WORLD FACTBOOK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEMS 

SINGAPORE

Mahesh Nalla
Michigan State University

This country report is one of many prepared for
the World Factbook of Criminal Justice Systems
under Bureau of Justice Statistics grant No.
90-BJ-CX-0002 to the State University of New York
at Albany.  The project director was Graeme R.
Newman, but responsibility for the accuracy of the
information contained in each report is that of
the individual author.  The contents of these
reports do not necessarily reflect the views or
policies of the Bureau of Justice Statistics or
the U. S. Department of Justice.

GENERAL OVERVIEW

1. Political system. 

     Singapore is a city/nation with a population
of 2.6 million.  77% of its population are
Chinese, 15%, Malays, and 6%, Indian.  The four
official languages of Singapore are English,
Mandarin Chinese, Malay, and Tamil. (Vreeland,
et.al., 1977).
     The Republic of Singapore is a parliamentary
government patterned after the English Westminster
model.  The constitution provides the structure
and organization of the executive, legislative,
and judicial branches of the government.
(Vreeland, et.al., 1977). 

2. Legal system

     The legal system in Singapore is adversarial
in nature. English common law was superimposed on
the existing Malay customary law and Muslim law. 
Consequently, the legal system in Singapore can be
characterized as pluralistic.  While the dominant
common law which shaped the Singapore legal system
applies to all segments of the population, Muslim
law governs the Muslim community in religious and
matrimonial matters.  Muslim law is administered
in accordance with the Administration of Muslim
Law Act, Cap.42. (Woon, 1989).

3. History of the criminal justice system.  

     The country was founded in 1819 by Sir Thomas
Stampford Raffles for the British East India
Company.  At that time, it was a 263 square mile
island with 150 residents.  Raffles set up a
police force to maintain English Law with a
sergeant and 12 constables.  By 1961, the force
had grown to 440 men. (Vreeland, et.al., 1977;
Harman, 1991).    
     For the first 25 years after the English East
India Company acquired Singapore, legal chaos
prevailed.  The company's officers administered
justice according to the dictates of their
consciences, administering Malay and Chinese law
to the locals but exerting no control over
European and British subjects (Chen, undated;
Leong, 1991).  
     In 1826 the English East India Company
granted a Second Charter to serve Singapore,
Penang, and Malacca.  During this period, the
Singapore courts modeled the English legal system. 
As Singapore developed into an international port,
piracy problems developed.  Consequently, marine
patrols were introduced which are still a part of
the Singapore Police Force today.  The
introduction of motor cars brought about
additional changes in the police force. 
Specialized units were introduced as new problems
emerged.  The establishment of an internal
security branch in 1919, a marine branch in 1919,
and a traffic branch in 1936 attest to the
flexibility of the police department in adjusting
to new situations. (Harman 1991; Vreeland, et.al.,
1977).
     The Singapore police force was destroyed
after World War II. After the war, in 1945, the
British helped to rebuild the force. For the first
time, Asians became officers and a women's unit
was established.  In 1963, Singapore joined with
the Federation of Malay to form Malaysia. 
Singapore then gained independence in 1965.  In
1969, the police force of the Republic of
Singapore replaced its Khaki uniforms with blue
uniforms, thus shedding its last vestiges of
colonialism. (Vreeland, 1977).
     Although Singapore's legal system borrowed
heavily from the English law, it has, to a lesser
extent, also retained legal influences from other
sources.  For instance, the Singapore Penal Code
and Criminal Procedure Code were borrowed
primarily from India in the 19th century. (Chen,
undated). 

CRIME

1. Classification of crime.

*Legal classification.  Crimes in Singapore are
classified as either seizable or non-seizable
offenses.  For example, seizable offenses (Class
I) include crimes against persons, such as murder,
hurt and grievous hurt, intimidation, and
outraging modesty.  Class II seizable offenses
include violent property crimes including
attempted extortion, simple robbery, and armed
robbery. (Pakiam and Lim, 1983).
     Class III seizable offenses include
housebreaking and related crimes such as theft of
motor vehicles, theft of bicycles, theft outside
dwelling, theft in dwelling, and cheating; Class
IV includes theft and related crimes, such as
arson; and Class V includes fraud, forgery, and
related crimes, such as offenses against the
currency.  Class VI is divided into group A, which
includes "other" seizable offenses and group B,
which covers seizable offenses not treated as
crimes, and group C, which covers non-seizable
offenses.  Seizable offenses are punishable by a
minimum of 3 years in prison.

