DOJ Seal
U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
Problem-Oriented Guides for Police
COPS logo

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing logo
Center for Problem-Oriented Policing
Got a Problem? Weve got answers!
Log onto the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing website
at www.popcenter.org for a wealth of information to help
you deal more effectively with crime and disorder in your
community, including:

Web-enhanced versions of all currently available Guides

Interactive training exercises

Online access to research and police practices

Online problem analysis module.
Designed for police and those who work with them to
address community problems, www.popcenter.org is a great
resource in problem-oriented policing.
Supported by the Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services, U.S. Department of Justice.

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police
Problem-Specific Guides Series
Guide No. 41
Child Pornography on
the Internet
Richard Wortley
Stephen Smallbone
This project was supported by cooperative agreement
#2004CKWXK002 by the Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions contained herein
are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the
official position of the U.S. Department of Justice. References to
specific companies, products, or services should not be considered an
endorsement of the product by the author or the U.S. Department
of Justice. Rather, the references are illustrations to supplement
discussion of the issues.
www.cops.usdoj.gov
ISBN: 1-932582-65-7
May 2006

About the Problem-Specific Guides Series
The Problem-Specific Guides summarize knowledge about
how police can reduce the harm caused by specific crime
and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention
and to improving the overall response to incidents, not
to investigating offenses or handling specific incidents.
The guides are written for policeof whatever rank or
assignmentwho must address the specific problem the
guides cover. The guides will be most useful to officers
who:

Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles
and methods. The guides are not primers in problem-
oriented policing. They deal only briefly with the initial
decision to focus on a particular problem, methods to
analyze the problem, and means to assess the results of
a problem-oriented policing project. They are designed
to help police decide how best to analyze and address a
problem they have already identified. (A companion series
of Problem-Solving Tools guides has been produced to aid in
various aspects of problem analysis and assessment.)

Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the
complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to
spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and
responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before
responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is
most likely to work in your community. You should not
blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must
decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation.
What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what
works in one place may not work everywhere.


Are willing to consider new ways of doing police
business. The guides describe responses that other police
departments have used or that researchers have tested.
While not all of these responses will be appropriate to
your particular problem, they should help give a broader
view of the kinds of things you could do. You may think
you cannot implement some of these responses in your
jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when
police have discovered a more effective response, they
have succeeded in having laws and policies changed,
improving the response to the problem.

Understand the value and the limits of research
knowledge. For some types of problems, a lot of useful
research is available to the police; for other problems,
little is available. Accordingly, some guides in this series
summarize existing research whereas other guides
illustrate the need for more research on that particular
problem. Regardless, research has not provided definitive
answers to all the questions you might have about the
problem. The research may help get you started in
designing your own responses, but it cannot tell you
exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the
particular nature of your local problem. In the interest
of keeping the guides readable, not every piece of
relevant research has been cited, nor has every point been
attributed to its sources. To have done so would have
overwhelmed and distracted the reader. The references
listed at the end of each guide are those drawn on most
heavily; they are not a complete bibliography of research
on the subject.

Are willing to work with others to find effective
solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot
implement many of the responses discussed in the guides.

They must frequently implement them in partnership with
other responsible private and public entities including other
government agencies, non-governmental organizations,
private businesses, public utilities, community groups,
and individual citizens. An effective problem-solver must
know how to forge genuine partnerships with others and
be prepared to invest considerable effort in making these
partnerships work. Each guide identifies particular entities
in the community with whom police might work to improve
the overall response to that problem. Thorough analysis of
problems often reveals that entities other than the police are
in a stronger position to address problems and that police
ought to shift some greater responsibility to them to do so.
The COPS Office defines community policing as a policing
philosophy that promotes and supports organizational
strategies to address the causes and reduce the fear of crime
and social disorder through problem-solving tactics and
police-community partnerships. These guides emphasize
problem-solving and police-community partnerships in the context
of addressing specific public safety problems. For the
most part, the organizational strategies that can facilitate
problem-solving and police-community partnerships vary
considerably and discussion of them is beyond the scope of
these guides.
These guides have drawn on research findings and police
practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.
Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from
country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere
experience common problems. In a world that is becoming
increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be
aware of research and successful practices beyond the
borders of their own countries.

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide
feedback on this guide and to report on your own agencys
experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency
may have effectively addressed a problem using responses
not considered in these guides and your experiences and
knowledge could benefit others. This information will be
used to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback
and share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to
cops_pubs@usdoj.gov.
For more information about problem-oriented policing, visit
the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing online at www.
popcenter.org. This website offers free online access to:
 the Problem-Specific Guides series
 the companion Response Guides and Problem-Solving
Tools series
 instructional information about problem-oriented policing
and related topics
 an interactive training exercise
 online access to important police research and practices.

Acknowledgments
The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police are very much a
collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary
author, other project team members, COPS Office staff
and anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide
by proposing text, recommending research and offering
suggestions on matters of format and style.
The principal project team developing the guide series
comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus,
University of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke,
professor of criminal justice, Rutgers University; John
E. Eck, professor of criminal justice, University of
Cincinnati; Michael S. Scott, clinical assistant professor,
University of Wisconsin Law School; Rana Sampson,
police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm
Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State
University.
Cynthia Pappas oversaw the project for the COPS Office.
Katharine Willis edited the guide. Research for the guides
was conducted at the Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers
University under the direction of Phyllis Schultze.
The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members
of the San Diego, National City and Savannah police
departments who provided feedback on the guides' format
and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the
line police officers, police executives and researchers who
peer reviewed each guide.

Contents
AbouttheProblem-SpecificGuidesSeries i
Acknowledgments v
The Problem of Internet Child Pornography 1
Related Problems 3
Child Abuse 3
Internet Crime 3
Defining Child Pornography 4
Legal Definitions 4
Non-legal Definitions 7
The Role of the Internet in Promoting Child Pornography 8
Components of the Problem 8
Production 9
Distribution 9
Downloading 12
Extent of the Problem 12
Profile of Users 13
A Psychological Typology 14
An Offending Typology 15
Effects of Child Pornography 17
Effects on the Children Portrayed 17
Effects on Users 18
The Internet and Other Forms of Child Sexual Abuse 21
Sources of Digital Evidence 23
ChallengesinControllingInternetChildPornography 25
Understanding Your Local Problem 29
Asking the Right Questions 29
Offenses 29
Victims 30
Offenders 30

Computer Personnel 31
Community Members 31
Resources and Collaborations 31
Measuring Your Effectiveness 32
Responses to the Problem of Internet Child Pornography 35
General Considerations for an Effective Response Strategy 35
Specific Responses to Reduce Internet Child Pornography 37
Computer Industry Self Regulation 37
Legislative Regulation 38
Strategies for Related Industries 40
Workplace Responses 41
Citizens'Groups 41
Parental Strategies 42
Law Enforcement Responses 43
Responses With Limited Effectiveness 46
Appendix A: Key Terms and Concepts 47
Appendix B: Agencies and Programs Addressing Internet Child Pornography 51
Appendix C: Examples of Coordinated Law Enforcement Operations 53
Appendix D: Summary of Responses to Internet Child Pornography 57
Endnotes 65
References 69
About the Authors 79
Recommended Readings 81
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 85

The Problem of Internet Child
Pornography
The guide begins by describing the problem and
reviewing factors that increase the risks of Internet child
pornography. It then identifies a series of questions that
might assist you in analyzing your local Internet child
pornography problem. Finally, it reviews responses to the
problem and what is known about these from evaluative
research and police practice.
The treatment of children as sexual objects has existed
through the ages, and so too has the production of erotic
literature and drawings involving children. However,
pornography in the modern sense began with the
invention of the camera in the early nineteenth century.
Almost immediately, sexualized images involving children
were produced, traded, and collected.1 Even so, child
pornography remained a restricted activity through most
of the twentieth century. Images were usually locally
produced, of poor quality, expensive, and difficult to
obtain. The relaxation of censorship standards in the
1960s led to an increase in the availability of child
pornography, and, by 1977, some 250 child pornography
magazines were circulating in the United States, many
imported from Europe.2 Despite concern about the
extent of child pornography, law enforcement agencies
had considerable success in stemming the trafficking of
these traditional hard-copy forms. However, the advent of
the Internet in the 1980s dramatically changed the scale
and nature of the child pornography problem, and has
required new approaches to investigation and control.

Internet child pornography is unlike most crimes local
police departments handle. Local citizens may access child
pornography images that were produced and/or stored in
another city or on another continent. Alternatively, they
may produce or distribute images that are downloaded
by people thousands of miles away. An investigation that
begins in one police district will almost certainly cross
jurisdictional boundaries. Therefore, most of the major
investigations of Internet child pornography have involved
cooperation among jurisdictions, often at an international
level.
However, within this broader scheme, local police
departments have a crucial role to play. By concentrating
on components of the problem that occur within their
local jurisdictions, they may uncover evidence that initiates
a wider investigation. Alternatively, they may receive
information from other jurisdictions about offenders in
their districts. Because of the increasing use of computers
in society, most police departments are likely to encounter
Internet child pornography crimes. Therefore, it is
important that all police departments develop strategies
for dealing with the problem. Larger departments or
districts may have their own dedicated Internet child
pornography teams, but most smaller ones do not, and
the responsibility for day-to-day investigations will fall
to general-duties officers.3 It would be a mistake to
underestimate the importance of local police in detecting
and preventing Internet child pornography offenses. One
study found that 56 percent of arrests for Internet child
pornography crimes originated from non-specialized law
enforcement agencies.4

Related Problems
Internet child pornography is only one of a number of
problems related to either child abuse or the Internet.  See the POP Guide on Identity
Other related problems not directly addressed by this Theft.
guide include:
Child Abuse
 violence and fatalities
 neglect
 abandonment
 exposure to hazardous materials (e.g., clandestine drug
labs)
 trafficking of children and babies and illegal adoption
agencies
 juvenile runaways.
Internet Crime
 online solicitation of children for sexual activity
 identity theft (sometimes known as phishing)
 hacking.

Defining Child Pornography
Legal Definitions
The idea of protecting children from sexual exploitation
is relatively modern. As late as the 1880s in the United
States, the age of consent for girls was just 10 years.5
In 1977, only two states had legislation specifically
outlawing the use of children in obscene material.
The first federal law concerning child pornography
was passed in 1978, and the first laws that specifically
referred to computers and child pornography were
passed in 1988. Since that time, there has been a steady
tightening of child pornography laws6 (see Table 1).

Table 1: Development of child pornography law in the United States
Date Legislation/Ruling7 Comment
1978
Sexual Exploitation of
Children Act
First federal law specifically dealing with child
pornography. Prohibited the manufacture and
commercial distribution of obscene material
involving minors under 16.
1982 New York v. Ferber
Child pornography not protected by the First
Amendment. Child pornography separated
from obscenity laws, to be judged on a
different standard.
1984 Child Protection Act
Age of minor covered by child pornography
legislation was raised to 18, and distinction
between child pornography and obscenity
codified.
1986 United States v. Dost
Expanded the definition of child pornography
to include sexually suggestive depictions of a
lascivious nature.
1988
Child Protection and
Obscenity Enforcement
Act
Illegal to use a computer to depict or advertise
child pornography.
1990 Osborne v. Ohio Private possession of child pornography ruled
to be illegal.
1996 Child Pornography
Protection Act
Definition of child pornography expanded to
include virtual images of children and images
that appear to be of a minor.
1998
Child Protector and
Sexual Predator
Punishment Act
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) required to
report known incidents of child pornography
to authorities, but not required to actively
monitor customers or sites.
2002 Ashcroft v. Free Speech
Coalition
Virtual images ruled not to be pornography;
appear to be a minor ruled to be too broad.

To summarize the current federal legal situation in the
United States:

A child is defined as any person under the age of
18. Legislation has attempted to broaden the law to
include computer-generated images (virtual images
that do not involve real children) and people over
18 who appear to be minors. However, the court
overturned both of these provisions. Congress has
subsequently made a number of amendments to
tighten federal law in these areas. Because of the
evolving nature of legal provision with respect to
Internet child pornography, the reader is advised to
obtain up-to-date legal advice on the current situation.

