Technical 
Bulletin 
10-01 
Ensuring That Structures Built on Fill In or Near Special Flood 
Hazard Areas Are Reasonably Safe From Flooding 

in accordance with the 
National Flood Insurance Program 


FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY FIA-TB-10 
MITIGATION DIRECTORATE (5/01) 


Key Word/Subject Index 

This index allows the user to locate key words and subjects in this Technical Bulletin. The 
Technical Bulletin Users Guide (printed separately) provides references to key words and 
subjects throughout the Technical Bulletins. For definitions of selected terms, refer to the 
Glossary at the end of this bulletin. 

Key Word/Subject Index Page 

Basement construction, engineered option 19 
Basement construction, simplified approach 15 
Basement foundation in fill, not recommended 9 
Basement foundation in fill, vulnerability to subsurface flooding 1, 9 
Basement foundation, in fill placed above BFE 10 
Basement foundation, with lowest floor at or above BFE 10 
Basement foundation, with lowest opening above BFE 11 
Basement foundation, with lowest opening at BFE 12 
Community permitting, administrative options for 5 
Crawlspace foundation 7 
Fill, placed to remove land from the SFHA 1 
Fill, areas where prohibited 3 
Fill, proper placement of 5 
Foundation flood risk, summary table 13 
Freeboard, recommendations 6 
Insurance coverage for basement flooding, restrictions 9 
Professional certification 4 
Professional certification, sample form 4 
Reasonably safe from flooding, defined 2 
Reasonably safe from flooding, NFIP regulations concerning 2 
Slab-on-grade foundation 8 
Stem wall foundation 7 
Sump pump, requirements for simplified basement construction 15 

Any comments on the Technical Bulletins should be directed to: 

Federal Emergency Management Agency
Mitigation Directorate
Program Policy and Assessment Branch
500 C Street, SW.
Washington, DC 20472


Wave design on cover based on the Japanese print The Great Wave Off Kanagawa, by Katsuchika Hokussai 
(17601849), Asiatic Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 


TECHNICAL BULLETIN 10-01


Ensuring That Structures Built on Fill In or Near Special Flood Hazard Areas
Are Reasonably Safe From Flooding
in accordance with the National Flood Insurance Program


Introduction 

For the purpose of administering the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), FEMA identifies and 
maps flood hazard areas nationwide by conducting flood hazard studies and publishing Flood 
Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs). These flood hazard areas, referred to as Special Flood Hazard Areas 
(SFHAs), are based on a flood having a 1-percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any 
given year (also referred to as the 100-year flood or Base Flood). 

Structures within the SFHA in a community participating in the NFIP are subject to floodplain 
management regulations that impact building standards and are designed to minimize flood risk. For 
example, Title 44, Part 60, Section 3(c)(2) of the Code of Federal Regulationsabbreviated as 44 
CFR 60.3(c)(2)requires that the lowest floor of a residential structure, including basement, built 
within the SFHA be at or above the Base Flood Elevation (BFE). In addition, flood insurance must be 
purchased for these structures if they are used as collateral to secure a loan provided by a federally 
regulated lender. Flood insurance coverage may be purchased for all eligible structures within a 
participating community. Insurance rates for structures located within the SFHA differ from the rates 
for structures located outside the SFHA. 

When permitted under applicable Federal, state, and local laws, ordinances, and regulations, earthen 
fill is sometimes placed in an SFHA to reduce flood risk to the filled area. Under certain conditions, 
when engineered earthen fill is placed within an SFHA to raise the surface of the ground to or above 
the BFE, a request may be submitted to FEMA to revise the FIRM to indicate that the filled land is 
outside of the SFHA. When such revisions are warranted, FEMA usually revises the FIRM by issuing 
a Letter of Map Revision based on fill (LOMR-F). After FEMA has revised the FIRM to show that the 
filled land is outside the SFHA, the community is no longer required to apply the minimum NFIP 
floodplain management standards to any structures built on the land and the mandatory flood 
insurance purchase requirements no longer apply. It is worth noting that states and local communities 
may have floodplain regulations that are more restrictive than the minimum requirements of the NFIP 
and may continue to enforce some or all of their floodplain management requirements in areas outside 
the SFHA. 

Although a structure built on a site that has been elevated by the placement of fill may be removed by 
FEMA from the SFHA, the structure may still be subject to damage during the Base Flood and 
higher-magnitude floods. Constructing the entire structure at or above the level of the BFE will 
minimize the flood risk from the Base Flood and is therefore the most prudent approach to 
constructing on fill. Conversely, a structure with a basement (subgrade area) adjacent to or near the 
floodplain may well be impacted by subsurface flooding brought on by surface flooding. 

1 


This bulletin provides guidance on the construction of buildings on land elevated above the BFE 
through the placement of fill. Several methods of construction are discussed, and the most prudent 
those that result in the entire building being above the BFEare recommended. 

