Selected Tax Policy Implications
                               of
                  Global Electronic Commerce
                  Department of the Treasury
                     Office of Tax Policy
                         November 1996
This paper provides an introduction to certain federal income tax
policy and administration issues presented by developments in
communications technology and electronic commerce. This paper is
a discussion document, designed to elicit views on the issues
presented as well as suggestions as to solutions for new
problems. This paper is neither intended, nor should be taken as
an expression of the legal or policy views of the United States
Government, including the Department of the Treasury and the
Internal Revenue Service. In addition, no inference is intended
as to current law.
Unless otherwise indicated, all section references are to the
Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the  Code ).
This paper has also been posted on the Treasury Department s home
page on the World Wide Web at http://www.ustreas.gov.
Comments on any of the issues raised by this paper should be
addressed to:  Joseph H. Guttentag, International Tax Counsel,
Department of the Treasury, 1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20220. Comments may also be submitted to
Treasury via Internet e-mail to TAXPOLICY@treas.sprint.com, with
the subject line  technology issues.  All comments will be
available for public inspection and copying.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
                     Section I: Introduction
Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.   INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3
2.   AN OVERVIEW OF THE GLOBAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE OR
      INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
3.   THE WORLD WIDE WEB AND ELECTRONIC COMMERCE. . . . . . . . .7
4.   SECURITY AND ENCRYPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.   PAYMENT MECHANISMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.   TAX POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION ISSUES: GENERAL
     CONSIDERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.   SUBSTANTIVE TAX LAW ISSUES  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.   TAX ADMINISTRATION AND COMPLIANCE ISSUES. . . . . . . . . 30
9.   CONCLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
                        EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
     New information and communications technologies such as the
Internet are creating exciting opportunities for workers,
consumers, and businesses. Information, services, and money may
now be instantaneously transferred anywhere in the world. Firms
are increasing their imports and exports of goods, services, and
information as the costs associated with participating in global
markets plummet, and they are forming closer relationships with
suppliers and customers around the world. New markets and market
mechanisms are emerging. Consumers can choose from a much broader
range of goods and services, and  intelligent agent  software
will soon give consumers an unprecedented ability to hunt for
bargains.
     These new technologies, particularly communications
technologies including the Internet, have effectively eliminated
national borders on the information highway. As a result, cross-
border transactions may run the risk that countries will claim
inconsistent taxing jurisdictions, and that taxpayers will be
subject to quixotic taxation. If these technologies are to
achieve their maximum potential, rules that provide certainty and
prevent double taxation are required.
     In order to ensure that these new technologies not be
impeded, the development of substantive tax policy and
administration in this area should be guided by the principle of
neutrality. Neutrality rejects the imposition of new or
additional taxes on electronic transactions and instead simply
requires that the tax system treat similar income equally,
regardless of whether it is earned through electronic means or
through existing channels of commerce.
     A major substantive issue raised by these new technologies
is identifying the country or countries which have the
jurisdiction to tax such income. It is necessary to clarify how
existing concepts apply to persons engaged in electronic
commerce. In addition, transactions in cyberspace will likely
accelerate the current trend to de-emphasize traditional concepts
of source-based taxation, increasing the importance of residence-
based taxation.
     Another major category of issues involve the classification
of income arising from transactions in digitized information,
such as computer programs, books, music, or images. The
distinction between royalty, sale of goods, and services income
must be refined in light of the ease of transmitting and
reproducing digitized information.
     In the area of tax administration and compliance, electronic
commerce may create new variations on old issues as well as new
categories of issues. The major compliance issue posed by
electronic commerce is the extent to which electronic money is
analogous to cash and thus creates the potential for anonymous
and untraceable transactions. Another significant category of
issues involves identifying parties to communications and
transactions utilizing these new technologies and verifying
records when transactions are conducted electronically. However,
developments in the science of encryption and related
technologies may lead to systems that verify the identity of
persons online and ensure the veracity of electronic documents.
     Treasury invites comments on the issues raised by this paper
as well as any other issues relating to electronic commerce.
     Comments should be addressed to Joseph H. Guttentag,
International Tax Counsel, Department of the Treasury, 1500
Pennsylvania Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20220. Comments may
also be submitted via Internet e-mail to
TAXPOLICY@treas.sprint.com, with the subject line  technology
issues.  All comments will be available for public inspection and
copying.
     1.          INTRODUCTION
            It is by now a well-worn cliche to say that we live in an
era of rapid technological and social change. Technologies and
businesses that were unknown a few years ago are now widespread.
Most recently, the explosive growth of telecommunications
technology, sometimes referred to as the  Global Information
Infrastructure,  or the  Information Superhighway  which includes
the Internet, has enabled people to communicate and exchange
information on an unprecedented scale. These technologies present
tremendous opportunities to enrich all of our lives in so many
ways, many of which we are likely not to have envisioned. As
President Clinton has said,  The day is coming when every home
will be connected to it, and it will be just as normal a part of
our life as a telephone and a television. It s becoming our new
town square, changing the way we relate to one another, the way
we send mail, the way we hear news, the way we play.
            These new technologies bring with them social changes and
new ways of doing business. Services are an ever-growing sector
of the economy. Modern telecommunications allow information,
services, and money to be instantaneously transferred anywhere in
the world. Some have even speculated that the traditional
corporation could itself become obsolete in certain cases as
 virtual corporations  bring together varying groups of
consultants and independent contractors on a project-by-project
basis.
