U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Bureau of Justice Statistics


Incarcerated Parents and Their Children


August 2000, NCJ 182335

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By Christopher J. Mumola
BJS Policy Analyst

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Highlights

In 1999 an estimated 721,500 State and Federal prisoners were
parents to 1,498,800 children under age 18

                  Percent of prisoners, 1997
Minor children       State       Federal
 
Any                   55.4 %      63.0 %
1                     23.8        24.0
2                     15.8        18.5
3 or more             15.8        20.5
 
None                  44.6 %      37.0 %
Estimated
number of minor
children, 1999   1,324,900     173,900

Prior to admission, less than half of the parents in State
prison reported living with their children -- 44% of fathers,
64% of mothers

                         Percent of State inmate
                         parents, 1997
                           Male     Female
Lived with children
prior to admission         43.8 %    64.3 %
 
Current caregiver*
Child's other parent      89.6 %     28.0 %
Child's grandparent       13.3       52.9
Other relative             4.9       25.7
Foster home/agency         1.8        9.6
Friends/other              4.9       10.4
 
*Some prisoners had children in different homes.

Nearly 2 in 3 State prisoners reported at least monthly contact
with their children by phone, mail, or personal visits

                   Percent of State inmate
                   parents reporting monthly
                   contact  with their children, 
                   1997
Type of contact      Male       Female
 
Any                  62.4 %      78.4 %
 
Phone                42.0 %      53.6 %
Mail                 49.9        65.8
Visits               21.0        23.8

*  Since 1991 the number of minor children with a parent in State
or Federal prison rose by over 500,000; from 936,500 to
1,498,800 in 1999.

*  The percentage of State and  Federal prisoners with minor
children (56%) changed little since 1991 (57%).

*  22% of all minor children with a parent in prison were under
5 years old.

*  About 46% of parents in prison lived with their children
prior to admission.

*  About 90% of fathers in State prison said that at least one
of their children now lived with their mother; 28% of mothers
said the father was the child's current caregiver.

*  10% of mothers and 2% of fathers in State prison reported a
child now living in a foster home or agency.

*  40% of fathers and 60% of mothers in State prison reported
weekly contact with their children.

*  A majority of both fathers (57%) and mothers (54%) in State
prison reported never having a personal visit with their
children since admission.

*  Over 60% of parents in State prison reported being held over
100 miles from their last place of residence.
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In 1999 State and Federal prisons held an estimated 721,500
parents of minor children.  A majority of State (55%) and
Federal (63%) prisoners reported having a child under the age of
18.  Forty-six percent of the parents reported living with their
children prior to admission. As a result, there were an
estimated 336,300 U.S. households with minor children affected
by the imprisonment of a resident parent. 

Parents held in U.S prisons had an estimated 1,498,800 minor
children in 1999, an increase of over 500,000 since 1991.  Of
the Nation's 72 million minor children, 2.1% had a parent in
State or Federal prison in 1999.  

A majority of parents in State prison were violent offenders
(44%) or drug traffickers (13%), and 77% had a prior conviction.
Nearly 60% of parents in State prison reported using drugs in
the month before their offense, and 25% reported a history of
alcohol dependence.  About 14% of parents reported a mental
illness, and 70% did not have a high school diploma.

This report is the latest in a series based on the 1997 Survey
of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities.  Other
BJS Special Reports in this series have addressed substance
abuse and treatment, mental health, women and juvenile
offenders, and inmates' military service.

Over half of both State and Federal 
prisoners reported having a child 
under age 18

When interviewed during the 1997 Surveys of Inmates in State and
Federal Correctional Facilities, a majority of prisoners said
that they were the parent of at least one child under age 18
(table 1).  Fifty-five percent of State prisoners and 63% of
Federal prisoners reported having a minor child.  Among State
prisoners, women (65%) were more likely than men (55%) to have
minor children.  In Federal prisons, similar percentages of men
(63%) and women (59%) had a minor child.

Thirty-two percent of all prisoners said that they had multiple
minor children.  About 24% of both State and Federal prisoners
reported one minor child, but Federal inmates (39%) were more
likely than State inmates (32%) to report multiple children. 
Among State prisoners, 45% of women had multiple children
compared to 31% of men.

Twenty-two percent of all minor children with a parent in prison
were under 5 years old.  The majority (58%) of the minor
children reported by State and Federal inmates were less than 10
years old, and the average age of these children was 8 years old.

