DECEMBER, 1919. MONTHLT WEATHER. REVIEW. 87 1
period. This forecnst was scw t by te1ror:iph to wniy
and corps signnl 0ficei.s nnrl t,o the Air service. lhese units repeated the forecasts to the operating unit,s directly concerned. The Air Serrice soon found it desirable to have a forecnst mnde in the early afternoon covering the late afternoon and the first part of the night, particularly for use in connection with honihing and artlllery observation. Owing to the congested condition of telegrnph wires as the First Srmy ndvnnced in tlie Argonne area, the fore- casters became convinced thnt nn early issue of the forecast was desirable. Upon studping the situation it appeared that telegrams from the Siond Corps .meteoro- logical stations of the Services of h ~p p l y at 1 a. m., together with tlie 1 :I. ni. observation sent by telephone by the British, would permit of the construction of B
satisfactory weather map, m d tlie morning forecast was, therefore, issued between 5 and 6. The early arrival of the British data also permitted tlie afternoon forecast to be made before 6 p. ni., and these changes were nccord- ingly made. * * * From information received from Artillery, Aviation, and General Staff officers, i t appenrs that practically dl bombing and a great deal of trhe artillery, gas, and ot,her o erations of the First and Second Armies were based upon t l e weather forecasts issued by the Meteorological Section of the Signnl Corps. Gen. Mitdiell stated that, the
forecnsts mere indispensiihle to tlie opeht,ioiis of the Air Service. The stations m:iin tn.ined 1:))- t,lie Me teorologicnl Section furnished tinic!ly notice of all squtdls, and syusll
wn.rnings renchcd all Air Service units hefore ii.iiy sc unll
winds at the 300 nnd SO0 meter levels was also given.
When the American Expeditionary Forces entered the field the Service Meteprologique aus Armees had devel- oped n method of determining wind direction and speed above a cloud sheet: the method of Sondage par le son. A study of this method showed that it was entirely fessi- ble, nnd the results obtiined by the fiench stations were used in determining artillery winds, and in weather fore- casts on cloudy days. When the nrmistice was s ned arrangements had been practically completed for ta % ng over nnd operating as a part of the Meteorologic~l Section, Signal Corps, Americnn Expeditionary Forces, the Sondage par le Son station a t Chaumon t sur &re (Meuse). Two factors essential to the success of tlie Signal Corps
Metcorologicnl Service should be mentioned. The fist of these is the faithful and capable personnel which was furnished for the work. It was largely through the efforts of the Science and Research Division of the Signal Corps
in Washington that the supply of these men was continued up t o the end. The second factor is excellent communics- tion service furnished. In spite of the fact that the
me teorologicnl mcssages are difficult of transmission and require night as well as day service, communication once cst:iblislied wns thoroughly reliable. Failure in either of t.hcse essen t.id dements would have rendered the work of t.lie section less efficient in both the local and the fore- cast services.
resc.hod t.he lines. Timely notice of all dnngerc-iusly I iigh
***
NOTES ON THE METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE IN THE GERMAN ARMY FROM TRANSLATIONS OF GERMAN DOCUMENTS.1
(From Bulletln de la Meteorologique aux Armees, January, 1918, pp. 65-79.)
Translat.ed by C. LEROY MEISINGIER.
I.
THE R6LE OF THE NETEOROLOGICAL SERVICE.
The documents annlyzed show that the me tnorological service in t,he German Army esperienced a great develop- nient nnd thti t the conininnd attached a high iniportnncc to all the reports furnished by t.he stations m d the second- ary posts. These reports were J i m xdapted to trlie needs of modern warfare. Porecmt,i.ing.-The meteorologicd bulletins nnd the forecasts for tlie succeeding 13 hours were communicated twice da.ily, in the morning and in the evening. Thc
Ijulletin contained:
1. A general forecast.
2. A forecast for wind. (Probable direction of the wind for t.he nest period of 13 hours.) . 3. A discussion of the possibilities for the use of gne shells. (C.)2
C?olla.bointioii. with a~rt~iller!y.-For the useful employ- ment of artillery tables, colliiboration with tlie meteoro-
1 (A) Le aerviec de mrcrillame contre le8 gar dam 1armcc.-No. 5537, E. M . de la 111 arm& du 1 octobre 1911. (B ) Tir)dr rofrliks de MinfnmerJcr a gur. (Indications meteorologiques.)-Groupe darmees &I h n c e heritirr de Bavime.--E. hf. (hnie.-No. 8315. du 31 anvier 1917. (C) Organisation du scruice mettorologique duJront.-No. 43311; dn Q. 0. de la 52. D. I., du 9 aout 1917. (D) Zmtruclion provisoire pour k scrcice mftrmologique du Jronl df la VIIe armbe, du 13 uillet 1917. ($1 PerJeclionnemen.4 de b precision des tirs dartilkrie.-0. Q. G . alIernand.-Mo. 60.336 op., Ludendorfl, ?3 pillet 1917.
(F Elude m r lutilwation ratfonnellt df8tQbl~lIjOefnQliCT8 de eorrcelions atfnoapherique8.- domwandement de 1artillerie.-No. G&3/17 1. du 5 septenibre 191i. (0 ) La guerre mondiak. (No. du I- decenibre 191i.)-Lc service mcteoro&gique dam larmfe allernand. ti) filkctkm de blblletins me&oro&glqaes.
2 Capital letters refer to documents listed in rootnote 1 fro111 shkh tWs inloriliation has been obtained.
10giGn.l service was necessary. The new organization of tshe moteorolo ical service of the army and of the
informaition ought to be cornniuiiicnted at least t ree
times daily, or more frequently if the need for it arises, cspccinlly t i t night, :rnd in case of a, sudden change. The reports contain:
1. Direction and speed of the wind in met.cis per second (if possilde t.0 a.n altitade of 2,000 metm).
3. Bnrometric pressure a t the slt,itude of the battery. 3. Temperature. (E.) Conforming to these instruct.ions, the art,illcry command
says, in its note of September 5, 1917: The meboro- logkd bullet,in is issued t.liree times daily. Each bul- let-in remains in force until the arrival of tlie nost (escept for precise firing, u-hen tlie mean tracctory of the pro- jectile is greater than 500 meters, nn A also for firing at
night; in this case, i t is necessary to have readings of bnronietric pressure and temperature immediately before firing). If in tlic meantime, changes in tlic direction of the wind nre noted, corrections are made Ly approxi-
mation. (F.) For the esecution of t.hese requirements, a special service was created in the division. A section, charged with the recording of atmosphel ic conditions (Tagesein- jluasfru~py), is created for the division. Between 6 a. m. and 6 11. m., every four hours, tlie Tugeseii@mtrii. p
air, and from these givcm values t,lie density of the air. Tlio surface wind speed is n o t d at tho stme 1iou1.s. Soundings me iiinde in the morning, tit noon, md at 6
p. ni. The result,s :ire t,elophoned to t.he various uuit,s.
f
artilleq snt,is a ed this necessity. Tho mrteorolo cal
tnkes trlie barometric pressure and the temperature of t e ie
872 MONTHLY WEATHEK. REVIEW. DECEMBER, 1919
In case of special operations, or upon request of the hat- teries, specid observations are made also a t night. (F.) Senvice*for surveillan,ce aga:i.nd gas.-In the Third Army the re orts on the current wind at the front are trans- mitte (P to the field meteorological station by:
1. The posts of aerial surveillance (Flieqem7artp.n) dis- tributed behind the lines and supplied wit,h wind vanes. 2. Posts for observing the wind (Wi.duwten),-a part of the arm corps--sit,uated a few kilometers in the rear of the &es, in places -chosen by the chief of the meteorological station. They are occupied by two men. The chief of the metcorologicnl station instructs the men on their work, and they are furnished the necessary instruments and other mnteria.ls necessary to fulfill their mission. These posts ordinwily take their observstion ab the regular hours, 6 n. m., 13 noon, and 8 p. m. and tele- phono the report to the chief of the meteorologica.1 station. In the meantime, they watch the direction of t.he wind, with attention to ossihle chm e. Especinlly
in which case the information is communicated without delay to the meteorological station. When the meteor- o1ogica.l station, basing its conclusions on proper obser- vations and upon the reports rendered by the ohserva- tion post, deems that a gas attack is possible by the enemy, it warns the intefested divisions. If there is a change in the ntinosphere indicntin diminution of danger of attack or complete cnnce la- tion of it, the divisions are so informed by the nieteor- 010 ical station. #he meteorologic.a.1 stntion is held responsible a t all times for reports on the wind and general atmospheric conditions. (A.)