In some areas of the country, basements are a standard construction feature. Individuals may wish to 
construct basements on land after it has been removed from the floodplain by a FEMA revision. 
Buildings with basements built in filled areas are at an added risk of flooding when compared to 
buildings on other types of foundations. However, there are two major ways to minimize this 
additional risk from subsurface flooding. First, the building should be located farther back from the 
edge of the fill closest to the flooding source. Second, the higher the basement floor is elevated, the 
less the risk. This technical bulletin provides guidance on how to determine that these buildings will 
be reasonably safe from flooding during the occurrence of the Base Flood and larger floods. To be 
reasonably safe from flooding during the Base Flood condition, the basement must (1) be dry, not 
have any water in it, and (2) be structurally sound, not have loads that either exceed the structural 
capacity of walls or floors or cause unacceptable deflections. In practice, this means that soils around 
the basement must have low permeability to minimize or stop water infiltration to the basement wall 
and floors. Any water that does permeate to the basement must be removed by a drainage layer on the 
outside (soil side) of the basement. In addition, the foundation walls and floor slab must be designed 
and constructed for any increased loads that may occur during the Base Flood condition. 

NFIP Regulations 

Part of a communitys application to participate in the NFIP must include a commitment to recognize 
and duly evaluate flood hazards in all official actions in the areas having special flood hazards and to 
take other such official actions reasonably necessary to carry out the objectives of the program [44 
CFR 59.22 (a)(8)]. 

NFIP regulations at 44 CFR 60 include Subpart A: Requirements for Flood Plain Management 
Regulations. Each community participating in the NFIP adopts a floodplain management ordinance 
that meets or exceeds the minimum requirements listed in 44 CFR 60. Subpart A establishes specific 
criteria for determining the adequacy of a communitys floodplain management regulations. The 
overriding purpose of the floodplain management regulations is to ensure that participating 
communities take into account flood hazards, to the extent that they are known, in all official actions 
relating to land management and use. 

One of the minimum requirements established by the regulations is set forth at 44 CFR 60.3 (a)(3), 
which states that, for all proposed construction or other development within a participating 
community, the community must Review all permit applications to determine whether the proposed 
building sites will be reasonably safe from flooding. 44 CFR 59.1 defines development as 

any manmade change to improved or unimproved real estate, including but not 
limited to buildings or other structures, mining, dredging, filling, grading, paving, 
excavation or drilling operation or storage of equipment or materials, 

2 


Warning 

Construction of a residential building in an identified SFHA with a lowest floor below the BFE 
is a violation of the floodplain management requirements set forth at 44 CFR 60.3(c)(2), unless 
the community has obtained an exception to NFIP requirements from FEMA and has approved 
procedures in place. 

By issuance of this Technical Bulletin, FEMA is noting that residual flood hazards may exist in areas 
elevated above the BFE by the placement of engineered earthen fill. Residual risks in these areas 
include subsurface flood conditions and flooding from events that exceed the base flood. This bulletin 
is intended to guide local floodplain management officials in determining whether structures placed in 
filled areas are reasonably safe from flooding. FEMA will require that the jurisdiction having 
authority for floodplain management determine that an area is reasonably safe from flooding before 
removing it from the SFHA. 

Floodways, V Zones, and Alluvial Fan Flood Hazard Areas 
This bulletin does not apply to the following: 

 Construction in the floodway. The NFIP prohibits encroachments into the floodway that 
would cause increases in flood stage. 
 Construction in SFHAs designated Zone V, VE, or V1-V30 on FIRMs. The NFIP prohibits 
the use of structural fill for support of buildings in V zones. Buildings constructed in a 
V zone must be constructed on an open foundation consisting of piles, piers, or posts and 
must be elevated so that the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural member is at or 
above the BFE. In addition, this bulletin strongly recommends that structural fill not be 
used to elevate buildings constructed in A zones in coastal areas. Detailed guidance 
concerning proper construction methods for buildings in coastal areas is presented in 
FEMAs Coastal Construction Manual (FEMA 55) and in NFIP Technical Bulletin 5, 
Free-of-Obstruction Requirements. 
 Construction in SFHAs subject to alluvial fan flooding (designated Zone A0 with depths 
and velocities shown on FIRMs). The NFIP will not remove land from the floodplain 
based on the placement of fill in alluvial fan flood hazard areas. 
More Restrictive State and Local Requirements 

NFIP Technical Bulletins provide guidance on the minimum requirements of the NFIP 
regulations. State or local requirements that exceed those of the NFIP take precedence. Design 
professionals should contact community officials to determine whether more restrictive state or 
local regulations apply to the building or site in question. All applicable standards of the state or 
local building code must be met for any building in a flood hazard area. 

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Notes for Local Officials 

Professional Certification 

As required by state and local floodplain management ordinances, a proposed development must be 
determined to be reasonably safe from flooding. The official having the authority to make this 
determination should require all appropriate information for making the determination. This may 
include a certification by a qualified design professional that indicates the land or structures to be 
removed from the SFHA are reasonably safe from flooding, according to the criteria described in this 
technical bulletin. Such a professional certification may come from a professional engineer, 
professional geologist, professional soil scientist, or other design professional qualified to make such 
evaluations. A sample of such a certification is shown in Figure 1. 

