Time Line

New Bedford and National events

        1602  Bartholomew Gosnold landed at Smoking Rocks (site of future New
        Bedford) and reported the presence of a large native population.

        1652  Territory of Dartmouth deed conveyed to William Bradford and
        others by Massasoit and his son Wamsutta.  The first settlers were
        mostly Quakers who emigrated from Portsmouth, Rhode Island, and
        Plymouth and Taunton, Massachusetts.

        1664  Town of Dartmouth received charter.  New Bedford, Fairhaven,
        and Acushnet were originally part of Dartmouth.

        1675-76  King Phillips War.  During this Anglo-Native American conflict
        many of the original homes in Dartmouth were destroyed. 

        1690  Eleven to 13 families owned land in what is now New Bedford.
        The early settlers were subsistence farmers.  They cleared land, but the
        amount of land cleared probably had a minimal effect on the harbor.

        1755  Economy in New Bedford and Fairhaven was shifting from farming
        to whaling, ship-building, and import/export trade.  First locally owned
        whaler shipped out of New Bedford.

        1765  Joseph Rotch arrived from Nantucket with money and expertise to
        advance the whale fishery in New Bedford.  

        1775  40 to 50 whaleships registered in New Bedford.

        1775-1783  American Revolution. The British Navy blockaded the American
        coast so the whale fishery was idle during much of the war.  

        1778  British burned part of New Bedford during the American
        Revolution, but the maritime economy was well enough established that the
        town was rebuilt.

        1787  New Bedford incorporated as a town.

        1798  First New Bedford-Fairhaven bridge built to improve commercial
        ties between Bedford village (later New Bedford) on west side of the
        harbor and Fairhaven and Oxford villages on the east side.  The bridge
        changed the water circulation and sediment deposition patterns in the
        harbor.  Sediment accumulated north of the bridge along the eastern shore
        at Oxford, and whaleships were no longer able to get to the docks there.
        Development in Fairhaven village was physically limited by the adjacent
        farmers refusal to sell land for commercial development.  Therefore,
        Bedford village (New Bedford) became the commercial center of the harbor.

        1807  Embargo of 1807 halted all trade with Europe and put a damper
        on the whale fishery.

        1812  War of 1812.  The British Navy blockaded the American coast
        so the whale fishery was idle during much of the war.

        1807  New Bedford-Fairhaven Bridge partially destroyed by wind driven tide.

        1815  By 1815, twelve wharves had been built along the New Bedford
        shoreline.  Wharves changed the water circulation and sedimentation
        patterns in the harbor.

        1815  New Bedford-Fairhaven Bridge destroyed by hurricane.

        1819  New Bedford-Fairhaven Bridge rebuilt.

        1830s Discovery of huge anthracite coalfields in Pennsylvania
        supplied high-quality fuel for industrial use.  Coal was a plentiful
        and inexpensive energy source for industry and railroads (Melosi,
        1980).  Coal combustion is a source of PAHs, mercury, and arsenic.

        1839  New Bedford Harbor first dredged by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
        to improve access to docks on New Bedford waterfront.

        1848  Wamsutta Mill built in New Bedford. It was the first successful
        textile mill in the city.

        1852  First sewers in New Bedford.  These sewer lines were located
        on east-west streets and drained directly into the harbor.

        1857  Peak of whaling in New Bedford.  In this year, 329 whaling ships
        listed New Bedford as home port.  Wharves built along the New Bedford
        shore (22 by 1851) to accommodate the whaling ships caused changes in
        water circulation and sedimentation patterns in the harbor.  Sewage
        (see 1852) began to accumulate at the ends of the pipes along the New 
        Bedford shore (see 1870).

        1857  A nationwide depression caused the prices of whale oil to drop.

        1859  Discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania eliminated the need for
        whale oil as an illuminant and contributed to the decline of whaling.

        1859  Great Richmond and Wilcox Wharf fire in New Bedford.  Lumber
        yards, oil, and many buildings burned.

        1860  New Bedford Copper located on the waterfront in New Bedford.
        This company supplied copper sheathing for ships hulls and other
        maritime uses.  In 1928, it was bought out by Revere Copper and Brass.
        Recent studies indicate that copper concentrations in sediments taken
        from the harbor near the location of this company are very high
        (> 1000ug/g dry wt) (Nelson et al., 1996).

        1861-1865  Civil War.  This war disrupted the economy of the whole
        nation.  During the war, a number of New Bedford whaling ships were
        lost: 24 ships were filled with rocks and sunk at the entrance to
        Charleston and Savannah harbors; 28 ships were stopped and burned by
        the Confederate raiders.  This loss of whaling ships contributed to
        the decline of whaling.
  
        1869  New Bedford Water Works completed.  The public supply of
        water made expansion of the textile industry possible.  The number
        of textile mills went from 2 in 1880, to 35 in 1925.

        1869  Great gale destroys New Bedford-Fairhaven Bridge, was rebuilt
        by 1870.

        1870  Edward P. Haskill filed a law suit against New Bedford for the
        large amount of sewage that had accumulated at the end of his dock,
        causing bad odors and restricting boat access to the dock.  He won the
        suit.

        1871 and 1876  Forty-five whaling ships from New Bedford were crushed
        in the Arctic Ice. This loss of ships contributed to the decline of
        whaling.