*Age of criminal responsibility.  The age of
criminal responsibility is 7.  However, a child
between 7 and 12 years old, who in the viewpoint
of the judge does not have sufficient
understanding of the nature and consequences of
the crime, is exempt from criminal responsibility.
(Singapore Penal Code, Sect. 82,83).

*Drug offenses.  The Misuse of Drugs Act (MDA)
enacted in 1973 is the most stringent law intended
to fight the drug problem in Singapore.  Drugs
which are considered serious include heroin,
morphine, and opium.  Punishments for drug
offenses include whipping, jail sentences, and
long prison terms, sometimes up to 30 years.
(Leong, 1990; Jayasuriya, 1984). 
     The MDA was amended in 1975 to allow the
death penalty for drug offenses.  The act allows
the death penalty for the unauthorized manufacture
of heroin and morphine, irrespective of the
amounts involved.  Further, the trafficking of
more than 30 grams of morphine or more than 15
grams of heroin is also punishable by death.
(Leong, 1990). 

2. Crime statistics.

     The following data were extracted from the
International Crime Statistics compiled by
Interpol.  The figures represent total crimes
known to police and rates per 100,000 population.

*Murder.  In 1990, 44 cases of homicide/murder
were reported to the police, for a rate of 1.5 per
100,000 population.  (The number of
homicides/murder cases recorded by police and
their respective rates per 100,000 population for
previous years: 70 (2.6) (1989); 54 (2.04) (1988);
50 (1.9) (1987); 66 (2.6) (1986); and 70 (2.7)
(1985).)  Attempts are included.

*Rape.  In 1990, 111 cases of rape were reported
to the police, for a rate of 3.7 per 100,000
population.  (The number of rapes recorded by
police and their respective rates per 100,000
population for previous years: 100 (3.7) (1989);
96 (3.63) (1988); 99 (3.8) (1987); 111 (4.3)
(1986); and 85 (3.3) (1985).)  Attempts are
included.

*Robbery and violent theft.  In 1990, 1,787 cases
of robbery and violent theft were reported to the
police, for a rate of 59.5 per 100,000 population. 
(The number of cases of robbery and violent theft
recorded by police and their respective rates per
100,000 population for previous years: 1,622
(60.4) (1989); 1,674 (63.2) (1988); 1,681
(64.3)(1987); 1,676 (64.8) (1986); and 1,628
(63.6) (1985).)  Attempts are included.

*Serious drug offense.  Information not available.

*Crime regions.  Information not available.

VICTIMS
1. Groups most victimized by crime.  

     Information is not available on the breakdown
of victimizations.  However, it is believed that
victimization of tourists is a problem in
Singapore.  Singapore's reputation as a duty-free
port attracts a large tourist population.  Pocket
picking is very common.  

2. Victims' assistance agencies. 

     There exists the Family Relations Section of
the State Ministry of Community Development. 
There are also several private victims
organizations, such as Bethany, the Good Shepard
Centre, the Counseling and Care Centre, the
Samaritan of Singapore, and the Singapore
Association of Women Lawyers. 

3. Role of victim in prosecution and sentencing.
Information not available. 

4. Victims' rights legislation.  Information not
available.

POLICE 

1. Administration.

     The constitution of the police force is
provided in section 7 of the Police Force Act
(PFA), first enacted in 1857.  The structure and
organization of the police force in Singapore are
based on the Staff and Line structure, similar to
the military. The police force is an integral part
of the Ministry of Home Affairs and has a service
motto of Setia Ban Bakti (Loyalty and Service).
(Harman, 1991).
     The highest authority of the police force is
the Commissioner of Police.  The Commissioner
draws authority from the Police Force Act, and is
responsible for all police force activities and
determines its policy of operation. (Harman,
1991). 
     The force is divided into senior and junior
officers.  Senior officers occupy the ranks of
Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner, Senior
Assistant Commissioner, Assistant Commissioner,
Deputy Assistant Commissioner, Superintendent,
Deputy Superintendent, Assistant Superintendent,
and Inspector.  Junior officers occupy the ranks
of Station Inspector, Senior Staff Sergeant, Staff
Sergeant, Sergeant, Corporal, and Constable.
(Harman, 1991). 

