AN OVERVIEW OF THE SCHOOL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS     1


1.1 INTRODUCTION


This chapter presents an overview of the school building, to provide a context 
for the chapters that follow. Every building is unique and there is great variety in 
school design; however, the purpose of schools, their occupancy, their economic 
basis, and their role in the social scene mean that there are certain common features 
of schools that distinguish them from other building types.
A summary of the national public school inventory is presented (i.e., how many 
students it houses and how many schools it contains) and projections of future needs 
are also outlined. School design of the past is discussed, because many older schools 
are still in use and must be renovated periodically to meet today's needs. The present 
state of school design is also discussed and some trends and ideas that might 
influence future schools are identified. 


1.2   SCHOOL CONSTRUCTION: THE NATIONAL PICTURE 

The estimated value of the national public school inventory is well over $361.6 
billion.1 Of the almost 15,000 local education agencies found throughout the United 
States (U.S.), 41.9 percent are in small towns and rural areas, and enroll 30.4 percent 
of the students; 25.9 percent are in large towns and cities, and enroll 30.7 percent of 
the students; and 32.2 percent of the education agencies are in suburban areas, and 
enroll 39 percent of the students.2

Over half of our school facilities are at least 40 years old3 and, even with minor 
renovations, have passed their prime in terms of adaptability to modern teaching 
methods and tools (e.g., computers, in-class electronic information displays, and 
group learning activities). Almost all states require new construction once 
replacement costs reach a certain level (usually 60 percent4). The most recent studies 
(completed at the close of the last decade) show a range of $100 to over $300 billion 
would be needed to bring our nation's schools into good teaching condition.
In 2001, the decade-long growth in kindergarten to grade 12 (K-12) school 
construction reached a peak. A propensity for deferred maintenance and the poor 
construction quality of many post-World War II schools have resulted in a huge 
renovation demand, and population increases mean that additional space will also be 
necessary.

If new construction, remodeled space, and additions are included, 2001 witnessed 
over $29.5 billion in school construction throughout the United States, with primary 
school projects slightly edging out high school projects in total number, but not in 
construction dollars. The overall school construction intensity dropped slightly to 
$28.2 billion, but is forecast to rise to $29.15 billion by mid-decade. From 2001 
through 2005, it is estimated that almost a billion square feet of either new, renovated, 
or additional square feet will be added to the national school inventory.



1.3   PAST SCHOOL DESIGN

Schools are typically in use for long periods of time; as a result, teaching continues to 
be conducted in facilities that were designed and constructed at the beginning of the 
20th century. Early 20th century school design was based on late 19th century models 
and was relatively static until after World War II. Schools ranged from one-room rural 
school houses to major symbolic civic structures in large cities. Other inner city 
schools were more modest, inserted into small sites on busy streets and constrained 
by budget limits (see Figures 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3).
The typical city school was one to three stories in height and consisted of rows of 
classrooms on either side of a wide, noisy corridor lined with metal lockers; asphalt 
play courts; and, sometimes, rooftop recreational areas. The larger schools sometimes 
had a library, special rooms for art, science, and shop, and an auditorium.
The surge to meet the school construction demands of the post war baby-boom was 
primarily a suburban development. Much larger sites were available, schools were one 
or two stories in height, auditoriums became multiuse buildings, and large parking 
lots appeared. However, many rural schools were located far away from towns and 
their resources, such as fire departments and other services. 
But the fundamental school program of classrooms along double-loaded corridors 
did not change very much. However, in warm climates, the one-story finger plan 
school, constructed of wood and a small quantity of steel, was both economical and 
more human, and the noisy tiled double-loaded corridor became a covered walk, 
open to the air, with the classrooms on one side and a grassed court on the other (see 
Figure 1-4). Compact versions of these plans appeared as schools became larger and 
sites smaller (see Figure 1-5). 
Inner-city high schools were usually large facilities, housing 2,000 to 3,000 students 
(basically small towns with complex social, economic, and class systems; see Figure 1-
6). In the 1960s and 1970s, some design experiments were tried, such as team 
teaching, which spawned large open classrooms with poor acoustics (see Figure 1-7). 