                      Percent of minor children
                      of parents in State
  Age                 or Federal prison, 1997
 
Less than 1 year               2.1%
1-4 years                     20.4
5-9 years                     35.1
10-14 years                   28.0
15-17 years                   14.5
 
Mean                           8 years
 
State and Federal prisons held 
an estimated 721,500 parents 
of minor children in 1999

At yearend 1999 there were 1,284,894 prisoners in the custody of
State and Federal prisons, including an estimated 721,500
parents with minor children.    Imprisoned parents were
predominantly male (93%) and held in State prisons (89%).  In
1999 State and Federal prisons held an estimated 667,900 fathers
and 53,600 mothers of minor children.

Since 1991 the custody population of State and Federal prisons
grew by over 490,000 inmates, an increase of 62%.  As a result,
the number of parents in prison also grew sharply -- by over
250,000 -- from the 452,500 held in State and Federal prison in
1991.

1.5 million children in the U.S. had a 
parent in prison in 1999 -- up by 
more than 500,000 since 1991

The number of children with a parent in prison also rose
dramatically during the 1990's.  In 1991, there were an
estimated 936,500 minor children with a parent in State or
Federal prison.  By yearend 1999, this number had risen by more
than a half-million to an estimated 1,498,800 minor children.  

Of the Nation's 72.3 million minor children in 1999, 2.1% had a
parent in State or Federal prison.  Black children (7.0%) were
nearly 9 times more likely to have a parent in prison than white
children (0.8%).  Hispanic children (2.6%) were 3 times as
likely as white children to have an inmate parent. 

                      Minor children in the U.S.
                      resident population with a
                      parent in prison, 1999
                    Number       Percent
 
U.S. total*       1,498,800       2.1%
 
White               384,500        0.8%
Black               767,200        7.0
Hispanic            301,600        2.6

Note: Children were assumed to have the same
race/ethnicity as the incarcerated parent.
*Includes children of other races.

At yearend 1999 an estimated 1,372,700 minor children had a
father in State or Federal prison, while another 126,100
children had a mother in prison.  Since 1990 the number of all
female prisoners has grown faster (106%) than that of male
prisoners (75%).  As a result, the number of children with a
mother in prison nearly doubled (up 98%) since 1991, while the
number of children with a father in prison grew by 58% during
this period.

Nearly half of all imprisoned 
parents were black; 
about a quarter were white

Among both State and Federal prisoners with minor children,
blacks comprised the largest racial/ethnic group. In State
prisons, 49% of parents were black, 29% white, and 19% Hispanic.
Among nonparent State prisoners, the percentage of blacks (43%)
and Hispanics (15%) were slightly lower, but the percentage of
whites was higher (39%).  

Blacks (44%) were the largest racial/ ethnic group among parents
in Federal prison, followed by Hispanics (30%) and whites (22%).
The racial distribution was almost reversed among Federal
prisoners without minor children.  Whites made up 43% of
nonparent inmates, while blacks accounted for 27% of nonparents.
Nonparents in Federal prison were also less likely to be
Hispanic (23%).

Parents in State prison were slightly younger than those in
Federal prison.  Parents in State prison (16%) were about twice
as likely as those in Federal prison (8%) to be age 24 or
younger.  Overall, the median age of parents in State prison was
32 years old, compared to 35 years old among parents in Federal
prison.  In State prison, the median age of nonparents was
similar (33 years) to that of parents.  In Federal prison, the
median age of nonparents (40 years) was 5 years greater than
that of prisoners with minor children.  

Half of the parents in State prison 
were never married

Of the parents in State prison, 23% said that they were
currently married,  28% were divorced or separated, and 48% said
that they had never been married.  In comparison, nonparents in
State prison were less than half as likely to be currently
married (9%), and 69% said that they had never married.  

While parents in Federal prison (36%) were more likely than
those in State prison to be married, a similar percentage (25%)
were either divorced or separated.  Thirty-eight percent of
parents in Federal prison said that they had never been married,
compared to 49% of the nonparents. 

A majority of parents in both State (70%) and Federal (55%)
prison reported that they did not have a high school diploma. 
Similar percentages of parents in State (16%) and Federal (20%)
prison graduated high school, but college attendance was nearly
twice as high among parents in Federal prison (25% compared to
13% in State prisons).  About 12% of parents in both State and
Federal prison said that they had not been educated past the
eighth grade.  Overall, nonparents in both State and Federal
prison reported similar levels of education as inmate parents.