     These technological advances may put particular pressure on
the principles governing the taxation of transnational
transactions. It is the very nature of these developments that
they tend to blur national borders and the source and character
of income. Consequently, significant issues often arise regarding
how the income arising from transnational transactions utilizing
these technologies should be treated under current rules. As a
result, it is possible that countries will claim inconsistent
taxing jurisdiction, with the attendant possibility that
taxpayers will be subject to international double taxation. If
these technologies are to achieve their maximum potential, this
must be avoided. Our overall tax policy goal in this area should
emulate policy in other areas   maintain neutrality, fairness and
simplicity   a policy which serves to encourage all desirable
economic activity new and old.
     These technological developments dictate that the Internal
Revenue Code and generally accepted principles of international
tax policy be reexamined. It is in all parties  interests to
study the potential issues now, seek public comment, and develop
rules that accommodate evolving technologies and ways of doing
business.
     This paper is meant to be a step in this process of
reexamination. It is neither a treatise on taxation of technology
nor a blueprint for future changes. Instead, the purpose of this
paper is to stimulate public discussion by raising issues that
currently exist or seem likely to arise. This paper is intended
to encourage interested taxpayers, practitioners, academics, and
others to comment on the issues identified herein and other
similar tax issues that they believe require resolution.
     The modernization process of which this paper is an early
step will proceed on many fronts. Some of the issues identified
in this paper can be resolved through the administrative process.
It is possible that other issues can be resolved only through
amendments to the Internal Revenue Code. Treasury will work with
the Ways and Means Committee, the Finance Committee, and the
Joint Committee on Taxation to study the statutory changes that
may be required. Finally, it may also be necessary to reach an
international consensus on certain issues. Treasury will be
involved with the work of groups such as the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development and with our treaty
partners, to establish international standards to deal with these
emerging issues.
     Treasury intends that the goal of this process is to develop
a framework for analysis that will not impede electronic
commerce. The solutions that emerge should be sufficiently
general and flexible in order to deal with developments in
technology and ways of doing business that are currently
unforseen. In most cases, this will require that existing
principles be adapted and reinterpreted in the context of
developments in technology. In extreme cases, it may be necessary
to develop new concepts.
     The nature of the Global Information Infrastructure
obviously has ramifications beyond taxation, including national
security, copyright, privacy, security, financial trading
systems, and even economic measurement. These issues are outside
the scope of this paper, although the Office of Tax Policy and
the Internal Revenue Service intend to coordinate their work with
other branches of the Treasury Department and the United States
government.
     2.   AN OVERVIEW OF THE GLOBAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE OR
      INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY
     2.1.  The Information Superhighway.  The Information
Superhighway or Global Information Infrastructure is not a single
computer network or means of communication but instead refers to
the convergence of previously separate communications and
computing systems into an interoperable, global network of
networks. Eventually, this superhighway may transmit a wide
spectrum of information, films, programs, and services into every
business and household, incorporating voice telephony and cable
television. This trend is driven in part by the fact that the
cost of communications is falling quickly. The Information
Superhighway permits its users to send and receive information
around the world, at relatively low cost.
     2.2.  Convergence of technologies. The distinct
communications systems that will converge to form the Information
Superhighway include telephone systems, cable and satellite
communications, and computer networks. This convergence has been
in part driven by two major technological changes. In
telecommunications, transmission has evolved from copper wire,
which has a relatively limited data transmission capacity to
fiber optic cable, which has virtually limitless capacity. This
increased capacity makes it practical to rapidly transmit large
amounts of information such as videos or x-rays. The second
technological development is  digitization,  the conversion of
text, sound, images, video and other content into a common
digital format. Any type of information, including cash
equivalents, which can be digitized can be transmitted
electronically.
     2.3.  Communications revolution is more than the Internet.
Although the Internet, which is discussed below, is the best
known aspect of the communications revolution, the Internet is
only an example of these developments. Many companies now operate
extensive internal corporate networks, or  intranets,  and
certain transactions, such as in the financial services sector,
are likely to occur on private networks for security reasons. For
tax considerations, it is generally immaterial whether parties
communicate over the Internet or over a private, proprietary
network, such as an online service or over an intra corporate
network. It is also necessary to keep in mind that the
communications revolution is the result of a number of
technological and economic developments, such as relatively
inexpensive computers and telecommunications services and the
growth of the service sector. The growth of the service
sector plays an important role because developments in
communications allow services to be instantaneously transmitted
around the world. As a result, services frequently no longer need
to be produced at the place where they are consumed. As
developments in communications facilitate international trade in
services, there may be increasing pressure on the international
tax rules that apply to such services.
            2.4.  The Internet. The most widely publicized part of the
information superhighway is the Internet. While originally a
system connecting governmental and academic institutions, the
Internet has expanded beyond its initial participants to a world-
wide network with user estimates ranging from 30-60 million, and
growing rapidly. The Internet has been described as
            a world-wide network of networks with gateways linking
            organizations in North and South America, Europe, the
            Pacific Basin and other countries . . . .The organizations
            are administratively independent from one another. There is
            no central, worldwide, technical control point. Yet, working
            together, these organizations have created what to a user
            seems to be a virtual network that spans the globe.
            The Internet has no central computer or organizational
structure.  Far from being a hub with spokes, the Internet is
more like a spider s web, with many ways of getting from point A
to point B.  What links the Internet together and allows its
many disparate parts to communicate is the  TCP/IP  protocol
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), which is
simply a means of specifying how data is broken up in  packets
and assigned addresses to be transferred over the Internet. It
allows computers to communicate regardless of differences in
hardware and software, or communications technology.