Conditions favorable for the use of gns sh.ells.-For the rational use of as shells, particularly in harassing
necessary, as much for the companies of. Mmmwerfer as for the Binenwejer formation in the infantry. This
service WRS usefully attached for the meteorological observations for protection against gas.
In this manner, a t the Sixth Army, the field meteor- ological station wa.s formed for the companies of Minew wejer at the front and for units of Mzneie.lcrorfer in the infantry. This arrangement has given very satisfwtory results. (B.)
11.
do they watch for wind c.onfitious favorab 5 e to the enemy,
F a
&e, the creation o f a meteorological servic? seemed
ORGANIZATION OF THE METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE.
There exists in each nrmy a field meteorological station (Feldw~~erstation) which gives technical directions to the secondary posts at the front, and which provides instruction to the personnel of these posts. It seems, on account of the progress ahead realized, the new needs, and the organization Itlrea& effected, the ser- vice ought to be the object of uniform organization, for in his note of July 20, 1917, LudendorfT declared himself for a new organization of the met.eorologica1 service of the army. (E.) Also, on July 13, 1917, the commander of the Seventh Army wrote: The beginning of general meteorological instruction at the front, of value to every army in the field, can not again he accompanied by a set of recent restrictions, for the army can not foresee the recur- rence of the last amlication. (D.)
Perhaps one can phce the dato of the new organizu- tion between the 13th and the 20th of July, 1917. In every cnse it came in response t.o a pressing need, since the Seventh Arnry, since the 13tmh of July, 1917, esti- mates thnt the necessary met,eorological ndvice for the
o emtions with the use of gns, as well as for the snfety
o f the troops, necessitated R fised organization for met.eorologicn1 service at. the front, and, in the absence of a genernl instruction, prescribes thnt t.he following instructions be applied to the whole front of the Seventh Army :
The meteorologicd service n t the front is orgmized by divisions under the orders of the staff officer in charge ot gas or the division gcis officer for all which concerns the protection of our troops. Each division establishes a centml division post (Diz~i.sion.s-Sainm.t.l-yostfn: D. S. P.) composed of two noncommissioned officers ; it will establish beyond some line posts of observation (FeZ3- Wetter-posten.: F. W . P.). The D. S. P. and F. W. P. follow the division in its
movements.
.Feldwetterstation
D. S. P.
f L. w. P.
Schematic diagram of inetcorological organization of the Seventh German Arms.
Every two hours (at 0 hr., 3, 4, etc.) the F. W. P. reports the direction and speed of- the wind and trans-
mits these observations nt. 6 a. ni. nncl nt 4 p. m. by telephone to D. S. P. In special cases, more frequent reports will be issued to t,he D. S. P. upon the request of the st.nff officer in charge of gas or the division gas officer. The F. W. P. will conceiitrot,e their attention on all mnnifestations which mi ht ennlde the enemy to make
R gtw attnck. They wil k imniedintely inform the com- mlincter of the sector nnd will forward a message to the D. S. P. which will he sent to t8he division gas officer. The D. S. P. combines the observations of the F. W. P., verifies them, s n c l forwards them weekly to Meteoro- logical Station No. 1 (Fdd*wdterstntion of the Seventh Army). WiOh the aid of the reportmu rendered by the F. m. P. the D. S. P. can constnntlg keep their division gas officer informed n.s to the state of the wind for their sector. The D. P. P. will receive regularly the fore- casts of the met,eoroloeicnl stations of the front a.nd will tti.ke care to forwar8 ciuicklv t,hese reports to res ec-
imd t.0 give by t.hemselves an opinion concerning the weather. For that, they n.re required to ask the meteor- ological station No. 10 which will give them the desired
re ort. %he instruction of the D. S. P. will he given by the meteorological station. They will instruct in turn the F. W, P. ersonnel will he chosen from men
showing the require: aptitude: scientific and technical men. To complete the forecasting and giving of informa- tion on occasion of operations where gas is used, also
tive authorities of their D. I. [t ] They tire not aut E or-
The
DECEMBER, 1919. MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. 873
to complete the work of the meteorological station on the army front, each group will be posts for meteorological groupinf These posts will be organs of their sector under t e technical direction of the staff officer in charge of gas. They will follow the instructions of the mete- orological station on all technical questions coiicern- ing meteorology. They wll issue regularly to the D. S. P. all forecasts of the FeldwetterstuEion, and will serve as intermediaries in transmitting information regarding
storms and squalls. (D.)
