Title: Leadership in Victim Services, Chapter 3. Essential Skills for Leaders:
Creative Problem Solving
Series: National Victim Assistance Academy Advanced Topic Series
Authors/Editors: Anita Drummond, Carroll Ellis, Melissa Hook, Morna
Murray, and Anne Seymour for the National Victim Assistance Academy.
Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime, in
conjunction with Victims' Assistance Legal Organization (VALOR), California
State University-Fresno, National Crime Victims' Research and Treatment
Center at the Medical University of South Carolina, University of New Haven,
and Washburn University
Published: June 2002
Subject: Organizational leadership
31 pages
73,728 bytes

----------------------------

Figures, charts, forms, and tables are not included in this ASCII plain-text file.
To view this document in its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic
file(s) available from this Web site.

----------------------------

Table of Contents 

Chapter 3. Essential Skills for Leaders: Creative Problem Solving

o Introduction
o Qualities of Good Problem Solvers
o Problems as Opportunities
o Effective and Ongoing Communication
o The Benefits of Learning and Using a More Cooperative Style: The Seven
Challenges to Cooperative Communication Skills
o Accessing Creative Problem-solving Potential
o Dealing with the Challenge of "Staff Infection"
o Early Detection, Identification, and Prevention of Potential Problems
o When Problems Are Out of Control
o Conclusion
o References
o Additional Reading

----------------------------

Chapter 3. Essential Skills for Leaders: Creative Problem Solving

Abstract

A strong leader must have the capacity and skills to anticipate, identify, solve,
prevent, and learn from problems that occur in the work environment. Creative
problem- solving skills require positive processes that incorporate strong
communication skills, respect for all parties involved, and innovative
approaches. When problems are viewed as "opportunities," the benefits for
both leaders and staff can be highly positive.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, students will understand the following
concepts:

o Qualities of good problem solvers.

o Positive communication skills and techniques that enhance problem solving.

o Practical approaches to creative problem solving.

o How do deal with difficult staff in problem situations.

Introduction
                    
We are bogged down. We keep going over the same old ideas. We
desperately need a new approach . . . --Edward DeBono in Six Thinking Hats 

Problems arise in any group or organization. The question is: What does a
leader do with those problems? A leader can either react to problems and the
resulting change or look ahead and visualize the future with creative problem
solving. Effective leaders anticipate change and learn how to facilitate and
manage it. A leader does not have to wait until problems come to him/her.
Good leaders know to seek solutions before the problems land on the
doorstep. "Individuals who get startled by the future," says Gary Hamel (2000),
"weren't paying attention."

In Leading the Revolution, Hamel (2000) says, "You can, and must, regain your
lost curiosity. Learn to see again with eyes undimmed by precedent." When
leaders allow their assumptions and value judgments to get in the way, they
stifle their own creativity and find themselves thinking predictable thoughts. In
Quantum Creativity, Pamela Meyer (2000) states "Judgment paralyzes.
Abstaining from judgment removes the obstacles to the natural and passionate
flow of your creativity. To free yourself of these chains, you need to fiercely
confront your learned blocks."

When work is all-consuming, it is easy to lose perspective on the future and
how to make it better. Keeping an open mind can be difficult when one works
in a Crime Victim's Unit and has to respond to victims' immediate and crucial
needs every hour. When a claims specialist with a victim compensation program
must produce a certain number of claims per day, creativity may be the last
thing on his/her mind. However, it is certain that whatever the individual is doing
now will eventually change for one reason or another. Maybe claims aren't
being produced fast enough to keep up with the demand, or perhaps more
indictments each month result in more crime victims needing notification. New
problems face leaders daily; the choice is either to be overwhelmed or to make
solving the problems meaningful.

The way to handle change is to problem solve creatively--to be open to new
possibilities and avenues that may not, at first, even seem plausible. "Thinking
outside the box" may now be old news. Hamel (2000) says the leader should
throw the box away altogether. Innovation is more than coming up with new
ideas or assembling a creative business plan or a creative approach to a
problem. Innovation is learning to see what is not obvious, developing a sixth
sense for change, and being totally open to new thoughts and unconventional
ideas.

Edward DeBono (1985), in Six Thinking Hats, states the concept simply: "We
need creativity because nothing else has worked. We need creativity because
we feel that things could be done in a simpler or better way. The urge to do
things in a better way should be the background to all our thinking." He goes on
to say that "there are times, however, when we need to use creativity in a
deliberate and focused manner. It may be necessary to put forward provocative
ideas that are deliberately illogical."

Unfortunately, leaders often find themselves surrounded by staff who may be
complacent and comfortable with the procedures that are currently in place.
The need to produce more work in a smarter, faster way is sometimes not the
priority of the staff. Sometimes the priority of the staff is maintaining the status
quo. Leadership then has to be not only innovative in solving the problem at
hand but also creative in how s/he helps the staff to adjust to the new
procedure.

Helping the staff to become comfortable and also to "own" the new procedures
takes a great deal of energy, time, and finesse. Although in some businesses and
organizations, this process may not work, in most, it will be advantageous to
have the staff participate in the problem solving. Staff members, like crime
victims, want to be heard. Most staff members do not expect nor demand to
set policies or solve problems themselves. Usually they just want input and are
most often understanding of the fact that management will consider their
opinions, but not necessarily adopt them. However, if staff members are never
consulted and their input is never considered, morale decreases and the feeling
of working in a dictatorship begins to prevail.

It is also important to note that staff members themselves, if helped to tap their
creativity, can be the best problem solvers since they are usually the ones doing
the majority of the work. They know the techniques, how long processes take,
the types of interferences they usually experience, and all the other issues
surrounding the jobs they do every day. However, when they are asked to
become involved in the problem-solving process, it is oftentimes difficult for
management to refrain from identifying barriers to each solution. Good leaders
can help the creative juices begin to flow through themselves and their staff
members by using certain techniques, as described below.

Qualities of Good Problem Solvers

In his book, The 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader: Becoming the Person
Others Will Want to Follow, John C. Maxwell (1999) describes the five
qualities of leaders with good problem-solving ability. They--

o Anticipate problems. Problems are inevitable and good leaders anticipate
them. Have a positive attitude but plan for the worst.

o Accept the truth. Denying problems only prolongs the agony. Be willing to
look at the issues honestly, accept responsibility, and move forward.

o See the big picture. Have a vision of the future and be able to see where the
organization can be in five or ten years. Do not be overwhelmed by emotion or
bogged down with details. Have someone trustworthy ferret out the details.

o Handle one problem at a time. Eat the elephant one bite at a time.

o Don't give up on a major goal when they're down. See life as a roller coaster-
-sometimes up and sometimes down. Don't give up on the vision just because
some glitches occurred.