            Instead of a central computer, the Internet uses hundreds of
thousands of computers called  routers.  Routers are like postal
substations; they make decisions about how to route  packets  of
data just like a postal substation decides how to route envelopes
containing mail. Each router does not need a connection to every
other one. Instead, packets of data are sent in the right general
direction, using the best route available at the time, until they
finally arrive at their destination. In fact, the individual
packets making up a single message may end up taking different
routes, to be recombined when they reach their destination.
            The packets are transmitted over existing telephone
networks. However, since the Internet is not tied to any
communications technology, Internet traffic can also travel over
cable TV systems, satellite links, or fiber optic cables. 3.          THE WORLD WIDE WEB AND ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
            3.1.   Background
                 3.1.1.  The World Wide Web.  The World Wide Web ( WWW
or  Web ) is one of the fastest growing applications of the
Internet. What distinguishes the Web from other components
of the Internet is that it is a multimedia, hypertext system.
Unlike other Internet services, the Web blends text, images,
video and audio instead of displaying simple text. Web documents
are hypertext documents that can contain links to other documents
which can be accessed by  clicking  on these links. In fact, the
links could be to any other  WWW  document on any Internet server
anywhere in the world. Accessing the Web requires a browser
program. The browser reads information accessed from the Web and
presents it to the user in a standard format. Internet search
tools allow users to locate Web pages containing the desired
information.
                 3.1.2.  Web pages and Web sites.  A company s or
individual s collected Web documents are usually referred to as a
 Web site.  A uniform addressing system allows users around the
world to access information on any Web site. The information
is stored in the form of Web documents and pages on central
computers called servers. The location of a server is irrelevant
since it can be accessed by users around the world.
                 3.1.3.  Exponential growth of the Web.  Some indication
of the speed at which the World Wide Web has developed is given
by the fact that it was invented in 1989. Graphical browser
programs, which made the Web easy to use and thus accessible to a
wide audience, were only invented in 1993. By 1996, it was
estimated that there were over 250,000 commercial Web sites and a
substantial number of major companies, and countless small ones,
have invested on a presence on the Web.
                 3.1.4.  Technical barriers.  Two factors that will be
critical to the growth of electronic commerce are bandwidth and
improved payment mechanisms. Bandwidth refers to the speed at
which data can be transferred over the system. Currently, at the
transfer speeds available to most consumers, it would take about
two days to transfer the entire contents of a music CD across the
Internet. With higher speed connections likely to occur in a few
years, transfer time is likely to be drastically reduced, to
about 10-15 minutes. Payment is also of course a critical factor.
There is an emerging consensus that electronic money (explained
in Chapter 5 below) will accelerate the growth of electronic
commerce. If payments can be made by a mouse click on an
 electronic wallet  instead of transmitting credit card numbers,
commerce is likely to grow.
            3.2.   Electronic Commerce
                 3.2.1.  Generally.   Electronic commerce is the ability
to perform transactions involving the exchange of goods or
services between two or more parties using electronic tools and
techniques.  The growth of electronic commerce will be
driven in part by the fact that two of the present economy s
important products are software and recorded entertainment (both
films and music) which are particularly well suited to being
distributed through computer networks.
                 3.2.2.  Retailing and wholesaling.  Web pages are now
supplementing paper catalogs for many mail order companies and
wholesalers. These Web pages are similar to pages from a paper
catalog, displaying images of the goods and product information.
Links to the vendor s inventory control system can make it
possible to verify whether the requested goods are in stock. For
example, one such Web site is a bookseller that allows customers
to search a database of over one million books, searching by
either subject or name. It is open twenty-four hours a day and
has customers in over 60 countries. This Web site does not merely
allow customers to select and order books but also recommends
related titles and will automatically notify customers when a
desired book is published.
                 3.2.3.  Computer software.  Computer software, which is
created and used in digital form, can be sold and delivered
electronically. Software may be transferred directly from the
seller s computer to the purchaser s computer without the need to
deliver a floppy disk or CD-ROM. One such electronic software
vendor allows customers to select software, which is transmitted
and downloaded in encrypted format. Customers then enter credit
card information, which is verified over a private network via a
toll-free number. After authorization, a key that unlocks the
software is sent to the customer.  Alternatively, the cost of the
software may be charged to a pre-existing account.
                 3.2.4.  Photographs.  Photographs can be purchased over
the Internet, and customers can select varying rights to utilize
the photograph. For example, stock photo agencies maintain large
selections of photographs on a wide range of topics, which are
licensed to publishers and advertising agencies who need a
photograph on a given subject. Some stock photograph agencies
have established Web sites which allow customers to purchase and
download digitized images.
            The price is based on the customer s intended use of the
photograph. For example, one such arrangement involves
five, successively more expensive categories, beginning with
consumers who intended to make only personal use of an image,
such as a student illustrating a term paper, and increasing to
commercial customers who might want to distribute an unlimited
number of copies.