Fewer than half of the parents in 
State prison lived with their minor 
children prior to incarceration

Prior to their admission, 46% of all imprisoned parents lived
with any of their minor children.  Among parents in State
prison, 45% said that they lived with at least one of their
minor children compared to 57% of parents in Federal prison. 

Mothers were more likely than fathers to report living with
their children prior to admission.  About 64% of mothers in
State prison and 84% of those in Federal prison reported living
with their minor children prior to admission, compared to 44%
and 55% of fathers, respectively.

Because most inmate parents did not live with their children
prior to incarceration, the number of households with children
affected by the imprisonment of a resident parent is lower than
the total number of parents in prison.  At yearend 1999 an
estimated 336,300 U.S. households with minor children had a
resident parent in State or Federal prison.  A total of 300,900
U.S. households with minor children were missing a resident
father in prison, and resident mothers were missing from 35,400
households.  

                   Estimated households
                   with minor children affected
                   by the imprisonment of a
                   resident parent, 1999
 
Total                      336,300
 
State prison               291,000
Fathers                    259,900
Mothers                     31,100
 
Federal prison              45,300
Fathers                     41,000
Mothers                      4,300

Fathers cite child's mother as the 
current caregiver; mothers cite 
child's grandparents, other relatives

When asked who is currently caring for their minor children,
over 80% of inmate parents said that their child was now living
with the child's other parent.  About 20% of parents cited
grandparents and other relatives as caregivers, and 2% had a
child in a foster home, agency, or institution.

Mothers and fathers in prison differed sharply in their
responses to questions about their children's current
caregivers.  Ninety percent of the fathers in State prison
reported that at least one of their children was in the care of
the child's mother, compared to 28% of mothers who reported that
one of their children was in the care of the child's father.  

Mothers in State prison most often identified the child's
grandparent (53%) or other relatives (26%) as the current
caregiver.  The percentage of fathers in State prison who said
that they had a minor child in the care of either grandparents
(13%) or other relatives (5%) was much smaller.  Mothers in
State prison (10%) were also more likely than fathers (2%) to
report that their children were in the care of a foster home,
agency, or institution.

Mothers and fathers in Federal prison also provided differing
reports about their children's current caregivers.  Nearly all
fathers in Federal prison (92%) said that they had a minor child
in the care of the child's mother, compared to 31% of mothers
who reported the child's father as the current caregiver.  As
with State inmates, a greater share of mothers than fathers in
Federal prison said that a child was in the care of grandparents
(45% compared to 10%) or other relatives (34% compared to 4%).  

One-third of mothers in prison had 
been living alone with their children 
in the month before arrest

In the month prior to their current arrest, the households of
most parents in prison did not include their children. 
Thirty-seven percent of parents in State prison said that they
lived with any of their minor children in the month before their
arrest.  The parents who had lived with their children were
split between those who had lived with both a spouse and the
child (20%) and those who were the only parent living with the
child (18%).  Among parents in Federal prison, a higher
percentage of parents (49%) reported living with their children
in the month before arrest, and a higher percentage (32%) came
from two-parent households.

Mothers in both State (58%) and Federal (73%) prisons were more
likely than fathers (36% and 47%, respectively) to report living
with their children prior to arrest.  Mothers (46% of State, 51%
of Federal) were also more likely than fathers (15% and 14%,
respectively) to have been the only parent living with the
children in the month before their arrest.  Thirty-one percent
of the mothers in prison had been living alone with their
children compared to 4% of fathers. 

40% of fathers and 60% of mothers 
in State prison had at least weekly 
contact with their children

Most parents in both State (80%) and Federal (93%) prison
reported having some contact with their children since their
admission, either by telephone, mail, or personal visits. Among
State inmates, 69% reported exchanging letters with their
children, 58% had spoken with their children over the telephone,
and 43% had received a personal visit since admission.  Higher
percentages of parents in Federal prison reported all types of
contact, with telephone calls and letters each reported by 84%
of parents and personal visits reported by 56% of parents.  