Project Name and Address 

I, certify that the design for the aforementioned 
development is reasonably safe from flooding in accordance with the guidance provided within FEMAs 
Technical Bulletin 10-01 related to ensuring that structures are reasonably safe from flooding and in 
accordance with accepted professional practices. 

Signature Date 

Title 
Type of License License Number 

Address and Phone 

Professional Seal 


License Expiration Date 

Figure 1 Sample of professional certification form. 

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Administrative Options for Community Permitting 

Communities may choose a variety of administrative procedures to assist them in gathering 
information that can be used to determine whether a proposed development is reasonably safe from 
flooding. Communities are encouraged to establish procedures that alert them to potential future 
development of a filled area. These procedures should allow for the evaluation of future development 
and a means to determine whether it will be reasonably safe from flooding. The following are 
examples of such procedures: 

 Require building sites to be identified on final subdivision plats and evaluate those building sites 
against the standards described in this Technical Bulletin. 
 Require grading plans as a condition of issuing fill permits and require that those grading plans 
include building sites, and evaluate those building sites based on this Technical Bulletin. 
 Require buffer zones or setback zones around the perimeter of fill pads or at the edge of the floodplain 
and establish construction requirements within these buffer zones to ensure that buildings are 
safe from residual risk. 
 Require as a condition of final subdivision plat approval that the developer agree that no basements 
will be built in any flood areas. 
 Adopt or have regulations that control development of areas immediately adjacent to floodplains 
that would ensure that any construction is reasonably safe from flooding. For example, under the 
Minnesota State Building Code, communities designate areas outside of the floodplain as Secondary 
Flood Hazard Areas where building officials evaluate plans for basements and can require 
modifications to the basement if an official believes there is a residual risk. 
 When issuing a permit for the placement of fill only in the SFHA, stipulate that no buildings will be 
built on the site without a subsequent building permit. 
Placement of Fill 

Properly placing fill requires an understanding of soil mechanics, local site conditions, the specific 
characteristics of the soils being placed, the methods used to place and compact the fill, and soil 
testing procedures. Standard engineering and soil mechanics texts cover these subjects in detail. The 
performance of these filled areas should consider, but is not limited to, the following: 

 the consolidation of the fill layers and any underlying layers 
 the effect of this consolidation on either excessive settlement or differential settlement 
 how the permeability of the soils affects water infiltration on any structures built on the site 
5



Loss of Storage and Conveyance 

The placement of fill in the SFHA can result in an increase in the BFE by reducing the ability to 
convey and store flood waters. This can result in increased flood damage to both upstream and 
downstream properties. To prevent these possible results, some communities prohibit fill, require 
compensatory storage for filled areas, and/or identify a more restrictive floodway. 

Risk of Flood Damage in Areas Adjacent to the SFHA 

Areas adjacent to the SFHA may have residual risks of flood damage similar to those in areas 
removed from the SFHA through the placement of fill. Both areas are subject to residual risk 
from subsurface water related to flooding and from floods greater than the Base Flood. Methods 
of construction discussed in this bulletin should also be used in these areas. 

Building on Land Removed From the SFHA by the Placement of Fill 

The safest methods of constructing a building on filled land removed from the SFHA are those that 
result in the entire structure being above the BFE. Methods that place the lowest floor of the building 
at, rather than above, the BFE are at greater flood risk, and methods that result in the lowest floor 
(including a basement floor) below the BFE have the highest flood risk of all. Placement of the lowest 
floor of these structures below the BFE, even through they are outside the SFHA, will result in an 
increased threat from subsurface flooding and magnified damages from flooding that exceeds the BFE. 

Freeboard 

Freeboard is an additional height used as a factor of safety in determining the elevation of a structure, 
or floodproofing, to compensate for factors that may increase the flood height (ASCE 24-98, Flood 
Resistant Design and Construction). When fill is used to protect buildings from the Base Flood, the 
community should consider whether freeboard should be required. This consideration should 
include whether better information exists or conditions have changed (from when the BFE was 
originally established) that indicate that the BFE may be higher than originally expected. One 
example of when the BFE may be higher is when a culvert or bridge is blocked by debris. Flood 
modeling assumes an open channel or culvert. Even when the BFE is not expected to be higher, 
freeboard may be appropriate to provide increased protection from flood events less frequent 
than the Base Flood or to account for future changes that may increase the BFE. 

The foundation types for buildings outside the SFHA described in the following sections are listed in 
order of their increasing risk of flood damage. 

6 


Non-Basement Foundations 

Non-basement foundations consist primarily of stem wall, crawlspace, and slab-on-grade foundations. 