A different and more stringent standard is applied to
images involving children than to images involving
adults. Pornography involving a child does not have
to involve obscene behavior, but may include sexually
explicit conduct that is lascivious or suggestive. For
example, in United States v. Knox (1993)8 a man was
convicted for possessing videos in which the camera
focused on the clothed genital region of young girls.9

Possession of (not just production and trading of)
child pornography is an offense. In the case of the
Internet, images do not have to be saved for an
offense to have occurredthey simply need to have
been accessed.
Most states have followed the federal lead with specific
legislation, allowing state police to join federal agencies
in the fight against child pornography.10 However, the
exact nature of the legislation varies considerably among
states. There is also a wide variation in international laws
covering child pornography, and this can have significant
implications for law enforcement.

Non-legal Definitions
Because legal definitions of both child and pornography
differ considerably among jurisdictions, for research
purposes child pornography is often defined broadly as any
record of sexual activity involving a prepubescent person.
Pornographic records include still photographs, videos, and
audio recordings. The images themselves vary considerably
in their graphic content. In some cases individuals may
collect images that do not involve overt pornography and
are not technically illegal. There are 10 levels of image
severity:11
1.
Indicative: non-sexualized pictures collected from
legitimate sources (e.g., magazines, catalogs).
2.
Nudist: naked or semi-naked pictures of children in
appropriate settings collected from legitimate sources.
3.
Erotica: pictures taken secretly of children in which
they reveal varying degrees of nakedness.
4.
Posing: posed pictures of children in varying degrees
of nakedness.
5.
Erotic posing: pictures of children in sexualized poses
and in varying degrees of nakedness.
6.
Explicit erotic posing: pictures emphasizing the
genitals.
7.
Explicit sexual activity: record of sexual activity
involving children but not involving adults.
8.
Assault: record of children subjected to sexual abuse
involving digital touching with adults.
9.
Gross assault: record of children subjected to sexual
abuse involving penetrative sex, masturbation, or oral
sex with adults.
10.
Sadistic/bestiality: record of children subjected to
pain, or engaging in sexual activity with an animal.

The Role of the Internet in Promoting Child
Pornography
The Internet has escalated the problem of child
pornography by increasing the amount of material
available, the efficiency of its distribution, and the ease of
its accessibility. (See Appendix A for a summary of key
terms and concepts relating to the Internet.) Specifically,
the Internet:
 permits access to vast quantities of pornographic
images from around the world
 makes pornography instantly available at any time or
place
 allows pornography to be accessed (apparently)
anonymously and privately
 facilitates direct communication and image sharing
among users
 delivers pornography relatively inexpensively
 provides images that are of high digital quality, do not
deteriorate, and can be conveniently stored
 provides for a variety of formats (pictures, videos,
sound), as well as the potential for real-time and
interactive experiences
 permits access to digital images that have been
modified to create composite or virtual images
(morphing).
Components of the Problem
The problem of Internet child pornography can be
divided into three componentsthe production,
distribution, and downloading of images. In some cases,
the same people are involved in each stage. However,
some producers and/or distributors of child pornography
are motivated solely by financial gain and are not
themselves sexually attracted to children.

Production
This involves the creation of pornographic images.
Collectors place a premium on new child pornography
material. However, many images circulating on the
Internet may be decades old, taken from earlier magazines
and films. Images may be produced professionally, and,
in these cases, often document the abuse of children
in third-world countries. However, more commonly,
amateurs make records of their own sexual abuse exploits,
particularly now that electronic recording devices such as
digital cameras and web cams permit individuals to create
high quality, homemade images.12 With the advent of
multimedia messaging (MMR) mobile phones, clandestine
photography of children in public areas is becoming an
increasing problem.
Distribution
This involves the uploading and dissemination of
pornographic images. These images may be stored on
servers located almost anywhere in the world. Distribution
may involve sophisticated pedophile rings or organized
crime groups that operate for profit, but in many cases,
is carried out by individual amateurs who seek no
financial reward. Child pornography may be uploaded
to the Internet on websites or exchanged via e-mail,
instant messages, newsgroups, bulletin boards, chat
rooms, and peer-to-peer (P2P) networks. Efforts by law
enforcement agencies and Internet Service Providers
(ISPs) to stop the dissemination of child pornography on
the Internet have led to changes in offenders methods.
Child pornography websites are often shut down as
soon as they are discovered, and openly trading in
pornography via e-mail or chat rooms is risky because

of the possibility of becoming ensnared in a police sting
operation (e.g., undercover police entering chat rooms
posing as pedophiles or as minor children). Increasingly
those distributing child pornography are employing more
sophisticated security measures to elude detection and are
being driven to hidden levels of the Internet (see Table 2).
Table 2: Distribution methods of child pornography on the Internet.13
Method Use
Web pages and
websites
Specific child pornography websites may be created, or child
pornography images may be embedded in general pornography
sites. However, there is debate about how much child pornography
is available on the web. Some argue that it is relatively easy to find
images.14 Others argue that, because of the vigilance of ISPs and
police in tracking down and closing child pornography websites, it is
unlikely that a normal web search using key words such as childporn
would reveal much genuine child pornography.15 Instead, the searcher
is likely to find legal pornographic sites with adults purporting to
be minors, sting operations, or vigilante sites. One strategy of
distributors is to post temporary sites that are then advertised on
pedophile bulletin boards. To prolong their existence these sites
may be given innocuous names (e.g., volleyball) or other codes
(e.g., ch*ldp*rn) to pass screening software. The websites may be
immediately flooded with hits before they are closed down. Often the
websites contain Zip archives, the password for which is then later
posted on a bulletin board.
Web cam Images of abuse may be broadcast in real time. In one documented
case of a live broadcast, viewers could make online requests for
particular sexual activities to be carried out on the victim.16
E-mail E-mail attachments are sometimes used by professional distributors
of child pornography, but more frequently they are used to share
images among users, or they are sent to a potential victim as part of
the grooming/seduction process. This method is considered risky by
seasoned users because of the danger in unwittingly sending e-mails
to undercover police posing as pedophiles or as potential victims.

E-groups Specific child pornography e-groups exist to permit members to receive
and share pornographic images and exchange information about
new sites. Some of these groups appear on reputable servers and are
swiftly shut down when they are detected. However, they may use code
names or camouflage child pornography images among legal adult
pornography to prolong their existence.
Newsgroups Specific child pornography newsgroups provide members with a forum
in which to discuss their sexual interests in children and to post child
pornography. This is one of the major methods of distributing child
pornography. Some child pornography newsgroups are well known
to both users and authorities (for example, the abpep-t or alternative
binaries pictures erotica pre-teen group). Most commercial servers
block access to such sites. Some servers do provide access to them
but a user runs the risk of having his/her identity captured either by
the credit card payments required for access, or the record kept by the
server of his/her IP address. However, a computer-savvy user can
access these groups by using techniques that hide his/her identity by
concealing his/her true IP address.
Bulletin Board
Systems (BBS)
Bulletin boards may be used legally to host discussions that provide
advice to seekers of child pornography, including the URLs of child
pornography websites and ratings of those sites. These bulletin boards
may be monitored by system administrators to exclude bogus or
irrelevant postings, such as from vigilantes.
Chat rooms Chat rooms may be used to exchange child pornography and locate
potential victims. Chat rooms may be password-protected. Open chat
rooms are avoided by seasoned child pornographers because they are
often infiltrated by undercover police.
Peer-to-peer
(P2P)
P2P networks facilitate file sharing among child pornography users.
These networks permit closed groups to trade images.

Downloading
This involves accessing child pornography via the Internet.
The images do not need to be saved to the computers hard
drive or to a removable disk to constitute downloading. In
some cases a person may receive spam advertising child
pornography, a pop-up link may appear in unrelated websites,
or he may inadvertently go to a child pornography website
(e.g., by mistyping a key word). In most cases, however, users
must actively seek out pornographic websites or subscribe to
a group dedicated to child pornography. In fact, it has been
argued that genuine child pornography is relatively rare in
open areas of the Internet, and, increasingly, those seeking to
find images need good computer skills and inside knowledge
of where to look.17 Most child pornography is downloaded
via newsgroups and chat rooms. Access to websites and online
pedophile groups may be closed and require paying a fee or
using a password.
Extent of the Problem
It is difficult to be precise about the extent of Internet child
pornography, but all of the available evidence points to it
being a major and growing problem. At any one time there are
estimated to be more than one million pornographic images
of children on the Internet, with 200 new images posted
daily.18 One offender arrested in the U.K. possessed 450,000
child pornography images.19 It has been reported that a single
child pornography site received a million hits in a month.20 As
noted above, one problem in estimating the number of sites
is that many exist only for a brief period before they are shut
down, and much of the trade in child pornography takes place

at hidden levels of the Internet. It has been estimated that
there are between 50,000 and 100,000 pedophiles involved in
organized pornography rings around the world, and that one-
third of these operate from the United States.21
Profile of Users
There is no one type of Internet child pornography user,
and there is no easy way to recognize an offender. Having a
preconceived idea of a child sex offender can be unhelpful and
prove a distraction for investigating police.22 Users of Internet
child pornography:

are not necessarily involved in hands-on sexual abuse
of children. It is not known exactly how many people
may access child pornography on the Internet without
ever physically abusing a child. Before the Internet,
between one-fifth and one-third of people arrested for
possession of child pornography were also involved in
actual abuse.23 However, the Internet makes it easy for
people who may never have actively sought out traditional
forms of child pornography to satisfy their curiosity
online and this may encourage casual users. Looking at
the relationship from the other direction, those convicted
of sexually abusing children will not necessarily seek out
or collect child pornography, with one study putting the
number of offenders who do so at around 10 percent.24
The term child molester covers a wide variety of
offenders, from serial predators to situational offenders
who may not have ingrained sexual interest in children.


may come from all walks of life and show few
warning signs. In fact, users of child pornography on
the Internet are more than likely to be in a relationship,
to be employed, to have an above average IQ, to be
college educated, and to not have a criminal record.25
Those arrested for online child pornography crimes
have included judges, dentists, teachers, academics, rock
stars, soldiers, and police officers.26 Among the few
distinguishing features of offenders are that they are likely
to be white, male, and between the ages of 26 and 40, and
may be heavy Internet users to the extent that it interferes
with other aspects of their lives.27
A Psychological Typology
Sexual attraction to children is known as pedophilia.28
However, an interest in Internet child pornography may be
best thought of as falling along a continuum rather than in
terms of a hard and fast distinction between pedophiles and
non-pedophiles. People can behave very differently on the
Internet than they do in other areas of their lives. Interacting
anonymously with a computer in the safety of ones own
home encourages people to express hidden thoughts and
desires.29 Offenders vary in the strength of their interest
in child pornography, as well as in the level of severity of
the pornographic image to which they are attracted. From
a psychological perspective, based on a typology of general
pornography users,30 the following categories of Internet child
pornography users are suggested:
1.
Recreational users: They access child pornography
sites on impulse, out of curiosity, or for short-term
entertainment. They are not seen to have long-term
problems associated with child pornography use.