In State prisons, mothers consistently reported more frequent
contact with their children than fathers.  Mothers (78%) were
more likely than fathers (62%) to report some type of monthly
contact with their children, and 60% of mothers reported at
least weekly contact compared to 40% of fathers.  Nearly 40% of
mothers in State prison said that they spoke to their children
by telephone at least once a week, and 45% reported weekly mail
contact with their children.  In comparison, fathers reported
weekly contact by telephone (25%) or mail (27%) at lower rates.  

However, the frequency of personal visits did not vary by
gender.  Similar percentages of both mothers (24%) and fathers
(21%) in State prison reported at least monthly visits from
their children.  A majority of both mothers (54%) and fathers
(57%) had never been visited by their children since entering
prison.

Among Federal inmates, mothers and fathers had more similar
levels of contact with their children.  About 70% of mothers and
60% of fathers had some type of weekly contact with their
children.  Among mothers in Federal prison, 56% reported weekly
telephone calls and 45% reported weekly mail contact, compared
to 49% and 34% of fathers, respectively.  Similar percentages of
mothers (20%) and fathers (23%) reported monthly visits, and
just over 40% of both had never been visited since admission.

Over 60% of parents in State prison 
were held more than 100 miles from 
their last place of residence

A majority of parents in both State (62%) and Federal (84%)
prison were held more than 100 miles from their last place of
residence.  However, parents in State prison (17%) were twice as
likely as those in Federal prison (7%) to be housed within 50
miles of their last residence.  Parents in State facilities
(11%) were also less likely than those in Federal prison (43%)
to be held over 500 miles from their last household.

                            Percent of inmate
Distance of prison from     parents, 1997
last place of residence     State     Federal
 
Less than 50 miles           17.4%      7.5%
50-100 miles                 20.7       8.5
101-500 miles                51.2      40.7
More than 500 miles          10.7      43.3

A majority of parents in prison were 
violent offenders or drug traffickers

In both State (57%) and Federal (61%) prison, a majority of the
parents were sentenced for either violent offenses, such as
homicide, sexual assault, and robbery, or drug trafficking
activities.  Violent offenses (44%) were the most common type of
crime for which parents were serving time in State prison, while
67% of the parents in Federal prison were drug offenders.

Among State prisoners, parents (44%) were less likely than
nonparents (51%) to be violent offenders.  Parents in State
prison were more likely to be serving a sentence for drug
offenses (24%) than nonparents (17%).

Current      Percent of State prisoners, 1997
offense      Parents    Nonparents
Violent        43.9%       51.1%
Property       21.6        22.5
Drug           23.9        16.7
Public-order   10.3         9.3
 
Mothers and fathers were serving time in State prison for
different types of criminal offenses.  Forty-five percent of
fathers in State prison were violent offenders, compared to 26%
of mothers.  Fathers in State prison (14%) were more likely than
mothers (6%) to be convicted of robbery.  Mothers were more
likely to be sentenced for drug offenses (35% compared to 23% of
fathers) and fraud (11% and 2%).

The current offenses of mothers and fathers in Federal prison
were more similar than those of State inmates.  Two-thirds of
fathers and three-quarters of mothers in Federal prison were
convicted of drug offenses.  The percentage of violent offenders
among both fathers (12%) and mothers (6%) was much lower than in
State prison, while 5% of fathers and 10% of mothers were
property offenders. 

On average, parents expected to serve 
80 months in State prison 
and 103 months in Federal prison

Due to the large percentage convicted of violent offenses and
drug trafficking, parents reported lengthy average sentences --
over 12 years (146 months) in State prison and 10 years (121
months) in Federal prison.  Over 40% of the parents in both
State (48%) and Federal (44%) prison reported sentences of at
least 10 years, including those sentenced to life in prison or
death (6% of State and 3% of Federal).

Given their higher percentage of violent offenders, fathers in
State prison (150 months) reported sentences that averaged
almost 5 years longer than those of mothers (94 months). 
Forty-eight percent of the mothers in State prison reported
sentences of less than 5 years compared to 15% of fathers. 
Fathers in Federal facilities also reported a longer average
sentence (124 months) than mothers (83 months).  Mothers in
Federal prison (48%) were also about twice as likely as fathers
(25%) to report sentences of less than 5 years.

On average parents in State prison expected to serve a total of
80 months  prior to their release (55% of the mean sentence
length).  Fathers (82 months) expected to serve nearly 3 years
more than mothers (49 months).  In State prison 18% of parents
said that they expected to serve at least 10 years before
release.  Two percent of parents never expected to be released;
5% did not know their release date. 