        1875-1876  A channel was dredged between the wharves at Fairhaven and
        the wharves at New Bedford.   From 1875 to 1952, the Army Corps of
        Engineers dredged numerous times to create, widen and deepen, and
        maintain a shipping channel approaching the harbor, and channels,
        turning areas, and anchorage areas within the harbor. Dredging was done
        in various areas of the harbor or the approach to the harbor in the
        following years: 1877-1891, 1893 -1894, 1896-1897, 1899-1900, 1902-1903,
        1905-1913, 1916-1917, 1919, 1923, 1927, 1931-1933, 1935-1936, 1938-1940,
        1944-1945, 1950, 1952. 

        1892  Coggeshall Street Bridge completed.  This bridge serves as
        the dividing line between what is currently called the upper and lower
        harbor.

        1899  New Bedford Board of Health reported that swimming in the Acushnet
        River was dangerous to health.

        1899-1903  New Bedford-Fairhaven Bridge replaced by a steel bridge
        with a swivel section in middle, between Fish Island and Popes Island.
        The Fairhaven end of bridge was moved north to Main St.

        1900  By 1900, 16 textile mills in New Bedford. Many of these mills were
        built on wetlands. The loss of these wetlands meant decreased habitat
        available for resident and migratory species, and decreased nursery
        areas for aquatic species.  The function of these wetlands, filtering
        excess nutrients, pollutants, and microorganisms in runoff from the
        land, and providing erosion control for the shoreline, was also lost.

        1900-1903  There were 575 cases of typhoid fever (caused by eating
        contaminated shellfish) reported in New Bedford.

        1904  Massachusetts State Board of Health closed the Acushnet River to
        shellfishing because of bacterial contamination from sewage.

        1909  Model T Ford. This was the start of the automobile era.  During the
        next 20 years, demand for yarns to make tires helped expand the textile
        industry in New Bedford.

        1910  Acushnet Processing located in Acushnet on the shore of upper
        New Bedford Harbor. This plant reprocessed tires and produced organic
        and acid waste.  In the summer of 1920, these wastes were called
        objectionable in a report on the sanitary condition of the Acushnet
        River (Kelley, 1921).

        1912  Construction of interceptor sewer line started.  This interceptor
        line was to connect sewer lines in New Bedford and deliver the wastes
        to an outfall located off the end of Clarks Point. (See 1920s below).

        1920  By 1920, there were 31 textile mills in New Bedford, and the
        population of the city had expanded to 121,000.  This growth meant a
        lot more sewage was being emptied into the harbor.

        1920s Interceptor sewer line partially completed.  Five of nine
        pumping districts were connected to the interceptor line. Construction
        was stopped until 1947. The interceptor line lessened the amount of raw
        sewage emptying into New Bedford Harbor but did not stop it. The sewer
        system is a combined one, with storm water from streets and wastewater
        from homes and industries emptying into the same pipes.  In periods of
        heavy rainfall, raw sewage still empties into the harbor through
        combined sewage overflows (CSOs). By 2006, 11 of 24 CSOs in upper and
        lower New Bedford Harbor had been eliminated (see text on Environmental
        Awareness page).

        1921  Thomas Midgely of General Motors Research Laboratory found that
        the addition of tetraethyl lead to gasoline provided an inexpensive
        way to eliminate engine knock.

        1923-1924  Leaded gasoline was commercially available.

        1925  Textile industry in New Bedford peaked at 35 mills.

        1928  Mill workers strike in New Bedford. The strike weakened the
        economic condition of the mills and contributed to the end of textile
        manufacture in New Bedford.

        1929  Stock market crash.  The crash affected the economy in the U.S.
        and contributed to the end of textile manufacture in New Bedford. 

        1929  PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) first produced.  Monsanto
        Corporation commercially manufactured and sold PCB blends and mixtures
        (under the trade name Aroclor) in the U.S. from 1929 to 1977.

        1930s Great Depression. The Depression affected the economy in the
        U.S. and contributed to the end of textile manufacture in New Bedford. 

        1930s Expansion of New Bedford as a commercial fishing port.  This
        expansion continued into the 1980s.

        1938  Hurricane damaged boats and waterfront businesses and houses
        in New Bedford, Fairhaven, and Acushnet.

        1939  Aerovox Corp. moved into an empty mill building on the
        waterfront of upper New Bedford Harbor.  Until 1978, Aerovox used
        PCBs in the manufacture of electronic capacitors. The plant, land
        around the plant, sediment in the harbor near the plant, and sewer
        lines were contaminated with PCBs.

        1941  Cornell Dubilier moved into an empty mill building on the
        east side of Clarks Point. They used PCBs in the manufacture of
        electronic capacitors.

        1954  Hurricane Carol damaged boats, waterfront businesses and
        houses in New Bedford, Fairhaven, and Acushnet.

        1964-1965  Hurricane Barrier built.  This barrier across entrance of
        New Bedford Harbor was built to protect the fishing fleet and
        waterfront businesses from storm damage. The hurricane barrier probably
        affected sedimentation rates and patterns, water residence times,and
        circulation patterns in the harbor. (Abdelrhman, 2000)

        1968  Concern about PCBs in the environment first noted by a Swedish
        scientist (Weaver, 1984).
  
        1969  Fairhaven water Pollution Control Facility, with secondary
        treatment of waste, was built. The discharge is into lower New Bedford
        Harbor.

