TABLE lO.-Carbon monoxide measured under realistic conditions

Study

Ventilation

Monibrlng
CWditiOM

  Levela (ppm)

Mean

Nonsmoking contmle @Pm)

Mean

Eadre et al.
(1978)

Bcafea        Varied        Not given    20 mill sempleu                 2-23       (outdoore)        O-15
Room        18 emokma      Not given     20 mln snmplea     60                     0 (0ukJoonl)
Hospital lobby    12 to 90 amokem   Not given     20 mln samples      5
2train        2 to 3 smokers    Not given     20 min namplea                44
wmpartmenta
car         3 amokera      Natural, open   20 min aample     14                      0 (0utdooIu)
          2 Bmokera       Natural, cloeed  20 min samples     !?a                     0 (outdoore)

Can0 et al.
(1970)

Submarines
68 ma

157 c;sarettes
per&Y
94-103 cigarettea
w* &Y

YeS

Ye0

<40 mm

<40 mm

Chappell and
Parker
wl7)

10 offices

16 resteurant3

14 nightclubs
and taverns
Tavern

Not given

Not given

Not 9iven

Not given

value4 not
given
valuea not
given
valuea not
glven
Arti&ial

None

of!?@       1440 ft.'        Natural, open

17x2-3min
samples
17X29min
-Pl-
19 x 2-3 min
mamplm
18XMmiJJ
anmplee
2x2-3min
BEUUPlW
2-3mlnaamplee
3omlnafter
amaking

2.5 f 1.0      1.5-4.6       2.5 f 1.0       1.5-4.5
                      butdoors)
4.0 f 2.5      1.0-9.6       2.5 f 1.6      1.0-6.0
                      (outdwm)
13.0 f 7.0      3.0-29.0      3.0 f 2.0       1.06.0
                     bladom~
8.5

         =tPW

         10.0 (peak)
1.0


t;
RI  TABLE 10.4ntinud

Study

Coburn et al.    ~oorrm       Not given       Not given
(lssa)                                  Not &en                    4.9-9.0
                                          N-oked roome                         2.2 f 0.96      oA-4.6

Cuddeback     Tavern 1     16-294 people     6 changedhr   8 br continuous     11.6          10-l-12
Et)                                                                      2 wdwd
                                 2hrafteremoking -1
          Tavern 2      Not given       l-2 cbangen/br 8 hr amtiauoun     17           -CM?2        valua not given
                                    2brefterMokblg   -12                  valum not given
U.S. Dept. of   18 military     165-219 people     Mecbwlcal    6-7 hr contlnuoue              <Z-6
RansportetiOll    Pbce
(1971) '       8 domeutic     27-11s people      Mechenical    1%2% br       s-2
         Planes                             continuoue

Elliott and     Arena1      ll@X psople      Mechanical    Not &en         9.0
          Arena2      2,ooO people      N&Ud                                9.0 bmwtlvity day)
                                     Not given         26.0                 9.0 bloMctivity day)
                                   No-~                                 9.0

Fischer et al.
(1978) and
Weber et al.
W9)

                                    arena

Reataurent     50-601470 ma      Meehanieal    27X3Oti       6.1          21-9.9         4.8 (outdoon)

Fkataurant

Bar

Cafe&a

60-lOOA ma

80-40/W ma

80-X0/574 m'

        Bamplee
Natural      29X30&l       2.6          1.43.4         1.5 (outdoore)
        aamplm
Natural, open   28XWdIl       4.8          2.4-9.6           1.7 cddoonl)
        =Pl-
11 changee/llr  24XXlmin       1.2          0.7-1.7           0.4 buuoom)
        Nonemoklng                               0.5         0.S0.8
           room


TABLE lO.-Continued

Study

Ventilation

Monitoring
conditions

   Levels burn)

Mean

Nonsmoking controls @pm)

i&an

Godin et al.    Ferryboat      Not given        Not given     11 grab samples     18.4 f 8.7                3.0 f 2.4 (r~onsmoking room)
0972)       Theater foyer   Not given       Not given    Grab samples      3.4 rt 0.8               1.4 f 0.8 (auditorium)

Harke

Gfllca'

-72 ma

236 m'/hr

30 mill samples

< 2.5-4.6

(1974)'

Harke and
Peters
(1974)`

mice 6

car

-78 ms

2 smokers
(4 cw

Natural

Natural

MeChanical

30 mill samples
Samples

Samples

< 2.8-9.0
42 (pdd      (Nonsmokln# mm)
           13.5 (peak)
32 @eak)      (Nollsmoklng mns)
           15.0 (peak)

Harmsen and
Effonberger
mm'

Train

1-18 smokers      Natural

Not &en                   O-40

14 public

Not given

Not 6iven

One grab sample

<lo

(1973)'

Portheine

Ph==

Rooms       Not given       Not given     Not given                   8-26

(1971)'

Sebbcn et al.