2.
At-risk users: They are vulnerable individuals who have
developed an interest in child pornography, but may not
have done so had it not been for the Internet.
3.
Sexual compulsives: They have a specific interest in
children as sexual objects and seek out child pornography.
An Offending Typology
Variations among offenders translate into different patterns
of Internet behavior. Offenders vary in the level of their
involvement in Internet child pornography, the degree of
networking in which they engage with other offenders, their
expertise in employing security strategies to avoid detection,
and the extent to which their Internet behavior involves direct
sexual abuse of children. The following typology of child
pornography offending has been suggested:31
1.
Browsers: Offenders who stumble across child
pornography but knowingly save the images. They are
not involved in networking with other offenders and do
not employ security strategies to avoid detection. Their
browsing is an indirect abuse of children.
2.
Private fantasizers: Offenders who create digital images
(e.g., through morphing) for private use to satisfy personal
sexual desires. These offenders do not network with other
offenders, do not employ security strategies, and their
private fantasies are an indirect abuse of victims.
3.
Trawlers: Offenders who seek child pornography on the
web through open browsers. They may engage in minimal
networking, but they employ few security strategies and
their trawling is an indirect abuse of victims.
4.
Non-secure collectors: Offenders who seek child
pornography in non-secure chat rooms (i.e., chat rooms
that do not employ security barriers such as passwords)
and other open levels of the Internet. They are involved

in relatively high levels of networking, and, by definition,
do not employ security strategies. Their collecting
behavior is an indirect abuse of children. Because of the
non-secured nature of their activities, there are limits to
the number and nature of the images they can collect.
5. Secure collectors: Offenders who are members of
a closed newsgroup or other secret pedophile ring.
They engage in high levels of networking and employ
sophisticated security measures to protect their activities
from detection. Their collecting behavior is an indirect
abuse of children. Because they occupy hidden levels of
the Internet, they have access to a wide range of images.
They may engage in obsessive levels of collecting, which
not only involves amassing huge numbers of images,
but also carefully cataloging and cross referencing them.
As with other types of collections, they may expend
considerable effort in obtaining rare and highly prized
images. The collection may become an end in itself.
6. Groomers: Offenders who develop online relationships
with children and send pornography to children as part
of the grooming process. Grooming involves direct abuse
of children. They may or may not be involved in wider
networking with other offenders, but their contact with
children exposes them to risk of detection. The child may
tell someone about the relationship, or the offender may
be unwittingly communicating with an undercover police
officer.
7. Physical abusers: Offenders who sexually abuse children
and for whom an interest in child pornography is just
part of their pedophilic interests. They may record their
own abuse behaviors for their personal use, in which case,
from a legal standpoint, the possession of pornography is
secondary to the evidence of their abusive behavior that
it records. They may or may not network. By definition,
a physical abuser directly abuses victims and his security
depends upon the childs silence.

8.
Producers: Offenders who record the sexual abuse of
children for the purpose of disseminating it to others. The
extent of their networking varies depending on whether
they are also distributors. Again the producers direct
abuse of the victim compromises his security.
9.
Distributors: Offenders involved in disseminating
abuse images. In some cases they have a purely financial
interest in child pornography. More often, offenders
at any of the above levels who share images may be
classified as distributors. Thus, the extent of a distributors
networking, his level of security, and whether he engages
in direct abuse of children depends upon the level at
which he is operating.
Effects of Child Pornography
Effects on the Children Portrayed
The vast majority of children who appear in child
pornography have not been abducted or physically forced
to participate.32 In most cases they know the producerit
may even be their fatherand are manipulated into taking
part by more subtle means. Nevertheless, to be the subject of
child pornography can have devastating physical, social, and
psychological effects on children.33
The children portrayed in child pornography are first
victimized when their abuse is perpetrated and recorded.
They are further victimized each time that record is accessed.
In one study,34 100 victims of child pornography were
interviewed about the effects of their exploitationat the
time it occurred and in later years. Referring to when the abuse
was taking place, victims described the physical pain (e.g.,
around the genitals), accompanying somatic symptoms (such
as headaches, loss of appetite, and sleeplessness), and feelings

of psychological distress (emotional isolation, anxiety, and
fear). However, most also felt a pressure to cooperate with the
offender and not to disclose the offense, both out of loyalty to
the offender and a sense of shame about their own behavior.
Only five cases were ultimately reported to authorities. In
later years, the victims reported that initial feelings of shame
and anxiety did not fade but intensified to feelings of deep
despair, worthlessness, and hopelessness. Their experience
had provided them with a distorted model of sexuality, and
many had particular difficulties in establishing and maintaining
healthy emotional and sexual relationships.
Effects on Users
The effects of pornography on users have been extensively
researched but results are contentious. There are at least five
possible relationships between pornography use and the sexual
abuse of children:

Pornography use is an expression of existing sexual
interests. An individual who sexually abuses children
seeks out child pornography as part of his/her pattern
of sexual gratification.35 The offenders sexual interests
cause his/her pornography use rather than the other way
around.

Pornography is used to prime the individual
to offend. An individual deliberately views child
pornography immediately prior to offending. Pornography
is used in the short term to sexually stimulate the offender
in preparation for offending.36

Pornography has a corrosive effect. An individual
becomes increasingly interested in child pornography, is
attracted to images of increasing severity, and becomes
desensitized to the harm victims experience. Use of

pornography in the long term may also increase the risk
that the person will sexually abuse a child.37

Pornography has a cathartic effect. Viewing child
pornography is the sole outlet for an individuals sexual
attraction to children. Pornography use may substitute for,
or even help the individual resist, engaging in hands-on
offending.38

Pornography is a by-product of pedophilia.
Pornography is created in the process of carrying out
sexual abuse or is used to groom potential victims and
prepare them for abuse.39 Pornography is incidental to the
abuse suffered by the victim.
In all likelihood, the effects of child pornography vary among
users, and all of the above relationships may apply depending
upon the individual in question.

The Internet and Other Forms of Child
Sexual Abuse
In addition to child pornography, the Internet facilitates child
sexual abuse in the following ways:

It allows networking among child abuse perpetrators.
The Internet facilitates a subculture of pedophiles, who
may share information and tactics and support each
others belief systems.40

It may be used to seek out and groom victims.
Perpetrators may enter childrens or teens chat rooms
under an assumed identity to access and establish
relationships with potential victims.41

It may be used in cyber-stalking. Children may be
sexually harassed via the Internet.42

It may be used to promote child sexual tourism.
Information is made available to help individuals locate
child-sex tourism operators or to make direct contact with
child prostitutes.43

It may be used in trafficking children. Mail-order
children are available over the Internet.44

Sources of Digital Evidence
Computers and their associated services retain a considerable
amount of evidence of their use. Determined, computer-savvy
offenders may take precautions to cover their tracks, but many
offenders will have neither the foresight nor the necessary
expertise to do so, and will leave a trail of incriminating
evidence.45

The offenders computer: Downloaded images saved
to a computers hard drive are the most obvious evidence
of pornography use. However, there are also more subtle
records that technicians can locate when examining a
suspects computer. For example, log files show who was
logged into the computer and when; modem logs record
when a computer was connected to the Internet; Web
browser history entries show an offenders online activity;
and e-mail and chat logs reveal online communication
with cohorts or potential victims. Note, however, that
seizure of a suspects computer requires specialized
expertise, and, if handled incorrectly, may result in the loss
of critical evidence.46

Hand-held devices: An increasing number of devices
contain components of a computer (referred to as
embedded computer systems) and can be used in child
pornography. These devices include digital cameras,
personal digital assistants (PDAs), and mobile phones. For
example, digital cameras can be used to record abuse; the
files can then be easily uploaded to the Internet. Similarly,
in addition to voice conversations between perpetrators,
mobile phones increasingly permit the recording, storing,
and transmitting of digital images. These devices may have
incriminating digital records stored on their memory cards.


Servers: Different servers may provide information
with which to track pornography use. ISP authentication
servers record customer account details against IP
addresses (authentication logs), which can then be used
to identify users. FTP and web servers used to upload
and download electronic files have logs that record
users IP addresses, what files were accessed, and when.
Similarly, e-mail servers retain logs of customer use. Local
area network servers may be used to store collections
of pornography for personal use. Individuals may use
local servers connected to their work computers so that
searching a suspects work server may reveal hidden
collections of pornography.

Online activity: Purpose-built or commercially available
digger engine software allows law enforcement personnel
to monitor online activity and identify the IP addresses
of chat room contributors.47 Although online operations
can yield conclusive digital evidence of an offenders
involvement in Internet child pornography activities,
officers should be careful not to become overzealous and
engage in entrapment.48

Challenges in Controlling Internet
Child Pornography
Internet child pornography presents some unique challenges
for law enforcement agencies. These challenges include:

The structure of the Internet: The structure of the
Internet makes control of child pornography very
difficult. The Internet is a decentralized system with
no single controlling agency or storage facility. Because
it is a network of networks, even if one pathway is
blocked, many alternative pathways can be taken to
reach the same destination. Similarly, if one website or
newsgroup is closed down, there are many others that can
instantaneously take its place. The decentralized nature
of the Internet, and resultant difficulties in restricting the
distribution of child pornography, is exemplified by P2P
networks involving direct connections among computers
without the need for a central server.49 It has been argued
that the Internet is the ultimate democratic entity and is
essentially ungovernable.

The uncertainties of jurisdiction: The Internet
is an international communication tool that crosses
jurisdictional boundaries. Not only is cooperation among
law enforcement agencies necessary to track offenders
across jurisdictions, it is required to coordinate resources
and avoid duplication of effort.50 Parallel operations run
from different jurisdictions may unknowingly target the
same organization or offender. Equally problematic is
the issue of who is responsible for investigating child
pornography on the Internet when there is no clue as
to where the images originate. There is a potential for
pornography crimes to go uninvestigated because they do
not fall within a particular law enforcement jurisdiction.


The lack of regulation: The Internet, by its nature, is
difficult to regulate, but many jurisdictions are reluctant to
introduce laws that might help control Internet use. There
are debates about the appropriate weight to give to the
communitys protection on the one hand, and to freedom
of speech and commercial interests on the other.51 There
is also legal ambiguity about whether ISPs should be liable
for the material they carry (as are television stations) or
merely regarded as the conduits for that material (similar
to the mail service).52 The end result is that ISPs legal
obligations with respect to Internet child pornography are
often unclear, and, for the most part, the emphasis has
been on self-regulation.53

The differences in legislation: To the extent that there
have been attempts to regulate the Internet, control
efforts are hampered by cross-jurisdictional differences
in laws and levels of permissiveness regarding child
pornography. For example, in the United States a child is
defined as someone under 18; in Australia the age is 16.54
Moreover, countries vary in their commitment to enforce
laws and act against offenders, either for cultural reasons
or because of corruption.55

The expertise of offenders: As the typology of Internet
offending behavior suggests, offenders vary in the degree
to which they employ elaborate security measures to avoid
detection.56 There is a core of veteran offenders, some of
whom have been active in pedophile newsgroups for more
than 20 years, who possess high levels of technological
expertise. Pedophile bulletin boards often contain
technical advice from old hands to newcomers. It has been
argued that many Internet sting operations succeed only in
catching inexperienced, low-level offenders.


The sophistication and adaptation of Internet
technology: The expertise of offenders is enhanced by
the rapid advances in Internet technology. In addition
to P2P networks, recent developments include remailers
(servers that strip the senders identity from e-mail) and
file encryption (a method of hiding or scrambling data).57
A technological race has developed between Internet
pornographers and law enforcement agencies.58

The volume of Internet activity: The sheer amount of
traffic in child pornography makes the task of tracking
down every person who visits a child pornography site
impossible.59 Many offenders realize that realistically
their chances of being caught are quite remote. Similarly,
while perhaps worthwhile activities, catching peripheral
offenders or disrupting individual networks may have little
overall impact on the scale of the problem.

Understanding Your Local Problem
The information provided above is only a generalized
description of Internet child pornography. You must combine
the basic facts with a more specific understanding of your
local problem. Analyzing the local problem carefully will help
you design a more effective response strategy.
Asking the Right Questions
The following are some critical questions you should ask
in analyzing your particular problem of Internet child
pornography, even if the answers are not always readily
available. Your answers to these and other questions will help
you choose the most appropriate set of responses later on.
Offenses

How many complaints relating to Internet child
pornography have been investigated in your jurisdiction?
What were the sources of the complaints?

What component or components of the problem are
occurring locallyproduction, distribution and/or
downloading?

Is the local problem part of a national or international
Internet child pornography ring?

What level of severity are the pornographic images?

Are the pornographic images of recent child sexual abuse,
or are they old images?

If the pornographic images are recent, can you identify
the locations in which they were made, and are they local?

Victims

Do victims of child sexual abuse report participating or
being depicted in child pornography?

Do victims of child sexual abuse report being shown child
pornography by the offender?

If the pornographic images are recent, can you identify
the victims and are they local?

Have any local children been the subjects of child
pornography? If so, what physical and emotional harms
did they suffer?

