U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Bureau of Justice Statistics
                                                           
Special Report

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Civil Rights Complaints in U.S. District Courts, 1990-2006

August  2008,  NCJ 222989
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This file is text only without graphics and many of the
tables. A Zip archive of the tables in this report in
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http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/crcusdc06.htm

This report is one in a series. More recent editions may be available.  
To view a list of all in the series go to the publications 
page at:  http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pubalp2.htm#crcusdc

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Tracey Kyckelhahn and Thomas H. Cohen, Ph.D.
BJS Statisticians
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After the expansion of civil rights laws in the early 1990s,
the number of civil rights cases filed in U.S. district
courts increased from 18,922 in 1990 to 43,278 in 1997. Civil
rights filings stabilized in the late 1990s and early 2000s
and subsequently declined. From 2003 through 2006, civil
rights filings in federal district courts decreased by almost
20%. During this period of growth and stabilization in civil
rights litigation, the percent of civil rights claims
concluded by trial declined from 8% in 1990 to 3% in 2006. 

Other major findings in this report include--

*Civil rights cases in U.S. district courts declined from a
high of 17% of all federal civil cases in 1998 to 13% in
2006.

*From 1990 through 2006, about 9 out of 10 civil rights 
filings involved disputes between private parties. 
Jury trials became more common than bench trials during the
17-year period covered in this report (figure 1).

*The percent of plaintiffs who won at trial between 1990 and
2006 remained steady at about a third.

*From 2000 through 2006, the median damage award for
plaintiffs who won in civil rights trials ranged from
$114,000 to $154,500.

*The combined 2000 through 2006 median jury award was
$146,125; the median bench award was $71,500.

This report addresses trends in civil rights litigation in
federal district courts and the outcomes of civil rights
disputes. Information is presented on civil rights complaints
filed and terminated in U.S. district courts concerning
employment, housing and accommodations, welfare, voting
rights, and other types of discrimination. The report also
focuses on civil rights cases concluded by trial and examines
who wins in civil rights trials and the damages awarded to
plaintiff winners. 

A civil rights claim arises when an individual or group
asserts they have been discriminated against on the 
basis of their race, sex, religion, age, physical limitation,
or previous condition of servitude. Most litigants in civil
rights disputes are required to seek administrative remedies
involving federal agencies such as the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC), in the case of employment
discrimination, or the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD), in the case of housing discrimination.
Litigants not satisfied with these administrative outcomes
can file a civil rights lawsuit in the federal courts to seek
monetary or injunctive relief. 

This study does not cover civil rights grievances filed,
investigated, and resolved through administrative channels
and agencies that enforce various federal civil rights
discrimination laws such as the EEOC or HUD. This report also
does not examine civil rights litigation in state courts.
Because of limited data this study does not report the number
of cases filed or terminated under specific titles and
sections of the U.S. code. (See Methodology).

Civil rights laws underwent a major expansion during the
early 1990s

Civil rights laws underwent a major expansion during the
early 1990s with the passage of the Americans for
Disabilities Act of 1990 and the Civil Rights Act of 1991.
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 amended several federal
employment discrimination laws including Title VII of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1871, the
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1973, the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990. It also made available compensatory
and punitive damages in certain discrimination claims,
permitted jury trials for plaintiffs seeking monetary
damages, and overturned several U.S. Supreme Court decisions,
effectively broadening the scope of employment practices
considered discriminatory.***Wards Cove Packing Co. v.
Atonio, 109 S. Ct. 2115 (1989); Patterson v. McLean Credit
Union, 109 S. Ct. 2363 (1989); Martin v. Wilks, 109 S. Ct.
2180 (1989); Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 109 S. Ct. 1775
(1989); Lorance v. At&T Technologies, 109 S. Ct. 2261 (1989);
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Aramco, 111 S. Ct.
1227 (1991); West Virginia University Hospitals v. Casey, 111
S. Ct. 1138 (1991)***.