A significant key to creative problem solving is the capacity and willingness to
view problems or challenges from a new perspective and to seek innovation in
exploring potential options.

TECHNIQUES FOR INNOVATION

Gary Hamel (2000) lists seven tips for becoming more innovative and regaining
curiosity:

o Be a novelty addict.

o Find the discontinuities.

o Search out under-appreciated trends.

o Find the big story.

o Follow the chain of consequences.

o Dig deeper.

o Know what's not changing.

Pamela Meyer (2000) extols the virtues of intuition as a way to become
innovative. While many discount intuition for the more preferred logic, Meyer
reminds us to get back in touch with our natural curiosity and allow ourselves to
restore a "lively awareness of possibilities." Edward McCraken, Chief
Executive Officer of Silicon Graphics, says, "The most important trait of a good
leader is knowing who you are. In our industry very often we don't have time to
think. You have to do all your homework, but then you have to go with your
intuition without letting your mind get in the way." In order to treat intuition with
respect, a leader must first learn to listen to it. Sometimes that small voice is
trying to tell the leader something, but s/he is ignoring it. It is imperative that
leaders learn to listen.

The more respected an individual is in his/her field, the more resistant s/he may
be to listening. Formal education, research, experience gained from working for
years, and information gathered from meetings and conferences all help when
making decisions. But the most important information comes from within.
Innovation needs an open door and an open mind.

Problems as Opportunities

Good leaders start with a plan and know that they need to be willing to throw
that plan out at any time in response to a new discovery or idea. Life is full of
changes that don't fit into the plan. A leader must be willing to dance with the
change. If the leader resists it, the change will still persist in one way or another.

Viewing the problem as an opportunity to create new procedures that will
improve service paints a positive picture and one that is a little more palatable
to staff and clients. For example, the files in a large state's crime victim
compensation program were taking up so much space that additional rooms
were needed to hold them. In researching how to archive the files, it was
learned not only that the files could be imaged onto disks that would be easily
accessible, but also that the document imaging process could help the workflow
which would eventually decrease the time it took to process claims from crime
victims. The problem of space opened the door to an entirely new and faster
system of processing claims.

When a problem presents itself, it can become an opportunity for staff in one
section to learn more about the inner workings of another section. When
departments or sections collaborate on problem solving, thus can learn about
the problems each faces on a daily basis and they can better understand how
their work affects the others. When one piece of the system changes, it can
affect several other pieces. If staff members are not consulted in the problem-
solving effort, changes can cause a great deal of resentment and make the
management of the change much more difficult.

THE NEED FOR A POSITIVE APPROACH

If problems are approached from a positive point of view and are seen by the
leadership as opportunities to review procedures and policies and to creatively
adopt new ideas, the staff is more likely to also view the change from a positive
point of view. For example, when the administration decides to ask the staff to
make their cubicles look more professional, the approach taken can be a
positive or a negative one. The "spin" can make all the difference in whether the
staff accepts the change or grumbles, complains, and fights.

If middle management takes the approach, "I don't like it either, but I'm just
doing what I've been told so you have to make the change," staff are not likely
to accept the change without grumbling. On the other hand, if the approach by
middle management is positive and the changes are couched in a way that lets
the staff know that they are professionals and that "our leadership encourages
us to look and act our best at all times," staff may be more likely to accept the
change.

Whether or not the organization works within teams, the leader can develop a
"team" mentality by a positive approach. When staff members feel that they are
a critical part of something bigger than themselves, they sense an importance to
their jobs. They feel needed; studies have often shown that an individual's need
for significant work ranks above the need for higher pay. Leaders who develop
a team spirit can use that camaraderie to nurture employees and enhance
productivity.

In Supervising and Managing People, several guidelines are offered to help
improve staff spirit:

o Select people who are right for the organization. Over time transfer or even
let go people who tend to tear the team or the organization apart. Like a coach,
the leader can't develop a winning team without having the right team members
to put forward a coordinated, highly motivated effort toward an agreed-upon
goal.

o Work to create a supportive environment for the team or staff. The entire
organization can reward cooperative, collaborative work methods.

o Challenge the team or staff to help the organization as a whole. Team spirit
thrives in an atmosphere filled with short-term assignments, medium-term goals,
and long-term missions linked directly to the organization's health and survival.
When the team or staff knows its work is important and valuable, each member
tends to feel a stronger commitment level.

o Create a unique team or staff identity. When a strong spirit and a good
productivity level exist, people tend to carry the same goals and work toward
them together.

o Encourage the team or staff to use its initiative and creativity. Tackling
problems and handling resources according to its own best judgment will boost
the positive spirit.

o Make the team or staff accountable. Part of taking responsibility for success
is being willing to have effort measured and evaluated. The spirit of a team
increases when members recognize that their contribution is a significant part of
the success (First Books 1996, 27).

REFRAMING PROBLEMS

Having a positive approach to problems, big and small, creates an environment
that is open, participatory, and creative. An essential part of a positive
approach is the ability to view problems as opportunities for learning and
growth, not disasters that must be avoided at all costs. The key to reframing
problems in this way is "keeping your eye on the end of the matter." (Mackoff
and Wenet 2001, 41) When problems are viewed as ends in and of
themselves, they become larger than they are, more powerful than they are, and
essentially isolated and removed from the underlying goals and objectives of the
organizations. When the focus remains on the "end," e.g., the guiding values and
principles articulated in an organization's mission statement, along with the end
goal of the specific project or undertaking underway, then the problems
become stepping stones that simply must be negotiated. They are lessons to be
learned along the way and can have a tremendously beneficial and positive
impact on the shaping of future actions and directions.

Esther Torres is the Director of the Community Development Corporation, an
organization dedicated to assisting eighteen-to-twenty-year-old former foster
youths in achieving constructive self sufficiency. Foster youths leave the system
at the age of eighteen and suddenly experience a world in which they are on
their own with no support of any kind; statistics show that this population has a
50 percent chance of ending up on the street within six months of coming of age
(Ibid. 42). One of the programs developed by the Community Development
Corporation is the HOME program in which the youths work in revitalizing
dilapidated housing in east Los Angeles.

Ironically, Torres' grandfather left the troubled neighborhoods of east L.A., with
his family, over six decades ago, in search of a more peaceful life in the rich
farming regions of the San Joaquin Valley. Although he spoke no English and
had little resources, in time he became one of the largest landowners and
farmers in the valley. The lessons Torres learned from her farming childhood
created the work ethic that guides her daily approach to the challenges she
faces in helping the youths and neighborhoods to which she has returned.

Torres uses a farming metaphor in describing the opportunities for learning that
present themselves with all challenges:

On the farm there are physical indicators that things don't work: The plant dies,
the cotton doesn't grow. You can work with your heart and soul, and the
season wipes you out completely. You don't unravel and wonder, Was it worth
it? You ask, What is the lesson here? What can we do together so our time will
be more productive? Where would we like to be in five years? And what are
the avenues we can take to get there? (Ibid.)