2. Resources.

*Expenditures.  In 1990, the budget was
approximately S$330 million. (Harman, 1991).

*Number of police.  In 1990, police strength stood
at 7,480 officers, (Harman, 1991) with 680 senior
officers and 6,800 junior officers.  The first
female police officer was recruited in 1948. In
1990, there were 35 female senior officers and 980
junior officers.  To date, the highest rank
achieved by a woman is deputy superintendent.
(Harman, 1991). 

3. Technology.

*Availability of police automobiles.  Various
modes of transportation include 414 marked and
unmarked cars, 231 station wagons, 211
motorcycles, 230 scooters, and 115 heavy vehicles. 
Motorcycles are used for traffic enforcement,
while cars and minibuses are used primarily for
anti-crime patrols and escort duties.  In
addition, foot and bicycle patrols are regularly
deployed by Neighborhood Police Post officers.
(Harman, 1991).

*Electronic equipment.  Electronic equipment in
use by police includes the Telebox, Fax, the
Financial Administrative Control System, CPIS
(Central Personnel Information System), portable
transceivers, and cellular phones.   The Singapore
police department is also equipped with a Combined
Operations Room (COR) which serves as the main
command and control nerve center and has a Call
Distribution System (ACD) for handling emergency
calls. (Harman, 1991).
     All operational centers are linked by a
Message Switching System (SMS), Computer-Aided
Dispatch system (ACD), and the Local Area Networks
(LAN).  Computers are not only used in issuing
traffic tickets and monitoring traffic violations,
but also for the Automatic Fingerprint
Identification System which became operational in
1992. (Harman, 1991).

*Weapons.  Smith & Wesson (.38 caliber) revolvers,
automatic handguns, rifles, pump action guns, riot
guns, submachine guns, bulletproof vests, and
smoke screens are used by the police force.  The
Police Tactical team, called upon in armed
offender incidents, is equipped with HK7 pistols
and HK M5 submachine guns. (Harman, 1991). 

4. Training and qualifications.

     Basic training is required for all candidates
and is conducted in a residential training program
in the Police Academy.  The training period varies
for different entrants.  The duration of training
is 6 months for Constables, 10 months for
Inspectors and Assistant Superintendents, 3 months
for National Serviceman, and 9 months for Officer
Cadet Trainees. (Harman, 1991).  
     Training includes course work in law, police
procedures, government instructions, and practical
training in order to equip officers with the
skills, knowledge, and attitudes required for a
law enforcement officer.  Other programs are also
available, such as pre-promotional training,
vocational training to upgrade skills, and
developmental training to prepare officers for
higher responsibilities. (Harman, 1991).  
     The Police Academy provides basic training to
both new and serving officers of the Singapore
Police Force (SPF).   Their training includes 30
course offerings for senior and junior officers. 
Training is also offered by Specialist Training
Units for serving officers of SPF.  The programs
are conducted at the Police Security Branch,
Police Coast Guard, Traffic Police, Special
Operations Command, Criminal Investigations
Department, and the Computer Operations Command.
(Vreeland, et.al., 1977; Harman 1991). 
     Training is also available for the management
and supervisory cadre at the Civil Service
Institute, Singapore Institute of Management,
National Productivity Board, and other educational
institutions in Singapore.  About 40 SPF officers
are sent overseas annually for advanced training
at the FBI, Scotland Yard, and the Japan National
Police Academy. (Vreeland, et.al., 1977; Harman
1991).  
     The minimum educational qualification for
entry into the senior officer cadre is a graduate
degree.  Junior officers are required to have
three high school credits.  All candidates must
have no physical impediments. (Harman, 1991). 

5. Discretion.

*Use of force.  The use of a baton to subdue a
disorderly person after every other means has
failed would be considered reasonable force. 
Deadly force, including firing a gun, is
authorized and regulated by law.  During
peacetime, a firearm can be used by an officer who
is in imminent danger of being killed or seriously
injured.  It can also used by an officer in
situations where an offender has committed rape or
kidnapping/abduction, and to protect property or
prevent robbery and burglary.  During a state of
emergency, an officer can use a weapon against
persons suspected of carrying weapons and
explosives to destroy property or cause injury to
others.

