atmosphere.  Although several studies suggest that
complete deforestation will increase surface temperatures, the
effect on precipitation is less  clear.  Characteristics of the
rainfall, such as the length of the dry season, may be more
important than the total amount of rainfall.

(2) What is the impact of biomass burning on:
(a) the redistribution of nutrients
(b) modification of regional and global surface temperatures
(c) regional and global geochemical changes.

  Modern-day burning is often cited as a major source of
atmospheric carbon dioxide, but the burning and prevailing near-
surface winds during the dry season may also transport nutrients
out of Amazonia.  The effect of biomass burning on both regional
and global temperatures needs further study, using more realistic
estimates (in space and time) of the burning.  Local temperature
effects of burning have not been well documented, nor have
changes in the geochemical cycling of nutrients or burning by-
products.

(3) How do the distributions of soil moisture, climate variability,
and other climatic factors control the distribution of biomass in
the tropical Americas?

  An understanding of how climatic factors determine the
nature of the present Amazonian vegetation is basic to studies of
possible change in vegetation resulting from Amazonian
deforestation.   We do not know, for example, why the cerrado to
moist forest transition occurs where it does.  The relative
importance of soil moisture, soil composition, total annual
rainfall, length of dry season and other parameters in
determining this boundary is not well known.  As for certain key
species, their distributions are likely affected by the occurrence
ofrare events, such as frost or fires that may not be indicated by
mean statistics.

(4) What micrometeorological measurements/processes must be
made (understood) to adequately specify the soil-
vegetation/atmosphere exchange processes?

  Although several campaigns have been carried out that
have made basic micro-meteorological measurements in the
moist forests of Amazonia, some important gaseous exchanges
occur beneath the surface and others occur in regimes other than
the terra firme forest.

(5) What is required to predict the surface and subsurface =09
hydrologic flows of the Amazon Basin?

  The Amazon and its tributaries undergo large annual
variations in streamflow.  Although this streamflow is monitored
reasonably well, forecasts are less reliable.  Just what
information is needed to model the streamflow accurately is a
basic hydrological question.  Are rainfall measurements
adequate?  Is subsurface flow well-represented?

=09

V.APPROACH

  Advancing the understanding of tropical ecosystems and
biogeochemical processes requires not only a research strategy,
but also a frank look at the resources available in trained
personnel, equipment, and facilities.  Following are suggestions of
both needs and possible strategies from each of the working
groups.

Land Use Changes

  It is possible to approach the study of land cover and
land cover change from two perspectives:

(1) What is  the terrestrial distribution of albedo, surface
roughness, and evapotranspiration, and how do these
characteristics determine the role of terrestrial systems in
climate, water balance, and energy flux?
(2) What and where are the terrestrial sources and sinks of
radiatively important gases, such as carbon dioxide?

  The major difference between the two perspectives is
that the first depends on the distribution of different types of
ecosystems while the second requires information on changes in
both the biophysical aspects of land cover and its geographic
distribution, and rates and location of significant conversions
from one type cover to another.  It is reasonable to expect that
the former would be best suited to land cover mapping using
satellite data with high temporal frequency and moderate spatial
resolution, such as AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer).  The latter would require considerably higher spatial
resolution data with lower temporal resolutions, such as Landsat
or Spot.

  Land cover change is a major cross-cutting theme in
most aspects of biogeochemistry in tropical ecosystems.  From a
research point of view it is necessary to consider how human
activities affect land cover change when one considers research
agendas for the study of biogeochemistry, terrestrial ecology,
and water and energy cycles--the topics of the other two
working groups.  Although there exist many questions relating to
the biogeochemistry and water and energy dynamics for steady
state undisturbed tropical ecosystems, many new and important
questions are now emerging which relate to the transient
conditions initiated when humans convert natural land covers to
managed land covers.

  This focus on land cover change emphasizes the point
that to fully understand land cover change as an agent of global
change it will be necessary to understand the relationship
between land use and land cover change.  This means that we
must also include in a basic research program the analysis of the
driving forces of land cover change, emphasizing how changes in
land use influence changes in land cover.  To understand the
differences between land cover change and land use change it is
important to define land cover, land cover change, and land use.

  Land cover is the actual distribution of vegetation,
water, desert, ice, and other physical features of the land,
including those created by human activities.