Opening up the channels. Another farming metaphor used by Torres is "opening
up the channels." Leaders utilize their vision in looking for new "channels" or
solutions, or reframing existing channels to address particular problems. The
leader's role is first to identify and then to ensure that the channels are
addressing the problem:

When you are a farmer, unless you channel the flow of water to flow through
the rows to nurture the trees or crops, they are not going to grow, and they are
not going to bear fruit. you've got to channel that water. There could be water
everywhere, but if it doesn't go to the right place, you don't have a crop. (Ibid.
43)            

It takes openness and creativity to identify the channel that will best address any
given problem faced by an organization. In Torres' creation of the HOME
project, the particular channel she utilized was opening up the communication
between two county agencies, the Community Development Commission and
the L.A. County Department of Children's Services. These two agencies had
never worked together, but through Torres' opening up of the channels, a new
partnership arose that addressed significant community needs in a highly
beneficial way. Housing was refurbished and made affordable, and youths with
little odds for success were given opportunities and the tools for burgeoning self
sufficiency.             

Effective and Ongoing Communication

Effective communication is key to any type of relationship--marriage, children,
work. Miscommunications and misunderstandings often cause wasted time, hurt
feelings, and negative outcomes. Ongoing communication between the
leadership and the staff is one element in helping workers to feel that their jobs
are significant and their job setting is comfortable.

As simple as it sounds, effective communication is not easy. Saying to staff, "I
have an open door policy--come talk with me about anything" is wonderful, but
it doesn't go far enough. Communication must flow freely and comfortably to
bring about a positive and constructive workplace environment. It is invaluable
for individuals to know that they can go to their supervisor with problems,
concerns, or innovative ideas and be heard.

Staff members want to be heard. They have opinions that have been developed
over time, based upon their cumulative work experience. They appreciate being
asked to share their opinions. Most employees understand that the leader of an
organization must make the final decision but having input is a huge morale
booster.

Staff members also want to be informed. If a new policy is on the horizon, they
want to know why it is needed, when it will be implemented, who will be
implementing it, how their jobs will be affected, and so on. To hear about the
new policy on the day it is being implemented is not effective communication.
Offering staff a chance to provide input and to ask questions is the preferable
way to communicate a new policy.

In Win Win Management: Leading People in the New Workplace, George
Fuller (1998) explains that workers today are recognized as valuable
contributors to fundamental decisions about how the job is to be done.
Although it isn't always possible to achieve a consensus within the group, it is
important that workers recognize that open discussions are encouraged and to
know they will be heard, even though every employee suggestion cannot be
implemented. As Fuller states, "After all, no matter how much teamwork and
cooperation there is, the buck always has to stop somewhere. By the way,
there is no requirement for overall agreement in every workplace decision." He
goes on to make the important point that employees themselves don't
necessarily want to be decision makers. What they do want is to be a part of
discussions that involve their jobs. This type of communication helps set the
stage for workers to accept the changes that they may not agree with. Simply
giving them input lets them know they contributed to the process.

Don't make the mistake of soliciting input when the decision has already been
made. Employees usually know when the supervisor is manipulating a situation
by pretending to receive input when in reality the decision has already been
made.

An important follow-up to allowing employees to be heard is listening, and it is
often a much harder task. Peter F. Drucker (1990) in Managing the Nonprofit
Organization identifies listening as one of the basic competencies of a good
leader. Drucker defines listening not as a skill but as a discipline and says good
leaders have the willingness, ability, and self-discipline to listen. "Anybody can
do it. All you have to do is keep your mouth shut." For most, that is much
easier said than done. Listening sounds like an easy task, but few people really
know how to listening effectively.

Often during social conversations, for instance, one or more of the people
involved begin to look around the room or worse yet, turn away and begin
talking to someone else. Leaders should take note of their listening skills and
see if they need improving--then practice listening to their employees.

Besides face-to-face listening, there are other ways of "listening":

o Hold staff meetings in which the differing of opinions is encouraged.

o Hold small meetings; they are more conducive to allowing people to talk
openly.

o Request written comments or thoughts.

o Keep a suggestion box with anonymous input.

o Go individually to employees' offices to solicit input.

o Periodically survey staff for their ideas and input (with anonymous responses,
if desired).

ATTUNEMENT

Attunement is defined as listening in such as way that one learns from those one
is leading (Mackoff and Wenet 2001, 125). It is important to never
underestimate the impact of truly listening to another individual.

When Dr. Mitchell Rabkin took over as CEO of Beth Israel Hospital in
Boston, his first official decision was somewhat unorthodox in the world of
hospital administration--he abolished the doctor's dining room. In so doing, he
sent a clear message to doctors concerning his expectations that they stayed
"tuned in" to their fellow hospital employees as well as the patients. It also
conveyed his high regard for every individual in the hospital, regardless of
position or status (Ibid.).

Being truly attuned to another individual allows the listener to begin to
understand the experience of that individual in a way that may never have been
possible before. Another policy instituted by Rabkin was to require first-year
medical students to spend their first three days in the hospital wearing a
nonmedical uniform and trying to do the job of someone in social services,
housekeeping, or laundry. His goal was to show these students, from the very
first moment of embarking upon their medical career, that the hospital
depended on a multitude of individuals, some of whom are never heard or even
acknowledged by the upper level medical staff. Equally important, it allowed
them the opportunity to understand the point of view of other hospital staff
members.

True listening is difficult, and like any skill, it must be learned and practiced.
Leaders are constantly setting examples in the way they function and operate on
a daily basis and the way they listen to others within their organization, no
matter what level that person may be, has a tremendous impact on how well the
organization will ultimately be able to achieve its goals.

The Benefits of Learning and Using a More Cooperative Style: The Seven
Challenges to Cooperative Communication Skills

Effective communications skills are essential to identify and resolve conflicts. In
The Seven Challenges: Cooperative Communication Skills Workbook and
Reader, Dennis Rivers (1999) identifies "the seven most powerful, rewarding
and challenging steps" to connect with people:

1. Get more done, have more fun, Living and working with others is a
communication-intensive activity. The better a leader understands others'
feelings and wants, and the more clearly they in turn understand the leader's
goals and feelings, the easier it will be to make sure that everyone is pulling in
the same direction.

2. More satisfying closeness with others. Learning to communicate better
involves exploring two big questions: "What's going on inside of me?" and
"What's going on inside of you?". Modern life is so full of distractions and
entertainments that many people don't know their own hearts, nor the hearts of
others, very well. Exercises in listening can help a leader to listen more
carefully, and reassure conversation partners that s/he really does understand
what they are going through. Exercises in self-expression can help the leader
ask for what s/he wants more clearly and calmly.