                 3.2.5.  On-line information.  Electronic research
databases are in widespread use. Services such as Lexis, Nexis,
and Dialog have created vast computerized databases of reference
information, such as legal materials or newspaper and magazine
articles. Customers can access these databases and locate the
desired information, which can be either read on-screen or
printed. The distinction between on-line research services and
books is now being blurred. Many publications, primarily
reference works, are now being created and distributed in digital
form, generally via CD-ROMs. In addition, once information has
been digitized, it can also be transferred electronically. Some
encyclopedias, for example, are now available either on CD-ROM or
through an on-line service. With a sufficiently fast modem
connection, a user might be indifferent as to whether she were
accessing a CD-ROM on her desktop computer or a mainframe
computer located at a distance. However, the latter, which can be
easily and regularly updated, can make time-sensitive databases
much more valuable than traditional  hard copies  or even CD-
ROMs. In the future, the distinction between information stored
on a desktop computer and information retrieved from a network
will become increasing blurred as desktop software adopts Web
style interfaces which will seamlessly integrate desktop and Web
functions.
          3.2.6.  Services.  Services will be a fast-growing area
of electronic commerce. For example, at least one accounting firm
is currently offering consulting services electronically. For a
yearly fee, subscribers can obtain a password to visit the firm s
Web site, where they can search a database of information and
monitor relevant news. Subscribers can also submit questions,
which are then routed to appropriate advisers from the firm s
tax, accounting and management consulting divisions.
          3.2.7.  Health Care.  Health care is also an area in
which services can be provided electronically. Fiber optic
telephone links can now transmit high quality medical images to
distant specialists in minutes. For example, at the Massachusetts
General Hospital,  a team of 70 radiologists has X-rays wired
from their own telemedicine center in Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia.
          3.2.8.  Videoconferencing.  Videoconferencing also
creates expanded opportunities for distant persons to
collaborate. Currently, videoconferencing is primarily used by
large businesses because it requires expensive, dedicated
equipment, but it is becoming more widespread. For example,
videoconferencing is being used by rural residents to obtain
access to urban specialists. It is also being used by
coaches to train athletes and by employers to interview job
applicants. Videoconferencing is expected to become more
widespread with the introduction of inexpensive desktop video
cameras that can be connected to a personal computer, coupled
with higher speed Internet connections.
     3.2.9.  Gambling.  Although Internet gambling may be
illegal in the United States, Internet casinos have been
established offshore. These Internet casinos operate through Web
sites which are virtual replicas of casinos offering electronic
slot machines, black jack, poker and roulette. Customers
pay for their wagers either by credit card or by establishing an
account with a bank associated with the casino and winnings are
credited to either the credit card or bank account. In the
future, gamblers will presumably be able to place their bets
using electronic money.
     3.2.10.  Stock trading.  Some stockbrokerages and
mutual fund companies have Web sites which allow customers to
trade securities electronically, including stocks, bonds, mutual
funds, options, futures, and commodities. Customers can
access information regarding stock prices and company research
and after researching the desired stock, an investor can enter an
order on-line, specifying the stock, the number of shares and the
price. Orders placed at the market price are routinely completed
and confirmed in less than a minute. The trade is confirmed
electronically and sometimes by mail as well. At present, trades
are still settled conventionally, although electronic money could
be used in the future. In addition to trading in the secondary
market, securities are now being offered on-line.
     3.2.11.  Global dealing.   Global dealing  refers to
the capacity of financial intermediaries, mainly banks and
securities firms, to execute customers  orders and to take
proprietary positions in financial products in markets around the
world and around the clock. For security reasons, global dealing
is conducted over private networks, instead of the Internet,
although as discussed above, the means of communication is not
relevant for tax purposes. Global dealing is impossible without
modern computer and communications technology, which allow orders
to be transmitted around the world and a firm s trading position
to be continually transferred to locations where markets are
open.
     3.2.12.  Offshore banking and incorporation.  Some Web
sites now offer offshore incorporation and banking services with
the capacity for payment by credit card. Customers complete
questionnaires on their computer, specifying the company name,
desired jurisdiction, number of shares, etc. and this information
is transmitted to a service company, which prepares and files the
necessary forms. Although individuals and companies have always
been able to create offshore corporations and open offshore bank
accounts, these developments make it easier and less expensive to
do so.
4.   SECURITY AND ENCRYPTION
  4.1.  Security requirements for an open system.  Security
issues pose a particular problem for Internet commerce because
the Internet is an  open  and inherently non-secure public system
designed to facilitate information exchange. Therefore, the
security that is required for practical Internet commerce
requires that security procedures be applied at the level of
individual commercial transactions instead of being applied to
the network as a whole. This involves the encryption of
transmissions, which is the first line of defense against
interception, duplication, and alteration of a confidential
message, whether the message represents an electronic payment or
a text. Developments of systems requiring security on the
Internet generally rely on  public key  encryption. In addition
to keeping the contents of a message secret, these encryption
procedures may also be used to create a  digital signature  which
can enable the recipient of the message to independently verify
the identity of the sender.
            4.2.  Public key encryption.  Public key encryption, which
is based on complex formulae involving certain mathematical
properties of large prime numbers, is intended to allow someone
to send a secure communication to a person with whom they have
never met, or previously communicated. If they operate as
intended, public key encryption techniques may play an important
role in tax administration of electronic commerce transactions.
            Public key cryptosystems, involve two related complementary
            strings of numbers called keys, a publicly revealed key and
            a secret key (also frequently called a private key). Each
            key unlocks the code that the other key makes. Knowing a
            person s public key does not help you deduce the
            corresponding secret key. The public key can be published
            and widely disseminated across a communications network.
            Anyone can use a recipient s public key to encrypt a message
            to that person, and that recipient uses her own
            corresponding secret key to decrypt that message. No one but
            the recipient can decrypt it, because no one else has access
            to that secret key. Not even the person who encrypted the
            message can decrypt it.