9 nightclubs

Not given

Varied       77 X 1 min       13.4          6.5-41.9

(1977)

14 restauranta
45 restaurants
3.3 storea
3 hospital
lobbies

Not given
Not &en
Not given
Not given

Not &en
Not @en
Not 6iven
Not given

samples
outdoors
spot checlo3
spot checks
spot checks
Spot checks

                      9.2         3.0-35.0
9.9 f 5.5               value8 not given
8.2 f 2.2                  7.1 f 1.7 (outdooln)
10.0 -f 4.2                  11.5 zt 6.9 (outdcarn)
           44         Values not @en


E  TABLE lO.-Chntinud

                                                                Level8 bud         Nonsmokina' eon- bran)
              Type of                          MOdWillg
   study         plWli!3H      OccupanCY      Ventilation     conditions        Mesn                    MSan

Intercity bus    Not given

15 cbangea/hr,
23 cigarettes
burning
continuowly
3w
burning
mntinuously

SPpm

18 mm

Slavin end
Hertz
(1975)

i.h_dkOWSki
et al.
(1976)

2 conference
I-OOlIlS

25 officea

Not given

Not given

8 changeslhr   Continuous,               8b-W        l-2 CeePnrate
         morning                           nonwnoking day)
6 changedhr   Continuous,               10 @aaM        1-2 (separate
         morning                          nm &Y)
Not given     continuous       2.78 + 1.42                    2.66f2.23
                                     blYua~ llomdiw
                                           ofiica)

`The Drager tube u.d ia accurate only within f 25 percmt.
`The MSA Molit&e sampler used iu accurate only withio f 26 percent.
*The cigarettes and one cigar smoked in 90 minuted.
`About 40 cigarettes/day were !mloked.
*About 7Ocigarattes/day were smoked.
`Four tiltar cigarettea were smoked.
' No experimentd demiption givsn.


TABLE ll.-Nicotine measured under realistic conditions

Study

Type of
premises

Ventilation

Monitoring
conditions

             Nonsmoking
Leiels (p&m*)        controls

Mean    Range Mean Ranee

Badre et al.
(1978)

Gcafea            Varied         Not given        60 min sample             25-52
Boom             18 smokers        Not given        60 min sample      800
Hospital lobby        12 to 30 smokers     Not given        80 mm sample       37
2 tram compartments   2 to 3 smokers      Not given        80 min sample             36-50
Car             3 smokers         Natural, onen       60 min ssmule       68

Natural; closed

fi0 min sample

1010

Can0 et al.         Submarines
(1970)              66 ma

157 cigarettea
per day
94-m cigarettea
l=* &Y

YeS                       32 pg/m'

YeS                      1535 pg/m;

Hsrmsen and
Effenbwger
(1957)

T&l

Not given

Natural, closed

30-46min
samples

0.741

Hinds end First
(1975) '

Webor and Fiber
wm'

Train
Bus
Bus waiting room
Airline waiting room
Restaurant
Cc&tall lounge
Student lounge

44 offica

Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given

Varied

Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given

Varied

2% hr samples
2'1, hr samples
2'/, hr semplos
2% hr samples
2'1, hr samples
2% hr samples
2% hr samples

14ox3hr
samples

  4.9          valuea not given
  6.3          Values not given
  1.0          valuca not given
  3.1          Valuea not given
  5.2          Values not given
10.3          valuw not given
  2.8          Values not given
0.9 * 1.9  13.8 @AC)  Values not given


TABLE 11.4ntinued

                     Levels t&m')     controls-
          Monitor
ventilation        amdltions       Mean    rbge Man m

First
asw

1 public buildin.
8 public buildiugn

NOMlWLen
Ito6anok4rd

Mechanical
Natural and

                         5.5
Not given
Not given         132     27-30.0

lUuramab3u et al.
ww

oflice
cmoe
IAbomtoly
6 confemace rooms
3 howea
Hcspital lobby
4 hotal lobbits
5 lwtaurants
3 cafeteriaa
3 bun and railway
waitiog roollls
4cara
8trai~
7 alrplene4