3. More respect. Since there is a lot of mutual imitation in everyday
communication (She raises her voice; he raises his voice, etc.), adopting a more
compassionate and respectful attitude toward conversation partners invites and
influences them to do the same.

4. More influence. When the leader practices the combination of responsible
honesty and attentiveness, s/he is more likely to engage other people and reach
agreements that everyone can live with. The leader is are more likely to get
what s/he wants, and for reasons that won't be regretted later (Rivers, n.d.).

5. More comfortable with conflict. Because people have different talents, there
is much to be gained by their working together, accomplishing together what no
one could do alone. But because people also have different needs and views,
there will always be some conflict in living and working together. By
understanding more of what goes on in conversations, a leader can become
better a team problem solver and conflict navigator. Learning to listen to others
more deeply can increase the leader's confidence so that s/he will be able to
engage in a dialogue of genuine give and take and thus be able to help generate
solutions to problems that meet more needs.

6. More peace of mind. Because every action a leader takes toward others
reverberates in minds and bodies for months (or years), adopting a more
peaceful and creative attitude in interactions with others can be a significant way
of lowering stress levels. Even in unpleasant situations, a leader can feel good
about his/her skillful response.

7. A healthier life. In his book, Love and Survival, Dr. Dean Ornish (1998)
cites study after study that point to supportive relationships as a key factor in
helping people survive life-threatening illnesses. To the degree that a leader uses
cooperative communication skills to both give and receive more emotional
support, s/he will greatly enhance chances of living a longer and healthier life.

Learning to listen and communicate in cooperative and effective ways is key to
uncovering one's own unique capacities for creative problem solving.

Accessing Creative Problem-solving Potential

Just as one can learn to lead by accessing his/her own unique leadership
qualities, positively inspiring and energizing those around him/her, so too can
one learn to access his/her own potential for solving problems in ways that are
constructive, innovative, and creative. Identifying and refining leadership style as
well as utilizing positive approaches to identifying and solving problems are the
keys.                    

IDENTIFYING PROBLEM-SOLVING STYLE

Problem-solving style is only one aspect of overall leadership style. However,
problem-solving style can fit into the four categories of leadership style found in
Leadership and the One Minute Manager by Ken Blanchard, Patricia Zigarmi
and Drea Zigarmi (1985):

o Directing. The leader provides specific instructions and closely supervises
task accomplishment.

o Coaching. The leader continues to direct and closely supervise task
accomplishment, but also explains decisions, solicits suggestions, and supports
progress.

o Supporting. The leader facilitates and supports subordinates' efforts toward
task accomplishment and shares responsibility for decision making with them.

o Delegating. The leader turns over responsibility for decision making and
problem solving to subordinates.


Leadership in today's workplace requires a balancing act between knowing
when to be assertive and when to step back and let employees solve the
problem. "Cooperation and teamwork succeed best when employees are
empowered to take responsibility for their work and to participate in oversight
and guidance to keep everything in focus. The trick is to do so in such a way
that you won't seem to be still making all the decisions." (Fuller 1998) There is
a diplomatic way of getting an idea accepted without it being obvious. Fuller
cites a situation in which several employees are trying to solve a problem. They
are at a standstill when the supervisor decides to share his opinion. He does so
very carefully and cautiously to let the group pick up on his idea.

Boss: " I got here late so you've probably already discussed this option, but
what if we combined step 3 and 4 and gave Mary step 5. It seems like the
workflow might be smoother that way."

Staff Member: "That's a good idea. We didn't discuss that possibility yet, but
that might work. What do you all think?"

By being diplomatic, the supervisor avoids appearing dictatorial and doesn't
assert his authority. On the other hand, when the problem-solving style of
directing is used, the group will feel that lip service is being given to their
suggestions and that in the end the supervisor will do what s/he wanted to do in
the first place.              

Problem-solving styles, like leadership styles, differ because problems are
different and staff members are different. Each problem cannot be tackled in the
same way, nor can each employee be treated the same. Each has his/her
different style of working and each requires different responses from his/her
supervisor.

THE PROBLEM-IDENTIFICATION PROCESS

(The following section is adapted from Teamworks Module: Problem Solving
by Barbara O'Keefe, n.d., <www.vta.spcomm.uiuc.edu>.)

Groups that find themselves having difficulties solving problems might want to
back up and try to determine if any of the difficulties stem from inaccurate
assumptions about what group members perceive the problem to be. At this
point, it may be helpful to follow the procedure outlined in Problem-Solving
Group Interaction (Patton and Griffin 1973). While identifying the concerns of
other group members may seem intuitive, many give up on the whole problem-
solving process as soon as they realize that others don't seem to share their
concerns. Patton and Griffin stress that there are many alternatives available to
the group before abandoning its efforts, including:

1. Identify possible concerns. The leader should begin at the most obvious level
and start by probing the others in the group to find out their orientation toward
the problem. The key here is not to defend one's own concern as the most
important, but to find out what the issue means to the group, and explore other
facets of the problem that may otherwise not have been considered. It is
important to avoid taking sides this early in the discussion.

2. Determine mutuality of concerns. Ideally, the group will be able to identify
one overarching concern as the most important. Realistically, this is not always
the case. One should not take it personally if others have a different orientation
toward the problem but rather appreciate that everyone has a different
background and different life experiences that have significant bearing on how
he or she is oriented toward a particular situation. If it is imperative for the
group to reach consensus about what the one major concern should be, then it
may be useful for members to stop here, and consider various conflict
management tactics for compliance-gaining before proceeding with the
discussion.

3. Identify complementary goals. Many groups can function quite productively
even if mutual concerns cannot be identified. For example, if one can help
others in the group achieve their goals while, at the same time, the group can
help him or her with separate goals, then there is no reason to call problem-
solving efforts to a halt. Many times, this can be a much more efficient strategy
than dissolving the group and looking for others who share one's one particular
concern.

4. Identify superordinate goals. If the group decides it can't help each other
achieve their own goals separately, there is another alternative before giving up.
Members should look for superordinate goals by broadening their perspective
to include the concerns of others beyond one's own particular concern. While
this is very similar to identifying complementary goals, there is an important
psychological difference between the two: In identifying superordinate goals,
one is willing to accept others' concerns as his or her own, and work to resolve
them in addition to any other concerns he or she has. The key is that others'
needs actually become one's own as well. While time and resources may make
it impossible to take on everyone else's needs, the group may be able to reap
greater benefits than was possible otherwise by making this commitment to
multiple goals.

REFLECTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING


(The following section is adapted from Teamworks Module: Problem Solving
by Barbara O'Keefe, n.d., <www.vta.spcomm.uiuc.edu>.)