*Stop/apprehend a suspect.  A police officer may
arrest a person without warrant for any seizable
offense, when a complaint is received, when there
is reasonable suspicion, when illegal behavior is
discovered, or when suspected stolen goods are in
a person's possession.  According to Section 33 of
the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC), an officer can
make an arrest for a non-seizable offense if the
accused refuses to identify himself or herself on
demand. Section 16(1)(b) of the National
Registration Act Cap 201 allows the police to
arrest any individual not carrying an
identification card who refuses to provide his or
her name and address.

*Decision to arrest.  An arrest is made by
touching or confining the person to be arrested,
unless the person submits to custody by word or
actions.  An arrest can be made with or without
warrants. The CPC prescribes various circumstances
under which a police officer can arrest without a
warrant.  A private person can also arrest an
individual who commits a non-bailable and seizable
offense or is wanted by law enforcement and about
whom notice has been given.
     Generally, police do not take any action in
the case of minor complaints such as domestic
quarrels.  If the complainant wishes, the police
may refer the matter to a magistrate to file a
private complaint and initiate a private
prosecution.  In serious cases, the police conduct
investigations by working closely with the
Attorney-General's Chambers.

*Search and seizure.  An officer can search an
arrested person without a warrant.  All articles
found on the person can also be seized by the
officer if the officer believes these items are
tools of a crime.  According to Section 125 of the
CPC, in the case of a seizable offense, searching
any place for documents and other pieces of
evidence that are necessary for the investigations
and that are otherwise unlikely to be obtained is
permissible.

*Confessions.  The Evidence Act, Section 17,
defines a confession as an admission made at any
time by a person accused of an offense, stating or
suggesting that he or she committed that offense.
Section 24 of the Evidence Act states that a
confession caused by inducement, threat or promise
is inadmissible in a criminal proceeding. 

6. Accountability.  Information not available.

PROSECUTORIAL AND JUDICIAL PROCESS 

1. Rights of the accused.

*Rights of the accused. The accused is presumed
innocent until proven otherwise. Under the
Singapore Constitution, the accused person must be
notified of the grounds for arrest.  The Singapore
Constitution also guarantees every arrested person
a right to consult and be defended by a legal
practitioner of his or her choice.  The amended
CPC Act of 1976 has also distinguished the
accused's right to remain silent in the course of
a police investigation. (Constitution, Art.9(3).)

*Assistance to the accused.   The Legal Aid Bureau
of the government provides legal aid for civil
cases.  Further, the Law Society of Singapore
provides legal aid in non-capital cases.  In cases
of crimes carrying the death penalty, the
Registrar of the Supreme Court in the government's
behalf assigns a lawyer for the defense.

*Preparatory procedures for bringing a suspect to
trial.  In minor cases, an officer will go to the
scene of a crime to investigate the offense and to
arrest any alleged offenders.  Officers are also
authorized to have special powers to initiate
investigations of serious offenses.  When a police
investigation discloses an offense, the Attorney
General's Chambers (AG) has the discretion to
initiate a criminal prosecution.
     Upon completion of the investigation, the
prosecutor will initiate the criminal prosecution
and the case will be prepared for trial.  The
charge notifies the accused of the offense.  The
offender may be tried in a Magistrate's Court, a
District Court, or High Court depending on the
seriousness of the offense.
     After a review of the case, the Magistrate
issues a summons or a warrant of arrest to the
accused.  An examining magistrate then conducts an
investigation to determine if the case against the
accused justifies proceedings in the High Court.
     Recently, a process has been instituted in
Singapore courts to obtain information from the
involved parties before commencement of the trial
to help determine the nature of the case.  The
objective of this procedure is to expedite
proceedings by ensuring that the parties are ready
for trial.
     As a general rule, all criminal cases are
tried by a single judge, with the exception of
capital offense trials, which are conducted by
courts consisting of two High Court Judges.

*Official who conducts prosecution.  All criminal
proceedings for the state are represented by the
public prosecutor.  The Attorney General's (AG)
Chamber has the sole prosecutorial discretion and
is responsible for all criminal prosecutions.  To
ease the workload of the AG's office, deputy
public prosecutors supervise specially trained
police prosecutors to conduct the prosecution of
lesser crimes.