            Message authentication is also provided. The sender s own
            secret key can be used to encrypt a message, thereby
            creating a digital signature. Alternatively, the sender
            could use a separate key solely for the purpose of creating
            his digital signature. The recipient can check the validity
            of this digital signature by using the sender s public key
            to  decrypt  it. This proves that the sender was the true
            originator of the message, and that the message has not been
            subsequently altered by anyone else, because the sender
            alone possesses the secret key that made that signature. It
            is not practically possible to forge a digitally signed
            message and the sender cannot later disavow his signature.
            These two processes can be combined to provide both privacy
            and authentication by first signing a message with the
            sender s secret key, then encrypting the signed message with
            the recipient s public key. The recipient reverses these
            steps by first decrypting the message with her own secret
            key, then checking the enclosed signature with the sender s
            public key. These steps are done automatically by the
            recipient s software.
5.          PAYMENT MECHANISMS
            5.1.  Introduction.  At present, a large portion of the
money supply already exists in  digital  form, as bank account
balances and other book entries with financial institutions, and
is transferred in digital form through wire transfers. Physical
tokens or paper instruments are no longer utilized for large-
dollar payments in financial or foreign exchange transactions and
roughly 90 percent of financial transactions, by value, are now
conducted electronically. Conventional consumer transactions are
also occurring electronically as the use of automatic teller
machine cards in retail outlets continues to grow.
            Electronic money, which is the focus of this chapter,
involves consumer use of electronic payment systems that may
partially displace cash, checks, and credit cards, which
constitute about 90 percent, by volume, of financial
transactions. These electronic payment systems have the potential
to create new forms of money in which value is represented in
digital form.  Electronic money  encompasses a wide range of
products, which are all still under development. However,
electronic money systems share certain similar features and an
understanding of these general features is a necessary step in
developing means to integrate these new payment systems into our
system of tax administration and compliance.
            5.2.  Electronic debit and electronic credit. An electronic
debit system is a payment system based on funds stored in a
deposit account with a financial institution and subject to
electronic payment orders to transfer funds from one account to
another. An existing example of such a system is the use of
automatic teller machine cards used at point of sale terminals.
However, emerging electronic debit systems allow consumers to use
an electronic checkbook, which can be either a hardware device or
a software program, to generate unique check identifiers,
maintain a check register, and create a digital signature. The
electronic checks are sent via e-mail over the Internet from the
payor to the payee, who uses a digital signature for endorsement
and forwards it for deposit. Thus, consumers and retailers can
gather, transmit, and deposit electronic checks into their
accounts without physically going to a bank. If the electronic
check is drawn on a bank account, it is cleared and settled
through the banking system similar to a paper check.
            Electronic credit systems use conventional credit card
numbers to make payments over the Internet. Consumers transmit
their credit card details to merchants, generally in encrypted
form, who process transactions using the existing credit card
payment infrastructure. In some cases third parties are used to
approve and execute payments in order to eliminate the need to
send a credit card number over the Internet.
            Electronic debit and electronic credit systems should not
raise any fundamental tax policy or administration issues because
they essentially represent new ways of executing traditional bank
or credit card transactions. Since an independent third party
maintains records of the identity of the parties to a transaction
and the amounts involved, these transactions are fully auditable.
Moreover, unlike the electronic money systems described below,
they do not involve new payment systems.
            5.3.  Electronic money.  Electronic money involves tokens of
value expressed in digital form, in the same sense that a casino
chip is a token of value expressed in physical form. In contrast,
the electric debit and credit card systems described above are
the functional equivalent of conventional check and credit card
transactions and do not involve the creation of new tokens of
value. The digital form of electronic money allows it to be
processed inexpensively and instantaneously transferred around
the world. All electronic money systems function as payment
systems or payment system components and all depend upon
application of high-speed communication and information
analysis. Although no commonly accepted general definition
of electronic money exists, some generalizations can be made.
             All purport to permit their users, in some
            environment, to move funds electronically.
              All rely upon advanced information technology to store,
            transmit, and receive representations of value.
             All depend upon modern developments in the science of
            encryption to provide security and upon public
            communications networks.
             All are possible only because of the reduced costs and
            economies of scale that technological advances create.
             All at some point, at least at present, require  loading
            from funds held within the financial system.
            The loading of funds involves the exchange of cash or
deposits for digital value backed by an issuer. This could occur,
for example, at an ATM, where a consumer loads a smart card with
electronic cash and has a bank account debited for the same
amount, or over the Internet by downloading electronic money onto
a PC hard drive.
            5.4.  Distinctions between electronic money systems.
Electronic money systems differ in a number of basic ways. The
primary differences include:
                  (i) the identity of the issuer;
                 (ii) whether transactions are fully accounted for by
the issuer;
                 (iii) whether value resides in a ledger with a third
                 party or on a storage device belonging to the consumer;
                 and
                  (iv) the means of accessing and transferring value.
These distinctions are discussed in more detail below. They are
important because the way in which any particular electronic
money system implements these distinctions will be the primary
factors in determining how the system should fit into our system
of tax administration and compliance and the concerns that the
system poses for our system of tax administration and compliance.
            5.5.  Identity of the issuer.  One distinction among
electronic money systems is the identity of the issuer or
sponsor. At present, electronic money can be issued by either a
bank, a nonbank financial services company, or a non-financial
company.