Some of the new large high schools were built as air-conditioned enclosures, with 
many windowless classrooms, in buildings similar to the shopping malls that 
replaced the main street retail centers (see Figure 1-7). At the same time, many 
schools were expanded by adding prefabricated classrooms to accommodate a surge 
in enrollment. Although the prefabricated classrooms were originally intended as 
temporary space, many are now used as permanent classrooms (see Figure 1-8). 
Schools built in the 1980s and 1990s assumed a wide variety of forms, often combining 
classrooms into clusters and focusing on providing an attractive learning 
environment (see Figure 1-9). However, demographic needs, shortage of affordable 
land, and limited funding has also resulted in instances of the adaptation of existing 
non-educational buildings into schools (see Figure 1-10).



1.4 PRESENT SCHOOL DESIGN

As the U.S. begins a new century, there are indications that a new era of social, 
economic, and educational concerns is evolving that will impact school design. New 
statements of design principles are beginning to emerge, although some of the 
following represent perennial concerns:

 The building should provide for health, safety, and security.

 The learning environment should enhance teaching and learning and 
accommodate the needs of all learners.

 The learning environment should serve as the center of the community.

 The learning environment should result from a planning/design process that 
involves all stakeholders.

 The learning environment should allow for flexibility and adaptability to changing 
needs.

 The learning environment should make effective use of all available resources.
These principles lead, in turn, to a number of current design principles, including:

 Design for protection against natural hazards
 Increased design attention to occupant security
 Careful lighting design and increased use of day lighting and comfort control
 Design for durability 
 Long life/loose fit approach: design for internal change and flexibility
 Design for sustainability, including energy efficiency and the use of "green" 
materials 

Some new schools already respond to these needs5 and, indeed, their originators, 
school districts, communities, and designers are among those defining the schools 
of the next decade. Some of the changes are the result of ideology and analysis; others 
are enforced by the effort to provide an improved learning environment and 
enhanced learning resources in an increasingly financially limited school 
construction economy. Some school districts will be hard pressed to provide a 
minimal learning environment with buildings of the utmost simplicity, while 
meeting the requirements for health, safety, and security.



1.5 FUTURE SCHOOL DESIGN

Schools will continue to vary widely in size; however, even in the suburbs, land has 
become scarce and expensive. New schools will be more compact and the sprawling 
one-story campus will become less common (see Figure 1-11). The desire for more 
supportive environments and the rejection of traditional school plans will result in 
more imaginative and often more complex layouts (see Figure 1-12). Moreover, the 
move to repopulate the inner cities will result in the construction of even more dense 
and compact schools. 

However, many educational researchers believe that students improve their learning 
skills in smaller schools. 
Although small schools may be economically unrealistic, methods of organization 
are being explored that provide some of the benefits of small size within a large 
physical complex. Some schools are organized into "learning academies" for each 
grade, with classrooms that can expand and contract, and other activity rooms of 
various sizes. 

Other researchers believe that the conventional library will disappear. The trend in 
many new schools is for the library to take the form of a multi-media center and 
material collections, including laptop computers, that are distributed from mobile 
units to "classroom clusters." 
Schools are increasingly seen as community resources that go beyond the 
educational functions. Adult education and community events now take place on 
evenings, weekends, and throughout the traditional vacation periods; therefore, the 
school day and week have been expanded. These uses are seen as ways of finding 
affordable methods of enhancing community service resources by ensuring that a 
facility's utilization is maximized.
Indications are that the school building will probably increase in importance to the 
community, as its roles expand beyond that of merely providing a K-12 education for 
students during a school year. At the same time, modern technology means that 
today's schools, already far more complex than the relatively simple buildings of a few 
decades ago, will tend to be more fragile and consequently more vulnerable to 
nature's and society's threats unless special attention is paid to their design and 
construction.

The natural hazards will remain: earthquakes and tornadoes will continue to be, for 
some locations, a source of worry and fear. Besides protecting their occupants, 
schools in earthquake-prone regions are often used as post-earthquake shelters. In 
California, this is particularly appropriate because the State's Field Act, enacted in 
1933, following the Long Beach earthquake, requires that public schools be designed 
by a licensed architect or engineer, their plans checked, and the construction on site 
inspected by staff of the Department of State of Architecture. Elsewhere, floods and 
high winds are a familiar threat that also must be addressed by knowledgeable design 
and good construction practice. Schools, or designated areas within them, located in 
hurricane- and tornado-prone areas are increasingly being constructed to provide 
shelter for the occupants.