Not given         Not &en
Not given        Not given
Not given        Not given
Not given        Not &en
Not given        Not given
Not given        Not glvsn
Not given        Not given
Not given         Not given
Not given        Not given
Not giwm        Not given

Not given
Not given
Not &en

Not given
Not given
Not given

Not &en
Not ghn
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not given
Not &en
Not given
Not givea
Not given

19.4    Sq-sl.6
B.1     14.6a.l
5.8     M-9.6
28.7     16.5-53.0
11.1     7.6-14.6
3.0     1.940
11.2     5.5-18.1
14.8     7.1-37.8
96.4     11.a2.2
19.1     10.1-36.4

Not given         47.7     7.7-83.1
Not given         16.4     8.6-98.1
Not given         16.2     6.3-28.8


TABLE 12.-Nitrogen oxides measured under realistic conditions

study

M of
premises

Ventilation

Fischer et al.
(1678) and
Weber et al.
ww

Weher and
Fischer
ww'

Restaurant

Rwteluant

Eiar

Cafeteria

44omss

50-8Qt470 m'

60-100/440 ma

20-40/50 ma

80-150/574 ma

Varied

Mwlmnical

Natural

NBtUd,
open
11 ch&mgen/hr

Varied

27XiWti
samples
29X8Oltlh
namplea
28X8Oti
samplea
24X2Odl.l
SampIeS
Other-non-
smokers mom

Bamplm

NO,: 76       5%105     62 b3a.dcorl5~
No: 120       26-218     115 (outdoom)
NO,: 66       24-99      60 f~tdoom)
No:80        14-21      11 Mdoom)
NO,: 21        l-61      46 (outdwm)
No: 195       66-414     44 (outdoom)
NO,: 58       25-103     24 (0utdoorB~
No: 9         w6      4 butdoom~
                NO,: 27      15-44

                   No: 5        2-9

NO,: 24 f 22   115 k-w    vehlw not gibwl

No: 62 f 60    =J(peall)    value3 nbt given

1 Contml valua (unoccupied rooms) have bean subtracted.


+
E  TABLE 13.-Nitrosamines measured under realistic conditions

Brunnemann and
Hoffmann
W78)

B~UMWIUIUI et al.
(1976)

!rTBinharwr
Trainbarwr

Bar
sports hall
Bettiug parlor
Ditlwtheque
Bank
IiOUW
HOUBB

Not given       Mechanical
Not given       Natural

Not given      Not given
Not given      Not given
Not given      Not given
Not given      Not given
Not given      Not given
Not given      Not given
Not given      Not given

90 mill continuoue         0.13
90 min amtinuoua         0.11

3 hr wntinuow          0.24
3 lx wntinuow          0.09
90 min wntinuouB         0.05
2v, hr contiMouB         0.09
5 hr amtinuouB          0.01
4 hr amtinuoua        <o.oos
4 hr wntinuoua         <0.003


TABLE 14.-Particulates measured under realistic conditions

Study

Type of
premises

o=UpanCY
(active smokem
perlOOm')

Ventilation

                       Nonsmoking
Monitoring      Levels @g/m')     wntmls @g/m')
conditions
kuin)        Mean SD         Mesa SD

Cocktail party
Lo&x hall
Barandgrill
Firehouse bingo
PizwriB
Bar/cccktail lounge
Church bingo game
Inn
Bowling alley
Hospital waiting Mom
Shopping plara restaurant
Sample 1
Sample 2

0.75         Natural                   15
1.26         MWhanical                 50
1.18         Mechanical                18
2.17         Mechanical                 16
2.94         Mechanical                32
3.24         Mechanical                28
0.47         MeChanieal                 42
0.74         MdWliWl                12
1.53         MWbdCd                20
2.15         Mechaoical                 12

0.18         MeChanical                 18
0.18         MeChanical                 18

153
163

+ a
+ 4

24
60'
63'
51'
40'
50'
30
221
49'
58'

59'
36'

--
-


K?  TABLE 14.-Cbntinued

Study

Typs of
premieen

oocupancy
htive smokera
per 100m.J

                                   NoarmotirrP
           Manitorine      Luvel~ Cpgtm')    f3e0l~ (W/m')
              wnditionm
Ventiletion          0        Mea0 8D        Meanm