111.
TECHNICAL REPORTS.
Reproduction of a meteorological bulletin :
BULLETIN OF THE METEUROI.OGICA1. OBSERVATORY 0 F CKB t'\-.
Date: 8/9/17.
Pressure (sea level): 1S9 mm. 1 Temperature: 13' C. Humidity: 9W0 Visibility: Ordinary.
Time: 7 a. m.
FORECAST
X 8. in. to R p. m.
1st. Partly cloudy; sky orensionally 1,m (.31111.
clear: generally dry. 4 1,500 Yse.' s 2 2.uoo ssc. i i
md. Gentle SE. winds. 12'
3rd. Atmosphericconditions not la\-or-
ahle lor us to use gas shells. .... .I ..
b. Tw-m.8niission b!/ tei!cpho?ar qf obsqrintions ?f p t .9
u.t the front.-Tlie post,s a t t,lin front. giro t,he direction of the wind in IIj conipass points and it.s speed in niet,ers per second. The tabultition and the telephoned mes- sages are constructed with t,he aid of the formula WWS, b;v replacing WW with two figures indicating the wind dwection, and S .with the number of inet.ers per second
which have been observed. In case of a threat,ening squall, t.he word s iiriZZ is
added nest to the mean speed of the wind, and, i 1 possi- ble, the estimated chunge of wind direction. If the speed of the wind exceeds t.he indic.at.ing possihili ties of the anemomet.er, t,he S is replacc?d by S.
Hour. .\ bhrPriations.
4 a. m ...................................................... 4 .v .
12 nooii ..................................................... 12 n b .
G p. m .. .................................................. 6 n.
12 mdn ..................................................... 12 11.
Example :
Wiservation as inadc. Mrsmge 3- writ.
p;
SSE. wind, 6 metew per sewncl.. ......................... NW. wind, 3 meters per seroiid ............................ 283
('alm _ .................................................... 000 (D.)
c. Mo,terirrl.-The stations nre provided with all the instruments and accessories used in meteorology. As esamples one can note that, t>hey possessed an nutomatir rain gage, a cineniograph, and a sunshine recorder.
The pilot ballooiis are of red paper and are provided with a rubber nppeiidis. The observtitioii stations are
mounted 011 towers and have glass windows, oriented in all directions, permitting in case of had wather, t,he continuation of observations. (G.) d. dft?teorologiati! indimtion8 -for the m e nf gus slwll~.- .The chief of the field meteorological station of tho Sixth Army gives a very precise and detailed report, on t,ha meteorological conditions, topographical influence, tlir observation of wind in the trenches, and 011 t,he forr-
casting of wind for the usr of gas shells.
Xort,li wind, 3 meters per second. ......................... 14 S
182722-204
ARMY GROUP
of
CROWN PRINCE OF BAVARIA.
GENERAL STAFF.
Anwx to No. 8315
Field Meteorological Station 6 A. 0. K. G.