Stem Wall Foundation 

A stem wall foundation can be used to raise the lowest floor above the surrounding grade. After the 
stem walls have been constructed and extended to the desired elevation, the area enclosed by the stem 
walls is filled with engineered compacted fill and a slab is poured on top (see Figure 2). Through the 
placement of additional fill, the site may be elevated above the BFE. This approach provides 
freeboardan additional amount of elevation that helps protect against subsurface flooding and floods 
that exceed the Base Flood. Constructing a stem wall foundation and placing this additional fill on the 
site provide the highest level of flood protection. 


Figure 2 Structure on a stem wall foundation. The lowest floor is raised above the BFE. The 
space enclosed by the stem walls is filled with engineered compacted fill. 

Crawlspace Foundation 

Constructing a crawlspace beneath the first floor will raise the lowest floor of the structure above the 
surrounding grade (see Figure 3). Openings in the foundation walls are recommended. If flooding 
reaches the building, the openings allow flood waters to enter the area below the lowest floor and 
equalize the hydrostatic pressure on the foundation walls (see NFIP Technical Bulletin 1, Openings In 
Foundation Walls). 

The crawlspace alternative is less preferable than stem wall construction, which does not result in an 
enclosed area under the first floor and therefore requires no flood openings. Placing additional fill to a 
level above the BFE provides freeboard that helps protect against subsurface flooding and floods that 
exceed the Base Flood. Constructing a crawlspace foundation and placing additional fill on the site 
provide increased flood protection. 

7



Figure 3 Structure on a crawlspace foundation. The lowest floor is raised above the BFE. 
Openings in the foundation walls allow water from floods higher than the fill elevation 
to enter the crawlspace and equalize the pressure on foundation walls. 

Slab-On-Grade Foundation 

This method normally provides less flood protection than crawlspace construction because it does not 
elevate the house above the adjacent grade (see Figure 4). As a result, the lowest floor of the house can 
be as low as the BFE and would be inundated by any flood greater than the BFE. Placing additional 
engineered fill beneath the building to a level above the BFE would provide freeboard and therefore 
increased flood protection. 


Figure 4 Structure on a slab-on-grade foundation. The lowest floor is typically slightly higher 
than the surrounding grade. 

8



Basement Foundations 

Although basements are a desired feature in some areas of the United States, NFIP minimum 
requirements generally do not allow their construction in the SFHA, because of the increased risk of 
flood damages. The only instances where this is not the case are buildings for which FEMA has 
granted a special exemption to allow floodproofed basements. However, once land is removed from 
the SFHA through a map revision, these NFIP minimum requirements no longer apply. As a result, 
builders and property owners who build on land removed from the SFHA sometimes elect to install 
basements, which are at a higher risk of flood damage than the foundation types described previously. 

Constructing a basement on such land is not recommended, because the basement (i.e., lowest) floor 
and portions of the basement walls may well be subjected to subsurface flooding. The basement may 
therefore be subject to seepage and lateral hydrostatic and uplift pressure caused by high groundwater 
levels associated with flooding in surrounding areas. Additionally, when flooding exceeds the BFE, 
the basement area may be totally inundated with floodwater. When builders and homeowners decide 
to accept the additional risk associated with basement construction on filled land, they need to ensure 
that the basement and the rest of the house are reasonably safe from flooding. 

Warning 

In filled areas adjacent to floodplains, floods can still greatly influence the groundwater at the 
filled site. High groundwater at a site with a basement can result in water infiltrating the 
basement or greatly increased hydrostatic pressures on the walls and basement slab that can 
cause failure or permanent deformation. Even when floods have not reached houses with 
basements, FEMA has seen numerous examples of flooded basements, bowed basement floors, 
and collapsed basement walls that have resulted from the effects of high groundwater caused by 
flooding. In addition, the collapse of flooded basements has also occurred when water is rapidly 
pumped from basements surrounded by saturated soils whose pressure exceeds the capacity of 
the basement walls. 

Flood Insurance Coverage for Basements 

It is extremely important to note that the NFIP offers only limited coverage for basement 
flooding. First, in order for a claim to be paid, there must be a general condition of overland 
flooding where floodwaters come in contact with the structure. Secondly, the NFIP does not 
provide coverage for finished nonstructural elements such as paneling and linoleum in 
basement areas. Contents coverage is restricted to a limited number of items listed in the flood 
insurance policy. Contact a local insurance agent for more information. 

9



Four basement construction methods are described below in increasing order of flood risk. 

Basement Foundation With Lowest Floor At or Above BFE 

Placing the lowest floor of the basement at or above the BFE has the effect of eliminating flood-
induced damage up to the BFE (see Figure 5). In general, the higher the basement floor is above the 
BFE the lower the risk of damage from seepage and hydrostatic pressure caused by flood-related 
groundwater. Where possible, the basement should be built with its floor at or above the BFE. An 
added benefit is that floods that exceed the BFE will cause significantly less damage to a structure 
with this type of basement than to structures with basements whose floors are at greater depths. 


Figure 5 Basement foundation with lowest floor above the BFE. Damage from floods below 
the BFE is eliminated. 