Barbeque restaurant
Sandwich rentaurant A
Smokiog eection
Nonsmoking don
F&-food reetaurant
sports arene
Neighborhood restaurant/bar
Hotel bar
Sandwich restaurant B
Smoking section
Nonmoking section
BoadBide reataumnt
Conference room

Repace and     Dinner theater
bmY      Reception hall
(1482)       Bingo hall

0.89

0.29
0
0.42
0.09'
0.40
0.59

0.13
0
1.12
3.54

0.14
1.19
0.93 *
0.93'

MWh_lliWl

Mechanlwl
Mechanical
MWlldCd
MWhBIdd
MWhalliWl
MWM

Mechanical                 8
MWhliCd                21
Mechanical (9.6 a&`)           18
Mwhanical (4.3 a&`)           6

MWlldd                44
MeChanical                20
Natural                  2
Mednical (1.39 ach')          6

10

20
20
40
12
12
12

136 f 17

110 f 36
Mf 5
109 f 38
94 * 1s
93 f 17
93* 2

a6f7
  61
  1M'
1947'

145 f 43
301 f 90
1140
  443'

40'

40%
30
24'
I'
55'
30

55

90
55

4? f 10
33'
40'
40'

`Sequential outdoor meaauem ent (5 minute avelnge~.
`Eatimclted.
`Air changes per hour.
' lrqllibrium level aa determined from mnowtmtion m time curve.


TABLE 14cContinued

Study

Type of
premises

~UpanCY

Ventilation

Monitoring
wnditiiw

  Levels C&m')

Mean

Nonsmoking controls @g/m')

  MWO

Cuddeback et al. Tavern
(1976)
          Tavern

Not given

Not given

6 changedhr   4xahr         310
          continuous
l-2 changealhr  8 hr continuous     986

U.S. Dept. of
Tmrqmtation
(1971)

18 military planes 165-219 people

8 domestic planes 27-113 people

Mechanical

Mechanical

72 x 6-7 hr
eamplw
24 x 1+2y hr
SampIeS

Not given

<lo-120

Dockery and

Residencea

Not given

Varied

24 hr aamplee

32

Spengler
(1W

Elliott end
Bow
(1976)

Arena 1      11,606 people      MWlWliCd    During activities     323               42 (nonactivity day)
Arena 2      %W people      Natural     During activities     620                    92 bM3rativity day)
Arena 3 (smoking  11,090 people      MWhEUliWl    During actlvitiw     148                    71 (nonactivity day)
prohibited)

Harmsen and Traine
Effenberger
(1957)

Just et al.     4 coffee houses
(19721

16120 people      Natural

Not given       Not given

Not given

Nonsmokem' cam

6 hr averages

            46440
        pticledcm'                 20-75
                          pwticlwlcm~

1160        6@-1900     670 (outdoom)    loo-19lxl

Neal et al.    Hospital unit    Not given        Mechanical   48 hr samples       21 f 14       a-58       73 * 25
(1978)       Hospital unit    Not given        MeChanical   48 hr samples       40 + 21      13-79        72 f 25


TABLE Id.- Continued

Study

Type of
premises

ch=wnCY

Ventilation

Monitoring
wnditiona

  Levele -@g/m')

Mean       Range

Nowmokhg control@ (&ma)

  Mean

Spender et al.   Residences     2+ smokers       Natural     24 hr samples      70 + 43                 21 f 12
(1981)                                                                      (outdoom)
                     1 smoker         Natural      24 br earnplea       37 f 15                 21 f 12 (outdoom~
Weher and     44 offii      Veried         Natural and   429 X 2min      133 * 130'
Fischer (1980)                                                 96`2' @eaL)
                         mechanical samples

Quad et al.    Of&e No. 1     0.82*           MWlLSlliWl   Five l@hr workday        45         39.54                   616
(1982)        office No. 2     0.68 =           Mechanical    averagea; continuous       45         37-50                  15-2ll
          Of!& No. 3     1.46'           Mechanical    monitoeg            63         4289                  15-m

Brunekreef and  26 houses      1 to 3 smokers     Natural      2 mo average0          153'        60-340         55        20-m
Boleii (1982)

1 public building  Nonsmokers       Mechanical    2min                                     20
8 public buildings  1 to 6 smokem     Natural end   2min               280
                       mechaniwl