1.6 THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Regardless of the size of a school construction program, certain steps are necessary 
and certain procedures must be followed. These will vary greatly in scope between the 
design of a small elementary school and the development of a multi-school program 
of new and remedial construction. Review and regulation procedures by outside 
agencies will also vary. Internal district decisions as to the design and construction 
process (e.g., conventional architect design and competitive construction bid, 
design/build or construction manager) will affect the scope and timing of some of 
the activities.
However, regardless of the size and scope of the project, the following steps should be 
taken; for a small project, they may entail relatively informal meetings among a few 
district staff, the school board, and others; for a large program, formal procedures 
must be established. These steps are summarized in a flow chart (see Figure 1-13) that 
follows this listing.
 Conduct an in-house assessment of the educational needs, with the assistance of a 
public education committee and consultants. Public committees continue 
throughout the programming and design process, acquiring specialist members 
as necessary at different stages for a large program.
 Determine the size and scope of the proposed program. (In a small district, an 
architect may be employed to assist the school district with this task, who may later 
become the design architect).

 Conduct an assessment of the site needs to determine the size and availability of 
sites (and lease/purchase as necessary).
 Develop educational specifications, both in-house and/or consultants.
 Conduct an assessment of financial needs. 
 Identify financial resources, including alternative sources of funding (e.g., state and 
federal programs, local taxes, bond issues).
 Ensure funding (e.g., pass bond issue).
 Appoint a district building program management staff (appointed officials or a 
committee). 
 Determine the design and construction process (i.e., conventional design and bid, 
design/build or construction management).
 Select and hire architects and other special design consultants or design/build 
team members; the timing of hiring will vary, depending on number of projects, 
whether programming is involved, and other variables.
 Develop building programs, including building size, room size, equipment, and 
environmental requirements; this may be done in-house and/or architects or 
independent program consultants may assist. 
 Appoint the district staff and public stakeholders committee for the design phase. 
 Develop designs (architects), together with cost estimates. Hold public meetings 
with architects and encourage public input into the design, together with district 
progress reviews.
 Design completion, district review of contract documents.
 Submit construction documents to the district and any permitting agencies for 
review and approval.
 Submit documents to building department and other required agencies.
 Select the contractor (bidding) or finalize design/build or construction 
management contracts.
 School construction.
 School district administration of construction contract.
 Observation by architect and inspection as required.
 School completed by contractor
 School inspected and accepted by architect.
 School inspected and accepted by school district.
 School commissioned and occupied. 

The sequence of the above steps may vary, depending on the complexity of the 
program; some steps may be implemented simultaneously.
Figure 1-13 shows a flow chart of this typical process. Also shown (in the five boxes to 
the right) are specific activities related to design for multihazards and how these fit 
into the general construction process.



1.7 SCHOOL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 

1.7.1 Structure

The structure provides support for all the elements of a building and ensures that the 
building can sustain all the loads and forces that it will encounter during its life. 
Often concealed behind ceilings, exterior cladding, and decorative facing materials, 
the structure plays a critical role in providing a safe and secure school building. 
Because of the relatively small size of most school buildings and the simplicity of 
design of the traditional school, with numerous internal walls, structural design is 
relatively simple and a well designed and constructed school should not collapse 
unless struck by a severe tornado or terrorist.
Most suburban schools built in the last few decades are typically one or two stories in 
height, with light steel frames or mixed structures of steel and wood frames and also 
with some concrete or concrete masonry walls. Except in the western states, and the 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts, concrete masonry walls may have nominal or no steel 
reinforcing. Reinforced masonry perimeter and/or interior classroom separation 
walls sometimes are used as shear walls to provide lateral support. First floors are 
generally concrete slab-on-grade.

Many schools may have long-span gymnasiums or assembly spaces, using glued-
laminated wood beams, steel trusses, or precast reinforced concrete tees or double 
tees. In these long span structures, large diaphragm and wind uplift forces must be 
transmitted to the perimeter walls or frames and the design and construction of 
wall/roof connections are critical. 
Typical prefabricated teaching spaces consist of classroom-sized wood frame boxes, 
are air-conditioned where necessary, and generally have minimally adequate lighting 
and electrical services. They provide an economical way of solving a problem, but 
rows of prefabricated classroom boxes do not provide an appropriate long-term 
learning and social environment. Also, they are typically less resistant to natural 
hazards.