MRTEC)ROTAOGICAL CONDITIONS FOR ITSE OF WHELT,S "D. "
I. CONDITIONS OF WEATHER.
While, originating from cylinders, tlie quantities of
as are nearly unlimited for n short time and are carried f y the wind aa mainst the enemy, gas shells and gas niines carry against the enemy limited uantities of liquefied gas which evaporates slowly. Tlerefore, the maximum effect of gas shells will be felt in a complete calm, more in a vertical sense than in a. horizontal, or when there is only a gentle wind blowing toward the enemy. The upper limit of the speed of the wind in t,liis case is in the neighborhood of 1.5 meters per second. The cdniness of the air increases generally during the night; t.lierefm-e t.lie early hours of t.he niorning are most fnvoralde for thc use of gas shells. The early hours of the night present,, among otheix, a dificiil ty which inrit.cs, in every case the grentest. rare; cywcially after sunset, the t.enipelat,ures H t, t.he surf:fnce, clue .to unec ual x])sori)t.ion nnc~ radiation over varying trrrtwi, tend to equalize thenisel~es. The lower layers of t,hc atmosphere are iit, thttt, niomciit. agitated hy. continual nncl irregular conrectioii, wliich rrnd~rs qiiitc pnssible a t.urbulent stmate of sir. In rainy \veiitht!r, O J ~C rm not iiw, bcctxuse the rain
bents down t,he pis ~gniiist the grniind. Tn foggy weather
~:R S shells ran he iised in rortain casos but. the density of t.he air must, I)(? t.nken into nc.couiit,. Thc not.es 011 the influence of teniperitture are t,o be founcl in "Tnst.ruct.ions on rnunit.ions 'n.' "
It- is iuttlrest,ing t.0 know in what measure tlie condi- t,ioiis of wind we fitvomble for the usc of gas.
C'ontrary to the conditions for firing gas shells, the gas, in t,he case of firing mines, is more dangerous for our own trenches : for the use of gtis mines, t8he nights are chosen when the air is not coniplet.elp calm, in order to avoid a
mry gent,le wind hlowino the gas hack. It is necessary
60 have n ment.le wind hyowing against t-he enemy: also the possihifities of firing are more liniit,ed than wth gas, shells. On the wholn, in ceiibriil Europe, west,erly winds are the most frequent. If we nrrange tho winds in order of frec uence, beeinning with t,he most rare, we ohtain
The coefficients of relative frequence change a little at. each place due to it8 relation to the ocean; hut the series remains nearly Bhe same. I t follows thnt, in a trench which faces the NW., tho
gas mines can he fired more rarely than in a trench fac- ing the NE. The obhcr directions nnturally vary he- tween. For firing the gas, it is not, always necessary that the wind alwap blow absolutely against the enemy per en- dicular to our trenches; a variation as great RS 60" P roin the normal is permissible. Theoretically one can admit a scope of lSOo, inasmuch
as, in this limiting case, the gas carried into the trenches of the enemy will follow the length of the enemy trenches: but., since t,he wind varies somewhat every day, it is rocommended to praserve an angle of safety of 30'.
tlie fol I owing series: SE., S., E., NE., N.. NW., W., SW.
874 MONTHLY WEA .THER REVIEW. DECEMBER, 1919
11. INFLUENCE OF THE TERRAIN.
One can admit in principle that all the terrain which accentuates the calm imreases the effect of the gas. Therefore, high stiff grass,. brush, etc., retards the move- ment of the air, although it is possible to fire on this ter- rain with gas shells as well as when the wind is about 2
meters per second on uncovered land. heavier than tlie air, a terrain which
flat surface, a flat surface is better than a rising one, where one is not assurecl against a reflux escept with R
wind of more than 1 meter per second.