Hawthorne et al.  11 residences    Nonsmokem       o.18-oo.96     5-15 mill                                   9-40
(1984)        8 reaidencea    Nonemokera       0261.98     5-16 min                                  12-M
          2 residences    Smokem         0.27-1.47.     5-15 min            96-196

Nitschke et al.   Outdoor                            166 hr                                     11        11-m
(1985)        19 residences    Nonsmokers       Natural      168 hr                                     26        6-88
          11 residences    Smokers         Natural      168 hr               59         lo-144

Spengler et al.   Outdoor                            24 hr                                  18
(1986)       73 renidencea    Nonsmokers       Natural     24lu                                     28
          24 residences    Smokers         Natural      2dhr               74

Sterling and     1 office       Smokem        Not given    Not given             26         15-36
sterliig       22 Offlws      Smokers        Not given    Not given              32
(1984)

' valua abwa background.
*Habitual smokers per 100111'.
`Wekhtad mean.


TABLE 15.-Residuals measured under realistic conditions

Study

Type of
premisea

                                                NO-
                                           Levels          controla
                        Monitoring
@=panCY          Ventilation          conditions       Mean            hfem R-m

Sadre et al.
(19781'

Gcafea
Floom
Hospital lobby
2 train
compartments
Car
car

Dockery and
Spengler
t1981)

Fwzher et al.
I19781

Restaurant        W-60/470 m'          Mechanical
Restaurant         6&100/440 ms          Natural
Bar             30-4060 ml         Natural. open
Cafeteria          tW150/574 m'          11 ch/hr

    Just et al         4 coffee houses
55    119721

Varied            Not given
16 smokers          Not given
12 to 30 smokers       Not given
2 or 3 smokers        Not given

3 smokers
2 smokers

Natural, open
Natural, closed

Not given            VUied        24 hr earnplea         4.61

Not given           Not given        6 hr continuous      12.0-15.3

103 mL samples
100 mL aample
100 mL samples
100 mL samples

100 mL aample
100 mL 8ample.e

27 x 30 min samples
29 x 30 min samples
28 x 30 min samples
24 x 30 min samples
Other nonsmokers
mm

Acetone (me/m')

     0.915.66
0.51
1.16
     0.36-0.75

0.32
I.20

Sulfatea h/m')

Sulfur dioxide (ppb)

20     9-32        12 Fe
13     5-18        6
30     13-75       I3
15     l-27        12
                7     3-13

Aldehydes h/m')

w

' See original paper for nine other residuals.
SOURCE. Sterling et al. (1982).


  0' , , , I, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
     NW. ~ec. &n. Fd Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Ott Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. ~pr.
         1978    1977                             1978

FIGURE 2.-Monthly mean mass respirable particulate
      concentrations &g/m") across six cities
fmJRcEI~etd.(lWl).

TABLE 16.~Respirable particulate levels as a function of
       number of smokers

Smoker status           NumbeI

No smokers      36 homes/l,186 samples

1 em&r       15 homed494 samples

2 amokera       5 homed153 samples

2+ emokera      4 homed? samples

souRcE:~etd.(1981).

Mean (p&m9    standard dwiatlon

24.4             11.6

36.5             14.6

70.4             a.9

51.8             12.3

Spengler and colleagues (1981) collected respirable suspended
particulate samples in 55 homes in six cities. The average concentra-
tions observed between May 1977 and April 1978 are shown in Table
16. The quantity of tobacco smoked was not reported, nor was the
number of hours each smoker spent in the home. The researchers
concluded that the mean WP levels increased by 20 pg/ms per
smoker.
Dockery and Spengler (1981) further analyzed these data and
considered the number of cigarettes smoked in the home. They
concluded that the mean RSP concentration increased by 0.88 w/ma