        1973  Beginning of phase out of leaded gasoline.  Unleaded gasoline
        was available.

        1974  Route I 195 bridge built across Acushnet River (just south of
        the Coggeshall St. Bridge)

        1974  New Bedford Sewage treatment plant completed (primary treatment).
        Outfall is off the end of Clarks Point. But during periods of heavy
        rainfall, raw sewage still enters the harbor through the combined sewer
        overflows (CSOs).

        1976  Presence of PCBs in New Bedford Harbor documented by researchers.

        1978  U.S. EPA bans the sale of PCBs.

        1979  Massachusetts Department of Public Health closed New Bedford
        Harbor to taking of all fish and shellfish because of residues of PCBs
        found in fish and clams.

        1982  New Bedford Harbor placed on National Priorities List for cleanup
        under Superfund legislation.

        1984  Port of New Bedford ranked number one in nation based on value of
        fish landed.

        1987  Industrial pretreatment program in effect in New Bedford.
        Industries required to pre-treat wastes before discharging into the sewer.

        1994-1995  Army Corps of Engineers dredged about 14000 cubic yards of
        PCB-contaminated sediment spread over about 5 acres of upper New Bedford
        Harbor.

        1996  A new New Bedford Wastewater Treatment Facility, with secondary
        treatment of waste, was completed.

        1996  Leaded gasoline prohibited.

        2006  By 2006, 11 of 24 CSOs in upper and lower New Bedford harbor had
        been eliminated (see text on Environmental Awareness page).

Public Health and Legislative

        Major Environmental Laws
        http://www.epa.gov/epahome/laws.htm

        Federal Wildlife and Related Laws
        http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/statute_frame.htm

        1833  Water closet (toilet) patented in the U.S.  Use of water
        closets in homes without sewers quickly became public health problems.
        The increased use of water caused privy vaults and cesspools to
        overflow and the surrounding soil to become saturated with foul 
        smelling, contaminated water.

        1850s -1860s Filth theory of disease widely accepted.  Disease was
        thought to be caused by impure air from putrefied organic material,
        including human and animal excrement, rotting garbage, and vapors from
        swamps and stagnant pools.  Emphasis was put on collecting garbage,
        emptying cesspools and privy vaults, cleaning streets, and filling in
        wetlands.  The importance of wetlands, to filter pollutants, excess
        nutrients and harmful microorganisms, provide habit, and serve as
        nursery areas for aquatic species, was not recognized at this time.
        In cities, sewer lines were installed to carry waste away.  It was
        common for sewer lines to empty directly into nearby waterways.
        (Tarr, 1985a)
 
        1876  Massachusetts Board of Health commissioned James P. Kirkwood,
        a water quality specialist and civil engineer, to examine the
        rivers in Massachusetts.  He found that the fluid refuse from some
        factories could be poisonous, and warned that although some wastes
        and sewage may not be detected in great quantities, they may make
        the water not merely repulsive or suspicious, but more or less
        dangerous for family use. (Tarr, 1985b)

        1878  First U. S. state law controlling stream pollution.  This
        Massachusetts law gave the State Board of Health the power to control
        river pollution caused by manufacturing waste (Rosenkrantz, 1972). 

        1870s-1880s  Albert Leeds, a geologist, tested the water of the Passaic
        River, New Jersey (the drinking water supply for Newark and Jersey
        City, NJ) and found that factories along the lower stretch of the river
        had polluted it with acids, dyes, and chemicals (Leeds, 1887).

        1880  By this time, most cities with a population greater than 30,000
        had a board of health, a health commission, or a health officer. Most
        cities had statutes restricting noxious manufactures to the fringes
        of cities.

        1890s  By this time, the germ theory, which stated disease was caused
        by bacteria, was accepted.  Acceptance of the germ theory put the
        focus on human wastes, with less concern on industrial wastes.  Public
        health officials shifted their concern to diseases and away from
        environmental sanitation.  Many municipalities transferred control of
        refuse collection and disposal from health departments to sanitation
        or public works departments.  Removal of wastes was now considered an
        engineering problem, and cost and efficiency of removal became the
        major issues. (Tarr, 1985a, b)

        1899  Refuse Act of 1899  this is part of the Rivers and Harbors Act of
        1899. The Refuse Act prohibited discharge of any refuse into navigable
        waters to protect navigation in rivers and coastal waters.  It is
        administered by the Army Corps of Engineers. The Secretary of the Army
        would allow discharge if, in the judgement of the Chief of Engineers,
        anchorage and navigation was not affected, but a permit was necessary.
        The Rivers and Harbors Act also made it necessary to get a permit to
        excavate, fill, or alter the course, condition or capacity of any river,
        port, harbor or channel. Many of the activities covered by the Rivers
        and Harbor Act are now regulated by the Clean Water Act, 1977.
        http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng-pamphlets/ep1165-2-1/basdoc.pdf
        (p21-2, b, c, d)
        http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode33/usc_sec_33_00000407----000-.html  	

        1906  Food and Drugs Act  first Federal law against food alteration.
	http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/history1.html
	http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/history2.html