*Alternatives to trial.  The Attorney General, who
is a Public Prosecutor, has the discretion to
initiate, conduct, or discontinue any proceedings
for any offense.

*Proportion of prosecuted cases going to trial. 
Information not available.

*Pre-trial incarceration conditions.  Information
not available.

*Bail Procedure.  An accused may be released on
bail on the condition that he or she appears
before the court or police until the case is
complete and that the person may not leave
Singapore without permission from the court or
police.  An accused may be released on bail if the
offense is bailable or if the accused or a surety
provides bail.  However, the court or police have
the power to release the individual on bail
without a surety.

*Proportion of pre-trial offenders incarcerated. 
Information not available. 

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

1. Administration.
     The Singapore judicial system has three tiers
of courts which resemble the English system.  The
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is at the
top of the hierarchy, followed by the Supreme
Courts, and the Subordinate courts.  The judicial
power is vested in the Supreme Court and in the
Subordinate courts.  The Judicial Committee Act
determines select cases to be heard by the Privy
Council, which is the ultimate Court of Appeals in
the Singapore legal system. (The Europa World Year
Book, 1993: 2516).
     The Supreme Court of Judicature Act
established the Supreme Court of Singapore, which
consists of the High Court, the Court of Appeals,
and the Court of Criminal Appeal.  The High Court
has unlimited original jurisdiction in criminal
and civil cases. (The Europa World Year Book,
1993: 2516). 
     The Subordinate Court Act incorporated the
Subordinate Courts comprising the District Claims
Courts, Magistrate Courts, Juvenile Courts,
Coroners' Courts, and the Small Claims Courts. 
There are 30 District and Magistrates Courts, one
Juvenile Court, and one Coroner's Court.  District
and Magistrates' Courts have original criminal and
civil jurisdiction.  While the District Courts try
cases with a maximum 10 year prison penalty, the
Magistrates' Courts try offenses for which the
maximum term does not exceed 3 years.  Further,
the Administration of Muslim Law Act established
the Shariah Court.  (The Europa World Year Book,
1993: 2516).    

2. Special courts. 

Juvenile Court.  The Juvenile Court was created by
the Children and Young Person Act of 1949.  This
Act prescribes the method for processing juvenile
delinquents between fourteen and sixteen years 
old.  Proceedings of this court are not open to
the public. 

Coroner's Court.  The Coroner is appointed by the
President on the recommendation of the Chief
Justice.  The coroner may issue a warrant for
persons suspected of causing a death. 

3. Judges.
*Number of judges.  In 1992, there were 11 judges,
including the Chief Justice, and 10 Judicial
Commissioners in the Supreme Court. (The Europa
World Year Book, 1993: 2516).

*Appointment and qualifications.  Supreme Court
Judges are appointed by the President, who acts on
the advice of the Prime Minister and the Chief
Justice.  Qualifications for appointment to the
Supreme Court are described in Article 96 of the
Constitution.
     Subordinate Judges are generally members of
the Singapore Legal Service.  They do not enjoy
the security of tenure.  District Court Judges and
Magistrates are appointed by the President on the
recommendation of the Chief Justice. 

PENALTIES AND SENTENCING

1. Sentencing process.

*Who determines the sentence?   Sentences are
passed by the court. The High Court can determine
the sentence authorized by the law, while the
District and Magistrate's courts are restricted in
the type of sentences they can impose. (Leong
1990).

*Is there a special sentencing hearing?  There is
no special sentencing hearing (Leong 1990).

*Which persons have input into the sentencing
process? Information not available. 

2. Types of penalties.

*Range of penalties.  The range of penalties
include fines, strokes of the cane, various other
non-custodial alternatives, imprisonment, and
death. 
     There are many alternatives to incarceration
provided by the Singapore Penal Code. For
instance, non-custodial sanctions can be imposed
such as fines, conditional discharge, absolute
discharge, and probation orders.  There are also
alternatives to imprisonment at the post-sentence
stage, such as a sentence remission and a
work-release scheme.  Prisoners sentenced to death
are not eligible for these programs. (Chieng,1990)
     Non-custodial sanctions for juvenile
offenders include options such as acquittal or
discharge, release on bond, commitment to the care
of a relative, probation, and parole for offenders
released from approved schools.  In addition, new
programs such as home detention and community
service are being tried as viable non-custodial
sanctions. (Hah, 1984)

*Death penalty.  The Ddath penalty is prescribed
for murder and the trafficking of certain
controlled drugs.  The method of execution is by
hanging. (Jayasuriya, 1984).  