No decision-making team follows exactly the same procedure for solving
problems as another team. Regardless of how leaders and staff members
approach a problem, however, most effective decisions are reached by
performing certain functions. Reflective problem solving emphasizes the
importance of basic tasks:

o Defining concepts.

o Identifying needs.

o Identifying and evaluating solutions.

Groups using reflective problem solving cover these key tasks. From this
perspective, there are five key sub-tasks involved in problem solving:

1. Defining the problem. The leader makes a list of resources--people, books,
Web sites, etc. that have some connection to and information about the
problem. The leader then uses these resources to clarify any unfamiliar terms or
concepts, and to clarify for the group what s/he understands the problem to be.
At this point, the leader is looking for symptoms--the evidence that a problem
exists--not causes of the problem.

2. Analyzing the problem. After the group has discussed the evidence for the
existence of the problem and defined what the problem is, the leader turns
his/her attention to analyzing the evidence more thoroughly, looking for relevant
data that may explain why the problem exists, evaluating the data collected and
the sources of the data.

3. Establishing criteria for evaluating solutions. The leader sets an objective with
the group that all proposed solutions should strive for. Based on the definition
of the problem and analysis of its cause(s), this objective should be the one
specific goal that any acceptable solution should attain. If the problem is too
complex to set only one objective, another way is to make a list of musts and
wants. "Musts" are those basic requirements without which the solution will be
unacceptable. "Wants" are those qualities that are desirable in any solution, and
should be prioritized from "most desirable" to "least desirable." A "musts" and
"wants" checklist may help the group maximize the effectiveness of any solution
without omitting any essential requirements.

4. Proposing solutions. After the leader has established some basis for
evaluating solutions, he/she can try brainstorming solutions (see the
"Brainstorming" section of this chapter for additional information). From the list
of solutions that emerge from the brainstorming session, the leader develops a
realistic range of solutions and selects the one that best fits needs according to
the evaluation criteria.

5. Taking action. The leader writes an action plan that details the steps and the
resources needed to implement the solution.

How the group performs these necessary problem-solving tasks is incidental, as
long as each function is addressed. Some groups find it helpful to follow a more
detailed and systematic procedure for problem solving to help keep them
focused. If the group is having difficulty staying on track, following the above
step-by-step process may help reach the goal more efficiently and effectively
.
CONFLICT-BASED PROBLEM SOLVING

(The following section is adapted from Teamworks Module: Problem Solving
by Barbara O'Keefe, n.d., <www.vta.spcomm.uiuc.edu>.)

Many problems that groups face are complex and ambiguous, and so there may
be several possible alternative solutions. These problems require a thorough
examination of both the assumptions and inferences that underlie them and their
solutions. In this situation, many managers and strategic planners use two
important conflict-based problem-solving techniques: dialectical inquiry and
devil's advocacy.

Such conflict-based problem-solving models stress critical evaluation over
group harmony. While group morale and interpersonal relations are always at
some risk whenever individuals engage in conflict, many problem-solving teams
find that structured conflict can yield high quality results.

Dialectical inquiry. In the dialectical inquiry process, the team uses the same set
of data to make two separate and opposing recommendations, and then
formally debates these recommendations based on the assumptions that were
used to derive them. The philosophy behind this method is that a clearer
understanding of the situation and an effective solution result when the
assumptions underlying each recommendation are subjected to intense scrutiny
and evaluation. (Refer to Appendix C-2 for an interactive exercise).

Devil's advocacy. Much like dialectical inquiry, the process of devil's advocacy
for problem solving and decision making relies on structured conflict to ensure a
high quality decision. A solid, well-supported argument is made for a set of
recommendations and then subjected to a grilling evaluation by another person
or sub-group. Those who use devil's advocacy assume that only the best plans
will survive such extensive censure. (Refer to Appendix C-3 for an interactive
exercise).

Using conflict effectively. In both dialectical inquiry and devil's advocacy,
structured conflict is central to understanding the soundest recommendations
and the assumptions that underlie them. There is, however, always risk involved
when individuals engage in conflict, and therefore it is important to develop the
right attitude for conflict activity.

o First and foremost, don't be afraid of conflict! Remember that this is a
structured debate. While the leader will have to either give or receive criticism,
s/he does not have to be confrontational and antagonistic to do it.

o Remember that critical evaluation is the crux of conflict-based models of
problem solving. Don't mistake legitimate criticism for a personal attack.

o Refrain from basing criticisms on the character of another group member. In
other words, keep the focus on the recommendations themselves, not who
made them or why.

o Always keep in mind that the goal of subjecting recommendations and
assumptions to an intense critique is to develop better ones, and to ensure that
the team's plan will ultimately be able to survive the same sorts of critiques from
outsiders. Strive for quality.

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

(The following section is adapted from Teamworks Module: Problem Solving
by Barbara O'Keefe, n.d., <www.vta.spcomm.uiuc.edu>.)

Many teams find that a more creative, less rigid approach to solving problems
often yields the highest quality solution. However, the leader needs to
understand what factors make creative thinking work best. Creative thinking,
otherwise known as the "association of ideas," is the process by which
imagination feeds memory and knowledge to cause one idea to lead to another.

Requirements for creative thinking. The key factors that influence team success
in any creative thinking session are:

o Suspend judgment. By far the most important characteristic of effective,
creative problem solving is to have an open mind. The leader and the team
should work on creating a supportive environment where judgment and
criticism are not permissible. These qualities stifle creativity.

o Self-assessment. In order to develop a more open mind, it may help to
determine tendencies to cling dogmatically to ideas and opinions.
Develop a positive attitude. Have enthusiasm and optimism for all ideas, even if
they seem wild and unrealistic. Develop an attitude that all ideas are good ideas;
cynicism will only inhibit creative thinking.

o Use checklists. The team should write down every idea, no matter how far-
fetched it might seem. It sends the message to the team that everyone's ideas
are valued, helping to create a supportive environment. Recording all ideas
ensures that nothing important is forgotten, and gives the team an opportunity to
go back and combine parts of one idea with parts of another, letting ideas feed
off each other.

o Be self-confident. Remember that many of the world's greatest ideas were
ridiculed at first. Have faith in creativity! Some of the most basic scientific
principles, such as "the earth is round and revolves around the sun," never
would have been advanced without the confidence and courage to go against
the grain.

o Encourage others. Praise and encouragement are the fuel for creativity. It
enables ideas to flow freely and motivates team members. Instead of criticizing
or rejecting an idea, offer praise and encourage the team to "keep up the good
work!".

The creative thinking process. Figure 1 summarizes the stages of creative
thinking. These stages resemble the steps in the reflective approach to problem
solving, with adjustments to encourage creativity and exploit brainstorming:

----------------------------

Figure 1 is not included in this ASCII plain-text file. To view this document in
its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file(s) available from this
Web site.