        1908  Started chlorination of drinking water to kill bacteria.  Sand and
        mechanical filtration of drinking water had been used in some cities since
        1897. (Tarr, 1985b)

        1900 - 1920s  Public Health: The question of pollution in waterways was
        raised by some individuals working for various public agencies, however,
        little was done. There was a reluctance to enforce the existing regulations
        because they might limit industrial growth.  In most states, pollution
        problems were handled by the department of health, whose primary concern
        was disease. For a comprehensive discussion of these early efforts see 
        Tarr, 1985b.
        However, there was some interest in contamination. In 1903, the USGS
        organized a Division of Hydro-economics to investigate the value of water
        supplies, with particular concern for turbidity, color, hardness, and
        various chemicals and minerals that would reduce water quality. Marshal
        Leighton, who headed the division, thought industrial wastes were the
        great pollution problem of today.
        The American Public Health Association (APHA) created several committees
        on waste disposal: Committee on Trade Waste Disposal (1902); Committee on
        Sanitary Control of Waterways (1916); and Committee on Disposal of Sewage
        and Industrial Wastes (1927).  

        1913  At the request of Congress, the Public Health Service started a
        significant effort to investigate water-borne diseases, because the state
        health departments were not taking effective action.  A team of sanitary
        engineers, chemists, biologists, bacteriologists, and medical officers
        worked in Cincinnati at what was to become the Public Health Services
        Center for Pollution Studies. 

        1900-1920s  Legislative: Several industrialized states (Pennsylvania,
        Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Ohio) passed legislation concerning
        pollution of rivers.  But the state boards did not insist on absolute
        prohibition, and exempted certain rivers.  The state boards thought the
        solution to pollution was through cooperation with industry.  The
        function of the state boards was to supply technical advice to industries.

              1906  Massachusetts passed legislation to eliminate pollution,
              with the State Board of Health to advise the industry of the best
              way to do that.

              1917  Pennsylvania passed a law which prohibited discharge of any
              matter harmful to fish into streams. However, in 1923, certain rivers
              and industries were exempted from the 1917 law.  Pennsylvania
              Sanitary Water Board established three classes of streams: 1)
              relatively clean, 2) streams where pollution needed to be controlled,
              and 3) streams, rated c, that were so polluted that it was not
              necessary to clean them up.

              1925  Connecticut created a State Water Commission that had the power
              to eliminate pollution, but must prescribe the methods.

        1922  American Water Works Association (AWWA) Committee on Industrial
        Wastes in Relation to Water Supply presented a report that industrial
        pollutants had damaged at least 248 water supplies in the US and Canada.

        1924  Oil Pollution Control Act - protected commercial fisheries and
        resorts from oil pollution damage, and reduced fire hazards (caused by
        oil) in harbors.  This act was enforced by the Army Corps of Engineers
        and applied only to coastal waters. 

        1925  The National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) -  a voluntary
        and cooperative program established in a conference of federal, state
        and municipal authorities, and representatives of the shellfish industry.
        A major outbreak of typhoid fever, attributed to polluted oysters,
        prompted the conference and subsequent program. The NSSP is designed to
        prevent human illness associated with the consumption of shellfish.  The
        program calls for classification of shellfish waters, inspection of
        shellfish dealers, and issuing of public heath advisories associated with
        shellfish.  It is supported by the 23 coastal producing states, several
        receiving states, foreign countries, and the shellfish industry. 
	http://issc.org/documents/NSSP_Guide%201997_by_chapter/History_NSSP_chap-9.pdf

        1927  Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration formed - renamed the Food
        and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1931. In 1940, to prevent recurring
        conflicts between producer interests and consumer interests, FDA was
        transferred from the U.S. Department of Agriculture to the Federal Security
        Agency which, in 1953, became the Department of Health, Education, and
        Welfare -- now the Department of Health and Human Services. 

        1932  Committee on Disposal of Refinery Wastes - created by the American
        Petroleum Institute.  This committee, along with state agencies and other
        groups, devised methods of controlling refinery pollution.  In 1935, the
        methods were published in a manual, Disposal of Refinery Wastes.  These
        methods were gradually adopted by the refinery industry on a voluntary
        basis. (Tarr, 1985b)

        1938  Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act - regulated food, medical
        products, and cosmetics to ensure their safety; strengthened the Food
        and Drugs Act of 1906.
	http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/histor1a.html

        1948  Federal Water Pollution Control Act - authorized the Surgeon General
        of the Public Health Service, in cooperation with other Federal, state,
        and local agencies, to prepare programs to reduce or eliminate pollution
        of interstate waterways, and improve the sanitary conditions of surface
        and underground waters.  Since 1948, the original legislation has been
        amended extensively (in 1972, 1977, 1987, and 1991) to authorize additional
        water quality programs and fund construction grants.  In 1977 it was
        renamed the Clean Water Act.
	http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/fwpca.html

        1955  Air Pollution Control Act - the nation's first piece of federal
        legislation on this issue. The language of the bill identified air
        pollution as a national problem and announced that research and additional
        steps to improve the situation needed to be taken. It was an act to make
        the nation more aware of this environmental hazard.
	http://www.ametsoc.org/AMS/sloan/cleanair/cleanairlegisl.html

        1962  Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston) -
        This famous book provided some of the first public evidence of how
        pesticides, used without proper control or knowledge, were poisoning our
        environment. 