If local children have been the subjects of child
pornography, how were they recruited or coerced into this
activity?
Offenders

Do suspects arrested on child sexual abuse charges
possess collections of downloaded pornography?

Do suspects arrested on child sexual abuse charges keep
photographic records of their abusive behaviors?

Do suspects arrested for possessing child pornography
also commit hands-on offenses against children?

How strong are offenders interests in Internet child
pornography (e.g., are they recreational, at-risk, or sexual
compulsive users)?

What level of severity of pornographic images do the
offenders prefer?

How large are the offenders collections of child
pornography?

How much time do the offenders devote to Internet child
pornography?

What level of computer expertise do the offenders have?

Do the offenders network with other offenders?

What offender-type are the offendersbrowsers, private

fantasies, trawlers, non-secure collectors, secure collectors,
groomers, physical abusers, producers, or distributors?

If the pornographic images are recent, can the
perpetrators be identified, and are they local?
Computer Personnel

What links does the police department have with
local computer personnel (repairers, ISP managers, IT
technicians, etc.)?

Do local ISPs monitor their customers child pornography
use?

Do local businesses and organizations have formal policies
governing their employees use of the computer at work?

Have local computer repairers or IT technicians reported
evidence of child pornography on their customers
computers?
Community Members

How concerned is the public about Internet child
pornography?

Has the police department received complaints from the
public about child pornography websites?

Has the police department received complaints from the
public about online sexual harassment of children?

Has the police department received complaints from the
public about unauthorized photographs being taken of
children in public areas?
Resources and Collaborations

Which component or components of the problem should
be given priority by the police departmentproduction,
distribution, and/or downloading?


Who within the police department has computer expertise
that may be useful in assisting with investigations?

Who in the community may provide technical advice to
the police department on Internet child pornography?

What training is relevant for officers investigating Internet
child pornography?

Should the police department establish a dedicated
Internet child pornography unit?

Does the police department have links with other police
departments and agencies that permit coordinated
investigations of Internet child pornography?

How do the activities of the police department
synchronize with national and international priorities and
initiatives?
Measuring Your Effectiveness
Measurement allows you to determine to what degree your
efforts have succeeded, and suggests how you might modify
your responses if they are not producing the intended
results. You should take measures of your problem before you
implement responses, to determine how serious the problem
is, and after you implement them, to determine whether they
have been effective. (For more detailed guidance on measuring
effectiveness, see the companion guide to this series, Assessing
Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem-
Solvers.)
The following are potentially useful measures of the
effectiveness of responses to Internet child pornography:

Reduced number of complaints from the public about
Internet child pornography. Initially, you might want to
see an increase in complaints from the public if you have
reason to believe the problem is underreported.


Reduced number of child pornography sites and images
on the Internet.

Reduced number of new child pornography images on the
Internet.

Reduced level of severity of the child pornography images
on the Internet.

Reduced number of images possessed by offenders who
are arrested for downloading child pornography.

Reduced level of severity of the images possessed
by offenders who are arrested for downloading child
pornography.

Reduced level of involvement (possession, distribution, or
production) of the offenders arrested for Internet child
pornography crime.
Other measures are important for tracking official actions
taken to address the problem. Among them are:

The number of offenders arrested for Internet child
pornography crimes.

The number of victims portrayed in Internet child
pornography who are identified and assisted.

Responses to the Problem of Internet
Child Pornography
Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better
understanding of the factors contributing to it. Once you
have analyzed your local problem and established a baseline
for measuring effectiveness, you should consider possible
responses to address the problem.
The following response strategies provide a foundation
of ideas for addressing your particular problem. These
strategies are drawn from a variety of research studies and
police reports. Several of these strategies may apply to your
communitys problem. It is critical that you tailor responses
to local circumstances, and that you can justify each response
based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy
will involve implementing several different responses. Law
enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing
or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself to considering
what police can do: carefully consider whether others in your
community share responsibility for the problem and can help
police respond to it.
General Considerations for an Effective Response
Strategy
As noted, Internet child pornography presents some unique
challenges for law enforcement agencies. However, despite the
difficulties involved in controlling the problem, local police
have an important role to play. To maximize their contribution,
local police departments need to:

Acquire technical knowledge and expertise in
Internet pornography. If your department does not have
a specialized Internet crime unit, then find out where you

can obtain assistance or training. Appendix B lists online
resources that can provide information on national and
international initiatives, tips and leads, technical assistance,
and staff training.

Establish links with other agencies and jurisdictions.
It is important that local police departments share
information and coordinate their activities with other
jurisdictions. Appendix B also lists agencies that have
specific programs or sections designed to provide a
coordinated response to Internet child pornography.

Establish links with ISPs. ISPs can be crucial partners
for police. As has been noted, there is often a lack of
specific legislation setting out ISPs obligations. This
makes it especially important for police to establish good
working relations with ISPs to elicit their cooperation in
the fight against Internet child pornography.

Prioritize their efforts. Because of the volume of
Internet child pornography crime, police forces need
to prioritize their efforts and concentrate on the most
serious offenders, particularly those actually involved in
abusing children and producing pornographic images.60
For example, one strategy may be to cross reference lists
of Internet child pornography users with sex offender
registries to increase the chance of targeting hands-on
offenders (see Appendix B). It has been noted that success
in combating child pornography is too often judged in
terms of the number of images recovered, rather than by
the more significant criterion of whether the crimes the
images portray have been prevented.61

Specific Responses to Reduce Internet Child
Pornography
It is generally acknowledged that it is impossible to totally
eliminate child pornography from the Internet. However, it is
possible to reduce the volume of child pornography on the
Internet, to make it more difficult or risky to access, and to
identify and arrest the more serious perpetrators. Since 1996,
ISPs have removed some 20,000 pornographic images of
children from the web.62 Around 1,000 people are arrested
annually in the United States for Internet child pornography
offenses.63 The following strategies have been used or
suggested to reduce the problem of child pornography on the
Internet.
Computer Industry Self Regulation
ISPs have a central role to play in combating Internet child
pornography. The more responsibility ISPs take in tackling the
availability of child pornography images on the Internet, the
more resources police can devote to addressing the production
side of the problem. However, there are two competing
commercial forces acting on ISPs with respect to self
regulation. On the one hand, if an ISP restricts access to child
pornography on its server, it may lose out financially to other
ISPs who do not. Therefore, it will always be possible for
offenders to find ISPs who will store or provide access to child
pornography sites. On the other hand, ISPs also have their
commercial reputation to protect, and it is often in their best
interests to cooperate with law enforcement agencies. Most
major ISPs have shown a commitment to tackling the problem
of child pornography. By establishing working relationships
with ISPs, and publicizing those ISPs who take self regulation
seriously, police may be able to encourage greater levels of self
regulation. Current self-regulatory strategies include:

1.
Removing illegal sites. A number of ISP associations
have drafted formal codes of practice that explicitly bind
members to not knowingly accept illegal content on their sites,
and to removing such sites when they become aware of their
existence. Service agreement contracts with clients will often
set out expected standards that apply to site content. Large
ISPs may have active cyber patrols that search for illegal sites.64
2.
Establishing complaint sites/hotlines. Some ISP
associations have set up Internet sites or hotlines that allow
users to report illegal practices.65 These associations either deal
directly with the complaint (e.g., by contacting the webmaster,
the relevant ISP, or the police) or refer the complainant to the
appropriate authorities.
3.
Filtering browsers/search engines. ISPs can apply filters
to the browsers and search engines their customers use to
locate websites. There are numerous filtering methods. For
example, filters can effectively treat certain key words as if
they do not exist, so that using these words in a search will be
fruitless.66 Software that can identify pornographic images is
also being developed.67
Legislative Regulation
Not everyone is satisfied with the current reliance on self
regulation, and there have been calls for increased legislation
to compel the computer industry to play a greater role in
controlling Internet child pornography. Police may be an
important force in lobbying for tighter restrictions. Among the
proposals for tighter regulation are:
4. Making ISPs legally responsible for site content. ISPs
legal responsibilities to report child pornography vary among
jurisdictions. In the United States, ISPs are legally required to

report known illegal activity on their sites, but they are not
required to actively search for such sites.68 It has been argued
that ISPs legal responsibilities should be strengthened to
require a more proactive role in blocking illegal sites.69
5.
Requiring the preservation of ISP records. Police may
apply for a court order to seize ISP accounts.70 However, to
assist in the prosecution of offenders, ISPs need to maintain
good records of IP logging, caller ID, web hostings, and so
forth.71
6.
Requiring user verification. ISPs often exercise little
control over verifying the identities of people who open
Internet accounts. Accounts may be opened using false
names and addresses, making it difficult to trace individuals
who engage in illegal Internet activity. In addition, without
verifying users ages, there is no way of knowing if children
are operating Internet accounts without adult supervision.
This problem of Internet anonymity is likely to increase as the
potential to access the Internet via mobile phones becomes
more common. It has been argued that both ISPs and mobile
phone networks need to strengthen procedures for user
verification.72
7. Regulating anonymous remailers. Remailers are
servers that forward emails after stripping them of sender
identification. It has been argued that much tighter regulation
of remailers is necessary. Some have advocated making
remailer administrators legally responsible for knowingly
forwarding illegal material, while others have called for a
complete ban on remailers.73
8. Using key escrowed encryption. Encryption of
pornographic images is shaping to be the biggest technological
problem facing law enforcement agencies. Key escrowed

encryption would require anyone selling encryption software
to supply a trusted third party with a key to the code.74 This
has been strongly resisted by the computer industry. In the
meantime, work continues on developing code-breaking
software.
Strategies for Related Industries
There are a number of other promising strategies involving
other industries with a stake in the Internet. Again, although
police may have no direct role in implementing these
strategies, they may be able to use their influence to encourage
industries to act. Strategies include:
9.
Blocking credit card transactions. Although there
has been considerable focus on the role of ISPs in enabling
the distribution of Internet child pornography, there has
been less attention given to the role played by credit card
companies in allowing customers to pay for that pornography.
It has been argued that credit card companies have a duty to
not knowingly contribute to illegal acts.75 Some credit card
companies have acknowledged the problem and vowed to
act.76
10.
Boycotting sites by advertisers. Economic pressure may
be applied to service providers to encourage them to monitor
illegal content. In one example of this, major brands have
withdrawn advertising from P2P networks that carry child
pornography.77

Workplace Responses
Many medium to large organizations maintain their own
servers, which allow employees to access the Internet from
and store data on their work computer. Work computers
have been implicated in a number of child pornography
cases.78 Workplace strategies may be directed toward altering
the behavior of potential offenders by reinforcing the costs
associated with offending.
11.
Adopting and enforcing workplace codes of conduct.
Many organizations have explicit policies regarding and
consequences for the improper use of work computers. These
policies need to be made clear to employees to remove any
doubt about what standard of behavior is expected.
12.
Auditing computer use. The traffic through most work-
based servers is less than that for commercial ISPs, making
it more feasible for the system administrator to electronically
monitor staff Internet use.
13.
Filtering web usage. By employing web filters,
companies can place restrictions on the sites that employees
can visit.79
Citizens' Groups
A number of nonprofit organizations have been established
to raise public awareness about the issue of Internet child
pornography and to act as political lobby groups. These
groups include Wired Safety, Safeguarding Our Children 

United Mothers (SOC-UM), and End Child Prostitution, Child
Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes
(ECPAT).80 Citizens groups will usually work in cooperation
with law enforcement agencies, and local police can provide
active support for their activities, which include:
14.
Educating the public. The main activity of these groups
is to raise public awareness and provide tips for parents and
teachers through their websites, publications, and online
classes.
15.
Searching the Internet. Many of these groups have
their own teams of volunteers who search the Internet, or
hotlines where people can report Internet child pornography.
Information gathered about child pornography is then passed
on to law enforcement agencies. Volunteers should be careful
not to inadvertently download child pornography and thus
commit a crime.
Parental Strategies
One of the concerns about Internet child pornography is
that children may inadvertently access material, or may have
material sent to them either as part of a grooming process or
by cyber-stalkers. A number of products are available to assist
parents in regulating Internet content for their children.81
Police can play an educative role in informing parents of these
effective strategies by:
16. Encouraging parents to use filtering software.
Commercially available software allows parents to restrict or
monitor their childrens Internet usage and may be available as
part of free parental controls by certain ISPs. These programs
may block undesirable sites or provide a record of Internet
sites visited.