Basement Foundation in Fill Placed Above BFE 

Placing fill to a level higher than the BFE has the effect of reducing the depth of the basement floor 
below the BFE (see Figure 6). It is recommended that fill be placed to a level at least 1 foot above the 
BFE. In general, the higher the basement floor the lower the risk of damage from seepage and 
hydrostatic pressure caused by flood-related groundwater. Where possible, enough fill should be 
properly placed so that the lowest grade adjacent to the structure is raised to an elevation greater than 
the BFE. An added benefit of fill placed above the BFE is that it helps protect the building from floods 
greater than the Base Flood. These floods are less likely to reach the structure. 

10



Figure 6 Basement foundation in fill placed above the BFE. The depth of the basement floor 
below the BFE is less than when no fill is placed. 

Basement Foundation With Lowest Opening Above BFE 

In the event that the lowest floor is not elevated to or above the BFE and fill is not placed to a level 
above the BFE, the next best method of reducing flood risk is to place the lowest opening into the 
basement (e.g., window well) at a level higher than the BFE (see Figure 7). This will reduce the 
chances that surface flooding will enter and inundate the basement. However, the basement walls and 
floor slab will still be subjected to hydrostatic pressure with the potential for damage and seepage into 
the basement. In addition, the above-grade basement walls will be exposed to water from floods 
greater than the Base Flood. For this reason, the lowest opening in the basement walls should be 
above the BFE, as shown in Figure 7. 


Figure 7 Basement foundation with lowest opening above the BFE. Surface flooding is less 
likely to enter and inundate the basement. 

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Basement Foundation With Lowest Opening at BFE 

This is the least preferable condition of all because it results in the highest flood risk and is not 
recommended (see Figure 8). The lack of fill above the BFE, coupled with the lowest floor being 
below BFE and lowest opening at the BFE, exposes the basement to flooding from both subsurface 
flooding and any flood greater than the Base Flood. 


Figure 8 Basement foundation with lowest opening at the BFE. The basement is exposed to 
flooding from any flood greater than the Base Flood. 

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Flood Risk by Foundation Type 

Table 1 summarizes the foundation construction methods described in this bulletin and ranks them in 
order of increasing flood riskthe safest foundation types appear near the top; the less safe 
foundation types appear near the bottom. The foundation construction methods that result in a 
building that is reasonably safe from flooding are shown in the dark gray area of the table. If the 
basement construction methods shown in the light gray area are used, the requirements described in 
the following sections of this bulletin must be met in order for the building to be considered 
reasonably safe from flooding. 

Table 1 Flood Risk by Foundation Construction Method 


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Basement Construction Guidance 

For those who have chosen to accept the additional risk associated with basement construction below 
the Base Flood on filled land that has been removed from the SFHA, this bulletin provides technical 
guidance about measures that can be taken to protect basements and meet the requirement that 
buildings be made reasonably safe from flooding. A simplified approach, including the requirements 
that must be met for its use, is presented first. For buildings that do not meet the criteria for the 
simplified approach, this bulletin provides technical guidance for the development of an engineering 
design tailored to the site conditions. 

Structural Design 

Design of foundation elements is addressed in model building codes. This technical bulletin does 
not address the structural design of basement walls or foundations. Floors and slabs should be 
designed for the hydrostatic pressures that can occur from the Base Flood. For the structural 
design, it is recommended that the full hydrostatic pressures be assumed unrelieved by the 
drainage system. Foundation walls that have not been designed for hydrostatic pressures, such as 
unreinforced masonry or pressure-treated wood wall systems, should not be used (see Figure 9). 


Figure 9 Failure of this unreinforced masonry basement during flooding in East Grand
Forks, MN, in 1997 caused approximately $32,000 in damage.


14 


Simplified Approach 

Design Requirements 

If, for a building and building site, all the requirements listed below are met (see Figure 10), the 
building is reasonably safe from flooding. If all of these requirements are not met, the more detailed 
analysis described under Engineered Basement Option, on page 19 of this bulletin, should be 
performed to determine whether the building is reasonably safe from flooding. 


The ground surface around the building and within a defined setback distance from the 
edge of the SFHA (see next item) must be at or above the BFE. 

The setback is the distance from the edge of the SFHA to the nearest wall of the basement. 
The minimum allowable setback distance is 20 feet. 

The ground around the building must be compacted fill; the fill materialor soil of 
similar classification and degree of permeabilitymust extend to at least 5 feet below the 
bottom of the basement floor slab. 

The fill material must be compacted to at least 95 percent of Standard Laboratory 
Maximum Dry Density (Standard Proctor), according to ASTM Standard D-698. Fill soils 
must be fine-grained soils of low permeability, such as those classified as CH, CL, SC, or 
ML according to ASTM Standard D-2487, Classification of Soils for Engineering 
Purposes. See Table 1804.2 in the 2000 International Building Code (IBC) for 
descriptions of these soil types. 


The fill material must be homogeneous and isotropic; that is, the soil must be all of one 
material, and the engineering properties must be the same in all directions. 