164


for every cigarette smoked per day in the house. A one-pack-a+lay
smoker in the home thus raises indoor respirable particulate leveE,
by 17.6 w/ma. Air conditioning increased the contribution of each
cigarette by 1.26 w/ma, to a total of 2.11 Clg/ms per cigarette in fully
air-conditioned homes. These values are annual averages; a&ond&
tioned homes, in which air is recirculated during the warmer
months, have higher levels.
Repace and Lowrey (1989) measured RSP concentration using a
piexobalance in several public and private lo&ioris, imh&g
restaurants, cocktail lounges, and halls, in both the presence and the
absence of Bmoking. They then developed an empirical model
utilizing the mass-balance equation. Using both measured and
estimated parameters as input to the model, they validated the
model for predicting an individual's exposure to the RSP constituent
of HIS. The model takes the form: C, = 666 D./n,; where C&equals
the equilibrium concentration of the RSP component of ETS @g/m"),
D. equals the density of active smokers (number of burning cigarettes
per 100 ma), and nv equals the ventilation rate (in air changes per
hour). The ventilation rate is a complex parameter that takes into
account all the room-specific constants affecting the removal of HIS,
such aa ventilation, decay, and mixing.
Measurements in a large number of locations using measures of
smoke generation such as the number of people smoking or the
number of cigarettes being smoked have shown a definite relation-
ship of smoke generation to particulate levels. First (1964) cautioned
again& the use of RSP measurements a~ a measure of El% in public
places because of its nonspecificity for ETS, and noted that other
~ouroes may contribute enough to the levels to invalidate the
determination of the ETS contribution. However, there are few other
sources of RSP in most U.S. homes, and therefore, the relationships
of RSP measurements to HIS levels are generally quite accurate in
this setting.
Nicotine appears to be a promising tracer for ETS because of its
specificity for tobacco and its presence in relatively high concentra-
tions in tobacco smoke. It can also be measured in biological fluids to
provide an indication of acute exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine,
nicotine's major metabolite, can be used as an indicator of more
chronic exposure. These biological markers are discussed in a
separate chapter of this Report. Recent studies have indicated that
nicotine may be p rimarily associated with the vapor phase of HI'S
and therefore not a surrogate for the particulate phase as once
thought (Eudy et al. 1986). However, the possible useftiess of this
compound in estimating exposure to EXS warrants further evalu-
ation. The nicotine content of side&ream smoke does not differ
significantly from brand to brand when normalized on a per gram of
tobacco basis (Rickert et al. 1984). The use of nicotine as a marker for


ETS must also give consideration to its loss to surfaces and its
subsequent revolatilization and readmission to the room volume.

Carbon monoxide, a marker for gas phase components, has been
measured extensively as a surrogate for FYI'S There are many
sources of carbon monoxide other than cigarettes, indoors (e.g.,
stoves, grills) and outdoors (e.g., automobile). This nonspecificity for
ETS seriously limits its usefulness for environmental measurements.

In summary, no single compound definitively characterizes an
individual's exposure to ETS. Additional research is currently under
way to quantify the relationships among various constituents and
ETS levels. Because of the complex nature of RTS, investigators may
need to measure several markers or to separately record source
variables (such as number of cigarettes smoked) in order to estimate
exposure to ETS.

Monitoring Studies

Personal monitors can measure the concentrations of ETS in an
individual's breathing zone. Personal monitoring is preferable to
area monitoring because it integrates the temporal and spatial
dimensions of an individual's exposures. At the present time, all of
the studies that have used personal monitors to measure RTS
constituents have utilized active samplers that provide integrated
exposures over differing time periods.

The markers assessed in personal monitoring studies have the
same lack of specificity found in area monitoring studies. However,
in many of the personal monitoring studies, time-activity diaries
were kept to permit greater resolution in attributing exposure to
specific sources.

In Topeka, Kansas, 45 nonsmoking adults carried personal RSP
monitors for 18 days, and area monitors were placed inside and
outside their homes (Spengler and To&son 1981). The indoor RSP
levels were consistently higher than outdoor levels, and the personal
exposures levels were higher than either. The group was divided into
those who reported ETS exposure and those who did not (Figure 3).
Reported exposure to ETS clearly shifts the distribution to the right.
On the average, reported ETS exposure increased an individual's
personal concentration by 20 pg/m3.

Personal RSP monitors were carried by 101 nonsmoking volun-
teers for 3 days in Kingston-Harriman, Tennessee (Spengler et al.
1985). The study population was divided into two groups: those who
lived with a smoker and those who did not. ETS exposure was
reported by 28 of the participants, with the remaining participants
reporting none. The RSP distribution for the ambient samples is
shown in Figure 4. Clearly, exposure to ETS significantly increases
an individual's personal concentration profile.

166


16

NONllOkeexposed

.     lln n             n

$  10
t   6
e:
b   6
CL
   4

2

0

n

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 60 55 60 65 70 75 60 85 60 65

FIGURE 3.-Percentage distribution of personal respirable
     particulate concentrations, non+moke+qwsed
     and smoke-exposed samples, Topeka, Kansas
6OUROE Spqler and Tceteaon (1981).