17. Encouraging parents to review web ratings. The
Recreational Software Advisory Council on the Internet
(RSACi) rates websites in much the same way movies are
rated. This is a voluntary system that allows website operators
to obtain a rating, which they can then code into their site.
Ratings may be used as a filter on web browsers to help
parents control their childrens Internet use.
18. Promoting the use of child-oriented search engines.
Those in charge of a website (the webmaster) may provide
key words (meta-tags) that broadly identify their site to assist
in the search process. However, a webmaster may include
inappropriate key words in the meta-tag to increase visits
to their site. For example, a child pornography site may be
located under the key word Disney. A number of child-
oriented search engines (e.g., Yahooligans!) manually inspect
sites for inappropriate material.
Law Enforcement Responses
In the strategies discussed so far the police role has largely
involved working in cooperation with other groups or
acting as educators. A number of strategies are the primary
responsibility of police. As a rule, local police will not
carry out major operations. Most major operations require
specialized expertise and inter-agency and inter-jurisdictional
cooperation. (See Appendix C for a summary of major
coordinated law enforcement operations in recent years.)
However, local police will almost certainly encounter cases of
Internet child pornography in the course of their daily policing
activities. Law enforcement responses include:
19. Locating child pornography sites. Police agencies
may scan the Internet to locate and remove illegal child
pornography sites. Many areas of the Internet are not

accessible via the usual commercial search engines, and
investigators need to be skilled at conducting sophisticated
searches of the hidden net. Police may issue warnings to ISPs
that are carrying illegal content.
20.
Conducting undercover sting operations. Law
enforcement agents may enter pedophile newsgroups, chat
rooms, or P2P networks posing as pedophiles and request
emailed child pornography images from others in the group.82
Alternatively, they may enter child or teen groups posing
as children and engage predatory pedophiles lurking in the
group who may send pornography or suggest a meeting. A
variation of the sting operation is to place ads on the Internet
offering child pornography for sale and wait for replies.83
Recently, Microsoft announced the development of the Child
Exploitation Tracking System to help link information such
as credit card purchases, Internet chat room messages, and
conviction histories.84
21.
Setting up honey trap sites. These sites purport to
contain child pornography but in fact are designed to capture
the IP or credit card details of visitors trying to download
images. These can be considered a type of sting operation
and have resulted in numerous arrests. However, their primary
purpose is to create uncertainty in the minds of those seeking
child pornography on the Internet, and, therefore, reduce the
sense of freedom and anonymity they feel (see Operation Pin
in Appendix C).
22.
Publicizing crackdowns. Many police departments
have learned to use the media to good effect to publicize
crackdowns on Internet child pornography.85 Coverage of
crackdowns in the mass media increases the perception among
potential offenders that the Internet is an unsafe environment
in which to access child pornography.

23. Conducting traditional criminal investigations.
Although most media attention is often given to technological
aspects of controlling Internet child pornography, in fact
many arrests in this area arise from traditional investigative
police work. Investigations may involve information from:

The public: The public may contact police directly,
or information may be received on one of the various
child pornography hotlines.

Computer repairers/technicians: Some states
mandate computer personnel to report illegal
images.86 There are cases where computer repairers
have found child pornography images on an
offenders hard drive and notified police.87 Police may
establish relationships with local computer repairers/
technicians to encourage reporting.

Victims: A point of vulnerability for producers of
child pornography is the child who appears in the
pornographic image. If the child informs others of
his/her victimization, then the offenders activities
may be exposed.88

Known traders: The arrest of one offender can
lead to the arrest of other offenders with whom he
has had dealings, producing a cascading effect. In
some cases the arrested offenders computer and
Internet logs may provide evidence of associates. (See
Operation Cathedral in Appendix C.)

Unrelated investigations: There is increasing
evidence that many sex offenders are criminally
versatile and may commit a variety of other
offenses.89 Police may find evidence of Internet child
pornography while investigating unrelated crimes such
as drug offenses.

Responses with Limited Effectiveness
24. Engaging in vigilantism. There are a few citizens
groups (e.g., Ethical Hackers Against Pedophilia) that engage
in direct vigilantism by hacking into and disabling suspected
offenders computers, posting anti-pedophile messages
on pedophile bulletin boards, and swamping pedophile
newsgroups with the aim of closing them down.90 These
activities are often illegal and are not endorsed by most
citizens groups or by law enforcement agencies.

Appendix A: Key Terms and Concepts
The Internet is a global network comprising millions of
smaller networks and individual computers connected by
cable, telephone lines, or satellite links. The Internet permits
individuals to connect with other computers around the
world from the privacy of their own homes. Although
the terms Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) are
often used interchangeably, the web specifically refers to
the worldwide collection of electronic documents and
other files stored throughout the Internet (on web pages
and in websites). The web accounts for 90 percent of
Internet usage.91 The web allows individuals to search for
and download text, graphics, audio, and video on topics of
interest from around the world. They can also upload their
own electronic files for others to access. In addition to the
World Wide Web, the Internet enables a number of other
services and forms of communication, including e-mail,
mailing lists, e-groups, newsgroups, bulletin boards, chat
rooms, instant messaging, and peer-to-peer (P2P) networks.
These services permit a user to engage in conversations
with other individuals and share electronic files. Specific
terms associated with the Internet, the World Wide Web, and
related communication services are in the following table:
The Internet
Term Definition92
Host Any computer or network connected to the Internet.
Modem
Device for connecting a host to the Internet.
Includes dial-up modems that may use standard
telephone lines and dedicated cable modems.
Internet
Protocol (IP)
address
A number that uniquely identifies each host using the
Internet.

Server
A computer configured to provide a service to other
computers in a network, including access to hardware
and software and centralized data storage. Different
servers may be used to perform specific functions
(e.g., web server or email server).
Internet
Service
Provider (ISP)
A business that provides individuals or companies
access to the Internet (e.g., AOL, MSM, Earthlink).
ISPs use authentication servers to verify customers
passwords.
File Transfer
Protocol (FTP)
A protocol that permits the downloading and
uploading of electronic files. Downloading is the
process by which a computer receives an electronic
file from the Internet via an FTP server; uploading
is the process of transferring electronic files from a
computer to an FTP server on the Internet.
The World Wide Web
Term Definition93
Web page
An electronic document that may comprise text,
graphics, audio, and video, as well as links to other
pages.
Website
A collection of related web pages and associated
media stored on a web server.
Home page First page displayed on a website that usually acts as
an introduction to the site.
Web cam Video camera that permits live images to be
displayed via a web page.
Universal
Resource
Locater (URL)
A web pages unique location or address.
Web browser
Software that allows web pages to be accessed and
viewed (e.g., Internet Explorer, Netscape, Mozilla-
Firefox).

Appendix A: Key Terms and Concepts
Hyperlink A link provided within a web page to connect other
related web pages. Pop-up links not requested by the
user may also appear on some web pages.
Search engine A program (e.g., Google, Alta Vista) that locates
websites and web pages using key words.
Communication Services
Term Definition94
E-mail
A method of communication between individuals
connected to the Internet involving the transmission
of text messages and attached files.
Mailing lists
A group of e-mail addresses given a common name
so all members on the list receive the same message.
There is a central list owner who controls who is on
the list and what material can be sent. Individuals may
subscribe to have their name and address added to the
mailing list.
E-groups
Groups established to share information on a topic
of common interest. Potential members need to
subscribe to the group. In addition to email, an e-
group may offer other features such as a chat room, a
bulletin board, and a central home page.
Newsgroups
A site, stored on a news server, that allows
contributors to have discussions about a particular
subject by posting text, pictures, etc., and responding
to previous posts. In most cases no one owns a
newsgroup and there is no central authority. However,
in some cases a password may be required, and some
newsgroups filter posts through a moderator. The
network of newsgroups is called Usenet.

Bulletin Board
Systems (BBS)
Bulletin board systems, which predate the Internet,
are similar to newsgroups, but tend to be in real time
to allow contributors to engage in conversations.
Bulletin boards are often hosted by an owner rather
than a server, and may be accessed directly via a
modem without going through the Internet.
Chat rooms
A chat room is a location on a server that permits
multiple users to engage in real-time conversations
and exchange electronic files. Many chat rooms are
open to anyone to log into, but some are closed. They
may employ a moderator, but users can nominate a
pseudonym.
Instant
messaging (IM)
Similar to chat rooms, but instant messaging permits
private conversations with nominated contacts. Once
a connection is established, direct contact between
users is possible without the need for a central server.
Peer-to-peer
(P2P)
A network in which each computer is an equal partner
and all work cooperatively together. All computers
in the network have a common file-sharing program
(e.g., KaZaA, Morpheus, Limewire), allowing users to
connect directly to each others hard drive to search
for and exchange files.

Appendix B: Agencies and Programs
Addressing Internet Child Pornography
A variety of law enforcement agencies have a stake in
preventing and investigating Internet child pornography.
Some of these agencies have specific programs or sections
to focus resources and coordinate ongoing responses. In the
United States, key agencies and services include:95

Child Exploitation and Obscenity Section
(CEOS): A section of the U.S. Department of
Justices Criminal Division, CEOS specializes in the
investigation and prosecution of child exploitation
and obscenity cases, including child pornography.
It provides training for federal, state and local
prosecutors and law enforcement agents concerning
these crimes.
www.usdoj.gov/criminal/ceos/childporn.html

CyberSmuggling Center: Formed by the U.S.
Customs Service, the center focuses particularly on
undercover operations into international production
and distribution of child pornography.
http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/home.xml

Cyber Tipline: An online clearinghouse for tips and
leads on Internet child exploitation. The program
is jointly sponsored by the NCMEC, the U.S. Postal
Inspection Service, the U.S. Customs Service, and the
FBI.
www.cybertipline.com

Innocent Images: The central operation and case
management system coordinating FBI investigations
into child exploitation via the Internet.
www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/cac/innocent.htm


Internet Crimes Against Children (ICAC): A task
force program initiated by the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), U.S.
Department of Justice. It provides regional clusters
of forensic and investigative expertise to assist state
and local law enforcement agencies in dealing with
Internet child exploitation.
http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org/programs/index.html

National Center for Missing & Exploited
Children (NCMEC): A private, nonprofit
organization whose mission includes following up on
tips from the Cyber Tipline and providing technical
assistance and training to other agencies.
www.missingkids.com

National Sex Offender Public Registry: A web
site supported by the U.S. Department of Justice
that provides details on the location of offenders
convicted of sexually violent offenses.
www.nsopr.gov

U.S. Postal Inspection Service: This service
has particular responsibilities to investigate the
distribution of child pornography via mail. Internet
activity is often supported through traditional mail.
www.usps.com/postalinspectors

Appendix C: Examples of Coordinated Law Enforcement Operations
A number of major law enforcement operations demonstrate
the need for interagency and international cooperation. A
summary of major operations is shown in the table below.
Operation Avalanche/Ore96
The Problem The Response The Outcome
Landslide Productions was a
child pornography company
operating out of Fort Worth,
Texas. Landslide had a complex
network of some 5,700
websites worldwide (especially
in Russia and Indonesia) that
stored child pornography
images. The operation in Fort
Worth acted as a gateway
into the network. Online
customers provided credit
card details to obtain network
access. Landslide scrambled
these credit card numbers to
protect customers identities.
There were more than 390,000
subscribers from 60 countries,
generating a monthly turnover
of up to $1.4 million.
The investigation began in
1999 when the U.S. Postal
Inspection Service discovered
that Landslides customers were
sending monthly subscription
fees to a post office box or paying
them through the Internet. A
joint investigation between the
U.S. Postal Inspection Service
and the Internet Crimes Against
Children Task Force (ICAC),
comprising more than 45 officers,
was conducted over two years
(Operation Avalanche). Officers
cracked the code that scrambled
the credit card numbers and then
tracked down the card owners.
Landslides bank accounts were
seized and 160 search warrants
were executed that recovered
large quantities of child
pornography. The investigation
was expanded to include the U.K.
police (Operation Ore).
To date, 120 arrests have been
made in the U.S., including
the two principal operators
who were given life and 14year sentences respectively in
2001. In the U.K. some 7,000
customers were identified,
1,300 people arrested, and 40
children taken into protective
custody. Despite closing
down Landslide Productions,
there has been criticism that
relatively few offenders have
been successfully prosecuted.