Despite reporting shorter sentences than parents in State
prison, parents in Federal facilities expected to serve an
average total of 103 months (85% of the mean sentence length). 
Fathers in Federal prison (105 months) expected to serve about 3
years longer than mothers (66 months).  About 30% of parents in
Federal prison expected to serve at least 10 years.  Less than
5% of parents in Federal prison either never expected to be
released (1%) or did not know their release date (3%).

Over 75% of parents in State prison 
reported a prior conviction; 
56% had been incarcerated

At the time of their current arrest, 49% of the parents in State
prison were on some type of conditional release from custody,
such as probation or parole supervision in the community.  Of
the parents in State prison, 25% were on parole and 24% were
serving a sentence to probation supervision at the time of
arrest.  

Over three-quarters of parents in State prison reported a prior
sentence to incarceration or probation, while the remainder said
that they were first-time offenders.  Almost half (46%) of
parents in State prison were violent recidivists (repeat
offenders with either a current or past violent offense).  Most
parents in State prison (60%) had served multiple prior
sentences. 

Among State prison inmates the criminal histories of parents and
nonparents did not differ appreciably.  At arrest for their
current offense, about 45% of the nonparents had a criminal
justice status and 74% had a prior conviction.

                             Percent of State
                             prisoners, 1997
Criminal history             Parents     Nonparents

Had a criminal justice                      
status at time of arrest      49.1%         45.1%
 
Had prior sentence to         77.2%         74.0%
probation or incarceration
 
Overall, fathers in State prison reported more serious criminal
histories than mothers.  Fathers (25%) were more likely than
mothers (19%) to have been arrested while on parole release from
a prior prison term.  First-time offenders made up a smaller
share of fathers in State prison (22% compared to 35% of
mothers), and fathers (48%) were also twice as likely as mothers
(23%) to be violent recidivists.  In addition, 44% of fathers
reported at least three prior convictions compared to 32% of
mothers.

Parents in Federal prison (27%) were almost half as likely as
those in State  prison (49%) to report a criminal justice status
at time of arrest, and less likely to report a prior conviction
(62% compared to 77%).  As in State prison, fathers in Federal
facilities (65%) were more likely to be recidivists than mothers
(34%), particularly violent recidivists (23% of fathers, 6% of
mothers).  The percentage of fathers (32%) reporting at least
three prior sentences was nearly triple that of mothers (11%).

A majority of parents in State 
prison used drugs in the month 
before their offense

More than 4 in 5 parents (85%) in State prison reported some
type of past drug use, and a majority (58%) said that they were
using drugs in the month before their current offense. 
Nonparents in State prison reported slightly lower levels of
prior drug use.

                              Percent of State
                              prisoners, 1997
Prior drug use                Parents     Nonparents
Ever                            85.4%        80.3%
In month before offense         58.1         54.9
At the time of the offense      33.6         31.5

Parents in State prison most commonly reported using marijuana
(39%) and cocaine-based drugs (27%), including crack, in the
month before their crimes, followed by heroin and other opiates
(10%), stimulants (9%), depressants (5%), hallucinogens (3%),
and inhalants (1%).

A third of the parents in State prison reported committing their
current offense while under the influence of drugs.  Parents
were most likely to report the influence of cocaine-based drugs
(16%) and marijuana (15%) while committing their crime.  About
equal percentages of parents in State prison reported the use of
opiates (6%) and stimulants (5%) at the time of their offense,
while 2% used depressants or hallucinogens.

1 in 3 mothers in State prison 
committed their crime to get 
drugs or money for drugs

Mothers in State prison reported more serious drug use histories
than fathers.  Mothers in State prison (65%) were more likely
than fathers (58%) to report drug use in the month before their
offense, particularly the use of cocaine or crack (45% of
mothers compared to 26% of fathers).  Mothers (43%) were also
more likely than fathers (33%) to report the influence of drugs
in their current offense.  Mothers were about twice as likely to
have committed their crimes while under the influence of
cocaine-based drugs (28%) or opiates (11%) as fathers (15% and
5%, respectively).

In addition, 32% of mothers in State prison reported committing
their crime to get drugs or money for drugs, compared to 19% of
fathers.  Prior intravenous drug use was also reported more
commonly by mothers (29%) than fathers (19%).