  Land cover change concerns conversion changes from
one cover type to another, such as the conversion of forest to
pasture.   Conversion is not always so straightforward, and
should be distinguished from land cover transformation, which is
the significant modification within a single cover type or the
gradual, long-term modification of one cover type to another.
The transformation of a closed canopy forest to a palm forest or
woodlands as a result of long-term degradation by humans, is a
form of transformation.  The transformation of forests due to
climate change or through air pollution are other examples.
Transformation involves alterations of structure or function
without a wholesale change from one type to another, although
long-term and chronic transformation would eventually result in
complete conversion.  Land cover conversion operates through
specific processes over time.  For instance, deforestation is a
process which converts forest to pasture.  Abandonment of
pasture sites can then lead to regrowth into secondary forest.
Thus, processes such as deforestation and desertification mediate
the conversion or transformation of land cover from one type to
another.  These processes can be envisioned as forcing functions,
which have both magnitude (rate of deforestation) and direction
(forest usually becomes pasture).
  Land use itself characterizes the human use of a land
cover type.  Forests, for instance could be used by foresters
(selective logging), rubber tappers, or not at all.  Grasslands can
be used as grazing land.  Land use change is frequently
concomitant with land cover conversion;  For instance, the
conversion of forest to pasture occurs in an effort to convert the
land use from rubber tapping to cattle ranching.

  An effort to make available existing data from maps
would be a useful supporting role for IAI (see subsection below,
"The Role of the IAI").  The following general steps would be
necessary:
--identify or catalog existing land cover maps and data sources;
--develop a means to harmonize these into a consistent
classification or framework such that data from different
countries could be merged or used interchangeably for a region-
wide map; and
--encode the paper maps into a geographic information system.

  Another important input of information would be the
rate and pattern of land cover conversion.  However,
documentation of land cover conversions, such as deforestation,
requires high resolution satellite data.  Several projects are
underway to develop these datasets and produce GIS-based
deforestation maps.  Most of these efforts are focused on closed
forests.  A regional cooperative effort to acquire and map land
cover conversion from high resolution data would be helpful.  The
INPE regional cooperation to develop a Pan Amazon deforestation
assessment is a good model (Martini, 1992).

  The results of analyzing and eventually modeling land
use and cover change should be incorporated into
environmentally and policy-relevant initiatives on sustainable
development.  Such analyses can provide the technical and
scientific underpinnings to an evaluation of various land use or
development alternatives.   But first it is necessary to develop
the specific requirements for measurement, through regional
workshops and pilot studies in different regions and
environmental conditions.

Ecosystems Processes and Biogeochemistry

  General suggestions for an approach to improving
biogeochemical understanding of tropical South America were
made as follows:

(1) Development of accessible data bases of relevant climatic,
hydrological and ecological data.  Although many such data reside
in various institutes and agencies, few are generally available.
=46urthermore, to be useful for modeling and comparative analyses,
an integrated  relational data base would need information about
data quality and measurement methods.
(2) Establishment of a network of collection sites for atmospheric
deposition and stream water, with high quality analyses of the
chemical composition with associated quality control and quality
assurance criteria applied.
(3) Development of mechanistic models of key biogeochemical
processes.
(4) Development of spatially distributed models that incorporate
mechanistic models and landscape patterns.
(5) Further improvement of remote sensing algorithms for
features such as inundation, burning, greenness, and land uses.
(6) Further paleoecological analyses to decipher past climates as
a guide to changes in the future.

  The unraveling of ecosystems processes and biogeo-
chemistry requires the wide participation and cooperation of
trained people.  Acting as local team leaders should be those
trained at the highest scientific level, mainly from universities
and research institutions.  Working with them should be well-
trained technicians and graduate students pursuing thesis work.
To further training and add to the ranks of participants, graduate
studies should be facilitated for university professors and
researchers, and appropriate training provided for technicians.
The importance of research funding should be communicated
clearly and frequently to the national scientific community, to
politicians and decision makers, and to the general public.

  Support materials and facilities should be enhanced as
well.  Laboratories and their equipment should be upgraded.
Scientific libraries should be provided with the best collections of
books and journals, with the best updated materials translated
into Spanish.  There should be continuous publication of papers
and related scientific articles in local, regional, and international
journals.  The most active and high profile universities and
research institutions should become actively involved in
international groups such as IAI.
Local scientists from multidisciplinary fields should participate in
international seminars and workshops.