The gas bein slopes toward t! % e enemy is better to fise upon than a
111. THE OBSERVATION OF TEE WIND.
a. In. f7i.c iren.ch.os.-To determine the direction of the wind, the ordinary wind vane may be used, but if this is not available it is sufficient bo attach a sbri of cloth to the top of a stick. The direction wlicli snioie passes above the trenches is also a ood indicator. One obtains the best result,s in liftina t. B e vane above the t,rench, for in the trench ancl in ?lie immediate vicinity the local air cuimxits can have a direction different from that of the general movement of the air. The trenches afford a
system of depressions which have their owii peculiar circulation of air; thus, i t is between 0.5 met,er and 1
nieter above tho parnpet that the normal wind is found. Analogous remarks may ap ly to tlie determination of the speed of the wind: tlie x est sesult,s are obtained with the aid of a Fuess anemometer, universally in use
in t,he field met,ec>rologicnl stations. It seems that the c.ompanies of Minenwerjk measure the speed of the wind regularly each evening and each
morning, whether or not they intend to use gas. I n part tlie conipanies are able to know the wind in their sector. At any ratme, if the enemy knows that the measure of the s eed of the wind is a regular practice,
practice cnll also be well used by us for protection against gas. Two other services are interested in the observation of the speed of the wind: First, the c.ompany of 116.ineia- uwr$er enga ed in the prot.ection against gas, which also
using untrained foot, soldieis, the divisions will have the advantage of tusning to account the organization of the pioneers. It follows that during a gas attack the observation of wind speed should be continual1 made. The obserm- tion of the wind direction shoul 2 be continuous; for the speed of the wind, ordinarily it is sufficient every half hour. b. Behind the Zincs.-It is recommended to start a
smoky fire a t a place well chosen in the rear, for example, a t the headcuarters of the army corps. A line can be
traced parall!el to the first-line tremhes, and the smoke observed with res ect to this line. It is possible to de- duce from this o % servation not only the direction and speed of the wind but also its nature. If the smoke
trails tranquilly a t the surface of the earth, it is advan- tageous to fire; if, on the contrary, the wind stirs up the smoke, a gas attack will not give the required result. It is advmd to check the direction of the wind obtained from that observation. The best means of doing this
is to observe the direction from which sounds seem nearer. This will show the continuous nature of the wind. If the
direction indicated by the direction of sound is identical with that observed, one can conclucle that the curnr e is homogeneous.
his attenbion wi P 1 not be aroused, escept that that
has need o F good observers at the front. In place of -
IV. FORECASTING THE WIND.
The forecasting of wind, in tlie case where a meteor- ologist can not be found aniong the pioneers, is demanded
of the field meteorolo cal station of the A. 0. K. I n
The meteorolo ical station gives each day, between 6 and 8 p. m., a krecast of the weather good for the fol- lowing night to E. M. of C. A., and to independent divisions. The E. M. transmit to the front these com- munications in the interest of protection against gas. Later, one adds to tlie test a supplementary mention of the possibility of firing gas mnes, indicated D. The front of tlie Sisth Army can be divided into elementa of like orientation: a, b, c, etc., in which each one is designat.ed a wind with relation to its orientation for use of gas shells. If the meteorological station antici- pates an east wind, the supplement will therefore con- clude :
I)irertion of the wind good for Dn, good with reser- vations for Oil aiid De. The wind is snit1 to be igood with reservations for the sectors tl ancl e 1)ecnuse one c:oultl not use gas mines in this sector with oucilla~tiona of wind esceeding 15.
This test, conforming t o cIecision 11, No. 34.383, op.
of Septcniber 13, 101F, of tlie chief of the general staff of the field armies, is intentled for combat units. It should he cminiiitiimtetl, with necessary ordeis, to companies of Min.eiiweifer. When it direct esplanmtion is necessary between the trcriclies ant1 the field mctenrologicttl station it is better not t n use the conventional terms to designate the c-Iirei:tion of the wind, etr?., but to speak of wind in clear
Inngiinge, concerning que-tions of protection against gas.
Esaniple: -4 position, situated facing the west, receives
from the stntion the following report :
Sou do not need to fear a gas attack to-day, for we can count on a gentle east wind; on the cont.rary, it will be possible that durin the morning the enemy may make B gags attack, for 8 complete cafm is forecmt for that time. ThB applies especially to the places where tlie dope rkes toward the enemy.
It is preferable, when a gns athick is contem latetl,
this connection the fol ff owing method is recommended:
that a meteorological c.onsul tntion will be niade i y the internictlinry of the commander of the pioneer units.
(Signed) v SCKMAUSS.
7th Ahmy, Getierd St:d. No. 14.553. Gerieral Headquarters 61211 7.
To be c.ommunitut.ed to all the groups, all troops in the rear, and the tmining wliimls.
For the Commanding Officer:
v BORRIES, Ahjor Gc.n.era1, c.l,ief of Ma#.
SQUALL WARNINGS.