----------------------------

o Orientation. This step sets the stage for a productive session, i.e., making sure
all the necessary requirements for an open and creative group process are
available.


o Preparation and analysis. This stage is primarily devoted to fact finding. While
gathering facts is important, it is necessary to gather only those facts that will
serve to further creative thinking. Getting bogged down in too many details may
actually restrain creative thinking efforts. There will be time later to go back and
fill in needed facts.

o Brainstorming. The philosophy behind brainstorming is that the more ideas
there are on the table, the more likely it is that a suitable solution will emerge.
This stage is a "freewheeling" exchange of ideas to list all possibilities.

o Incubation. Incubation is the "time-out" stage of the process in which group
members disperse for a period of time to let ideas grow and to encourage
"illumination" of the correct solution. While a time-out may not always be
practical for every problem-solving initiative, it is nonetheless considered an
important part of the creative process so as not to shortcut creativity by
overworking the mind.

o Synthesis and verification. Out of all the possibilities the team has generated
during its brainstorming session, the ideal solution should be a combination of
the best qualities of each idea. While during the orientation and analysis phases
of the process, the team's job was to break apart the problem, the task at hand
now is to construct a whole out of the ideas generated by brainstorming.

One good way to do this is to make a list of all the desirable qualities or
disadvantages that a solution might have, and then rate each idea accordingly.
Each quality or disadvantage can be weighted in terms of its importance, or
applied without weighting. The idea with the best overall profile is then
identified.

o Verification is the final phase, and requires testing the solution the team has
chosen to see if it achieves all of the team's goals.

SWOT ANALYSIS

(The following section is adapted from "SWOT Analysis," 2000, Mind Tools
Book Stores, <www.mindtools.com>.)

One of the easiest and most effective approaches to identifying problems, as
well as potential solutions, is through SWOT analysis. Often utilized for
organizational strategic planning, the SWOT process helps identify strengths
and weaknesses as well as the opportunities and threats an individual or
organization faces.


The SWOT process is accomplished through individual thinking and reflection,
followed by group discussion and brainstorming. A SWOT analysis seeks
answers to the following questions:

o Strengths.

--What are the leader's advantages?
--What does s/he do well?

Answers to these questions should take into consideration the points of view of
both the leader and the people with whom s/he works. The leader should not
be modest, but realistic. If the is difficulty with these questions, listing the
leader's characteristics or those of the organization may be helpful. Some of the
characteristics will be strengths.

o Weaknesses:

--What could be improved?
--What is being done badly?
--What should be avoided?

Again, this should be considered from an internal and external basis. Do other
people perceive weaknesses that the leader doesn't see? It is best for the leader
to be realistic and face any unpleasant truths as soon as possible.

o Opportunities:

--Where are the good chances facing the leader?
--What are interesting trends?
Useful opportunities can come from changes in:
--Technology and markets on both a broad and narrow scale.
--Government policy related to the field.
--Social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes, etc.
--Patterns of clientele or constituents.
--Support systems, such as human or financial resources.

o Threats:

--What obstacles does the leader face?
--If there is competition, what are they doing?
--Are the required specifications for the agency, job, or services changing?
--Is changing technology threatening the leader's position or the program?
--Are laws or policies perceived to be detrimental?
--Are there have concerns about funding?

The SWOT analysis is an effective tool in any democratic organization and one
that a leader can effectively use to move into a more in-depth problem-solving
or brainstorming session with input from all participants.

BRAINSTORMING            

Nearly every individual has the capacity and skills to brainstorm. Consider for a
moment a hot summer day from early childhood. All of the neighborhood kids
are bored and looking for something to do. The kids begin to suggest what they
can do--some ideas are rejected, others accepted. This is "brainstorming."

Brainstorming is a group process to develop creative solutions
to problems. Through brainstorming, participants "push the envelope" on
creative approaches. No idea is a "bad idea"; every idea is welcome. A
solutions is generated from the best idea or a combination of ideas.

The following rules are important to successful brainstorming (adapted from
<www.mindtools.com> January 2001):

o A leader should take control of the session, initially defining the problem(s) to
be solved or issue(s) to be addressed with any criteria that must be met, and
then keeping the session on course. He or she should encourage enthusiastic,
uncritical participation by all members of the team. The session should be
announced as having a fixed length of time, and the leader should ensure that no
train of thought is followed for too long. The leader should try to keep the
brainstorming on subject, and should try to steer it toward the development of
some practical solutions.

o Participants in the brainstorming process should come from as wide a range
of disciplines--with as broad a range of experience--as possible. This brings
many more creative ideas to the session.

o Brainstormers should be encouraged to have fun, coming up with as many
ideas as possible, from solidly practical to wildly impractical, in an environment
where creativity is encouraged and welcome.

o Ideas must not be criticized or evaluated during the brainstorming session.
Criticism introduces an element of risk for a group member in putting forward
an idea, and may dissuade others from participating. This stifles creativity and
cripples the free-running nature of a good brainstorming session.


o Participants should not only come up with new ideas, but also "spark off"
other people's ideas.

o A record should be kept of the session--minutes, tear sheet notations, or a
tape recording.

o Individual worksheets should be provided for participants to record their
ideas prior to sharing them with the group. This approach is helpful for creative
people who are somewhat shy in public venues, and can also provide useful
data that may not be shared with the full group due to time limitations.

o The group's ideas and findings should be subsequently studied for evaluation.

o Findings or outcomes from the session should be shared with all participants.

Individual versus group brainstorming. Brainstorming can be carried out by
individuals, groups, or both:

o Individual brainstorming tends to produce a wider range of ideas than group
brainstorming, but tends not to develop the ideas as effectively, perhaps
because individuals on their own--run up against problems they cannot solve.
However, individuals are free to explore ideas in their own time without any
fear of criticism or domination by other group members.

o Group brainstorming develops ideas more deeply and effectively. When
difficulties in the development of by one person's idea are reached, another
person's creativity and experience can be used to break them down. Group
brainstorming tends to produce fewer ideas (as time is spent developing ideas in
depth), and can lead to the suppression of creative but quiet people by loud
and uncreative ones.     

o Individual and group brainstorming can be mixed, perhaps by defining a
problem, and then letting team members initially come up with a wide range of
possible solutions. These solutions could then be enhanced and developed by
group brainstorming (<www.mindtools.com> January 2001).