Water and Energy Cycles

  This group felt that there exists an adequate basic
personnel infrastructure that can be employed to address
questions related to water and energy cycles.  However, the
productivity of many individuals may increase if they have access
to additional training or education.  Readiness of the scientific
community can be considered in two parts:

1. Required Tools and Resources for Research

(a) There is a lack of meteorological and hydrological observing
systems for the development of adequate data bases (varies
country  by country).  Adequate measurements are necessary to
perform any reliable analyses of the hydrological cycle.  The
current rawinsonde network over Amazonia is sparse and not
adequate for studies of many meteorological processes.  Moisture
budgets for subdivisions of Amazonia cannot be reliably
performed until more observations are routinely made.  The rain
gauge network may be adequate for estimates of the annual
mean rainfall, but estimates for periods of a month or less are
not reliable.

(b) Often the problem may be inadequate knowledge as to what is
operating in the field.  One problem with the observing network is
that it is subject to unpredictable failures and the status at any
particular time is often unclear.  A current status report is needed
for all meteorological stations in the region so that additional
observing sites can be optimally located.

2. Education and Training Needs

(a) The implementation and use of observing systems.  Mobile or
special field observing systems are not widely used in Amazonia,
and additional equipment is needed.  Training to use this
equipment is also needed to make the best use of what is
available.  Portable micrometeorological towers, tethered
sounding systems, radiosonde systems and other meteorological
instrumentation should be available to the research community.

(b) Special education in the analysis and assimilation of field
observations. Special courses are needed to train investigators in
how to interpret field-collected data.  The instrument response
and error characteristics of observing platforms and the natural
variability of the environment are often not understood by
researchers using field instrumentation for the first time.
Different analysis techniques for analyzing field observations are
also poorly understood by otherwise capable scientists who have
not been involved in field studies.

(c) The development and utilization of models.  Complicated
processes operating in hydrological and/or meteorological
systems can be evaluated through the use of numerical models
that attempt to represent these physical processes.  Widespread
use of models for research has been hampered by lack of
resources, lack of realistic data to initialize such models, and lack
of personnel trained to use such models.

(d) Geographic Information System training.  GIS systems can
rapidly display and analyze information from digital databases.
=46amiliarity with such systems is needed for aspects of land
use/land cover, hydrological and meteorological/climatological
analysis.

 The Role of the IAI
  A regionwide program to advance scientific knowledge
requires some central means of coordination, a role that could be
played by  the Inter-American Institute. Workshop participants
suggested that the IAI encourage and coordinate opportunities in
education, training, additional workshops, and exchange visits
between scientists and academic institutions. Specific
undertakings could include the following:
--advocate and promote the acquisition, harmonization, and
distribution of common data;
--coordinate inter-regional case studies and field studies;
--initiate a series of efforts to build a common land cover dataset
from AVHRR, Landsat, and existing maps.

  To this end, IAI should convene a series of focused
workshops as follows:

(1) A workshop on datasets with the following objectives:
--compile a list of existing data;
--develop the mechanism for coordination of existing and new
datasets;
--identify new initiatives for the acquisition of new data;
--develop guidelines and recommendations for the sharing and
distribution of data.

  Prior to the workshop the IAI should commission a
survey of existing and near future datasets and data acquisition
programs.  The output from this commissioned survey would be a
white paper which, in turn, would be used as input to the above
workshop.

(2) A workshop focused on the development of case studies
with the following objectives:
--to identify the current state-of-the-art activities;
--to begin definition of the case study approach and methods,
and the number and location of individual case studies;
--to develop the mechanism by which case studies can scale to
regional analyses and can be used comparatively with case
studies outside the region.
 =09
(3) A workshop focused on the development of LUCC models, with
the following objectives:
--identification of state of the art models of the land cover
conversion process, focusing on deforestation;
--development of specific approaches and methods applicable in
the region.

VI. NEEDS AND PROBLEMS

  The key components of global change research, namely
personnel and communication of results, require consistent and
long
term investment in education and training.  A severe
limitation for global change research in the focus region of
Amazonia is the lack
of researchers, particularly field-oriented ones.  Part of the
problem is that the number of global change researchers in
Amazonian countries
is tiny and most of these researchers are based outside
Amazonia, in
major cities such as S=E3o Paulo, Lima, and Caracas.