Operation Cathedral97
The Problem The Response The Outcome
The Wonderland Club was an
exclusive online pedophile ring
in which members reportedly
had to produce 10,000 child
pornography images for
membership. At least 180
individuals from at least 33
countries had met this criterion,
and seven members between
them had contributed 750,000
images.
In 1996, two U.S. offenders
charged with online child
pornography offenses (the Orchid
Club) cooperated with police
and provided information about
a British offender. Evidence
from that offenders computer
hard drive led to the discovery
of the Wonderland Club. The
operation, conducted between
1998 and 2001, involved U.S.
and British police coordinating
through Interpol. Although agents
were unable to gain undercover
entry into the club, they were
able to monitor transactions
and gather evidence from the
outside. Eventually, 35 members
were identified. Police forces in
12 countries carried out more
than 100 simultaneous raids on
suspects.
The Wonderland Club was
destroyed, and there were 107
arrests around the world, 14
of which were in the United
States.
Operation Candyman98
The Problem The Response The Outcome
Candyman, was an open
e-group maintained by Yahoo
that was involved in exchanging
child pornography. It had 7,000
members, 4,600 of which were
in the United States and the
remaining 2,400 lived around
the world.
Undercover FBI agents identified
and infiltrated the e-group in a
year-long undercover operation
ending in 2002. The task force
comprised 56 FBI field officers.
A court order was obtained to
compel Yahoo to provide the
unique e-mail addresses of all
members, and subpoenas were
issued to all ISPs to provide the
addresses of U.S. users.
The FBI was able to obtain
1,400 addresses, from which
707 suspects were identified,
266 searches carried out, and
89 arrests made to date. Those
arrested include a school bus
driver, a teachers aide, law
enforcement personnel, and
clergy members.

Appendix C: Examples of Coordinated Law Enforcement Operations
Operation Pin99
The Problem The Response The Outcome
The operation is directed at
the general proliferation of
child pornography websites
and the number of people
accessing these sites. In
particular it is aimed at casual
or first-time offenders.
The operation was started in
2003 by West Midlands (U.K.)
police and expanded to include
the FBI, the Australian Federal
Police, the Royal Canadian
Mounties, and Interpol. Far
from being a covert operation,
it was officially launched with
media releases by the relevant
police forces. It is a classic
honey trap operation. A
website purporting to contain
child pornography was set
up. Visitors to the site were
required to go through a series
of web pages, which appeared
to be identical to real web porn
sites, searching for the image
they wanted. At each point it
was reinforced that they were
in a child pornography site,
and they were given the option
to exit. When they did try to
access an image they were told
they had committed a crime.
They were tracked down via
their credit card details, which
they were required to provide to
login.
This crime prevention
operation has resulted in
numerous arrests; however,
precise numbers are not
available. Its main purpose
is to make searchers of child
pornography on the Internet
uncertain that they can do
so anonymously. Details
of the sting operation were
widely publicized on child
pornography sites, contributing
to the deterrent effect.

Appendix D: Summary of Responses to
Internet Child Pornography
The table below summarizes the responses to Internet
child pornography, the mechanisms by which they are
intended to work, the conditions under which they ought
to work best, and some factors you should consider before
implementing a particular response. It is critical that you
tailor your responses to local circumstances, and that you
can justify each response based on reliable analysis. In
most cases, an effective strategy will involve implementing
several different responses. Law enforcement responses
alone are seldom effective in reducing or solving the
problem.
Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
Computer Industry Self Regulation
1. 38 Removing
illegal sites
Reduces
availability of
pornography;
ISPs agree
voluntarily
to refuse to
accept child
pornography
sites and to
remove any
sites once
identified
all ISPs agree to
participate
There is a financial
advantage for some ISPs
to continue to accept
child pornography sites.
Pressure may be applied
to ISPs by police to
increase compliance; some
international ISPs are
beyond the reach of formal
codes of conduct
2. 38 Establishing
complaint
sites/hotlines
Facilitates
reporting;
public is given
the opportunity
to report illegal
sites
existence of the
complaint sites/
hotlines are widely
known
Although many reported
sites will have already been
identified by the ISP, sites
that have escaped the cyber
patrols may be uncovered

Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
3. 38 Filtering
browsers/
search engines
Prevents
customers from
accessing child
pornography
sites
all providers agree
to use filters
Not all illegal sites will be
identified; applies only to
child pornography located
on open areas of the web
Legislative Regulation
4. 38 Making
ISPs legally
responsible for
site content
Enhances
screening and
surveillance
of child
pornography;
ISPs to be
legally required
to identify and
remove illegal
sites
there is national
and international
consistency in
legislative approach
Resisted by computer
industry, which favors self-
regulation; debate about the
balance between protecting
society and free speech
5. 39 Requiring the
preservation of
ISP records
Facilitates
criminal
investigations;
records of
customers
Internet use
are retained in
case required as
evidence
Same as No. 4 above Same as No. 4 above
6. 39 Requiring user
verification
Deters
offenders from
seeking child
pornography
on the World
Wide Web; ISPs
should require
verification of
an applicants
identity before
providing an
account
Same as No. 4 above Same as No. 4 above; this
problem will become more
critical as greater integration
of Internet and mobile
phone services occurs

Appendix D: Summary of Responses to Internet Child Pornography
Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
7. 39 Regulating
anonymous
remailers
Reduces
anonymity
of offenders;
remailer
administrators
are made legally
responsible
for material
forwarded
Same as No. 4 above Same as No. 4 above
8. 39 Using key
escrowed
encryption
Reduces
anonymity
of offenders;
encryption
keys held by a
trusted third
party
Same as No. 4 above Same as No. 4 above
Strategies for Related Industries
9. 40 Blocking
credit card
transactions
Deters
offenders
and/or reduces
profitability of
online child
pornography;
credit card
companies
refuse to
authorize
payments
for child
pornography
all companies agree
to participate
Not all child pornography
requires payment
10. 40 Boycotting
sites by
advertisers
Reduces
profitability of
online child
pornography;
companies
refuse to place
advertisements
on networks
that carry child
pornography
the boycott is
widespread and highly
publicized
The aim of boycotts is to
pressure service providers
to monitor illegal activity

Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
Workplace Responses
11. 41 Adopting and
enforcing
workplace
codes of
conduct
Deters
offenders
by removing
excuses for
using workplace
computers to
access child
pornography;
organizations
that maintain
their own
servers have
explicit policies
governing
computer use
by staff
codes are
formal and clearly
communicated to all
staff
Applies only to child
pornography accessed or
stored at work
12. 41 Auditing
computer use
Deters
offenders by
increasing
surveillance of
their computer
use; staff
Internet use
is routinely
monitored
staff are aware in
advance that audits
will be conducted
Same as No. 11 above
13. 41 Filtering web
usage
Reduces access
to online child
pornography;
companies
restrict the sites
that employees
may visit
Same as No. 11 above Same as No. 11 above

Appendix D: Summary of Responses to Internet Child Pornography
Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
Citizens' Groups
14. 42 Educating the
public
Enhances
awareness and
improves web
surveillance;
information
is provided to
parents and
teachers about
Internet child
pornography
it is done in
cooperation with law
enforcement agencies
Directed mainly toward
preventing online
exploitation of children and
access by children to child
pornography
15. 42 Searching the
Internet
Enhances web
surveillance;
hotlines and
Internet
searches by
volunteers
identify child
pornography
sites
Same as No. 14 above Volunteers need to be
careful not to download
pornography and thus
commit a crime
Parental Strategies
16. 42 Encouraging
parents to
use filtering
software
Reduces
exposure of
children to
online child
pornography;
software
installed
on home
computers that
restricts sites
that may be
visited and/or
keeps a record
of sites visited
combined with
supervision of
childrens computer
use and education
about appropriate
sites
Specifically targets
childrens access to child
pornography; police have a
role in educating the public
about safe Internet use

Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
17. 43 Encouraging
parents to
review web
ratings
Reduces
exposure of
children to
online child
pornography;
websites
independently
rated for age
suitability
Same as No. 16 above Same as No. 16 above
18. 43 Promoting the
use of child-
oriented search
engines
Reduces
exposure of
children to
online child
pornography;
search engines
specifically
designed
for children,
where sites
are manually
inspected for
inappropriate
material
Same as No. 16 above Same as No. 16 above
Law Enforcement Responses
19. 43 Locating child
pornography
sites
Increases an
offenders
risk of
apprehension;
law
enforcement
agencies
conduct their
own searches
of the Internet
for child
pornography
coordinated with
other agencies and
jurisdictions
Requires specialized
expertise to access hidden
areas of the Internet

Appendix D: Summary of Responses to Internet Child Pornography
Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
20. 44 Conducting
undercover
sting
operations
Deters
offenders
through
increased
risk of
apprehension;
undercover law
enforcement
agents enter
pedophile
newsgroups,
etc., to collect
evidence
against
offenders
Same as No. 19 above Same as No. 19 above; may
target novice or low-level
offenders
21. 44 Setting up
honey trap sites
Increases an
offenders
risk of
apprehension;
phony child
pornography
sites are
established
that capture
the details
of offenders
who attempt
to access the
supposed
pornography
the existence of
the sites is widely
publicized to increase
the deterrent effect
Same as No. 20 above
22. 44 Publicizing
crackdowns
Increases the
perception
among
offenders that
the Internet
is an unsafe
environment
to access child
pornography
publicity is
widespread and
sustained
Same as No. 20 above

Response
No.
Page
No.
Response How It Works Works Best If Considerations
23. 45 Conducting
traditional
criminal
investigations
Increases an
offenders
risk of
apprehension;
police uncover
information
about child
pornography in
the course of
their daily work
police have
strong links with key
community groups
Key role for local police
Responses With Limited Effectiveness
24. 46 Engaging in
vigilantism
Increases an
offenders
risk of
apprehension;
vigilantes
disable
suspected
offenders
computers
and disrupt
pedophile
newsgroups
Actions may be illegal

Endnotes
1.
Tate (1990); Tyler (1985).
2.
Crewdson (1988); Tate (1990).
3.
Jewkes and Andrews (2005); Williams (2003).
4.
Wolak et al. (2003).
5.
Jenkins (2001).
6.
Alder (2001); Esposito (1998); Graham, (2000); Grasz and
Pfaltzgraff (1998); Klain, Davies, and Hicks (2001); Linz
and Imrich (2001).
7.
Sexual Exploitation of Children Act (Pub.L. 95-225, 92
Stat. 7); New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747 (1982); Child
Protection Act (18 U.S.C. 
 2251, 2252, et seq.); United
States v. Dost, 636 F.Supp. 828, 832 (S.D. Cal. 1986), aff d
sub nom.; United States v. Wiegand, 812 F.2d 1239, 1244-45
(9th Cir. 1987), cert. denied, 484 U.S. 856 (1987); Child
Protection and Obscenity Enforcement Act (amending 
2251, 2252); Osborne v. Ohio, 495 U.S. 103 (1990); Child
Pornography Protection Act (18 U.S.C. 
 2252A, 2256(8));
Child Protector and Sexual Predator Punishment Act (42
U.S.C. 
 13032); Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition, 535 U.S. 234
(2002).
8.
United States v. Knox, 32 F.3d 733 (3d Cir. 1994), cert denied,
513 U.S. 1109 (1995).
9.
Jenkins (2001).
10.
Klain, Davies, and Hicks (2001).
11.
Taylor, Holland, and Quayle (2001).
12.
Lanning and Burgess (1989).
13.
Blundell et al. (2002); Calder (2004); Ferraro et al. (2004);
Jenkins (2001); U.S. General Accounting Office (2003).
14.
Khan (2000).
15.
Forde and Patterson (1998); Jenkins (2001); Lesce (1999).
16.
Burke et al. (2002).
17.
Forde and Patterson (1998); Jenkins (2001); Lesce (1999).
18.
Wellard (2001).
19.
Carr (2004).
20.
Jenkins (2001).