        1962  Drug Amendments  amendments to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
        Act to tighten control over prescription drugs, new drugs, and
        investigational drugs.
	http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/histor1b.html

        1963  Clean Air Act - dealt with reducing air pollution by setting
        emissions standards for stationary sources such as power plants and
        steel mills. It did not take into account mobile sources of air pollution,
        which had become the largest source of many dangerous pollutants. Congress
        began funding air quality research programs.
	http://www.ametsoc.org/AMS/sloan/cleanair/cleanairlegisl.html
	
        1964  Land and Water Conservation Fund Act - set up a fund for acquiring
        new recreation lands. However, in recent years Congress has diverted a
        significant percentage of the fund for purposes other than conservation
        and recreation.
	http://www.prm.nau.edu/prm346/LAWCF.htm   

        1964  Wilderness Act - established a National Wilderness Preservation
        System for the permanent good of the whole people, and for other purposes.
	http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/wildact.html   
	http://www.leaveitwild.org/reports/wilderness1964PF.html   

        1965  Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) - provides specifically that
        any person can make requests for government information. Citizens who
        make requests are not required to identify themselves or explain why they
        want the information they have requested.  
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/foia.htm 

        1965  Solid Waste Disposal Act - legislated research, demonstrations, and
        training for safe disposal of solid waste.  The act also had provisions
        to share costs with states to fund the development of waste management
        plans.  This legislation was amended in 1970 (Resource Recovery Act),
        1976 (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act), 1980 (Solid Waste Disposal
        Act Amendments), 1984 (Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments), and again
        in 1989 (Medical Waste Tracking Act).
	http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/oepa/laws/rcra.html
 
        1968  Wild and Scenic Rivers Act - the purpose of this act was to select
        certain rivers of the nation possessing remarkable scenic, recreational,
        geologic, fish and wildlife, historic,cultural, or other similar values;
        preserve them in a free-flowing condition; and protect their local
        environments.
	http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/wildrive.html 

        1969  National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) - one of the first laws
        written that established a broad national framework for protecting our
        environment. This policy established a Council on Environmental Quality
        (CEQ) and required all Federal agencies to complete Environmental
        Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements for projects.
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/nepa.htm
	http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/regs/nepa/nepaeqia.htm
	
        1970  April 2 - first Earth Day.

        1970  December 2 - Environmental Protection Agency created by executive
        order of President Nixon.

        1970  Clean Air Act - regulated air emissions from area, stationary, and
        mobile sources.  This law authorized the U.S. Environmental Protection
        Agency (EPA) to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
        to protect public health and the environment. The Clean Air Act was
        amended in 1977 (to set new deadlines for NAAQS) and again in 1990. 
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/caa.htm 

        1970  Occupational Safety and Health Act - ensures worker and workplace
        safety.  Employers are required to provide their workers a workplace
        safe from exposure to toxic chemicals, excessive noise levels, mechanical
        dangers, heat or cold stress, or unsanitary conditions.  The act created
        the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as the
        research institute for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
        (OSHA) to establish standards for the workplace.  OSHA, a division of the
        U.S. Department of Labor, enforces the standards.
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/osha.htm

        1970  Resource Recovery Act - amendment to 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act.
        The emphasis of the legislation was changed from efficiency of disposal
        of solid wastes to concern with reclamation of energy and materials from
        solid wastes.  It authorized grants for new resource recovery technology
        and required the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to produce annual
        reports on ways to promote recycling and reduce waste. Amended in 1976
        (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, RCRA) and 1984.
	http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/oepa/laws/rcra.html  

        1971  Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act - prohibits the use of
        lead-based paint on any cooking, drinking, or eating utensil, toys or
        furniture, and in residential structures constructed or rehabilitated
        by the Federal Government.
	http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/leadact.htm  	
	http://www.hud.gov/lea/leastand.html   	

        1972  Coastal Zone Management Act - established a voluntary program within
        the Department of Commerce to encourage coastal states to develop and
        implement coastal zone management plans.  Funds were authorized to give
        cost-sharing grants to the states to develop their plans.  A national
        system of estuarine sanctuaries was also authorized to establish national
        field labs.  Amendments were made in 1975, 1978, 1980, and 1990.
	http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/czm/czm_act.html  
	http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/FHPL_CstlZoneMngmt.pdf   
	http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/oepa/laws/czma.html    
	http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/events/conservstewards/welcome.html#czma    

        1972  Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act - provides
        federal control of the distribution, sale, and use of pesticides. The
        Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was given authority to study the
        consequences of pesticide use and to require users (farmers, utility
        companies, etc) to register when purchasing pesticides. Later amendments
        required users to take exams to certify as applicators of pesticides.
        All pesticides used in the U.S. must be licensed by EPA.
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/fifra.htm   

        1972  Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 - amended the original
        legislation in 1948 and set the basic structure for regulating discharges
        of pollution into the nations waters (lakes, rivers, aquifers, and
        coastal areas).  Congress enacted this law in response to growing public
        concern for water pollution.  It was amended and renamed the Clean Water
        Act in 1977, and reauthorized in 1991.
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/water/cwa.htm   
	http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/fwpca.html