PRISON 

1. Description.

*Number of prisons and type.  The information on
the number and type of prisons are largely derived
from the 1970's.  This dated material states that
Singapore prisons held a daily average of
approximately 3,000 prisoners.  Prison programs
focused on rehabilitation and individualized
treatment and the prisoners were segregated by sex
and age. (Vreeland, et.al., 1977).  
     During the same time period there were 4
prisons for adult males, one female minimum
security prison, and a training school for
juvenile offenders between 16 and 21 years old. 
Juveniles below 16 years old were sent by the
courts to approved homes for girls or boys.  
     The Queenstown Remand Prison is a minimum
security prison and serves the purpose of
receiving and classifying new convicts and those
awaiting trial.  The Changi Prison is a maximum
security prison for those with a prison sentence
exceeding 3 years.  In addition, the Moon Crescent
at Changi and the Khasa Crescent Centers serve as
a medium security prison and a detention home for
those awaiting trail.  The prison system also
includes pre-release centers to assist long term
prisoners with their reentry into society.
(Vreeland, et.al., 1977).

*Number of prison beds. Information not available.

*Number of annual admissions.  In 1988, the
incarceration rate was 183.3 per 100,000
population.  Those committed to Drug
Rehabilitation Centers were excluded in this
figure. (Chieng 1990).

*Average daily population/number of prisoners. 
Information not available.

*Actual or estimated proportions of inmates
incarcerated. Information not available. 

2. Administration.

*Administration.  The Director of Prisons is in
charge of the Prisons Department, which is housed
in the Ministry of Home Affairs. (Vreeland,
et.al., 1977).

*Number of prison guards.  Information not
available.

*Training and qualifications.  Information not
available.

*Expenditure on prison system. Information not
available. 

3. Prison conditions. 

*Remissions.  Information not available.

*Work/education.  Educational and vocational
training programs are available for prisoners to
assist in their rehabilitation.

*Amenities/privileges.  Information not available. 

EXTRADITION AND TREATIES

*Extradition.  Information not available.

*Exchange and transfer of prisoners.  Information
not available.

*Specified conditions.  Information not available.

SOURCES

Chen, H. Year, An Introduction to the Singapore
     Legal System. (unknown publisher, date).
Chieng, L.K. "Use of Noncustodial Sanctions in the
     Treatment of   Law Breakers in Singapore"
     Resource Material #38. U.N. Asiaand Far East
     Institute,(Tokyo: UNAFEI), 1990. 
Gale Research, Inc., Countries of the World and
     Their Leaders: Singapore. Vol. 2. (Detroit:
     Gale Research), Inc., 1994. 
Hah, N.B., "Existing Juvenile Justice System in
     Singapore", Resource Material #25. U.N. Asia
     and Far East Institute, (Tokyo: UNAFEI),
     1984. 
Harman, A. "Singapore: From Humble Beginnings,
     This Country's Police Force is Now the
     Epitome of Modern Policing", Law and
     Order. April: 18-22, 1991. 
Jayasuriya, D.C., "Penal Measures for Drug
     Offenses: Perspectives From Some Asian
     Countries", Bulletin on Narcotics. Vol. 38,
     1984, pp. 9-15. 
Leong, Andrew Phang Boon, The Development of
     Singapore Law: Historical and Socio-Legal
     Perspectives. (Singapore: Butterworth), 1990.
Pakiam, J.E., and E. M. Lim, "Temporal Patterns of
     Crime in Singapore", International Journal of
     Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice.
     Vol.7, 1983, pp. 159-194. 
The Europa World Year Book, Singapore. (London:
     Europa Publications), 1993. 
Vreeland, Nena, Glenn B. Dana, Geffrey B. Hurwitz,
     Peter Just, and R.S. Shinn, Area Handbook for
     Singapore. (Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government
     Printing Office), 1977. 
Woon, W., The Singapore Legal System. (Singapore:
     Longman), 1989.

Mahesh Nalla
Assistant Professor
School of Criminal Justice
Michigan State University
Baker Hall
East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1118
United States
Tel: 517-355-2228/2197