  Many scientists are discipline-bound and have
problems in adapting to the interdisciplinary approach necessary
for global change research.  The training of most field scientists is
focused on local scales;  regional and global perspectives are
often lacking.  Ecosystem research is uncommon in Amazonia, in
part due to academic orientation;  in Brazil, the few graduate
programs in ecology teach primarily a population/community
perspective.

   Scientists must be educators for their societies,
particularly in Latin America.  Publishing papers in scientific
journals is not enough.  Traditional research operates with the
unspoken assumption that scientific knowledge acquired through
research will be used by society.  Such an assumption breaks
down in many developing countries, often because an enormous
intellectual gap separates global change scientists from large
segments of the population. Research must be solution-oriented
to address regional needs, and  education of national populations
as to these needs and the possible solutions becomes a critical
factor.

   Long-term financial and social commitments will
be required to increase the number and quality of researchers.
Some key priorities are as follows:
 (a) Develop in Amazonia competent researchers with field
orientation for ecosystem studies and that can work with the
decision makers for land use--particularly peasants, forest
residents, loggers, miners, and ranchers.
(b) Start this training at Amazonian universities through research
programs that involve undergraduates and professors.  The time-
scale of this training is on the order of a decade (i.e., an
undergraduate becoming a Ph.D. researcher).
(c) Develop literature in local languages that explain global
change research.  Such literature serves to help local, state, and
national leaders understand what information the research can
provide and how it can be applied.
(d) Provide short courses/seminars about global change for
journalists, television reporters, and other communicators.
Education is essential to inform national societies about global
change.

VII. RELATED PROGRAMS

  Up and running already on issues relevant to IAI is the
International Geosphere Biosphere Program--Human Dimension
Program (IGBP-HDP) core project on Land Use/Land Cover Change.
The Consortium for International Earth Science Information
Network (CIESIN) is an organization set up to manage data on
global change, including data from the U.S. space program which
is very interested in managing social science data related to
global change in the IAI region.

  The NASA  Earth Observing System (EOS) mission is a
large-scale, long-term program dedicated to observing and
determining the biophysical basis for human-induced global
change. Within the overall structure of EOS, there exists an on
going interdisciplinary project in the Amazon region in
collaboration between the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas
Espaciais (INPE) and the University of Washington with the overall
goal of determining, how extensive land use change in the
Amazon would modify the routing of water and its chemical load
from precipitation, through the drainage system, and back to the
atmosphere and to the ocean and to determine how these
changes affect the carbon cycle.  The research focuses on:

1. Modeling the transport and distribution of water, sediment and
biogenic chemicals along the Amazon valley network;
2. Modeling the transfer of biogenic gases between the land
surface and the atmosphere and mobilization of bioactive
dissolved and particulate matter from the land surface through
the river system to the ocean.
3. Analysis of Amazon vegetation and its interaction with climate,
hydrology, and land use.

  A number of universities may have programs focusing on
the human dimensions of global change and could serve as
facilitators in both research and training efforts.  Indiana
University has created ACT--Anthropological Center for Training
and Research on global change, dedicated to work on the human
dimensions.  The center is not narrowly anthropological but
broadly interdisciplinary, including physical, biological, and social
scientists working in tandem on studies of Amazonian and
Yucatan secondary successional changes and carbon cycling as
affected by human activities.  Rutgers University and the
University of Georgia at Athens have programs with
environmental social science foci that can and are addressing
research of global environmental change.  Faculty at Rutgers
seem to address deforestation in Ecuador and coastal
management issues and common property resource management.
The faculty at Georgia is examining issues of history, agriculture,
and development.

VIII. REFERENCES

References Cited

Absy, M. T., et al, 1989:  Data on the history of vegetation and
climate in Caraj=E1s, Eastern Amazonia.  pp. 129-131. In:  Special
Publication No. 1 Program, Abstracts and General Information.
International Symposium on Global Changes in South America
during the Quaternary: Past-Present-Future. S=E3o Paulo, Brazil.-

Detwiler, R. P. and Hall, C. A. S., 1988:  Tropical forests and the
global carbon cycle. Science 239: 42-47.