Civil rights cases represent declining proportion of federal
civil caseloads

Throughout the 1990s, civil rights claims accounted for an
increasing proportion of federal civil caseloads in U.S.
district courts. As a percent of all federal civil filings,
civil rights filings increased from 9% in 1990 to nearly 17%
in 1998 (figure 2). Civil rights filings stabilized at about
16% of federal civil caseloads from 1999 through 2003 and
subsequently declined. By 2006, 13% of federal civil cases
involved civil rights issues. 

Employment discrimination accounted for about half of all
civil rights filings in U.S. district courts from 1990 to
2006

Employment discrimination

Civil rights in an employment setting are violated when
employers discriminate with regard to hiring, promotion or
discharge practices, compensation, conditions and privileges
of employment, or denial of employment opportunities (42 USC.
2000E-2; 29 USC .. 621-634).

Throughout the 17-year period covered by this report,
employment discrimination accounted for about half of all
civil rights filings in U.S. district courts (figure 3).
Civil rights cases involving employment discrimination
demonstrated the same trend as overall civil rights filings
with substantial increases in the 1990s. In 1990, 8,413 cases
were filed with the number peaking at 23,796 in 1997.
Employment discrimination filings stabilized between 1997 and
2004, and declined to 14,353 in 2006.

Housing and accommodations

Pursuant to the Fair Housing Act of 1972 and amendments in
1988, discrimination is prohibited in the rental or lease of
apartments, the sale of housing, and the financing of housing
because of an individual's race, color, religion, sex,
national origin, disability, or families with children.
Complaints may also include discrimination in public
accommodations such as restaurants or hotels (42 USC ..
3601-3619; 15 USC . 1691).

Housing and accommodation civil rights claims represented 2%
of all civil rights filings in 2006. These cases 
followed the same general trend as employment discrimination
cases. There were 341 housing and accommodations related
filings in 1990, a high of 1,315 filings in 2003, and a
decline to 643 filings in 2006 (figure 4).
 
Welfare and voting

A person's civil rights regarding welfare issues are violated
when social security entitlements are denied based on an
individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. 
Violations of a person's civil rights related to welfare
issues also include the denial of benefit income (e.g.,
annuity, pension, retirement, or disability benefit including
veterans' compensation), the denial of rehabilitation and
other services for families with dependent children, and the
denial of benefits for individuals who are elderly, blind, or
disabled, or whose income and resources are insufficient to
meet the costs of necessary medical services.

Voting rights are violated when redistricting plans or
election methods prevent minority voters from electing
candidates of their choice. Situations related to voting
rights violations include preventing voters from casting
their ballots by denying them assistance or preventing voters
from receiving assistance from a person of their choice.
Failure to provide voting information and assistance in the
language used by a substantial number of voters in a
jurisdiction or failure to provide access to polling places
for handicapped or elderly individuals are also situations
related to voting rights violations (42 USC .. 1973-1973e).

Civil rights cases involving welfare and voting issues did
not follow the same general trend as housing and employment
discrimination cases. Lawsuits involving welfare
discrimination steadily declined from 129 to 56 cases between
1990 and 2006. In comparison, complaints alleging violations
of voting rights peaked in 1992 and rose again in 2002. The
increase in voting rights cases for these specific years was
most likely the result of redistricting challenges following
the 1990 and 2000 censuses. By 2006, the number of voting
rights lawsuits had declined to about 150 cases.

Other civil rights complaints

Available data on the statutory provisions litigated suggest
that filings in the other civil rights complaints category
dealt with diverse issues such as the civil rights of
handicapped children, education of children and adults with
disabilities, as well as vocational disabilities and
rehabilitation discrimination.

Civil rights filings that were either unidentifiable or were
in a category other than housing and accommodations, welfare,
voting, and employment comprised about the same percentage of
filings as those in the employment discrimination category.
In 1990, 9,909 civil rights complaints listed as "other civil
rights" were filed in U.S. district courts. From the
mid-1990s through 2006, "other" filings remained constant at
about 18,000 per year.

Most civil rights complaints involved private parties

From 1990 to 2006, around 9 in 10 civil rights filings
involved disputes between private parties (table 1). The
majority of private cases involved questions over
interpretation and application of the U.S. Constitution, acts
of Congress, or treaties ("federal question" jurisdiction)
from parties in the same state.