Inner city schools may be three or four stories in height and are often built on 
congested sites. Structurally, they are usually constructed of reinforced masonry, 
reinforced concrete, and/or steel frames, and sometimes are a mix of these types of 
systems.
Older structures (i.e., pre-World War II) often had unreinforced masonry walls with 
wood floors and roof structures. Another common type was a lightly reinforced 
concrete frame infilled with hollow tile or masonry for walls, together with a wood 
floor and roof structure. Small schools were often of wood frame construction 
throughout, and basements and crawl spaces were common in these structures. Older 
structures are particularly vulnerable to natural hazards. Unreinforced masonry 
structures have performed very poorly in earthquakes and high winds, as have older 
reinforced concrete frames with infill. Older wood frame structures are often 
deficient in their design and construction detailing and are frequently weakened by 
insect attack or dry rot. 


1.7.2 Nonstructural Systems and Components

Nonstructural components and systems comprise architectural components such as 
ceilings and partitions, mechanical, plumbing, and electrical items that provide 
utilities and services to the building and cladding and roofing that provide weather 
protection and insulation.

A wide variety of exterior cladding materials are used for schools. The most common 
materials include brick or concrete masonry, stucco on metal or wood stud frame 
walls, exterior insulation finish systems (EIFS), and various natural and synthetic 
sidings on wood frame structures. Metal or stucco faced insulated panels are also 
used. Metal and glass curtain walls are used infrequently, generally in an urban 
setting. 
Newer schools usually have suspended grid ceilings that support light acoustic panels 
and inset lighting fixtures. Pendant fixtures are also used, in the form of rows of 
linear fluorescent fixtures or single high intensity (HID) fixtures. The latter are often 
large in size when used in assembly spaces or gymnasiums. Incandescent fixtures may 
still be found in older school buildings, but are a source of high energy use and 
should be replaced.
Non-load bearing partitions are often of hollow tile or concrete masonry: however, 
especially in the western states, partitions are of gypsum board over wood or metal 
framing, although concrete masonry or tile may be used in restrooms or other service 
areas. 

School mechanical systems are relatively simple. Older schools and some new ones 
employ perimeter hot water heating together with natural ventilation or forced air. 
Very old schools may still employ steam heating, but most of these systems should 
have been replaced by hydronic systems. Newer schools, particularly when large, 
often employ forced air heating, ventilating, and cooling systems. Concern for energy 
conservation has resulted in the use of innovative systems, including a return to the 
use of natural ventilation and day lighting. 

Plumbing tends to be concentrated in restroom areas, although science, art spaces, 
and school kitchens require more complex plumbing services. Specialized plumbing 
will also be found in mechanical/boiler rooms, the water service and fire protection 
service entrances, and domestic water heaters.
Electrical services have become increasingly complex with the need for ready access 
to power and communications services. The trend in communications devices to 
become wireless may serve to slightly reduce the extent of hard wired commu-
nications. Fire alarm and security services, however, require increasingly extensive 
electrical and electronic services.
Fixed classroom desks and teachers units have been replaced by lighter mobile 
furniture. Libraries still require extensive shelving, although ready access to the 
internet may tend to reduce the use of hard-copy materials. 
Some special spaces, such as science labs, shop, and art rooms, need storage for 
hazardous chemicals and operate heavy equipment, and are vulnerable to earthquake 
damage. Music spaces and gymnasiums all have special equipment and storage needs, 
some of which would be costly to replace in the event of damage.


1 Conservative estimate based upon elementary and secondary school averages developed with the   help of Paul Abramson, President of Stanton 
Leggett & Associates, Education Consultants. 
2  U.S. Department of Education, National Center of Education Statistics; The Digest of Education   Statistics, 2001.
3  U.S. Department of Education, National Center of Education Statistics, The Digest of Education   Statistics, 2001


4 Use of this estimate as a decision tool was developed by Basil Castoldi, Education Facilities, Planning, Modernization and Management, fourth 
edition, Allyn & Bacon publishers, page 385