Sexton and colleagues (1984) monitored personal RSP exposure for
48 nonsmokers in Waterbury, V&mont, every other day for 2 weeks.
The participanta kept activity logs and had simultaneous indoor and
outdoor FC3P samples collected at their homes. The proportion of
time individuals spent exposed to EX'S was the single most important
determinant of their personal exposure. Volunteers who reported
greater than 120 minutes of exposure to ETS had a mean RSP
exposure of 50.1 M/ma, whereas those volunteers who reported no
exposure to EXS had a mean exposure of 31.7 w/m'.

167


2- Ambient
*-..... penona(.
   non-smoke-ewosd
--.- w,
   smoke-eqwed

FXXJRE 4Ahmulative frequency distributions of central
     site ambient and personal smoke-exposed and
     non-smokeaqosed respirable suspended
     ptulhulate concentrations
sG~spannBier~t0@55).

Ni&&, a tobacco-specific compound, should make an excellent
tracer for ETS if its usage can be properly validated. Some
considerations in its usage are detailed in the section on area
sampling. Currently, no published reports are available that utihm
this compound for the type of detailed personal monitoring studies
carried out for PSP. However, a lightweight personal nicotine
monitor has recently been developed (Muramatsu et al. 1994) that
may aid this type of research. The researchers measured average
nicotine concentrations ranging from 9.0 &ma in a hospital lobby to
38.7 H/m3 in a conference room and 47.7 &ma in an automobile,
No information on the duration of exposure or representativeness of
these levels to the general population was given. However, this study
does provide information as to the range of exposures an individual
may encounter and demonstrates that high nicotine levels can be
encountered in various settings. It will be necessary to quantify the
relationship between nicotine, a vapor phase component of El!& and
other components of interest such as RSP in order to fully utilize t&s
tracer.
Chtain organic gasa have been measured as possible indicators of
EZ'S exposure or of specific effects such as irritation. These include
formaldehyde and acrolem Weber and F'ischer 1980) and aromatic
compounds such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and styrene (Higgins et
al. 1983). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's recent TEAM
study utilized personal monitors, employing Tenax carkidges, to
develop profiles of individual exposures to volatile organics (Wallace

168


st al. m press). The TEAM study has found significantly increased
exposure to benzene for individuals exposed to E!lS. Again, the
xoxspecificity of these materials for `ET'S limits their applicabi&.
()tber materials such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen &oxide
have heen measured in personal monitoring studies attempting to
sss.sss individuals' exposure to ETS. Their nonspecificity and lack of
sensitivity for low-level ETS exposure make them inappropriate for
pop~ation-based StUdies.
persald monitoring techniques are currently available that will
&cw the assessment of individual exposures to various components
of E'l'S. Although not widely used in the past, they can provide
&u&le input in developing exposure models and in vaM&ing
other monitoring schemes. Their usefulness is primarily that they
sample all of the microenvironments in which individuals find
t&mselves and therefore automatically compensate for the nonurn-
form temporal and spatial distributions of ETS that affect individual
exposure profiles.

Conclusions

1. Undiluted sidestream smoke is characterized by significantly
higher concentrations of many of the toxic and carcinogenic
compounds found in mainstream smoke, including ammonia,
volatile amines, volatile nitrosamines, certain nicotine decom-
position products, and aromatic amines.
2. Environmental tobacco smoke can be a substantial contributor
to the level of indoor air pollution concentrations of respirahle
particles, benzene, acrolein, N-nitrosamine, pyrene, and carbon
monoxide. ETS is the only source of nicotine and some N-
nitrosamine compounds in the general environment.
3. Measured exposures to respirable suspended particulates are
higher for nonsmokers who report exposure to environmental
tobacco smoke. Exposures to JTI'S occur widely in the non-
smoking population.
4. The small particle size of environmental tobacco smoke places
it in the diffusion-controlled regime of movement in air for
deposition and removal mechanisms. Because these submicron
particles will follow air streams, convective currents will
dominate and the distribution of El% will occur rapidly
through the volume of a room. As a result, the simple
separation of smokers and nonsmokers within the same
airspace may reduce, but will not eliminate, exposure to ETS.
5. It has been demonstrated that El% has resulted in elevated
respirable suspended particulate levels in enclosed places.

169


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