The elevation of the basement floor should be no more than 5 feet below the BFE. 

There must be a granular drainage layer beneath the floor slab, and a -horsepower sump 
pump with a backup power supply must be provided to remove the seepage flow. The 
pump must be rated at four times the estimated seepage rate and must discharge above the 
BFE and away from the building. This arrangement is essential to prevent flooding of the 
basement or uplift of the floor under the effect of the seepage pressure. 


The drainage system must be equipped with a positive means of preventing backflow. 

Model building codes (such as the 2000 International Residential Code) also address 
foundation drainage (IRC Section R405) and foundation walls (IRC Section R404). 
Model building codes generally allow foundation drains to discharge through either 
mechanical means or gravity drains. In addition, there is often an exception to the 
requirement for drainage systems in well-drained soils. However, in or near floodplains, 
well-drained soils can, in fact, help convey groundwater towards the building foundation. 
Therefore, this exception should not apply in or near floodplains. 

15 


In some cases in or near floodplains, even with standard drainage systems, hydrostatic 
pressures from groundwater against the basement can result. When a standard drainage 
system is unable to eliminate hydrostatic pressure on the foundation, model building 
codes, including the 2000 International Residential Code (IRC Section R404.1.3), require 
that the foundation be designed in accordance with accepted engineering practice. The 
simplified approach contained in this Technical Bulletin assumes no hydrostatic 
pressure on the foundation and should be used only when a standard drainage 
system, discharged by a sump pump that is equipped with backup power and that 
discharges above BFE, is employed. For other drainage systems, the designer should use 
the engineered basement option presented on page 19 of this bulletin and other appropriate 
building code requirements. 


Figure 10 Requirements for use of the simplified approach to basement construction. 

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Technical Background for the Simplified Approach 

The simplified approach is based on the following conditions: 

1. The area of the footprint of the basement is less than or equal to 1,200 square feet. 
2. The soil is saturated; therefore, there is no time lag in the development of the seepage pattern with a 
change in flood water level. The groundwater table in floodplains is typically very shallow, and fine-
grained soils have a substantial potential for maintaining saturation above the water table by capillary 
rise. 
3. The tailwater level is at the elevation of the BFE. For this bulletin, tailwater is defined as the 
groundwater level beyond the structure, on the side away from the flood water surface. This is a 
reasonably conservative assumption because the flood would raise the groundwater level in the 
general area. In some cases, the tailwater level can be higher than the flood level because there is 
higher ground, as a valley wall, that feeds the groundwater into the floodplain soils. 
4. The effective elevation of the base of the seepage flow zone can be defined (see Figure 11). This 
elevation is needed to permit calculation of the quantity of seepage flow. If the base elevation is not 
known, its depth below the base of the floor slab can be conservatively approximated as one-half of 
the building width most nearly perpendicular to the shoreline of the flood water. This would 
approximate the boundary effects of the three-dimensional seepage flow, in that it would represent the 
flow coming in from all sides and meeting in the center beneath the floor slab. This approach assumes 
a constant soil type and density over the flow zone. If the site has stratified soil layers, the engineered 
basement option should be used (see page 19 of this bulletin). 
5. The quantity of seepage flow can be calculated by a simplified method based on Dupuits 
assumption that equipotential lines are vertical. (The Dupuit method uses Darcys law with specific 
physical characteristics. A more detailed description can be found in the first two references listed 
under Further Information, on page 23 of this bulletin.) The elements of the method are presented in 
Figure 11. The entry surface, with hydraulic head a, is a vertical line extending downward from the 
edge of the flood surface. The exit surface, with hydraulic head b, is a vertical line extending 
downward from the side of the structure closest to the flood waters edge. The length of the flow path, 
L, is the setback distance. Flow is assumed to be horizontal, and the horizontal coefficient of 
permeability is the effective permeability. For simplicity, the small inclined entry zone at the river 
bank and the exit zone below the basement floor are ignored. This is a reasonably conservative 
measure. The phreatic line, or the line below which the seepage flow occurs under positive pressure, 
extends from the edge of the flood water to the elevation of the bottom of the basement floor slab. If 
the exit zone below the basement floor were included, the hydraulic head at b would be higher. As 
shown in Figure 11, the phreatic line is not a straight line, but within the limits of the assumed 
boundary values, it is close to a straight line. 
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Figure 11 Method for calculation of seepage flow. 

The Dupuit equation for the quantity of seepage flow is: 

q = k(a2  b2)/2L 

where: q is the flow in cubic feet per second for a 1-foot width of seepage zone 
k is the soil permeability in feet per second (fps) (maximum value of k is 1x10-3 fps) 
a and b are hydraulic heads in feet (a < b + 5) 
L is the length of the flow zone in feet (L > 20 feet) 

18



To obtain Q, the total seepage flow, in cubic feet per second, q must be multiplied by the length 
around the periphery of the four sides of the structure. This is a simplifying approach that obviates the 
need for a three-dimensional flow net calculation and is reasonably conservative. 