"Diversity of citizenship" cases, which consisted of private
parties from different states or parties of a state and
citizens, corporations, or subjects of a foreign country,
were a small percentage (under four percent) of private civil
rights lawsuits filed during this period. 

Number of private civil rights lawsuits declined between 2004
and 2006

The number of civil rights lawsuits filed in U.S. district
courts increased from 16,310 in 1990 to a peak of 40,361 in
1997 (not shown in table). Between 2004 and 2006 the number
of filings declined 19%, from 37,374 to 30,405 (table 2). All
categories of civil rights filings exhibited a decline over
this two-year period.

U.S. government more likely to be a defendant than a
plaintiff

U.S. district courts exercise jurisdiction in civil actions
that are either initiated by the U.S. government (U.S.
plaintiff), or are brought against the U.S. government (U.S.
defendant) for alleged civil rights violations. (28 USC .
1345; 28 USC . 1346).

Of the approximately 10% of civil rights filings that
involved the U.S. government, cases in which the government
was the defendant accounted for around 70% to 80% of civil
rights filings from 1990 to 2006 (table 3). In 2006, 1,961
civil rights complaints were filed against the U.S.
government, representing a 17% decline in the number of
filings since 2000. As with overall case filings, about an
equal percentage of employment discrimination and "other"
cases involving civil rights violations were filed from 1990
to 2006, representing the majority of cases overall. 

In comparison to filings involving two private parties or the
U.S. government as the defendant, complaints filed by the
U.S. government as the plaintiff did not show a clear trend
between 1990 and 2006. Filings ranged from a high of 816 in
1991 to a low of 486 in 1996 (not shown in table). Since
2000, the number of civil rights cases filed by the U.S. 
government has declined by 21%. Cases in the "other" category
accounted for a much smaller percentage of cases filed by the
U.S. government, compared to private party and U.S. as
defendant filings.

Percent of civil rights cases concluded by trial declined
from 8% in 1990 to 3% in 2006

Of the 17,985 civil rights complaints disposed in 1990, 8%
were terminated by trial, while in 2006, 3% of the 33,108
civil rights claims concluded in federal courts ended in a
trial (table 4). Other cases concluded by a judgment remained
steady during this period at about a quarter of terminations.
This category of terminations included judgment by defaults,
consent, motions before trial, and judgments through formal
arbitration procedures adopted by the court.

The percentage of civil rights cases dismissed from U.S.
district courts increased from 66% in 1990 to 75% in 2003,
and decreased slightly to 72% in 2006. Civil rights
dismissals followed the same trend as out of court
settlements and voluntary dismissals. Out of court
settlements rose from 31% to 39% of all civil rights
dispositions between 1990 and 2003. Voluntary dismissals
increased from 8% to 13% of all civil rights dispositions
between 1990 to 2003. Since 2003, both the settlement and
voluntary disposition categories have declined slightly.
Settlements accounted for 37% and voluntary dismissals
accounted for 11% of civil rights dispositions by 2006.

The proportion of civil rights dismissals which occurred due
to lack of jurisdiction declined from 8% in 1990 to 2% in
2006. From 1990 to 2006, civil rights cases dismissed because
of want of prosecution remained at about 4%.

In 1990, welfare civil rights cases (3%) were the least
likely to go to trial while employment discrimination cases
(9%) were the most likely to reach trial (table 5). In 2006
the percent of civil rights cases ending in trial exhibited a
smaller range across all categories, varying between two and
three percent.   

Jury trials increased as a percent of all trials

A jury trial is held before a jury a selected body of persons
sworn to give their verdict according to the evidence and
presided over by a judge. A bench trial is held in the
absence of a jury and decided by a judge.

Jury and bench trials each accounted for about half of all
civil rights trials concluded in federal district courts in
1990 (figure 1). By 2006, jury trials accounted for 87% of
civil rights trials. The growth of jury trials can be
partially attributed to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of
1991, which allowed jury trials when a plaintiff sought
punitive or compensatory damages in employment discrimination
cases. 