        1972  Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (Ocean Dumping Act)
        - contains permit and enforcement provisions for disposal of wastes in
        marine waters that are within U.S. jurisdiction.  The act prohibits all
        ocean dumping, except that allowed by permits, and bans any dumping of
        radiological, chemical, and biological warfare agents, any high-level
        radioactive waste, and medical wastes.  A number of amendments have added
        additional conditions: 1977 - dumping of municipal sewage sludge to cease
        by December, 1981; 1986 - disposal of wastes at the 12-mile site off New
        York/New Jersey coast be moved to a site 106 miles off shore; 1988 -
        amendments emphasized phasing out sewage sludge and industrial waste
        disposal in the ocean because it did not happen despite earlier
        legislation; 1992 - permit states to adopt ocean dumping standards more
        stringent than federal standards. Other amendments provided for ocean
        disposal research, monitoring coastal water quality, and establishment
        of marine sanctuaries. Virtually all ocean dumping that occurs today is
        dredged material, sediments removed from the bottom of water bodies to
        maintain navigation channels. The Army Corps of Engineers issues permits
        for ocean dumping of dredged material.  
	www.epa.gov/OWOW/OCPD/marine.html
	http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/events/conservstewards/welcome.html#mprsa 

        1972  Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA)  protects all marine mammals.
        The MMPA prohibits, with certain exceptions, the taking of marine mammals
        in U.S. waters, and by U.S. citizens on the high seas, and the
        importation of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the U.S.
	http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/laws/mmpa/ 
        http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/events/conservstewards/welcome.html#marinemam
        mals 

        1973  Endangered Species Act - provides a program for the conservation of
        threatened and endangered species and their habitats.  The U.S. Fish and
        Wildlife Service (Department of Interior) maintains the list of endangered
        and threatened species.
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/esa.htm 
	http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/laws/esa/   
	http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/events/conservstewards/welcome.html#esa  
	
        1973  Lead Phasedown Program - EPA imposed the first regulation on the
        lead content of gasoline. The phasedown of leaded gasoline continued
        through the 1970s, 1980s, and ended with the ban of leaded gasoline in
        1996 as stipulated in the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act.  Unleaded
        gasoline was available in the 1970s.
	http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/lead/01.htm   
	http://www.epa.gov/docs/EPA-AIR/1996/February/Day-02/pr-1326.html  

        1974  Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act - called for
        the management of renewable resources on national forest lands; amended
        in 1976, National Forest Management Act.
	http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/nfma.html
	
        1974  Safe Drinking Water Act - protects the quality of all drinking
        water, actual and potential, surface or underground.  The act authorized
        the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish safe drinking
        water standards and requires all operators of water systems to comply
        with the health related standards.
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/sdwa.htm  

        1974  Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstration Act - established a
        national shoreline erosion control development and demonstration
        program.  Funding was provided for planning, designing, and constructing
        prototype engineered and vegetative shoreline erosion control devices
        and methods, monitoring these prototypes, and transferring the
        technology to private property owners, and state and local entities. 
	http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/33/426h.html

        1975  Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (HMTA) - protects against
        risks to life and property which are inherent in the transportation of
        hazardous materials in commerce.  These regulations apply to any person
        who transports a hazardous material, or who manufactures, maintains,
        repairs, or tests containers which are used to transport hazardous
        materials.
	http://www.hss.energy.gov/nuclearsafety/nsea/oepa/laws/hmta.html
	http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/trucking_industry/transportinghazardousmaterials.html 

        1976  Amendment to Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972- established the
        National Estuarine Research Reserve System. The National Estuarine
        Research Reserve System protects and studies estuarine areas through a
        network of 25 reserves that represent different biogeographic regions
        in the United States.
	http://nerrs.noaa.gov/welcome.html

        1976  Federal land Policy and Management Act - established public land
        policy and guidelines for its administration and provides for the
        management, protection, development, and enhancement of the public lands.
	http://www.blm.gov/flpma/  

        1976  Fishery Conservation and Management Act (FCMA)   (renamed the
        Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act in 1996)
        brought federal regulatory jurisdiction to fishery resources between
        the U.S. territorial sea (generally three miles offshore) and 200 miles
        offshore in a fishery conservation zone. This area was later named the
        U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone or EEZ.  Congress passed the law chiefly
        to address heavy foreign fishing in U.S. waters, promote the development
        of a domestic fishing fleet, and link the fishing community more directly
        to the fishery management process. The FCMA effectively phased out
        foreign fishing vessels and factory processing ships from U.S. waters
        and established eight regional fishery management councils that are
        responsible for preparing fishery management plans for commercial and
        recreational fishing within U.S. waters.
	http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/events/conservstewards/welcome.html#fcma

        1976  National Forest Management Act - reorganized, expanded and
        otherwise amended the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning
        Act of 1974, which called for the management of renewable resources on
        national forest lands. The National Forest Management Act required the
        Secretary of Agriculture to assess forest lands, develop a management
        program based on multiple-use, sustained-yield principles, and implement
        a resource management plan for each unit of the National Forest System.
        It is the primary statute governing the administration of national forests. 
	http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/nfma.html
		