                            Percent of inmate
                            parents in State
                            prison who reported --
                              Male       Female
Committing offense to
get money for drugs           18.5%       32.2%
 
Ever using
intravenous drugs             19.0%       29.2%

While reports of prior drug use were lower among parents in
Federal prison, 3 in 4 had used drugs and nearly half  used
drugs in the month before their offense.  Twenty-three percent
of parents in Federal prison were under the influence of drugs
when committing their offense.  Aside from marijuana use (higher
among fathers), mothers and fathers in Federal prison reported
similar drug use histories.

Over a third of parents in State prison 
committed their offense while under 
the influence of alcohol

Parents in State prison were more likely to report being under
the influence of alcohol (37%) than drugs (34%) while committing
their current offense.  According to the CAGE diagnostic
instrument, 25% of the parents in State prison reported
experiences that are consistent with a history of alcohol
dependence (for details on the CAGE instrument, see
Methodology).  Overall, parents and nonparents in State prison
did not differ in their reports of prior alcohol abuse.

                            Percent of State
                            prisoners, 1997
Prior alcohol abuse         Parents    Nonparents
Alcohol dependent             25.1%      23.7%
 
Under influence of                     
alcohol at time of offense    36.7%      37.8%

Parents in State prison also reported engaging in troubled
behaviors associated with prior alcohol abuse.  About 48% of
parents said that they had driven drunk in the past, 42%
reported arguments with family members and friends while
drinking, and 39% had alcohol-related physical fights.

While similar percentages of fathers (25%) and mothers (23%) in
State prison met the criteria for alcohol dependence, fathers
were more likely to report other indications of alcohol abuse. 
A greater share of fathers (37%) than mothers (29%) reported
committing their crime while drinking.  Fathers in State prison
were also more likely than mothers to report driving drunk (49%
compared to 36%) and getting into physical fights while drinking
(40% and 31%, respectively). 

Compared to State prisoners, parents in Federal prison were less
likely to be alcohol dependent (16%) or to report committing
their offense while drinking (21%).  Lower percentages of the
parents in Federal facilities also reported alcohol-related
fighting (22%) and domestic disputes (30%).  As in State prison,
fathers in Federal prison were also more likely than mothers to
report drunk driving (44% compared to 27%) and alcohol-related
physical fights (23% and 14%, respectively).

About 1 in 7 parents in State 
prison reported indications 
of a mental illness 

In responses to questions regarding mental health, parents in
State prison (14%) were twice as likely as those in Federal
prison (6%) to report indications of a mental illness.  Inmates
were considered mentally ill if they reported either of the
following criteria: a current mental or emotional condition or
an overnight stay in a mental hospital or treatment program. 
Reports of a mental illness were somewhat higher among State
prisoners without children (19%). 

                  Percent of State
                  prisoners, 1997
                  Parents   Nonparents
Mentally ill       14.1%      18.7%

Among parents in State prison, 23% of mothers reported an
indication of mental illness compared to 13% of fathers. 
Reports of mental illness indicators were more similar among
mothers (10%) and fathers (6%) in Federal facilities.

Nearly 20% of mothers in State 
prison had been homeless 
in the year prior to admission

Mothers in State prison (18%) were twice as likely as fathers
(8%) to report a period of homelessness in the year prior to
admission.  Overall, parents in State prison (9%) were more
likely than those in Federal prison (4%) to report being
homeless in the year before admission.  In Federal facilities,
similar percentages of mothers (5%) and fathers (4%) reported
periods of homelessness. 

In the month prior to their arrest, 29% of parents in State and
27% of parents in Federal prison said that they were unemployed.
Half of mothers in State prison were unemployed in the month
before their arrest, compared to a quarter (27%) of fathers. 
The level of unemployment among mothers in Federal prison was
lower (38%) but still exceeded that of fathers (26%). 

Forty-six percent of the parents in State and 53% of parents in
Federal prison reported a personal income of at least $1,000 in
the month before their arrest.  Parents in Federal prison (15%)
were nearly twice as likely as those in State prison (8%) to
report the highest incomes (at least $5,000) in the month before
arrest.  Mothers in both State (70%) and Federal (66%) prison
were more likely than fathers (53% of State, 45% of Federal) to
report incomes below $1,000 in the month before arrest.