[.2bstmi.t of I..\vortiusemcnt des Grains. Bulleth de la M6throlcgie a m Arm+ Opt. 15, 1918, Pp. 1-12.]
Squalls, which have proved so dangerous to aviation antl destructive in general, through the suddenness of their appearance and the violence of their passage, are characterized by a considerable sudden variation in wind direction. sometime3 the appearance of hail, or thunder antl lightning, sucltlen increase of barometric pressure and humidity, and a rapid drop in temperature. There
are abundant instances in which aviators, surprised by
DECEMBER, 1919. MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. 875
the suddenness of the squall, have been lost. Three
zones in the life of a squall can be discerned; first, th2it
in which the squall begin*, a i d where it is impossihle to
give warning; second, that in which the squall rearhe-;
its maximum effectiveness, for which waniinp we inilis-
pensable; and third , tlirit in wliich the squall is Ilecreasiiig,
in which warnings are unnecwsttry. The military sclllnll-
warning service of the French kniy wa3 estrtl-,lislied to
coinhat the seronit stage, in which the phenomenon is
most dangerous. To determine the existence of sclrialll;
and their characteristics, to e-tiniate their forw and the
c-langer they present. and to clissemiiinte the information
to those interested, were the functions of three distiurt divisions in the warning service: The first by the o l w r - vation posts (postps ~'o~8ei'i'rI.t,~,0n,), the seroncl 1)y tlle
central office where the repor+ werc rweiw!l, t t ~i i l tlir third by the sersrit~ de tlifwron. The wnrning service
was very eficient and wzis usudly able to warn aik-servir*e units threefourths of an hour before the iirrivd of the
squall: it is estimated tliat wch warning.+ wwe given i n
85 per cent of the squall.;.---(-'. 2;. .If.
FORECASTINQ LINE SQUALLS IN WEST AFRICA.
By R. HUBERT.
Cornptes Rendus, 168, har. I#, 1919, pp. 66i-570.J [Abstract reprinted from Science Abtlraefa July 1919, pp. 312-313. Origllurl article in
From observation.< made in Senegal in winter it can he shown that line squalls, similar to those ex erieiicetl in northwest Euriipe, oocitr in tliat rcgion aEo. lie mean direction of propagtition is, however, from east to
we;t, instecltl of from wed to elt<t, which is tlie mean (1irec.t.ion of propagation of tlie line q i t sll~; of our lntitutles. The memi relori tp of proptqation is 60 1eilometei-s per hour, the extremes being 44 illiil 72 kilometeis per hour. ' h e tlirertion of the line long whivli the c-liaturhance is found nt any time is getier;dly north-south. The length
of the line may exceed 100 kilonietCri, :i.ntl tlic passage
nf A squall has haen trwcd for huntlre~l~ of kilometers Xotiiiiig is raid :is to (:Iitinge< of wiiitl an11 weather ~~lcc~om~~anyiug tlicse line squall.;. Furtht!r chervations
;we neatled in (li+tprivts adjarelit t i ) Senegal in order to inve..;tigiite tlicie squalls mort! precisely, hut dready siifFicii+nt stoations s s i a t in Senegd tri permit of a. wiirning - c-if the approac,h of the scluall to hn iwierl n fern liours (up to sis or eight) in a.dvance of the event. --R. C'.
NOTES, ABSTRACTS, AND REVIEWS.
PROGRESS OF METEOROLOQY.
Ry W. H. DINES.
[Extrwts from Nnfrrrr. Ynv. C,. l!W. pp. 2!7-24%]
"The progress of meteorology cluring the lnst 51) yenix
has been very marked. RS may be seen by n casunl refer-
ence to the current meterologicitl literature of tlic periotl lS65-1875; to a great estent, i t resembles the emergence of nstronomy as an exact science from the oltl astrology, hut it must be confessed t1in.t the Kewton nf metseordoc,r?-
l i m not yet np eared.