Dickinson, R. E., 1984: Modeling evapotranspiration for three-
dimensional global climate models.  Climate Processes and
Climate Sensitivity. Geophys. Monogr., No. LF29, Am. Geophys.
Union. pp. 58-72.

Dickinson, R. E. and Henderson-Sellers, 1988:  Modeling tropical
deforestation:  a study of GCM land surface parameterizations.
Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 114(B): 439-462.

Erwin, T., 1988:  The tropical forest canopy:  The heart of biotic
diversity.  In:  E. O.  Wilson, Biodiversity, pp. 123-129. National
Academy of Sciences Press. Washington, D.C.

=46earnside, P. M., 1990a:  Environmental change and deforestation
in the Brazilian Amazon.  In:  Hemming, J., ed.  Change in the
Amazon Basin: man's impact on forests and rivers. Manchester
University Press. Manchester, England.

=46earnside, P. M., 1990b:  Environmental Destruction in the
Brazilian Amazon.  In:  Goodman, D. and Hall, eds. 1990. The Future
of the Amazon:  Destruction or Sustainable Development.
Macmillan. London, England.

Houghton, R. A., 1991:  Tropical deforestation and atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Climatic Change 19:  99-118.

Lean, J. and D. A. Warrilow, 1989:  Climatic Impact of Amazon
deforestation.  Nature, 342, 311-313.

Martini, P. R., 1992:  Pan Amazonia Project:  An Executive Report,
Special Edition ISY - World Forest Watch. No.2.

Nobre, C. A. and P. J. Sellers, 1990:  Amazonia deforestation and
climate change.  Science, 247, 1322-1325.

Salati, E.,1985:The climatology and hydrology of Amazonia. pp.18-
48. In:  Amazonia. Prance, G. T. and T. Lovejoy, eds. Pergamon
Press. Oxford, Engl.

Tans, P. P., I. Y. Fung, T. Takahashi, 1990:  Observational
constraints on the global atmospheric CO2 budget.  Science 247:
1431-1438.

Suggested Readings

American Geophysical Union, 1988:  "Global Tropospheric
Experiment - Amazon Boundary Layer Experiment  (GTE/ABLE 2A)".
Special Issue of the Journal of Geopohysical Research.

Batista, G.T., J.E. Richey.  1990:  The Earth Observing System
Approach for Amazonia. International Symposium on Primary Data
Acquisition, Manaus.  Part 1a, p. 11-15.

Crutzen, P.J., Andreae, M.O., 1990: Biomass burning in the tropics:
impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles.
Science. (No.4988):1669-78.

Hobish, M.K.; Ardanuy, P.E., Salomonson, V.V.1994: Surface imaging
technologies for NASA's Earth observing system. Journal of
Imaging Science and Technology (no.4):301-10.

IGBP, 1992. Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems: The
Operational Plan. Edited by W. L. Steffen, B. H. Walker, J. S. Ingram
and G. W. Koch. IGBP Report no. 21. Published by IGBP Secretariat,
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Box 50005,S-10405
Stockholm, Sweden.

Kristiansen, G. 1993:  Biological effects of climate change:  an
introduction to the field and survey of current research.
GCTE/IGBP. Published by IGBP Secretariat, The Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences, Box 50005, S-10405. Stockholm, Sweden.

Jones, B. 1993:  Organic Geochemistry: an electronic information
exchange for organic geochemistry  and related fields of study.
Computers & Geosciences, (no. 4): 617-18.

Matson, P.A., Vitousek, P.M., Livingston, G.P., Swanberg, N.A.
1990: Sources of variation in nitrous oxide flux from Amazonian
ecosystems. Journal of Geophysical Research (no.D10):16789-98.

Robinson, J.M., 1991: Fire from space: global fire evaluation using
infrared remote sensing. International Journal of Remote Sensing.
(no.1):3-24.

Schier, M., Way, J., Holt, B.1993:  Applications of the EOS SAR to
monitoring global change. Space Technology. (no.6): 569-75.

Sharp, J. H., 1991:   Review of carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorusbiogeochemistry.  Reviews of Geophysics. 2:648-57.

Vorosmarty, C. J., Moore, B., III, 1991:  Modeling basin-scale
hydrology in support of physical climate and global
biogeochemical studies:  an example using the Zambezi river.
Surveys in geophysics. (No. 1): 271-311.