The percentage of employment discrimination trials involving
a jury increased from 40% in 1990 to 86% in 2006 (not shown
in a table). The percentage of other civil rights cases
disposed of by jury trial increased from 66% in 1990 to 86%
in 2006.

On average, plaintiffs won a third of civil rights cases from
1990 to 2006; median damage awards ranged from $114,000 to
$154,500

While the percent of civil rights cases terminated by trial
declined, about a third of plaintiffs won their case at trial
from 1990 to 2006 (table 6). The percent of plaintiff winners
who received monetary damages declined from 83% in 1990 to
79% in 2006. 

The estimated median damages awarded to plaintiffs showed no
discernible pattern during the period covered by this report.
Since 1990 the median damage awards have ranged from $114,000
in 2001 to $154,500 in 2005. In 2006 the median damages
awarded to plaintiffs prevailing in civil rights trials was
$150,000. 

Civil rights complaints brought under Title VII of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 or the Americans with Disabilities Act of
1990 typically involve a compensatory award for economic
damages. Damages may include losses associated with back pay,
interest on back pay, lost benefits, attorney fees, some
litigation costs, or other financial losses that the court
deems appropriate as a result of the defendant's conduct.

The Civil Rights Act of 1991 extended the type of damages
that could be sought by plaintiffs by allowing claims for
non- economic compensatory damages and punitive damages.
Non-economic compensatory damages reimburse the plaintiff for
losses such as emotional pain, suffering, inconvenience,
mental anguish, future monetary losses, as well as loss of
enjoyment of life. Punitive damages are intended to punish a
defendant who acted with recklessness, malice, or deceit, and
can be awarded in addition to compensatory damages.

The Civil Rights Act of 1991 placed a cap on the total amount
of compensatory and punitive damages that can be awarded,
based on the size of the employer. The cap on awards does not
apply to complaints of ethnic or racial discrimination.

Award amounts include both compensatory and punitive damages.
For this report, the types of award amounts 
cannot be distinguished in the data. Monetary information
presented in this report is for civil rights cases in which
damages were awarded. Excluded from this analysis were civil
rights complaints in which only court costs and/or attorneys
fees were awarded.

Jury awards higher than bench awards

A comparison of civil rights bench and jury trials
necessitated combining trial data for the years 2000 through
2006 because of the limited number of bench trials concluded
during this time period. The rate in which plaintiffs
prevailed at trial did not differ appreciably between jury
and bench trials. Plaintiffs won in about a third of trials
litigated before either a jury or judge (table 7). Bench
trials awarded monetary damages to 59% of plaintiff winners
and jury trials awarded monetary damages to 81% of plaintiff
winners from 2000 to 2006. 

Cases disposed of by jury trial had a median award of
$146,125. In comparison, cases disposed of by bench trial had
a median award of $71,500. The 25th percentile for jury
trials was $39,925 and the 75th percentile was $380,188. For
bench trials, the 25th percentile was $17,880 and the 75th
percentile was $292,500 (percentile data not shown in table). 

Employment discrimination plaintiff winners more likely to
receive a monetary award

In all civil rights trials concluded between 2000 and 2006,
employment discrimination plaintiff winners (81%) were most
likely to receive a monetary award, followed by housing cases
(74%), and other civil rights cases (72%). 

Employment discrimination cases received a median award of
$158,460 for cases concluded by trial between 2000 and 2006.
The 25th percentile for employment discrimination cases was
$52,065 and the 75th percentile was $374,265 (percentile data
not shown in table). The median damage award for civil rights
trials in the "other civil rights" category was $100,000. For
other civil rights cases, the 25th percentile was $21,400 and
the 75th percentile was $351,000. 

Case processing time constant between 1990 and 2006

The median number of months from filing to disposition for
civil rights cases terminated in federal district courts
varied slightly between 9 and 11 months from 1990 to 2006
(table 8). Employment discrimination cases generally had the
longest median case processing time, varying between 11 and
13 months (not shown in table).

Prisoner petitions in state and federal courts, 1990-2006

Various legislation and U.S. Supreme Court cases have allowed
state and federal inmates to sue for violations of certain
constitutional rights.
     