It should be noted that the soil permeability does not affect the geometry of the seepage zone or the 
geometry of the phreatic line. The permeability does have a significant effect on the quantity of 
seepage that must be collected and discharged by the drainage layer and the sump pump. The 
calculation of the quantity Q provides a basis for the selection of a sump pump of adequate capacity. 
To allow for possible errors in the estimation of the soil permeability, the pump should have a capacity 
of at least four times the calculated value of Q. As noted in the requirements section, a standard sump 
pump of  horsepower or greater will generally satisfy the requirements of seepage removal for the 
conditions described above. 

Engineered Basement Option 

If the requirements specified for the simplified approach are not met, a licensed soils engineer or 
geologist should perform a detailed engineering analysis to determine whether the structure will be 
reasonably safe from flooding. The analysis should consider, but is not limited to, the issues described 
in the following sections. 

Depth, Soil Type, and Stratification of Subsurface Soils 

The depth, soil type, and stratification of the subsurface soils may be complex. Four potential 
generalized scenarios are shown in Figures 12 and 13. Figure 12 shows two cases of homogeneous 
soil. The depth of penetration of the basement and the depth of the flow zone are not limited to the 
assumptions on which the simplified approach is based. Case I represents a foundation consisting of 
clayey soils, either fill or natural deposits or a combination, which are more or less homogeneous 
because they have similar engineering properties. If an adequate setback distance is provided, the 
seepage quantity would be relatively low, and uplift pressure beneath the slab could be controlled by 
an appropriately sized sump pump because of low permeability. 

Case II represents a foundation consisting of sandy soils, either fill or natural soil deposits or a 
combination, which are more or less homogeneous because they have similar engineering properties. 
The seepage quantity would be fairly large, and more attention would have to be given to the setback 
distance and to the provision of an adequately sized sump pump to prevent excessive uplift pressure 
beneath the floor slab because of high permeability. 

Figure 13 shows two simple cases of stratified soils, with impervious clays overlying pervious sands. 
This is a common occurrence in natural floodplain deposits. In Case III, the contact between the two 
soil strata is at some distance below the basement floor. This case would involve a moderate quantity 
of seepage, depending on the thickness, d, of the impervious stratum below the basement floor. There 
is also a potential for excessive uplift pressure beneath the floor, at the level of the bottom of the clay 
stratum. If d is equal to h, the net hydraulic head between the flood level and the floor level, the safety 
factor against uplift would be approximately 1.0. If d is less than h, there would be excessive uplift, 
with a safety factor equal to less than 1.0. 

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Figure 12 Case I and Case II  homogeneous soil. 

Case IV shows impervious soils overlying pervious soils, with the contact between the soil strata at 
some distance above the basement floor. This case would involve a large quantity of seepage and 
potential for excessive uplift beneath the basement floor. 

Geotechnical Investigations 

Geotechnical investigations must be made for cases that do not conform with the assumptions on 
which the simplified approach is based. Information that is needed to permit an adequate engineering 
analysis includes the following: 

 The BFE, which is to be used as the design flood water surface for calculating expected seepage. 
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Figure 13 Case III and Case IV  stratified soils. 

 The elevation of the bottom of the basement floor. This can be adjusted as needed to achieve more 
suitable conditions. 
 The setback distance of the basement wall from the edge of the flood water. This can be adjusted to 
achieve more suitable seepage control or to accommodate available space restraints. 
 The elevation of the groundwater table and its seasonal variations. A high water table would cause 
problems with groundwater control during construction of a basement, even without a flood event. 
 The stratification of the subsurface materials, for both natural and fill soils. In general, borings 
should be drilled to a depth below the bottom of the floor slab that is at least two times as great as 
the depth of the bottom of the floor slab below the BFE. 
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 The engineering classification of the soils, for both natural and fill soils. This must be done in 
accordance with ASTM D2487, Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes. This is the 
Unified Soil Classification System that is universally used throughout the United States. Local or 
county agricultural soil survey maps should not be used, because they do not give specific 
information about location and depth of soils, and their designations are not pertinent to civil 
engineering use. 
 Subsurface conditions landward from the structure. This includes information about the location of 
the water table, whether it is higher or lower than the flood level, and information about any 
penetrations of the soil, such as ponds. Attention should be given to the possibility that higher 
ground, such as valley walls, could contribute to the groundwater level in the floodplain, either 
perennially or during periods of heavy rain. 
 Information about any penetrations through the basement walls below the BFE, such as utility lines 
and other openings. 
 Analysis of seepage quantity. The analysis can be made by the conservative simplified method 
described in Item 5 in the section titled Technical Background for the Simplified Approach 
(illustrated in Figure 11), or by the construction of a flow net that takes into account all of the 
boundary conditions more rigorously. A flow net may be required to permit analysis of uplift 
pressures. Uplift pressures may be more significant in laminated or stratified soil deposits. 
Buildings in Existing Filled Areas 

In evaluating buildings in existing filled areas, the two approaches already describedthe simplified 
approach or the engineered basement optioncan be used. If the simplified approach is used, all the 
requirements for the use of this approach must be met. Some possible means for evaluating whether 
these requirements are met include soil tests and investigations, including soil borings and hand 
augers; field records from the time the fill was placed; and soil surveys. If the requirements for the 
simplified approach are not met, a licensed soils engineer or geologist should perform a more detailed 
engineering analysis as described under Engineered Basement Option on page 19. More extensive soil 
investigations and testing may be required to complete the analysis. 