Vorosmarty, C. J., Grace, A., Moore, B., Choudhury, B., et al, 1991:
A strategy to study regional hydrology and terrestrial ecosystem
processes using satellite remote sensing, ground-based data and
computer modeling.  Acta Astronautica. (No. 12): 785-92.

Walker, J. C. G, Kasting, J. F., 1992:  Effects of fuel and forest
conservation on future levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Global and Planetary Change. (No. 3): 151-89.

A Preliminary science plan for  a large-scale biosphere-
atmosphere field experiment in the Amazon Basin. Report from an
international workshop sponsored by WCRP and IGBP held at
NASA/GDFC, Greenbelt, Maryland, June 18-20, 1992. Published by
ISLSCP and IGPO, Washington, DC, USA. Editors: P.J. Sellers, C.A.
Nobre, D.F. Fitzjarrald, P.D. Try, and D.T. Lucid.

APPENDIX 1

IAI INITIAL SCIENTIFIC THEMES

* The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems;

* High Latitude Processes;

* Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-tropical
Americas;

* Tropical Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Cycles;

* ENSO and Interannual Climate Variability;

* The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems;

* The Study of the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity.

APPENDIX 2

ACRONYMS

IAI Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research

ENSO   El Ni=F1o-Southern Oscillation and Interannual Climate   Variability

LAI  Leaf Area Index

LUCC  Land Use and Cover Change

BGC   Biogeochemistry

AVHRR   Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

GIS   Geographic Information System

EOS  Earth Observing System

IGBP    International Biosphere Program

HDP Human Dimension Program

ACT  Anthropological Center for Training and Research on
Global   Change

CIESIN Consortium for International Earth Science Information
  Network

INPE Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (National
Institute for Space Research, Brazil)

NSF National Science Foundation

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 APPENDIX 3

WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Mario N. N=FA=F1ez
Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa
Depart. de Meteorolog=EDa
Un. de Buenos Aires
Pabell=F3n II, Piso 2 - Ciudad Universitar=EDa
Buenos Aires 1428=09
ARGENTINA
Tel. (54 1) 788 3572
=46ax (54 1) 788 3572
mnunez@cima.edu.ar
 =09
Hans Salm=09
UMSA=09
Instituto de Ecolog=EDa
Casilla 10077 =09
La Paz=09
BOLIVIA=09
Tel. (591) 279 2416=09
=46ax (591) 279 7511  =09

Jorge Quintanilla
Instituto de Ecolog=EDa UMSA
Casilla 10077
La Paz
BOLIVIA

Niro Higushi
INPA
Alameda Cosme Ferreira, 1756=09
Aleixo, P.O. Box 478 69083
Manus, AM
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 92) 642 2118
=46ax (55 92) 642 2118
  =09
Carlos Nobre
INPE/CPTEC
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
Caixa Postal 515
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 229 977 ext. 270
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
nobre@cptec.inpe.br
 =09
Reynaldo L. Victoria
Departamento de F=EDsica e Meteorolog=EDa
Escola Superior de Agricultura
Rua Luiz de Queiroz 13400
Piracicaba, SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 194) 335 122
=46ax (55 194) 228 339
  =09
Get=FAlio Teixeira Batista
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)
C.P. 515=09
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos, S.P. 12201
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977 ext. 330
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
getulio@ltid.inpe.br
=09
Aziz Ab'Saber
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 11) 347 9981
=46ax (55 11) 492 2479
  =09