            5.6.  Whether transactions are fully accounted for by the
issuer.  The second distinction is whether electronic money
transactions are fully accounted for by the issuer. There are
both accounted and unaccounted systems. In an accounted system,
the e-money issuer maintains a complete or partial audit trail of
transactions, and can identify the person to whom the electronic
money is issued as well as the people and businesses receiving
the electronic money as it flows through the economy. In an
unaccounted system, the e-money is issued and passes through the
economy without a transaction trail. Unaccounted e-money may
operate much like paper currency, moving through the economy
anonymously.
            There are advantages and disadvantages to both accounted and
unaccounted electronic systems and they are likely to operate in
tandem. Unaccounted systems may pose risks to the issuer because
there are no records to rectify any problems that might arise.
However, consumers may not feel comfortable using accounted
electronic money for some transactions which they can currently
conduct anonymously with cash. In addition an accounted system
may impose costs on merchants and e-money issuers that would be
passed on to consumers. These costs may be excessive relative to
the benefits that consumers receive if electronic money is used
for only small value transactions. In contrast, consumers may
prefer accounted systems when they wish to have an independent
record of the transaction.
            5.7.  Where the value resides.  The third important
distinction is whether the electronic money is stored on a ledger
maintained by a third party ( notational electronic money ) or is
stored on a token which is maintained by the consumer ( token
electronic money ). A notational electronic money system stores
value as a notation in the ledger of a third party and is
exchanged by subtracting amounts from one entry and adding it to
another. The third party serves as an off-site control point
which verifies and authorizes transactions. Token electronic
money is represented by value stored on a  smart card,  computer
disk drive, or other storage device and the value is directly
exchanged between payor and payee like currency.
            5.8.  Card vs. PC.  Finally, a distinction can be drawn
between PC-based systems and card based systems. In PC-
based systems, value is transferred to and held in a personal
computer and transferred electronically from one computer to
another. The PC acts as both a storehouse of value and a device
to access that value.
            PC-based systems usually:
             enable payment to be made by either clicking on virtual
            notes and coins appearing on the screen or by typing in an
            amount;
             are fully integrated with Web browser software to
            facilitate impulse buying while browsing the Internet;
             show the user s existing balance; and
            affirm transaction completion and maintain a running
            balance.
            In contrast, card-based systems employ so-called  smart-
cards  which are plastic cards containing microchips which can
process and store any type of digital information, including
electronic cash. Customers load value onto their cards from
their bank accounts by using automated teller machines or
specially equipped telephones in their homes, and eventually,
over the Internet. In order to utilize the stored value a
separate access device is needed which might be included in a
vending machine or attached to a cash register. Similar to the
farecards used on many subway systems, the stored-value card is
inserted into the access device which debits value from the card
and transfers the value to the merchant s account. Card-based
systems also differ from PC-based systems in that PC-based
systems are designed to be used remotely, whereas card-based
systems are designed for face-to-face commerce in retail
transactions. This is not a rigid distinction because a PC or
telephone could be used as an access device for a smart-card,
which would enable the card to be used remotely.
            Smart card systems can be further distinguished based by
whether they are  open  or  closed  systems. In a  closed  system
there is generally only one card issuer and one vendor that
accepts the card for payments; usually the issuer and the
accepting vendor are the same entity. Common examples of closed
systems are public transportation farecards, prepaid telephone
cards, and prepaid copier cards. In contrast, open systems
involve single or multiple issuers which provide cards that can
be used with multiple vendors. Card-based systems can also permit
personal transfers of value between individuals, rather than just
commercial transactions, provided that the individuals have the
appropriate equipment.
            5.9.  Example of a PC-based system.  One PC-based system,
for example, permits customers to purchase electronic money from
a bank, generally by debiting an existing bank account. As
consumers browse various Web sites which sell goods and services,
their electronic money software is active in the background. The
program senses when payment is required and pops up a dialog box
that prompts the buyer to approve the transaction. The software
removes the digital  coins  from the buyer s hard disk and
transfers the serial numbers representing the electronic money to
the seller s computer. The seller s computer contacts the issuing
bank, which verifies that the serial numbers representing the
electronic money have not been used and notifies the seller that
the electronic money is valid. At that point, the seller sends
the electronic goods to buyer. The seller will eventually deposit
the electronic money in a bank.
            In the context of the analytical framework discussed above,
such a system is a nonbank, token, unaccounted, pc-based system.
Although the electronic money was issued by a bank, it is a
nonbank system because a bank is not required. It is a token
system because the strings of numbers representing  digital
coins  are stored on the customer s computer, not a central
ledger. Finally, it is an unaccounted system because the issuer
does not maintain any records of how the electronic money is used
until it is presented for conversion into conventional funds. 6.          TAX POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION ISSUES: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
            6.1.  General.  Any consideration of the substantive tax
policy, and tax administration and compliance issues that arise
in this area must be guided by basic tax policy principles and
must also take into account the technical and scientific
characteristics of the Global Information Infrastructure,
including the Internet.
            6.2.   Neutrality.  A fundamental guiding principle should
be neutrality. Neutrality requires that the tax system treat
economically similar income equally, regardless of whether earned
through electronic means or through more conventional channels of
commerce. Ideally, tax rules would not affect economic choices
about the structure of markets and commercial activities. This
will ensure that market forces alone determine the success or
failure of new commercial methods. The best means by which
neutrality can be achieved is through an approach which adopts
and adapts existing principles   in lieu of imposing new or
additional taxes.