        1976  Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) - amendment to 1970
        Resource Recovery Act and 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act.  This amendment
        made the federal government play a more active regulatory role.  It gave
        the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) authority to control hazardous
        waste from cradle to grave.  It instituted the first federal permit
        program for hazardous waste and prohibited open dumps.  This act only
        concerns active or future facilities and does not address problems with
        abandoned or historic waste sites (see CERCLA, 1980).  Amendments in
        1984 and 1986 addressed other aspects of waste disposal problems. 
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/rcra.htm
	http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/oepa/laws/rcra.html  

        1976  Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) - gives the Environmental
        Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to track industrial chemicals
        produced or imported into the United States.  EPA can require reporting
        or testing of chemicals that may pose an environmental or human-health
        hazard, and can ban those that pose an unreasonable risk. 
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/tsca.htm	
	
        1977  Clean Water Act - amendment to the 1972 Federal Water Pollution
        Control Act.  These amendments focused on toxic pollutants.  This law
        gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to set
        effluent standards for industries (technology-based) and continued the
        requirements to set water quality standards for all contaminants in
        surface waters.  
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/water/cwa.htm
	http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/fwpca.html

        1980  Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
        Act (CERCLA or Superfund) - provided a superfund to clean up
        uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites, and accidents, spills,
        and other emergency releases of pollutants to the environment. The
        Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was given the authority to find
        the parties responsible, assure their cooperation in the cleanup, and
        recover cleanup costs.
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/cercla.htm

        1984  Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (to RCRA, 1976) - with this
        amendment, the federal government tried to prevent future problems by
        prohibiting disposal of untreated hazardous wastes on land, setting
        liner and leachate collections requirements for land disposal facilities,
        setting deadlines for closure of land facilities that did not meet the
        requirements, and establishing a corrective action program for land
        disposal facilities. Regulations were also established for underground
        storage tanks.  The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was given more
        authority to enforce the regulations. 
	http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/oepa/laws/rcra.html  

        1986  Amendments to RCRA (1976) - enabled EPA to regulate underground
        storage tanks.
 	http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/oepa/laws/rcra.html#top  
	
        1986  Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (Title III of
        SARA, see below) - legislation to help local communities protect public
        health, safety, and the environment from chemical hazards. Congress
        required each state to appoint a State Emergency Response Commission
        (SERC).
	www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/epcra.htm

        1986  Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) - reauthorized
        CERCLA (see 1980) to continue to cleanup abandoned or historic hazardous
        wastes sites.
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/sara.htm  
 
        1987  Water Quality Act of 1987 (Reauthorization of Clean Water Act,
        1977) - established a comprehensive program for controlling toxic
        pollutant discharges; required states to develop and implement programs
        to control non-point sources of pollution (rainfall runoff from farm
        and urban areas, construction, forestry, and mining sites); authorized
        grants for construction of wastewater treatment facilities; created the
        National Estuary Program; and revised many of the Act's regulatory,
        permit, and enforcement programs. 
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/water/cwa.htm
	http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/	 

        1988  Lead Contamination Control Act (LCCA) - authorized Center for
        Disease Control (CDC) to provide grants to states to administer a
        program for preventing childhood lead poisoning.  With these grants,
        states were to screen infants and children for lead; refer cases of
        elevated blood lead levels to the state for treatment; provide
        education to communities with the highest risk for elevated blood lead
        (above 25 jig/dL); establish programs to test and eliminate lead in
        water from schools and day care centers; and provide for public
        notification of drinking water analyses.
	http://www.hud.gov/lea/leastand.html 	

        1988  Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988 (also known as Ocean Dumping
        Reform Act of 1988, U.S. Public Vessel Medical Waste Anti-dumping Act
        of 1988, and Shore Protection Act of 1988) - amends the Marine
        Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972.  Title I (Ocean
        Dumping of Sewage Sludge and Industrial Waste) prohibits all dumping
        of sewage sludge and industrial waste into the ocean after 1991.
        Title III (Dumping of Medical Waste) prohibits the dumping of medical
        wastes into the ocean or navigable waters.  Title IV (Shore Protection
        Act) requires that vessels carrying municipal or commercial waste
        within U.S. waters have a permit from the Secretary of Transportation
        and meet certain prescribed conditions.
	http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/mprsa/02.htm  
	
        1989  Medical Waste Tracking Act - amended the Solid Waste Disposal
        Act (1965) to require the Administrator of the EPA to promulgate
        regulations on the management of infectious waste. 
	http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/other/medical/download.htm
	http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/oepa/laws/rcra.html#top 

        1990  Clean Air Act Amendment - amended the Clean Air Act of 1970 to
        include problems, such as acid rain, ground-level ozone, stratospheric
        ozone depletion and air toxics, that were not originally addressed.
        Leaded gasoline to be prohibited after January 1, 1996.
	http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaq_caa.html  	
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/caa.htm

        1990  Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments - the Coastal
        Non-point Source Pollution Control Program (Section 6217) addresses
        non-point pollution problems in coastal waters. Section 6217 requires
        the 29 states and territories with approved Coastal Zone Management
        Programs to develop Coastal Non-point Pollution Control Programs.  
	http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/czmact.html	

        1990  The National Environmental Education Act of 1990 - gives the
        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) authority to provide
        national leadership to increase environmental literacy.  It authorizes
        the EPA to develop and disseminate environmental curricula,
        publications, and training programs; provide grants to educational
        institutions, teachers, and students; and give awards recognizing
        outstanding contributors in the field of environmental education.
	http://www.epa.gov/region09/enviroed/
	http://www.epa.gov/region01/students/index.html