Establishing ground rules for brainstorming sessions. All participants should be
given an understanding of what is expected of them, and what types of
behavior(s) are unacceptable. While ground rules should be established by all
members of the group at the beginning of the brainstorming session, there are
some general ground rules for consideration:

o No idea is a bad idea or, conversely, every idea is a good idea.

o Everyone is encouraged to participate, but nobody is encouraged to over-
participate at the expense of others.

o Individual work sheets will be provided, utilized, and collected to ensure that
every idea is captured.

o Building on ideas from others is helpful.

o Repetition of and/or repeating ideas is okay.

o Ideas will be captured (on tear sheets, by a note taker, or by an audio or
video recording).

o All participants should respect other participants' ideas, even if they disagree
with them.

o People should not interrupt others when they are speaking.

o Breaks will be taken when a consensus is reached that one is needed.

o The time line for the session is (number of minutes or hours).

o A summary of focus group findings will be provided to all participants by
(person responsible) by (deadline).

While many of these ground rules may appear to be obvious and simply good
common sense, it is extremely important to articulate ground rules at the outset
of a group process. The buy-in by the individual group members and
recognition of that fact by the group as a whole is the foundation for sticking to
ground rules and engaging in a truly constructive and creative group session.

Dealing with the Challenge of "Staff Infection"

One result of poor communication is rumors. When staff members are not
informed of what is going in within the organization, they sometimes create their
own version of the truth. This can happen even when the leader thinks s/he has
communicated very well.

Sometimes the rumors are not caused by a lack of communication but are the
result of a personality problem within the office. In many offices anyone can tell
without hesitation who the office gossip is and who starts the frequent rumors.


Often these rumors, having no basis in fact, can cause a great deal of disruption.

When miscommunication occurs, employees are usually hesitant to go directly
to their supervisor to clear up the matter. Instead some employees will go to
every other employee to discuss the misinformation and get his/her opinion. 
When this type of behavior occurs, the flow of effective communication is
disrupted and other side effects begin to occur. For example, the office gossip
overhears the supervisor complaining about the time it is taking a project to
come to completion. The gossip goes to the employee who is handling the
project and tells him/her--confidentially--about overhearing the boss say he was
dissatisfied with the employee's work. The gossip will couch the overheard
comments in negative terms and make the employee feel that it would be
impossible to go to the boss and ask him to share his concerns directly.

What then follows is an "infection"--employees think the boss talks about them
behind their backs, is never satisfied with anyone's work, and so on. Without
any clear communication, employee dissatisfaction increases and eventually
results in people taking sick leave, resigning to take other jobs, and showing
other signs of overall unhappiness.               

"Staff infection" may also be seen when a new policy is implemented but is not
acceptable to the staff. One disgruntled employee can stir up others to such a
degree that soon no one is on board with the new procedures and everyone is
"infected" with a negative attitude that eventually causes the downfall of an
otherwise healthy organization.

Although "staff infections" can occur over any issue, not just policy changes,
some employees are just resistant to change. They are not devious, just set in
their ways.

Workers resist changes within the workplace for many reasons (these are
addressed more fully in Chapter 5, Essential Skills for Leaders: Facilitation of
Change). Some employees resist all changes and cannot be persuaded to
accept anything new. Sometimes a leader doesn't even realize that s/he is
dealing with this type of person until s/he has done everything within
his/her power to help the employee accept the change(s). In other instances, the
employee makes it clear right up front that s/he plans to continue in the old
pattern. George Fuller (1998) states that apart from outright insubordination,
this situation presents an additional challenge: one employee can negatively
affect other employees who aren't particularly enthusiastic about the new
procedure either. Fuller recommends the following techniques when a leader
has to deal with an individual who adamantly resists doing something differently:


o Confront the individual in a calm and reasonable manner to determine his/her
objections to the change that's being made.

o Challenge the reasons given for not accepting the change. Don't let excuses as
to why the individual won't comply go unanswered. Otherwise, the employee
will take this as agreement with his/her position.

o Give the employee explicit directions that the change must be complied with.

o After allowing time to comply with instructions, confront the worker if there is
noncompliance. State calmly but firmly that further refusal to perform the work
in accordance with the new procedures will be grounds for possible disciplinary
action.

o Keep the boss posted about the problem if it appears that disciplinary action
may become necessary. It also makes sense to coordinate with the Human
Resources personnel to be certain the correct procedures are followed in terms
of disciplinary actions in general and termination of the employee in particular.

Early Detection, Identification, and Prevention of Potential Problems

Being aware of the circumstances that are likely to bring about morale and
system problems is the first step of a good leader. Recognizing that there are
many issues that cause morale problems and learning when the organization is
experiencing one (or more) is helpful in preventing future problems. For
example, if a non-profit agency loses grant funds, workers are likely to begin
worrying about the security of their jobs. Even though the supervisor may know
that the lack of funding will not affect the salaries, the staff may not know that.
Often, in a political setting, a new administration will make massive changes. A
good leader will recognize that employees may become concerned about their
job security after the elections. When a colleague is terminated, other staff may
become nervous about what is expected of them; tensions increase. Maybe
workloads are increasing. Even a change in the number of holidays has caused
dissension in the ranks.

Early detection of the problem can be very difficult. Sometimes a rumor gets
back to the supervisor and, although not true, can alert the supervisor that there
is a problem. Sometimes it is an employee who feels comfortable talking to
management who brings the problem to the attention of those in charge. If this is
the case, involving the employee in resolving the dilemma promotes the type of
cooperation the leader hopes to foster.

Fuller (1998) says that there are a number of practical benefits from having
employees bring bad news to the leader's doorstep:

o Prevents minor problems from becoming major ones.

o Allows remedial action such as providing additional training.

o Encourages employees to take risks without fear of criticism.

o Promotes cooperation with subordinates.

o Prevents unpleasant surprises because s/he wasn't informed.

o Minimizes damage by allowing prompt action to prevent repetition.

To accurately identify the problem, the leader must have input from more than
one person. Those involved must be able to communicate the problem and
discuss it openly to reach a resolution. A leader must not fall into the trap of
allowing employees to come with confidential information that they want the
leader to have but then ask him/her not to act on the information. This ties the
leader's hands and frustrates everyone.

If the problem is a one employee who is continuously causing trouble, deal with
him/her swiftly and within the guidelines created by the Personnel Policies and
Procedures. Document, document, document! Be prepared to handle the
situation, not ignore it. It won't go away! The problem employee will cause
even more trouble as s/he continues to affect co-employees; the problem
employee must be handled swiftly and according to policy.

If the leader detects a problem, one of the first actions to take is to bring the
problem to the attention of his/her boss. This isn't easy, since it is always hard
to bring any form of bad news to the boss. The leader may feel uneasy due to a
fear that the boss will think this is something the leader should be able to handle
him/herself. However, most likely, the leader's good judgment will help him/her
decide which issues warrant going to the boss, and the boss will appreciate
being kept informed. It may be that upper-level management policy is causing a
morale problem. But since morale can destroy not only productivity but also
eventually, the essence of an organization, the problem should be brought to the
attention of the boss.