of his time in a w i n hunt for weather sequences, ani1 t.lii3 principle of post h.or p ~p t t ~r hoc llelrl full swnv: thc 1:i;b-S
of motion and thc 11i0r~ i-ecwitly iliscovere(1 hws of
thermodynamics were i i i Inoat. CRRW complet,ely igtii)rrtl. or a t leltst considered its not heing ilppliciihlo t.o nicctcwr- ology. This has heen largely clirtiigec-l for tlic hct t,er, tind one does not now espcct to find a rold m e a esplainerl as being due to the c'lc.scent of air in nn aiiticlycoiic from
8 higher and colder region. Pcrlinps tlie peiiclulum hns swung too fsr the other way, ~i i t l niatheniaticril nndysis may sometimes be used when i t is not applicttble. On the assumption tshat air is IL d e c t fluid, it follows from
to a steady current of wind will oHer 110 resist,nrice t.0 _. that wind, n result obviously iiiconsistent wit.h the fac,ts. i'he assum tion metle cim not he justified, aut1 one can
making assumptions if the result of B comples mnthe- matical investigation into ix nieteorologicitl c uestion is to
useful and often inilispensable a.id to meteorology, tmd of late years especially, although far from esclusively, by their means many useful cletlurtioiis have hem drawn. ' '
The remainder of the paper discusses recent ndvances in the study of cyclones and anticyclones, being essen- 'tially a suminary of the niatsrial presented by the ai.u-
"1Tiftyyeili.s E ack thestudent of meteoiwlogyspent much
a strictly mathen:atictil an~i P p i s thiit, tt sphere exposed
not help P eeling that great caution should he used in
be trustworthy. Mathematics, however, n k ord a most
THE AMERl CAN METEOROLO(iICA1. SOCl ETY.
" The orgi~iiiz:tbiori t!ie 9tiic:rir.an Met,eorolngicnl Society on December 29, 19!!), in St. Louis, Mi). * * * marks the hc.ginning of it morctment not only to push foi.\n.:u~l investigntions of me:ither processes and cliniatic conditions. hut rilso t,r> wiilen thc. ~:a!ii:ihle applirntiim of the hio;~-Iwlgc alremly :i.t hii.ti(l. The great ~s c of
nietpcirolopr i;i w:irf:ire l i :~ siiown t,h,it tlicre :ire I:?rge
possihilitiw of c ~~t ~i ~i l i i i g i t ruucmli mnre t.lioroughly into dninst. txx-tyy liiici of hiim:?ii C I ~:.~P ~Y O T ."~ Signifiraint. of a
recc.igtiition of this is the tiwt. that nriirly luilf of t,ho resent
frssIoii:i~l mct,corologist,s, or i iitcrrstetl merely ns amateurs. Thc objects of t.lir scwic.t>y iis stat.etl in tlic constit,ution iwr : *' The zidrmicwnent niid tliffusiori of knowledge 0.f
niet~rorology, inchlucling c.linint.cilngy: a:id the develop-
ment of its application to puhlic Iicnlt,lt. n.gricwlt.ure, engi-
11 eeri ng,. trnr is por t,n t.ion b ~- I ntitl :I I i I 1 in1 ail d wit t,en\-ti.gs,
nti.vigation of t>he air alii1 ocmins, and other fornis of iriilustry ant1 coniniwc'e." To ciirry out, these cib,ject,s
1 1 committees haw been formed: 4 to hrtve in hanil t,he .rdvnncenient :iiid diffusion of knowlcrlge of nieteorolo.qv, iintl 7 to hai.re charge of the tlerelopm~~t~ of t,he numerous 111) Acations of meteorology to Iiumnn n.ff n.irs.
b t,otd of 29 pitpers \\rcre presented nt t,hree. sessioni; !If
the society in St. Louis, Deceniher 30 and 31,1919, and 111
two sessions n t II co0rdintLt.e meeting in New York City January 3. Joint, sessioiis were held with tho Americwi Physical Society and with the Associtition of American
Teachers. In this issue of the REVIEW
mcnihersliip of n ~n .r l ~ 600 is roiti >oscrl of ~wple w P io 1-intl
use for niet.erlrtilogy in t.~ipir v-oii, pct u- 1' io :we not pro-
(ieographeiu and National Council
lishecl five ljf these papers iii full, est,ensive excerpt.s
11 Excerpt from the Billletin of the Am. Meteorologicst Society. Jon., 1921, vnl. 1.