21.
Jenkins (2001).
22.
Simon (2000).
23.
Dobson (2003); Wellard (2001).
24.
Smallbone and Wortley (2000).
25.
Blundell et al. (2002); Schwartz and Southern (2000).
26.
Calder (2004).
27.
Blundell et al. (2002); Schneider (2000).
28.
Linz and Imrich (2001).
29.
Quayle and Taylor (2001).
30.
Cooper et al. (1999).
31.
Krone (2004).
32.
Lanning and Burgess (1989).
33.
Klain, Davies, and Hicks (2001).
34.
Silbert (1989).
35.
Marshall (2000).
36.
Marshall (1988); Proulx, Perreult, and Ouimet (1999).
37.
Linz and Imrich (2001); Marshall (2000).
38.
Kennedy-Souza (1998); Taylor and Quayle (2003).
39.
Goldstein (1999).
40.
OConnell (2001).
41.
Aftab (2000).
42.
Finkelhor, Mitchell, and Wolak (2000); Donnerstein
(2002).
43.
Aloysius (2001).
44.
Calder (2004).
45.
Ferraro et al. (2004).
46.
Ferraro et al. (2004).
47.
Grant, David, and Grabosky (1997).
48.
Ferraro et al. (2004); Graham (2000).
49.
U.S. General Accounting Office (2003).
50.
Jewkes and Andrews (2005).
51.
Graham (2000); Stanley (2001); Thomas (1997).
52.
Jenkins (2001).
53.
Grant, David, and Grabosky (1997).
54.
Krone (2004).

55.
Khan (2000).
56.
Jenkins (2001).
57.
Burke et al. (2002); Forde and Patterson (1998); Mostyn
(2000); Thornburgh and Lin (2002).
58.
Jewkes and Andrews (2005).
59.
Jewkes and Andrews (2005).
60.
Jewkes and Andrews (2005).
61.
Taylor and Quayle (2003).
62.
Wellard (2001).
63.
Wolak et al. (2003).
64.
Canadian Resource Centre for Victims of Crime
(2000).
65.
Stewart (1997).
66.
Thornburgh and Lin (2002); Lee, Hui, and Fong
(2003).
67.
Wang et al. (1998).
68.
Klain, Davies, and Hicks (2001); Canadian Resource
Centre for Victims of Crime (2000).
69.
Stanley (2001).
70.
Ferraro et al. (2004); Kreston (2004).
71.
Canadian Resource Centre for Victims of Crime
(2000).
72.
Carr (2004).
73.
Mostyn (2000).
74.
Graham (2000).
75.
Taylor and Quayle (2006).
76.
Anonymous (2003); Sutton and Jones (2004).
77.
Adegoke (2003).
78.
Ferraro et al. (2004).
79.
Lee, Hui, and Fong (2003).
80.
Arnaldo (2000).
81.
Aftab (2001); Lee, Hui, and Fong (2003); Thornburgh
and Lin (2002); Wang et al. (1998).
82.
U.S. Department of Justice (2004).
83.
Avarda, Colorado Police Department (1996); Lesce
(1999).
84.
Duff-Brown (2005).

85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
BBC News (13 February 2001); BBC News (11
November 2002); BBC News (18 December 2003)
.
DeMarco (2005)
.
Jenkins (2001)
.
Lesce (1999)
.
Simon (2000)
.
Grant, David, and Grabosky (1997); Jenkins (2001)
.
Arnaldo (2001)
.
Calder (2004); Ferraro et al. (2004); Shelley, Cashman,
and Vermaat (2004)
.
Calder (2004); Ferraro et al. (2004); Shelley, Cashman,
and Vermaat (2004)
.
Blundell et al. (2002); Calder (2004); Ferraro et al.
(2004); Jenkins (2001); Thornburgh and Lin (2002)
.
U.S. General Accounting Office (2002); Klain, Davies,
and Hicks (2001)
.
BBC News (11 November 2002); Jewkes and Andrews
(2005); U.S. Postal Inspection Service (n.d.)
.
BBC News (13 February 2001); Graham (2000)
.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (March 18 2002)
.
BBC News (18 December 2003)
.

References
Adegoke, Y. (2003). Top Brands Start to Pull Ads From P2P
Networks. New Media Age, April 24, p. 1.
Adler, A. (2001). The Perverse Law of Child Pornography.
Columbia Law Review 101(2):209273.
Aftab, P. (2000). The Parents Guide to Protecting Your Children in
Cyberspace. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Aloysius, C. (2001). The Media Response: A Journalists
View of the Problem in Asia. In C.A. Arnaldo, ed.,
Child Abuse on the Internet: Ending the Silence. New York:
Berghahn Books.
Anonymous (2003). Buried by a Pile of Porn: Child
Pornography. The Economist (U.S.), Jan. 18, 2003, Vol. 366,
Issue 8307.
Arnaldo, C. (2002). The Naked, Hairy Caveman: Child
Abuse on the Internet. In C. von Feilitzen and U.
Carlsson, eds., Children in the New Media Landscape.
Goteberg, Sweden: UNESCO International Clearinghouse
on Children and Violence on the Screen at Nordicom.
Arnaldo, C. (2001). Child Abuse on the Internet: Ending the
Silence. Paris: UNESCO Publishing; New York: Berghahn
Books.
Arvada (Colorado) Police Department (1996). Arvada Police
Department Crimes Against Children Unit. Submission
for the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in
Problem-Oriented Policing. www.popcenter.org/library/
goldstein/1996/96-02.pdf.

BBC News, Tackling Online Child Pornography.
news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1166135.stm (Accessed
February 13, 2001).
BBC News, Operation Avalanche: Tracking Child Porn.
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2445065.stm (Accessed
November 11, 2002).
BBC News, Police Trap Online Paedophiles.
news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3329567.stm (Accessed
December 18, 2003).
Blundell, B., M. Sherry, A. Burke, and S. Sowerbutts (2002).
Child Pornography and the Internet: Accessibility and
Policing. Australian Police Journal 56(1):5965.
Burke, A., S. Sowerbutts, B. Blundell, and M. Sherry (2002).
Child Pornography and the Internet: Policing and
Treatment Issues. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 9(1):794.
Calder, M. (2004). Child Sexual Abuse and the Internet: Tackling
the New Frontier. Lyme Regis (United Kingdom): Russell
House Publishing.
Canadian Resource Centre for Victims of Crime (2000).
Child Sexual Exploitation and the Internet. Ottawa
(Ontario). the Author.
Carr, J. (2004). Child Abuse, Child Pornography and the Internet.
London: NCH.
Cooper, A., D.E. Putnam, L.A. Planchon, and S.C. Boies.
(1999). Online Sexual Compulsivity: Getting Tangled in
the Net. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity 6:79104.

References
Crewdson, J. (1998). By Silence Betrayed: Sexual Abuse of
Children in America. Boston: Little Brown.
DeMarco, R.T. (2005). Technology and the Fight Against
Child Pornography. Watch Right. blog.watchright.com/
?itemid=337.
Dobson, A. (2003). Caught in the Net. Care and Health,
Feb. 13 pp. 69.
Donnerstein, E. (2002). The Internet. In V.C. Strasburger
and B.J. Wilson, eds., Children, Adolescents and the Media.
Thousand Oaks (California): Sage Publications.
Duff-Brown, B. (2005). Software Helps Track Child
Pornographers. Associated Press.
www.boston.com/business/technology/
articles/2005/04/08/software_helps_track_child_
pornographers.
Esposito, L. (1998). Regulating the Internet: The New Battle
Against Child Pornography. Case Western Reserve Journal of
International Law 30:541565.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2002). Operation
Candyman. www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel02/cm031802.
htm.
Ferraro, M., E. Casey, and M. McGrath (2004). Investigating
Child Exploitation and Pornography: The Internet, The Law and
Forensic Science. Amsterdam, Boston: Elsevier/Academic.
Finkelhor, D., K.J. Mitchell, and J. Wolak (2000). Online
Victimization: A Report on the Nations Youth. Crimes Against
Youth Research Center. www.missingkids.com.

Forde, P., and A. Patterson (1998). Paedophile Internet Activity.
Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, No. 97.
Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. www.aic.gov.
au/publications/tandi/ti97.pdf.
Goldstein, S. (1999). The Sexual Exploitation of Children: A
Practical Guide to Assessment, Investigation, and Intervention. (2nd
ed.). Boca Raton (Florida): CRC Press.
Graham, W., Jr. (2000). Uncovering and Eliminating Child
Pornography Rings on the Internet: Issues Regarding
and Avenues Facilitating Law Enforcements Access to
Wonderland. The Law Review of Michigan State University-
Detroit College of Law 2:457484.
Grant, A., F. David, and P. Grabosky (1997). Child
Pornography in the Digital Age. Transnational Organized
Crime 3(4):171188.
Grasz, L., and P. Pfaltzgraff (1998). Child Pornography and
Child Nudity: Why and How States May Constitutionally
Regulate the Production, Possession, and Distribution of
Nude Visual Depictions of Children. Temple Law Review
71:609636.
Jenkins, P. (2001). Beyond Tolerance: Child Pornography on the
Internet. New York: New York University Press.
Jewkes, Y., and C. Andrews (2005). Policing the Filth: The
Problems of Investigating Online Child Pornography in
England and Wales. Policing and Society 15: 4262.
Kennedy-Souza, B.L. (1998). Internet Addiction Order.
Interpersonal Computing and Technology 6:12.

References
Khan, K. (2000). Child Pornography on the Internet. Police
Journal 73(1):717.
Klain, E., H. Davies and M. Hicks (2001). Child Pornography:
The Criminal-Justice-System Response. Washington, D.C.:
National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. www.
missingkids.com/en_US/publications/NC81.pdf.
Kreston, S.S. (2004). Computer Search and Seizure Issues in
Internet Crimes Against Children Cases. Rutgers Computer
and Technology Law Journal 30:327373.
Krone, T. (2004). A Typology of Online Child Pornography
Offending. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice,
No. 279. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.
www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi2/tandi279.pdf.
Lanning, K., and A. Burgess (1989). Child Pornography and
Sex Rings. In D. Zillmann and J. Bryant, eds., Pornography:
Research Advances & Policy Considerations. Hillsdale (New
Jersey): Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lee, P., S. Hui, and A. Fong (2003). A Structural and
Content-Based Analysis for Web Filtering. Internet
Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy
13(1):2737.
Lesce, T. (1999). Pedophiles on the Internet: Law
Enforcement Investigates Abuse. Law and Order
47(5):7478.
Linz, D., and D. Imrich (2001). Child Pornography. In
S. White, ed., Handbook of Youth and Justice. New York:
Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

Marshall, W.L. (1988). The Use of Explicit Sexual Stimuli by
Rapists, Child Molesters and Nonoffender Males. Journal
of Sex Research 25:267288.
Marshall, W.L. (2000). Revisiting the Use of Pornography by
Sexual Offenders: Implications for Theory and Practice.
The Journal of Sexual Aggression 6:6777.
Mostyn, M. (2000). The Need for Regulating Anonymous
Remailers. International Review of Law, Computers &
Technology 14(1):7988.
Newman, G.R. (2004). Identity Theft. Problem Oriented
Guides for Police. Problem-Specific Guide Series, No. 25. U.S.
Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services. www.cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.
pdf?Item=1271.
OConnell, R. (2001). Pedophiles Networking on the
Internet. In C. Arnaldo, ed., Child Abuse on the Internet:
Ending the Silence. New York: Berghahn Books.
Proulx, J., C. Perreult, and M. Ouimet (1999). Pathways
in the Offending Process of Extrafamilial Sexual Child
Molesters. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and
Treatment 11:11729.
Quayle, E., and M. Taylor (2001). Child Seduction and Self-
Representation on the Internet. CyberPsychology & Behavior
4(5):597608.
Schneider, J.P. (2000). Effects of Cybersex Addiction on the
Family: Results of a Survey. In A. Cooper, ed., Cybersex:
The Dark Side of the Force. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

References
Schwartz, M.F., and S. Southern (2000). Compulsive
Cybersex. In A. Cooper, ed., Cybersex: The Dark Side of
the Force. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Shelley, G.B., T.J. Cashman, and M.E. Vermaat (2004).
Discovering Computers: A Gateway to Information. Boston:
Thomson.
Silbert, M. (1989). The Effects on Juveniles of Being Used
for Pornography and Prostitution. In D. Zillmann and
J. Bryant, eds., Pornography: Research Advances & Policy
Considerations. Hillsdale (New Jersey): Lawrence Erlbaum.
Simon, L. (2000). An Examination of the Assumptions of
Specialization, Mental Disorder, and Dangerousness in
Sex Offenders. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 18:275308.
Smallbone, S., and R. Wortley (2000). Child Sexual Abuse
in Queensland: Offender Characteristics and Modus Operandi.
Brisbane: Queensland Crime Commission.
Stanley, J. (2001). Child Abuse and the Internet. National
Child Protection Clearinghouse, No. 15 Summer.
Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
www.aifs.org.au/nch.
Stewart, J. (1997). If This Is the Global Community, We
Must Be On the Bad Side of Town: International Policing
of Child Pornography on the Internet. Houston Journal of
International Law 20(1):205246.
Sutton, D., and V. Jones (2004). Position Paper on Child
Pornography and Internet-Related Sexual Exploitation of
Children. Save the Children.