            Recent technological developments may appear to be radical
innovations primarily because they have evolved within a
relatively short period of time. However, careful examination may
very well reveal that few, if any, of these emerging issues will
be so intractable that their resolution will not be found using
existing principles, appropriately adjusted.
          6.3.  Impact of technical features of the Internet.
The policies and rules governing the taxation of electronic
commerce cannot be developed without an understanding of the
underlying technical features. Although chapter three presented a
sampling of current means of electronic commerce, the basic
technical structure of the Internet has some important
implications for tax policy and administration. These aspects are
restated here.
              6.3.1.  Radically decentralized; no central
control.  The Internet has no physical location. Users of the
Internet have no control and in general no knowledge of the path
traveled by the information they seek or publish. Many
participants in the system are administrators or intermediaries
who have no control over what type of information travels over
their computers; rather they offer interconnectivity which
enables the system to operate. In practical terms, it would
therefore be difficult to monitor or prevent transmissions of
information or electronic cash across the Internet. From a
technical perspective, in principle and generally in practice, it
makes no difference whether the information or electronic money
sought to be transmitted are within one jurisdiction or between
several, as the Internet pays little or no regard to national
boundaries.
              6.3.2.  Disintermediation.  In general, tax
compliance is facilitated by identifying key  taxing points:  for
example, reporting requirements can be imposed on financial
institutions which are easy to identify. In contrast, one of the
great commercial advantages of electronic commerce is that it
often eliminates the need for intermediating institutions.
              6.3.3.  Weak correspondence between computer
domain name and reality.   The pieces of an Internet address (or
 domain-style name ) tell you who is responsible for maintaining
that name. It may not tell you anything about the computer
corresponding to the actual Internet address, or even where that
machine is located. Even if an e-mail address is clearly
associated with a certain person and computer, that person and
her computer could be located anywhere in the world. This makes
it difficult to determine a person s location and identity, which
is often important for tax purposes.
              6.3.4.  Lack of central control / Registration.
It is not difficult to introduce a new computer to the Internet.
Registration requirements are not difficult to satisfy, and there
is little to prevent transfer of the site to new controllers. In
general, proof of identity requirements for Internet use are very
weak.
              6.3.5.  Auditability / Remote control.
Untraceable use of an Internet site, with the permission of the
site s controllers, is quite easy to arrange. For example, if
Anne, who lives in Australia, is running a commercial site on the
Internet for U.S. customers, using a computer located in Canada,
Anne can control the Canadian computer from Australia through a
series of computer programs which can be configured to leave no
audit trail. Moreover, if the need arises, operations can be
shifted to somewhere else on the Internet.
              6.3.6.  Detection of contents.  Since all
electronic communication consists of streams of binary digits, it
is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the contents until
converted. At present, a personal letter appears
indistinguishable from a message transmitting electronic money.
Even if the nature of the contents is determined, the use of
encryption could  preclude comprehension.
7.       SUBSTANTIVE TAX LAW ISSUES
         7.1.  Introduction
              7.1.1.  General.  This section discusses the
impact of electronic commerce on substantive principles of
taxation. Current tax concepts, such as the U.S. trade or
business, permanent establishment, and source of income concepts,
were developed in a different technological era. However, the
principle of neutrality between physical and electronic commerce
requires that existing principles of taxation be adapted to
electronic commerce, taking into account the borderless world of
cyberspace. An advantage of an approach based on existing
principles, in addition to neutrality, is that such an approach
is suitable for adaptation as an international standard. Existing
principles are, in broad outline, common to most countries  tax
laws.
              7.1.2.  Bases for taxation.  The United States
taxes income on the basis of both the source of the income and
the residence of the person earning that income. U.S. source
income is subject to tax when earned by foreign persons as
is the worldwide income of U.S. citizens, residents, and
corporations. Although U.S. persons are subject to net
basis taxation on their worldwide income, the foreign tax credit
provisions avoid double taxation of foreign source income.
Our international tax treaty network, while attempting to
minimize taxation at source, also protects against double
taxation.
              7.1.3.  Source of income.  Source of income
concepts play a central role in international taxation since the
country of source generally has a right to tax income and
residence countries generally avoid double taxation through
either a credit system or an exemption system. Source of income
principles are generally similar worldwide. In general, the
source of income is located where the economic activities
creating the income occur. For example, income derived from the
use of intellectual property has its source in the location where
the intellectual property is utilized. Compensation for
labor or personal services has its source in the location where
the labor or personal services are performed. Furthermore,
residence-based source rules have been adopted for certain types
of income such as capital gains and swap income because the
country of residence represents the location where the economic
activity that produces the income occurs. Generally, the
nature of an item of income is important for determining source
because the source of income flows from its nature.
              7.1.4.  Role of tax treaties. The United States
currently has comprehensive income tax treaties with 48
countries. The rules embodied in these tax treaties generally
give the residence country an unlimited right to tax income while
limiting or eliminating the source country s right to tax. One of
the most important concepts in tax treaties is that of a
 permanent establishment.  Source countries tend to give up their
source-based taxing rights over business profits if they are not
attributable to a  permanent establishment  or  fixed base  in
their jurisdiction. Treaties generally limit the rate of taxation
at source that can be applied to interest, dividends, and
royalties paid to a resident of a treaty partner.