*In 1941, prisoners were permitted to file claims against
state officials for violations of constitutional rights,
including the right to religious freedom, freedom of speech
and association, due process, racial discrimination, and
cruel and unusual punishment. (Ex parte Hull, 312 U.S. 546
(1941))

*The U.S. Supreme Court granted inmates the right to bring
lawsuits against federal officials who violate their
constitutional rights in 1963. (United States v. Muniz, 
374 U.S. 150 (1963))

From 1990 to 1996, prisoner petitions by federal inmates
varied from about 900 to 1,200, with a high of 1,219 in 1996.
Petitions from state inmates increased from 24,843 to 39,996.
Total filings showed a steady increase from 25,992 in 1990 to
41,215 in 1996.

Following the passage of the Prison Litigation Reform Act of
1996, which restricted the rights of inmates to sue in
federal court, complaints filed by federal (20%) and state
(31%) inmates declined in 1997.

From 1999 to 2006, the number of civil rights prison
petitions filed in U.S. district courts stabilized at about
24,500 cases filed on average per year. Prison petitions
involving state inmates declined by 7% from 24,732 filings in
1999 to 23,122 filings in 2006. In comparison, federal inmate
prison petitions increased from 962 filings in 1999 to 1,334
filings in 2004 and declined to 1,116 filings by 2006.

Methodology

The primary source of data presented in this report is the
Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts (AOUSC) Civil Master
File. Data tabulations were prepared from the BJS staff
analysis of source agency data sets. The federal civil rights
categories used in this report were based on the codes
established by the Administrative Office of the United States
Courts. Case level information was provided by individual
U.S. district courts that submitted data to the AOUSC. No
detailed information was available on civil rights cases
coded as "other". For civil rights cases that involved filing
more than one action, the AOUSC instructed the plaintiff's
attorney to select the most definitive code if the cause fit
more than one nature of the lawsuit. It was the first nature
of suit code that was used in the analysis for this report.

For civil rights complaints where more than one basis of
jurisdiction applied, the case was coded according to the
highest priority jurisdiction. Cases in which the U.S.
government as plaintiff have the highest priority, followed
by the U.S. government as defendant, and federal questions.

Calculations pertaining to trial winners and their award
amounts were based on cases in which the winner and award
amount were known and did not include instances where both
parties won the case in part. Differences between known
amounts and unknown amounts were not quantifiable. 

The percent of cases concluded by jury trial, bench trial,
and directed verdict was calculated using the disposition
variable available in the AOUSC data (per the recommendation
of the AOUSC). Because a previous BJS report used the
procedural progress variable, the percents and number of
cases may vary slightly between reports.

Although the courts record the title and section of the U.S.
code for each case, this data field is not required by the
AOUSC Statistics Division. It is not recommended for 
statistical analysis. For a more detailed explanation of the
difficulties associated with the title and section fields of
the AOUSC civil file, see the Report to the Subcommittee on
Judicial Statistics on "Increase in Civil Rights Filings",
prepared by the Analytical Services Office of AOUSC.

Fiscal years

The AOUSC reports on federal caseloads by fiscal year rather
than calendar year. The period covered by a fiscal year
changed in 1992. Prior to 1992 the fiscal year started on
July 1 and ended on June 30 of the next year. The change in
1992 resulted in the fiscal year beginning on October 1 and
ending on September 30.

Earlier BJS reports on civil rights cases terminated in U.S.
district courts were not modified to reflect the current
definition. This report modifies slightly the findings of
those earlier BJS reports. Data for fiscal years 1990 to 1992
use October 1 through September 30 as the fiscal year.

For a discussion of findings from earlier BJS studies on
Civil Rights litigation in U.S. district courts, see Civil
Rights Complaints in U.S. District Courts, 1990-98 (NCJ
173427) at
<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/crcusdc.htm> and Civil
Rights Complaints in U.S. District Courts, 2000 (NCJ 193979)
at <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/crcus00.htm>. 

Damage awards

Damage award amounts are presented as estimates limited by
data coverage and quality issues. For further information
about award variables see the AOUSC codebook at the National
Archive of Criminal Justice Data
<http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/index. html>; the codebook
is archived with studies 4026 and 4059.
 