        1990  Oil Pollution Act of 1990 - strengthened the Environmental
        Protection Agencys (EPA) ability to prevent and respond to catastrophic
        oil spills.  EPA has published regulations for aboveground oil storage
        facilities and the Coast Guard has published them for tankers. Oil
        storage facilities and tankers must submit plans to the federal
        government detailing how they will respond to large spills. A trust
        fund, financed by a tax on oil, is available for cleanup costs if the
        responsible party is unable to pay.
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/opa.htm  	

        1990  Pollution Prevention Act - mandates source reduction and waste
        management of all toxic and hazardous substances.  Beginning in 1991,
        the amount of toxic substances treated, disposed, recycled, recovered,
        or released must be reported to the Environmental Protection Agency
        in this effort to reduce and prevent pollution.
	http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/ppa.htm 

        1992  Energy Star Program  a program to help individuals and businesses
        identify energy-efficient products.
	http://www.energystar.gov/

        1992  Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act (Title X of
        the Housing and Community Development Act) - redefines the federal
        response to lead poisoning by directing several federal agencies
        [Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the Environmental
        Protection Agency (EPA), and the Occupational Safety and Health
        Administration (OSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor] to establish a
        coordinated effort to reduce lead hazards in residential and commercial
        buildings, interior dust, and exterior soil.  Some issues the act
        addresses are: proper training and accreditation of workers who will
        remove lead-based paint; disclosure by sellers of houses that have lead
        hazards; and establishment of unsafe levels of lead in paint, soil or
        dust.  
	http://www.hud.gov/lea/leastand.html 	
	
        1996  Land Disposal Program Flexibility Act - amendments to 1976
        Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).  This act exempts
        hazardous waste from RCRA regulation if the waste is treated so that
        it no longer is hazardous and is disposed in a facility regulated
        under the Clean Water Act or injected in a deep well regulated under
        the Safe Drinking Water Act. 

        1996  Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) - amends the two major laws
        that governed the use of pesticides, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
        and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
        (FFDCA), and changes the way EPA regulates pesticides. The act requires
        that a new safety standard, reasonable certainty of no harm, must be
        applied to all pesticides used on foods.
	http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/laws/fqpa/  

        1996  Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (FCMA) 
        added amendments, known as Sustainable Fisheries Act (SFA), to the
        Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976 to address the
        substantially reduced fish stocks, which declined as a result of direct
        and indirect habitat loss.  The now amended Act was renamed the
        Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (FCMA).  
	http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/magact/
	http://www.mms.gov/eppd/compliance/fcma/index.htm

        1996  Safe Drinking Water Act - amendment to the Safe Drinking Water
        Act of 1974.  While the original act focused on treatment as the means
        of providing safe drinking water, this amendment recognized the
        importance of protecting drinking water at the source, and providing
        operator training for water systems, funding for water system
        improvements, and public information.
	http://www.epa.gov/safewater/sdwa/index.html

        1996  Use of leaded gasoline banned (see 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment).

        1997  The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act (FDAMA) -
        amends the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which regulates
        food, drugs, biological products, medical products, and cosmetics.
	http://www.fda.gov/oc/fdama/default.htm    
	http://www.fda.gov/opacom/backgrounders/modact.htm

        2000  Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health Act (BEACH) -
        requires all coastal states to implement a consistent and rigorous beach
        monitoring, closure, and public notification program based on monitoring
        enterococcus bacteria.  EPA is to maintain a national data base of beach
        monitoring data.
	http://www.epa.gov/ost/beaches/technical.html   
	http://www.epa.gov/ost/beaches/
	

        2000  Estuaries and Clean Waters Act - establishes a national goal of
        restoring one million acres of estuary habitat by 2010 and authorizes
        a total of $275 million over the next five years for matching funds for
        local estuary habitat restoration projects.  The Act reauthorizes the
        National Estuary Program, the Chesapeake Bay Program, the Long Island
        Sound Program, and the Clean Lakes Program.  This legislation also
        establishes an Estuary Habitat Restoration Council that is responsible
        for developing a National Habitat Restoration Strategy within one year,
        and for reviewing and establishing funding priorities among restoration
        projects. 
	http://www.fws.gov/laws/laws_digest/estuary2.html    
	http://www.epa.gov/nep/s835_estuaries2000.pdf   

        2002  Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization
        Act - to provide certain relief for small businesses from liability
        under the Comprehension Environmental Response, Compensation, and
        Liability Act of 1980, and to amend such Act to promote the cleanup and
        reuse of brownfields, to provide financial assistance for brownfields
        revitalization, to enhance State response programs, and for other
        purposes.
        http://www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/sblrbra.htm	  

        2005  Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR)  reduce air pollution that moves
        across state boundaries, will achieve reductions of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
        and/or nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions across 28 eastern states and the
        District of Columbia. 
	http://www.epa.gov/CAIR/
	
        2005  Reauthorization of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
        Management Act (of 1996) - promote long-term sustainable use of  U.S.
        marine resources, build upon the successes of  the 1996 act, and evolve
        to meet modern needs and scientific understanding. 
	http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/msa2005/
	http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/docs/msa2005/magnuson_one_pager.pdf