PREVENTION OF THE PROBLEM

Some problems can't be prevented. The leader should not feel guilty thinking
s/he could have prevented a disaster that occurred in the past. Some people are
simply devious and the problems associated with those people are unavoidable.

However, the leader can prevent additional problems and prevent prolonging
the agony of certain situations. How? There are several techniques the leader
can master:

o Recognize the problem. The leader must stop denying what s/he senses, listen
to intuition, and face the facts. An employee is negatively influencing the work
environment. Take off the rose-colored glasses and deal with the harsh reality
that people like this do exist. Stop asking "How could someone be out to get
me?" "What have I ever done to deserve this?" The leader must realize that the
situation is not about logic or fairness and that it is time to face the fact that a
problem exists that must be dealt with swiftly and fairly.

o Look for an alternative placement for the problem employee. The leader may
uncover a perfect solution that suits the leader, the problem employee, and
everyone else. Perhaps the problem employee could be moved to another
department, another floor, another agency. Make the move into a positive one
but without it becoming a promotion. If co-workers sense that a problem
employee received a promotion to get him/her out of the way, the wrong
message is sent.

o Eliminate the position. Eliminating the position means the leader doesn't have
to be the bad guy and fire someone.

Other prevention techniques.

o Keep communication lines open. As already mentioned, clear and frequent
communication with staff is the best way to prevent problems. Trust develops
between leader and staff when they know the leader has nothing to hide.

o Ask for staff input and seriously consider their suggestions. A trouble-maker
who complains that the boss never listens will not gain much sympathy from co-
workers who know otherwise.

o Develop a screening process when hiring employees that helps distinguish
emotionally healthy workers from those with personality disorders. Talk with
other Human Resource people whose main job is to screen potential
employees. Talk to therapists who know how to quickly recognize personality
disorders; they can help develop evaluation skills so that potential problems
might be a little easier to recognize.

o Steer clear of developing friendships with staff members. Keep the lines clear
between employer and employee. The respect that is shown to the leader can
dissipate when s/he becomes social friends with employees.

When Problems Are Out of Control

There are two things to remember when discussing out-of-control problems.
They may actually be out of control or they may simply feel out of control.

When problems are truly out of control, whether a result of personnel
difficulties, workflow difficulties, policy complications, or a variety of other
issues, time is of the essence. The worst action a leader can take is no action. 

When the person in charge does nothing but sit and think about the situation for
weeks or months, the problems don't get solved and staff morale drops.
The leader should do something, even if it doesn't totally solve the problem.
S/he takes action and lets the staff know that s/he is in control and accepts
responsibility for the outcome. For the staff to know that someone has taken
charge and is in control can be a huge step towards preventing panic and
confusion.

A leader pulls together a team to help problem solve. It takes more
heads than one to solve major problems. The added benefit to the leader is that
the staff feel that their opinions are worthy of consideration. Use their creativity
to solve the problem.

Problems may simply seem out of control. Pamela Meyer (2000) describes
what she terms "chaos." Her advice? Embrace chaos. Her premise is that
positive organizational transformations and individual growth cannot happen
without chaos. Much opportunity is found within the midst of chaos. Leaders
must be open to change, and therein lies the problem. Because leaders tend to
hang on to their illusions of control and stability, they often view chaos as
disorder and lack of control.

Meyer (2000) says that two of the most important aspects of chaos are
persistent instability (constant, unpredictable change) and self-organization
(integrity maintained in the midst of change). "Chaos is persistent instability."
When a great deal of time and energy is spent resisting chaos, chaos is allowed
to continue. When chaos is viewed as an opportunity to grow, the problem
takes on a positive feel. In a self-organizing system the events that challenge the
status quo are, in fact, the most useful to its evolution and the things that came
along unexpectedly become not something to overcome, but the most important
part of the process.


Staff need to understand the concept that growth comes from chaos and that
problems within the organization are to be expected and can be an opportunity
to make positive changes. The benefits to the leader of taking time to help staff
understand his/her view are tremendous.

Conclusion

"Life without problems" might appear to make the leader's job simpler and less
stressful. However, as this chapter has emphasized, a leader can learn and
grow from the problems that arise on the job, and utilize each challenging
experience to hone his/her leadership skills.

As one long-time victim advocate notes, "A passion for problems has given me
tremendous passion and insights into the difficulties and challenges that crime
victims face on a daily basis. My skills as a problem solver help me as a leader
in my field but, perhaps more important, they help my colleagues and me to
achieve our fundamental goal of helping victims better recognize and address
the many problems that result from personal victimization."

References

Blanchard, K., P. Zigarmi, and D. Zigarmi. 1985. Leadership and the One
Minute Manager. New York: William Morrow.

DeBono, E. 1985. Six Thinking Hats. New York: Little, Brown.

Drucker, P. F. 1990. Managing the NonProfit Organization: Principles and
Practices. New York: Harper Collins.

First Books for Business. 1996. Supervising and Managing People. Los
Angeles, CA: McGraw-Hill.

Fuller, G. 1998. Win Win Management: Leading People in the New
Workplace. Paramus, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hamel, G. 2000. Leading the Revolution. Boston: Harvard Business School.

Mackoff, B., and G. Wenet. 2001. The Inner Work of Leaders: Leadership as
a Habit of Mind. New York: Amacom.

Maxwell, J. C. 1999. The 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader: Becoming
the Person Others Will Want to Follow. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson
Publishing.

Meyer, P. 2000. Quantum Creativity. New York: NTC Publishing Group.

Mind Tools Book Stores. 2000. SWOT Analysis. <www.mindtools.com>.
O'Keefe, B. n.d. Teamworks Module: Problem Solving.
<www.vta.spcomm.uiuc.edu>.

Ornish, D. 1998. Love and Survival, chapter 2. New York: Harper Collins.

Patton, B., and K. Griffin. 1973. Problem-Solving Group Interaction. New
York: Harper & Row.      

Rivers, D. 1999. The Seven Challenges: Cooperative Communication Skills
Workbook and Reader. <www.coopcomm.org>.

Rivers, D. n.d. Conversation with communications skills teacher Marshall
Rosenberg.

Additional Reading

Ackoff, R. L. 1986. Management In Small Doses. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.

Blanchard, K., and R. Lorber. 1984. Putting the One Minute Manager to
Work. New York: William Morrow.

Bracey, H., J. Rosenblum, A. Sanford, and R. Trueblood. 1990. Managing
from the Heart. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell.

Danzig, R. J. 2000. The Leader Within You. Hollywood, FL: Frederick Fell.
                    
Findley, B. F., Jr. 1999. Management: Processes and Paradigms for the 21st
Century. Pensacola, FL: Professional Management Resources.

Uris, A. 1986. 101 of the Greatest Ideas in Management. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.

Wren, D. A. 1998. Management Innovators. New York: Oxford University
Press.