Selected federal civil rights statutes

Employment

The Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1871 were established to
enforce the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments to the U.S.
Constitution following the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). The
1866 act prohibits racial discrimination in the making and
enforcement of contracts among public and private employers.
The 1871 act deals with civil rights violations by 
government entities. The civil rights acts have been
increasingly used in employment discrimination cases.

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 requires employers to pay men and
women equal pay for equal working conditions. 

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employers
with 15 employees or more from discriminating on the basis of
race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits
discrimination on the basis of age against persons 40 years
of age or older. This act applies to employers with 20
employees or more. This Act was amended by the Older Workers
Benefit Protection Act in 1990 to ensure that older workers
have complete and accurate information about their benefits
and are not pressured into waiving their rights under the Age
Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA).

The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits government
contractors with contracts of $2,500 or more from
discriminating against individuals with physical or mental
handicaps. Government contracts pursuant to Executive Order
11246 must contain an equal opportunity clause and must
develop and maintain an affirmative action plan. Vietnam
veterans may benefit from affirmative action plans in
government contracts under the Vietnam Veterans Readjustment 
Assistance Act of 1974, and the employment of aliens is dealt
with in the Immigration Reform and Control Act.

The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 amended Title VII to
prohibit discrimination against employees or job applicants
on the basis of pregnancy and required employers to treat
pregnant employees in the same way as employees with medical
disabilities.

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibits 
discrimination against individuals with disabilities in
employment, public services, and public accommodations.

The Civil Rights Act of 1991 amended several of the federal
employment discrimination laws including Title VII of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the
ADEA, the Rehabilitation Act, and the Americans with 
Disabilities Act (ADA). 
     
The act amended Title VII and the ADA to provide the right to
a jury trial and punitive damages (not to exceed $300,000);
it amended the Civil Rights Act of 1866 to prohibit racial
harassment in the workplace and in post-hire employment
conduct rather than just in hiring and promotions.

Housing and accommodations

The Civil Rights Act of 1866 ensures that all citizens of the
U.S. shall have the same right, in every state and territory,
as is enjoyed by white citizens to inherit, purchase, lease,
sell, hold, and convey real and personal property.

The Fair Housing Act prohibits discrimination in various
types of housing transactions such as sales, renting, and
financing on the basis of race, religion, sex, or national 
origin. The Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988 expanded the
Fair Housing Act to prohibit discriminatory housing practices
based on handicap and familial status and provided for
enhanced government enforcement of the act, including the
recovery of monetary penalties in cases where discrimination
is found.

The Equal Credit Opportunity Act prohibits creditors from
discriminating against credit applicants on the basis of
race, color, religion, national origin, sex, marital status,
age, because all or part of the applicant's income derives
from any public assistance program, or because the applicant
has in good faith exercised any right under the Consumer
Credit Protection Act.

Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits
discrimination based on race, color, religion, and national
origin in places or public accommodation, such as hotels, 
restaurants, and certain places of entertainment.

Voting

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 protects racial and language
minorities from discrimination in the electoral process and
from being denied the fair opportunity to elect candidates of
their choice.

The Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
of 1984 ensures access for handicapped and elderly
individuals to polling places for federal elections.

The Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act of
1986 enables members of the Armed Forces and other U.S.
citizens who are abroad to register and vote absentee in
presidential congressional elections.

The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 commonly referred
to as the Motor Voter Law, improves the access to voter
registration by requiring states to provide simultaneous
voter registration and driver's license applications, provide
a mail-in application, and make registration available at
various government agencies.

-----------------------------------------------------------
The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical agency of
the U.S. Department of Justice. Jeffrey L. Sedgwick is
director.

This Special Report was written by Tracey Kyckelhahn and
Thomas H. Cohen, Ph.D. Sean P. Rosenmerkel verified the
report. 

Georgette Walsh edited the report, Tina Dorsey produced the
report, and Jayne E. Robinson prepared the report for final
printing under the supervision of Doris J. James.
August 2008, NCJ 222989

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This report in portable document format and in ASCII and its
related statistical data and tables are available at the BJS
World Wide Web Internet site:
<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/crcusdc06.htm> 

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