In the month before their current arrest, nonparents in State
prison were less likely than parents to be employed (65%), or to
report at least $1,000 of personal income (38%).  Nonparents in
State prison also reported a higher incidence of homelessness in
the past year prior to admission (12%).   

                              Percent of State 
                              prisoners, 1997
                              Parents    Nonparents
Employed during month
before current arrest          70.9%        64.8%
 
Income of at least $1,000
in month before arrest         46.0%        38.2%
 
Homeless in the past year       9.2%        12.3%

Wages or salary were the most common source of income for
parents in both State (66%) and Federal (68%) prison, followed
by income from illegal activities (27% of State, 31% of
Federal).  Eighteen percent of parents in State and 13% in
Federal prison reported income from family and friends.  Parents
in State prison (15%) were more likely than those in Federal
prison (9%) to report receiving transfer payments such as
welfare, Social Security, or compensation payments.  Less than
1% of all parents received child support or alimony payments in
the month before arrest. 

Among State prisoners, mothers (44%) were less likely than
fathers (68%) to receive wages in the month before their arrest,
but were more likely to receive transfer payments (42%, compared
to 13% of fathers) and income from family or friends (26% and
18%).  About 6% of mothers reported receiving child support or
alimony payments, compared to less than 0.5% of fathers. 
Mothers (28%) and fathers (27%) in State prison were equally
likely to report income from illegal sources in their final
month prior to arrest.  

Methodology

Data in this report are based on personal interviews conducted
through the 1997 Surveys of Inmates in State and Federal
Correctional Facilities. Detailed descriptions of the
methodology and sample design of the surveys can be found in the
BJS Special Report, Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and
Federal Prisoners, 1997 (NCJ 172871).   

Accuracy of the estimates

The accuracy of the estimates in this report depends on two
types of error: sampling and nonsampling.  Sampling error is the
variation that may occur by chance because a sample rather a
complete enumeration of the population was conducted. 
Nonsampling error can be attributed to many sources, such as
nonresponses, differences in the interpretation of questions
among inmates, recall difficulties, and processing errors.  For
example, inmates may deny or dispute parenthood and fail to
report children.  The sampling error, as measured by an
estimated standard error, varies by the size of the estimate and
the size of the base population.  

Appendix tables 1 and 2 contain estimates of the standard errors
for selected characteristics of inmate   parents that were
calculated for each survey.  (For other inmate characteristics,
please use the generalized standard error estimates presented in
the appendix tables of Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and
Federal Prisoners, 1997.)  

The standard errors included in the appendix tables below may be
used to construct confidence intervals around percentages.  For
example, the 95% confidence interval around the percentage of
parents in State prison who reported a prior conviction is
approximately 77.2% plus or minus 1.96 times 0.62% (or 76.0% to
78.4%).   

These standard errors may also be used to test the statistical
significance of the difference between two sample statistics by
pooling the standard errors of the two sample estimates.  For
example, the standard error of the difference between mothers
and fathers in State prison who were violent offenders would be
1.46% (or the square root of the sum of the squared standard
errors for each group).  The 95% confidence interval around the
difference would be 1.96 times 1.46 (or 2.86%).  Since the
difference of 19.4% (45.4% minus 26.0%) is greater than 2.86%,
the difference would be considered statistically significant.   

CAGE diagnostic instrument for alcohol dependence

The CAGE questionnaire is a diagnostic instrument for detecting
a person's history of alcohol abuse or depen-dence.  In a
clinical test, three or more positive responses to the four CAGE
questions carried a .99 predictive value for alcohol abuse or
dependence.  For further information on the predictive values of
the CAGE instrument, see the article "Screening for Alcohol
Abuse Using the CAGE Questionnaire" by B. Bush and others, The
American Journal of Medicine, Vol. 82, February 1987, pp.231-35.

The Bureau of Justice Statistics 
is the statistical agency of the 
U.S. Department of Justice.  
Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D., is director.


BJS Special Reports address 
a specific topic in depth from one
or more datasets that cover many topics.
Christopher J. Mumola wrote this report 
under the supervision of Allen J. Beck.  
Laura M. Maruschak and Todd D. Minton provided
statistical assistance.  Tom Hester and 
Ellen Goldberg edited the report.  Jayne 
Robinson prepared the report for publication.

August 2000, NCJ 182335

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8/25/00 ih