The NFIP 

The NFIP was created by Congress in 1968 to provide federally backed flood insurance coverage, 
because flood coverage was generally unavailable from private insurance companies. The NFIP is also 
intended to reduce future flood losses by identifying floodprone areas and ensuring that new development 
in these areas is adequately protected from flood damage. The NFIP is based on an agreement between 
the Federal government and participating communities that have been identified as floodprone. FEMA, 
through the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA), makes flood insurance available to the residents 
of a participating community, provided the community adopts and enforces adequate floodplain 
management regulations that meet the minimum NFIP requirements. The NFIP encourages communities 
to adopt floodplain management ordinances that exceed the minimum NFIP criteria set forth in Part 
60 of the NFIP Floodplain Management Regulations (44 CFR 60). Included in the NFIP requirements, 
found under Title 44 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, are minimum building design and 
construction standards for buildings located in SFHAs. Through their floodplain management 

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ordinances or laws, communities adopt the NFIP performance standards for new, substantially 
improved, and substantially damaged buildings in floodprone areas identified on FEMAs FIRMs. 

Technical Bulletins 

This publication is one of a series of Technical Bulletins that FEMA has produced to provide guidance 
concerning the building performance standards of the NFIP. These standards are contained in 44 CFR 

60.3. The bulletins are intended for use primarily by state and local officials responsible for 
interpreting and enforcing NFIP regulations and by members of the development community, such as 
design professionals and builders. New bulletins, as well as updates of existing bulletins, are issued 
periodically, as necessary. The bulletins do not create regulations; rather they provide specific 
guidance for conforming with the minimum requirements of existing NFIP regulations. Users of the 
Technical Bulletins who need additional guidance concerning NFIP regulatory requirements should 
contact the Mitigation Division of the appropriate FEMA regional office or the local floodplain 
administrator. NFIP Technical Bulletin 0, the Users Guide to Technical Bulletins, lists the bulletins 
issued to date, provides a key word/subject index for the entire series, and lists addresses and 
telephone numbers for FEMAs 10 Regional Offices. 
Ordering Information 

Copies of FEMA Technical Bulletins can be obtained from the FEMA Regional Office that serves 
your area. In addition, Technical Bulletins and other FEMA publications can be ordered from the 
FEMA Publications Distribution Facility at 1-800-480-2520. The Technical Bulletins are also 
available at the FEMA web site at www.fema.gov. 

Further Information 

The following publications contain information related to the guidance presented in this bulletin: 

American Society of Civil Engineers. 1998. SEI/ASCE 24-98, Flood Resistant Design and 
Construction. 

Cedergren, H. R. 1977. Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets. Wiley. New York. 

Harr, M. E. 1977. Mechanics of Particulate Media. McGraw Hill. New York. 

International Code Council. 2000. International Building Code. Birmingham, AL. 

International Code Council. 2000. International Residential Code. Birmingham, AL. 

U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. 1986. EM 1110-2-1901, Seepage Analysis and 
Control for Dams. Washington, DC. 
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. 1978. EM 1110-2-1913, Design and Construction 
of Levees. Washington, DC. 
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Glossary 

Base Flood  The flood that has a 1-percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any given 
year (also referred to as the 100-year flood). 

Basement  Any area of a building having its floor subgrade (below ground level) on all sides. 

Community  Any state or area or political subdivision thereof, or any Indian tribe or authorized 
tribal organization, or Alaska Native village or authorized native organization, which has the authority 
to adopt and enforce floodplain management regulations for the areas within its jurisdiction. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)  The independent Federal agency that, in 
addition to carrying out other activities, administers the NFIP. 

Federal Insurance Administration (FIA)  The component of FEMA directly responsible for 
administering the flood insurance aspects of the NFIP. 

Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM)  The insurance and floodplain management map issued by 
FEMA that identifies, on the basis of detailed or approximate analysis, areas of 100-year flood hazard 
in a community. 

Floodprone area  Any land area susceptible to being inundated by flood water from any source. 

Mitigation Directorate  The component of FEMA directly responsible for administering the flood 
hazard identification and floodplain management aspects of the NFIP. 

New construction/structure  For floodplain management purposes, new construction means 
structures for which the start of construction commences on or after the effective date of a floodplain 
management regulation adopted by a community and includes subsequent improvements to the 
structure. For flood insurance purposes, these structures are often referred to as post-FIRM 
structures. 

Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA)  Area subject to inundation by the base flood, designated Zone 
A, A1-30, AE, AH, AO, V, V1-V30, or VE. 

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