Tate, T. (1990). Child Pornography: An Investigation. London:
Methuen.
Taylor, M., G. Holland, and E. Quayle (2001). Typology of
Paedophile Picture Collections. Police Journal 74(2):97107.
Taylor, M., and E. Quayle. (2006). The Internet and Abuse
Images of Children: Search, Precriminal Situations and
Opportunity. In R. Wortley and S. Smallbone (eds.)
Situational Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse. Crime Prevention
Studies, Vol. 19. Monsey (New York): Criminal Justice
Press.
Taylor, M., and E. Quayle (2003). Child Pornography: An Internet
Crime. London: Brunner-Routledge.
Thomas, D.S. (1997). Cyberspace Pornography: Problems
with Enforcement. Internet Research: Electronic Networking
Applications and Policy 7(3):201207.
Thornburgh, D., and H. Lin (2002). Youth, Pornography, and the
Internet. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Tyler, R. (1985). Child Pornography: Perpetuating the
Sexual Victimization of Children. Child Abuse & Neglect
9(3):313318.
U.S. Department of Justice (2004). Department of Justice,
Homeland Security Announce Child Pornography File-Sharing
Crackdown: Law Enforcement Initiative Targets Child Pornography
Over Peer-to-Peer Networks.
www.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel04/p2p051404.htm.

References
U.S.
General Accounting Office (2002). Combating Child
Pornography: Federal Agencies Coordinate Law Enforcement
Efforts, But An Opportunity Exists for Further Enhancement.
Washington, D.C.: the Author. www.gao.gov/new.items/
d03272.pdf.
U.S.
General Accounting Office (2003). File-sharing
Programs: Peer-to-Peer Networks Provide Ready Access to Child
Pornography. Washington, D.C.: the Author.
www.gao.gov/new.items/d03351.pdf.
U.S.
Postal Inspection Service, (n.d.). Operation Avalanche.
www.usps.com/postalinspectors/avalanch.htm.
Wang, J., J. Li, G. Wiederhold, and O. Firschein (1998).
System for Screening Objectionable Images. Computer
Communications 21:13551360.
Wellard, S.S. (2001). Cause and Effect. Community Care
March 1521, pp. 2627.
Williams, K. (2003). Controlling Internet Child Pornography
and Protecting the Child. Information & Communications
Technology Law 12(1):324.
Wolak, J., K. Mitchell, and D. Finkelhor (2003). Escaping or
Connecting? Characteristics of Youth Who Form Close
Online Relationships. Journal of Adolescence 26:105119.

About the Authors
The authors are currently collaborating on two books on the policing
and prevention of child sexual abusea co-edited book entitled
Situational Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse, and a co-authored book
(also with Bill Marshall) entitled Evidence-based Prevention of Sexual
Offenses Against Children.
Richard Wortley
Richard Wortley is an Associate Professor in the School of
Criminology and Criminal Justice at Griffith University in Brisbane,
Australia. Before taking up a university appointment, he worked as
a prison psychologist for 10 years. He is a past national chair of the
Australian College of Forensic Psychologists. He is widely published
in the areas of situational crime prevention, corrections, and sexual
offending. His recent book is Situational Prison Control: Crime Prevention
in Correctional Institutions.
Stephen Smallbone
Stephen Smallbone worked as a correctional psychologist for eight
years before taking up an academic appointment in 1998. He is
currently a senior lecturer in Criminology and Criminal Justice at
Griffith University and is Director of the Griffith Adolescent Forensic
Assessment and Treatment Centre. Since completing his Ph.D. in
1999, Dr. Smallbone has produced more than 20 peer-reviewed
articles and book chapters on sexual offending.

Recommended Readings

A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their
Environments,
Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This
guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners
to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying
public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It
provides guidance on whether and how to conduct cost-
effective surveys.

Assessing Responses to Problems: An
Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers,
by John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide
is a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series.
It provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing
problem-oriented policing efforts.

Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel
(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community
Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with
accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic
pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The
document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

Crime Prevention Studies,
edited by Ronald V. Clarke
(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of
volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing
opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of
initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.


Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing:The
1999 Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This
document produced by the National Institute of Justice
in collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum
provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the
annual award program that recognizes exemplary problem-
oriented responses to various community problems. A
similar publication is available for the award winners from
subsequent years. The documents are also available at
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime
Reduction,
by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office
Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and
describes the factors that make problem-solving effective
or ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in
England and Wales.

Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory
for Crime Prevention,
by Marcus Felson and Ronald V.
Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98,
1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity
theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory
have practical implications for the police in their efforts to
prevent crime.

Problem Analysis in Policing, by Rachel Boba (Police
Foundation, 2003). Introduces and defines problem
analysis and provides guidance on how problem analysis
can be integrated and institutionalized into modern
policing practices.


Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein
(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990).
Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented
policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses
how a police agency can implement the concept.

Problem-Oriented Policing and Crime Prevention,
by Anthony A. Braga (Criminal Justice Press, 2003).
Provides a thorough review of significant policing research
about problem places, high-activity offenders, and repeat
victims, with a focus on the applicability of those findings
to problem-oriented policing. Explains how police
departments can facilitate problem-oriented policing by
improving crime analysis, measuring performance, and
securing productive partnerships.

Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the
First 20 Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of
Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,
2000). Describes how the most critical elements of
Herman Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have
developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes
future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report
is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in
Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman
(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the
rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the
problem-solving process, and provides examples of
effective problem-solving in one agency.


Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing
Crime and Disorder Through Problem-Solving
Partnerships by Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott
Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and Meg Townsend. (U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services, 1998) (also available at www.cops.usdoj.
gov). Provides a brief introduction to problem-solving,
basic information on the SARA model and detailed
suggestions about the problem-solving process.

Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case
Studies,
Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke
(Harrow and Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and
methods of situational crime prevention, and presents over
20 case studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.

Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems:
Case Studies in Problem-Solving,
by Rana Sampson
and Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available
at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective
police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder
problems.

Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook
for Law Enforcement,
by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services, 2001). Provides an introduction for
police to analyzing problems within the context of
problem-oriented policing.

Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement
Managers,
Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G.
LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains
many of the basics of research as it applies to police
management and problem-solving.

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police
Problem-Specific Guides series:
1.
Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
ISBN: 1-932582-00-2
2.
Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-01-0
3.
Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
ISBN: 1-932582-02-9
4.
Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes.
Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-03-7
5.
False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-04-5
6.
Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
ISBN: 1-932582-05-3
7.
Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-06-1
8.
Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
ISBN: 1-932582-07-X
9.
Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-08-8
10.
Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V.
Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-09-6
11.
Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-10-X
12.
Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-11-8
13.
Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-12-6
14.
Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-13-4
15.
Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.
ISBN: 1-932582-14-2
16.
Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.
ISBN: 1-932582-15-0
17.
Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.
ISBN: 1-932582-16-9
18.
Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel.
2002. ISBN: 1-932582-17-7
19.
Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.
ISBN: 1-932582-18-5
20.
Financial Crimes Against the Elderly.
Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-22-3

21.
Check and Card Fraud. Graeme R. Newman. 2003.
ISBN: 1-932582-27-4
22.
Stalking. The National Center for Victims of Crime. 2004.
ISBN: 1-932582-30-4
23.
Gun Violence Among Serious Young Offenders. Anthony A.
Braga. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-31-2
24.
Prescription Fraud. Julie Wartell and Nancy G. La Vigne. 2004.
ISBN: 1-932582-33-9
25.
Identity Theft. Graeme R. Newman. 2004 ISBN: 1-932582-35-3
26.
Crimes Against Tourists. Ronald W. Glesnor and Kenneth J. Peak.
2004 ISBN: 1-932582-36-3
27.
Underage Drinking. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2004 ISBN: 1-932582-39-8
28.
Street Racing. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004.
ISBN: 1-932582-42-8
29.
Cruising. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004.
ISBN: 1-932582-43-6
30.
Disorder at Budget Motels. Karin Schmerler. 2005.
ISBN: 1-932582-41-X
31.
Drug Dealing in Open-Air Markets. Alex Harocopos and Mike
Hough. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-45-2
32.
Bomb Threats in Schools. Graeme R. Newman. 2005.
ISBN: 1-932582-46-0
33.
Illicit Sexual Activity in Public Places. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005.
ISBN: 1-932582-47-9
34.
Robbery of Taxi Drivers. Martha J. Smith. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-50-9
35.
School Vandalism and Break-Ins. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005.
ISBN: 1-9325802-51-7
36.
Drunk Driving. Michael S. Scott, Nina J. Emerson, Louis B.
Antonacci, and Joel B. Plant. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-57-6
37.
Juvenile Runaways. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1932582-56-8
38.
The Exploitation of Trafficked Women. Graeme R. Newman.
2006. ISBN: 1-932582-59-2
39.
Student Party Riots. Tamara D. Madensen and John E. Eck.
2006. ISBN: 1-932582-60-6
40.
People with Mental Illness. Gary Cordner. 2006.
ISBN: 1-932582-63-0

41. Child Pornography on the Internet. Richard Wortley
and Stephen Smallbone. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-65-7
Response Guides series:

The Benefits and Consequences of Police
Crackdowns. Michael S. Scott. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-24-X

Closing Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime: Should
You Go Down This Road? Ronald V. Clarke. 2004.
ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety
Problems. Michael S. Scott and Herman Goldstein.
2005. ISBN: 1-932582-55-X

Video Surveillance of Public Places. Jerry Ratcliffe.
2006 ISBN: 1-932582-58-4
Problem-Solving Tools series:

Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory
Guide for Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002.
ISBN: 1-932582-19-3

Researching a Problem. Ronald V. Clarke and Phyllis A.
Schultz. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-48-7

Using Offender Interviews to Inform Police Problem
Solving. Scott H. Decker. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-49-5

Analyzing Repeat Victimization. Deborah Lamm
Weisel. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-54-1

Upcoming Problem-Oriented Guides for Police
Problem-Specific Guides
Domestic Violence
Bank Robbery
Witness Intimidation
Drive-by Shootings
Disorder at Day Laborer Sites
Crowd Control at Stadiums and Other Entertainment Venues
Traffic Congestion Around Schools
Theft from Construction Sites of Single Family Houses
Robbery of Convenience Stores
Theft from Cars on Streets
Problem-Solving Tools
Risky Facilities
Implementing Responses to Problems
Designing a Problem Analysis System
Response Guides
Crime Prevention Publicity Campaigns
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for
Police series and other COPS Office publications, please call
the COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770 or visit
COPS Online at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

For More InForMatIon:
U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20530
To obtain details on COPS programs, call the
COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770
Visit COPS Online at the address listed below.
e04062000 May 2006
ISBN: 1-932582-65-7
www.cops.usdoj.gov