Benedito P. Braga
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
Centro T=E9cnico Hidr=E1ulico/Cidade Universit=E1ria
Av. Prof. L=FAcia Martins Rodrigues, 120
CEP 05598-900, S=E3o Paulo, SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 11) 211 1933
=46ax  (55 11) 813 5217
=09
Irvine Foster Brown
Universidade Federal do Acre
Instituto de Qu=EDmica/Departamento de Geoqu=EDmica
Morro do Valenguinho S/N
24020-007 Niter=F3i, RJ
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 21) 713 1313
=46ax  (55 21) 719 7025
  =09
Kenitiro Suguio
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
Departamento de Paleontologia e Estratigrafia
Cidade Universit=E1ria/Caixa Postal 20899=09
CEP 01498 970 - S=E3o Paulo-SP
BRAZIL
Tel.  (55 11) 818 4136=09
=46ax  (55 11) 210 4958
  =09
Eust=E1quio Reis
IPEA
Av. Ant=F4nio Carlos, 51 s/1704
209.020 Rio de Janeiro, RJ
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 21) 292 5141
=46ax (55 21) 240 1920
=09
Alberto Figueiredo
Universidade Federal Fluminense
BRAZIL
Bruce Nelson
INPA - Bot=E2nica
C.P. 478, 69011 Manaus, AM
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 92) 236 3088=09
=46ax (55 92) 236 3088
    =09
Alberto Setzler
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
  =09
Ant=F4nio Carlos Miranda
Universidade de Bras=EDlia
Bras=EDlia, DF
BRAZIL
    =09
Ant=F4nio Divino Moura
INPE=09
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
   =09
Bernardo Rudorff
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
     =09

Bohdan Matvienko
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
S=E3o Paulo, SP
BRAZIL
    =09
Caspar Stemmer
Minist=E9rio da Ci=EAncia e Tecnologia
BRAZIL
    =09
Danton Nunes
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
    =09
David Lee
INPE
Avda. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
  =09
Di=F3genes Alves
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
     =09
Eug=EAnio Almeida
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
   =09
Evelyn Novo
INPE   =09
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
       =09
Gerardo Kuntschik
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
   =09
Gilberto Fisch
Centro Tecnol=F3gico Aeroespacial
BRAZIL
    =09
Gilberto C=E2mara Neto
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743

Herman Kux
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743=09
Maria Lucia Absy=09
INPA
Alameda Cosme Ferreira, 1756=09
Aleixo, P.O. Box 478 69083
Manus, AM
BRAZIL
Tel.  (55 92) 642 2118
=46ax  (55 92) 642 2118
   =09
Ilse Walker
INPA
Alameda Cosme Ferreira, 1756=09
Aleixo, P.O. Box 478 69083
Manus, AM
BRAZIL
Tel.  (55 92) 642 2118
=46ax  (55 92) 642 2118

Ari Marques Filho=09
INPA
Alameda Cosme Ferreira, 1756=09
Aleixo, P.O. Box 478 69083
Manus, AM
BRAZIL
Tel.  (55 92) 642 2118
=46ax  (55 92) 642 2118
  =09
Jesus M. Santos
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
     =09

Jo=E3o Avila
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743   =09
  =09
Jo=E3o Andrade Carvalho=09
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743

Jo=E3o R. Santos
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
    =09
Jo=E3o V. Soares
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
       =09
Jos=E9 F. Ramos
Universidade Federal do Par=E1
BRAZIL
    =09

Jussara Oliveira Ortiz
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743

Jos=E9 W. Garcia
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
BRAZIL

Luis Bevilacqua
IMPA
Estrada Dona Castorina, 110
Jardim Bot=E2nico 22460-320
Rio de Janeiro, RJ
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 21) 242 4293
=46ax (55 21) 242 8687
lbv@rio.faperj.br
   =09
Luis Alberto Vieira Dias
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743

Luis Carlos B. Molion
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
    =09
Gylvan Meira Filho
Minist=E9rio da Ci=EAncia e Tecnologia
BRAZIL
    =09
Lycia Nordemann
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743

Marcia Yamasoe
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
BRAZIL
    =09
Marcio Nogueira Barbosa
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
       =09
Marcio Costa Pereira
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
   =09
Maria Albertina Costa
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
BRAZIL
    =09

Maria Etelvina Arbex
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
      =09
Maria Isabel Escada
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
   =09
Maria Silvia Lacruz=09
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
     =09
Maycira Pereira F. Costa
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743

Paulo Artaxo
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
BRAZIL   =09

Nelson J. Ferreira
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
   =09
Osman Silva
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
    =09
Paulo Roberto Martini
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
      =09
Ralph Gielow
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
 =09
Sandra Costa
Universidade do Vale do Para=EDba
BRAZIL

Regina C. S. Alvala
INPE=09
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
      =09
Sherry Chen
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
      =09
Simone Scholze
Minist=E9rio da Ci=EAncia e Tecnologia
Bras=EDlia, DF
BRAZIL
    =09
T=E2nia M. Sausen
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
    =09
Terezinha dos Santos Botelho
INPE   =09
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
        =09

Thelma Krug
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
      =09
Welington Braz Delitti Carvalho
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo
S=E3o Paulo, SP
BRAZIL
  =09
Volker Kirchoff
INPE
Av. dos Astronautas, 1758
12201 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos-SP
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 123) 418 977
=46ax (55 123) 218 743
    =09
=46rancis J. Ahern
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS)
588 Booth St.
Ottawa
K1A 0Y7
CANADA
Tel. (613) 947 1295
=46ax (613) 947 1385

Richard Denis Robarts
National Hydrology Research Institute
11 Innovation Boulevard
Saskatoon, Sasketchewan
S7N 3HS=09
CANADA
Tel. (306) 975 6047
=46ax (306) 975 5143
robarts@nbrisv.nhrc.sk.doe.ca

=46abio Gonz=E1lez
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Departamento de F=EDsica
Santa F=E9 de Bogot=E1
COLOMBIA
Tel. (571) 269 7884
=46ax (571) 222 5716

Lorena San Rom=E1n,
Vice-Rectora de Investigaci=F3n
Universidad Nacional Heredia
COSTA RICA
Tel. (506) 376 465
  =09
Jorge Alberto Fallas Gamboa
Universidad Nacional
Escuela de Ciencias Ambientales
Apartado 1350
3000 Heredia
COSTA RICA
Tel.  (506) 237 7039
=46ax  (506) 237 7036=09
 =09
=46ernando Gonz=E1les=09
Centro de Investigaci=F3n en Alimentaci=F3n y Desarrollo, A.C.
Unidad Mazatl=E1n en Acuicultura y Manejo Ambiental
Mazatl=E1n, Sinaloa
MEXICO
Tel. (55 69) 880 157
=46ax (55 69) 880 159

Angelina Mart=EDnez
Centro de Ecolog=EDa UNAM
Yucat=E1n y Madrid
Col. Los Arcos
Hermosillo, Sonora 8300
MEXICO
Tel. (52 62) 175 019
=46ax (52 62) 175 340
=09
Carlos A. Ram=EDrez
Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables
Condominio Analiza, Apto. 402-
Via Espa=F1a, Carrasquilla
PANAMA
Tel. (507) 324 330
=46ax (507) 324 975

Carlos A. Llerena
=46acultad de Ciencias Forestales
Universidad Nacional Agr=E1ria La Molina
Apartado 456
Lima
PERU
Tel. (51 14) 511 461
=46ax (51-14) 315 747
  =09
Walter Danjoy
Instituto Nacional deRecursos Naturales
Calle No. 355
Urbanizacion El Palomar
San Isidro, Lima
PERU
Tel. (51 14) 410 425
=46ax (51 14) 414 606
 =09
James L. Buizer
NOAA Office of Global Programs
1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1225
Silver Spring MD  20910
USA
Tel. (301) 427 2089
=46ax (301) 427 2082
buizer@ogp.noaa.gov=09
Anthony Janetos
NASA Headquarters Code SEP
300 E Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C.
USA=09
Tel. (202) 358 0272
=46ax (202) 358 2771
=09
Rub=E9n Lara
IAI Office of the Executive Scientist
1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201
Silver Spring  MD  20910=09
Tel. (301) 589 5747
=46ax (301) 589 5711
lara@ogp.noaa.gov

Raquel S. Gomes
IAI Office of the Executive Scientist
1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201
Silver Spring  MD  20910=09
Tel. (301) 589 5747
=46ax (301) 589 5711

Michael Douglas
National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration ERL/NSSL
1313 Halley Circle
Norman, OK  73069
USA
Tel. (405) 366 0525
=46ax (405) 366 0472
mdouglas@nssl.nssl.woknor.edu
 =09
Stephen Piotrowicz
NOAA=09
1315 East-West Hwy SSMC-3
11th Floor OAR/PDC
Silver Spring, MD  20910
USA
Tel. (301) 713 2465
=46ax (301) 713 0666
spiotrowicz@red.noaa.gov

David Skole
Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space
Complex Systems Research Center
University of New Hampshire
Durham, NH 03824
USA
Tel. (603)  862 1792
=46ax (603) 862 1915
  =09
    =09