              7.1.5.  The ascendancy of residence-based
taxation. The United States, as do most countries, asserts
jurisdiction to tax based on principles of both source and
residence. If double taxation is to be avoided, however, one
principle must yield to the other. Therefore, through tax
treaties, countries tend to restrict their source-based taxing
rights with respect to foreign taxpayers in order to exercise
more fully their residence-based taxing rights. This occurs in a
number of ways. The permanent establishment concept represents a
preference for residence-based taxation by setting an appropriate
threshold for source-based taxation of active business income. By
setting a threshold, in most cases it is not necessary to
identify the source of active business income and the income is
only subject to tax in the country of residence. In the case of
interest, dividends, and royalties, the income is still
potentially subject to source-based taxation but in many cases is
effectively subject to only residence-based taxation because of a
nil rate of withholding. The country of residence also agrees to
take appropriate steps to ameliorate any possible double taxation
resulting from the limited source-based taxation.
         The growth of new communications technologies and
electronic commerce will likely require that principles of
residence-based taxation assume even greater importance. In the
world of cyberspace, it is often difficult, if not impossible, to
apply traditional source concepts to link an item of income with
a specific geographical location. Therefore, source based
taxation could lose its rationale and be rendered obsolete by
electronic commerce. By contrast, almost all taxpayers are
resident somewhere. An individual is almost always a citizen or
resident of a given country and, at least under U.S. law, all
corporations must be established under the laws of a given
jurisdiction. However, a review of current residency definitions
and taxation rules may be appropriate.
         In situations where traditional source concepts have
already been rendered too difficult to apply effectively, the
residence of the taxpayer has been the most likely means to
identify the jurisdiction where the economic activities that
created the income took place, and thus the jurisdiction that
should have the primary right to tax such income. For example, in
the Tax Reform Act of 1986, Congress adopted residence-based
sourcing rules for sales of noninventory property. This reflected
Congress  belief  that source rules for sales of personal
property should generally reflect the location of the economic
activity generating the income, taking into account the
jurisdiction in which those activities are performed.  In
the case of certain sales of personal property, the residence of
the seller was thought to best represent the location where the
underlying economic activity occurred. Similar rules were
adopted for certain space and ocean activities. Therefore,
United States tax policy has already recognized that as
traditional source principles lose their significance, residence-
based taxation can step in and take their place. This trend will
be accelerated by developments in electronic commerce where
principles of residence-based taxation will also play a major
role.
         7.2.  U.S. Trade or Business and Permanent
Establishment
              7.2.1.  Taxation of non-resident aliens and
foreign corporations.  Non-resident aliens and foreign
corporations are generally only subject to tax on their U.S.
source income, including income derived from the performance of
personal services in the United States, and certain foreign
source income that is attributable to a U.S. trade or business.
Unless a treaty applies, non-resident aliens and foreign
corporations are taxed at ordinary graduated rates on their net
income effectively connected with a trade or business in the
United States, and are taxed at a flat rate on the gross
amount of their U.S. source  fixed or determinable annual or
periodical gains, profits and income.  A U.S. trade or
business includes the performance of personal services within the
United States. Therefore being engaged in a trade or
business in the United States is a threshold requirement for the
taxation of active business income earned by foreign persons.
                      7.2.1.1.   In the United States.   In many
cases, it is clear that a foreign person is engaged in a trade or
business but it is not clear whether they are so engaged  in the
United States.  However, a foreign person not physically
present in the United States who merely solicits orders from
within the United States only through advertising and then sends
tangible goods to the United States in satisfaction of the orders
is unlikely to be engaged in a trade or business in the United
States even though such a person is clearly engaged in a trade or
business. A person who is not directly engaged in a U.S.
trade or business may nevertheless be deemed to be engaged in a
U.S. trade or business as the result of the activities of an
agent.
                 7.2.2.  Impact of tax treaties: Permanent
establishment concept.  Tax treaties adopt a different and
generally higher threshold for source basis taxation of active
income. U.S. source active income ( business profits ) of non-
resident aliens and foreign corporations who are entitled to
benefits under a U.S. income tax treaty is only subject to U.S.
tax if the income is attributable to a permanent establishment
located in the United States. A permanent establishment is a
fixed place of business through which the business of an
enterprise is wholly or partly carried on.   [I]t has come
to be accepted in international fiscal matters that until an
enterprise of one State sets up a permanent establishment in
another State it should not properly be regarded as participating
in the economic life of that other State to such an extent that
it comes within the jurisdiction of that other State s taxing
rights.  Therefore, a foreign person who is entitled to
benefits under a tax treaty with the United States will not be
subject to U.S. tax on the income arising from a trade or
business in the United States if the income is not attributable
to a permanent establishment in the United States.
                 7.2.3.  U.S. tax jurisdiction in the context of
electronic commerce.
                      7.2.3.1.  U.S. trade or business. The concept
of a U.S. trade or business was developed in the context of
conventional types of commerce, which generally are conducted
through identifiable physical locations. Electronic commerce, on
the other hand, may be conducted without regard to national
boundaries and may dissolve the link between an income-producing
activity and a specific location. From a certain perspective,
electronic commerce doesn t seem to occur in any physical
location but instead takes place in the nebulous world of
 cyberspace.  Persons engaged in electronic commerce could be
located anywhere in the world and their customers will be
ignorant of, or indifferent to, their location. Indeed, this is
an important advantage of electronic commerce in that it gives
small businesses the potential to reach customers all over the
world.
            Electronic commerce permits a foreign person to engage
in extensive transactions with U.S. customers without entering
the United States. Although such a person is clearly engaged in a
trade or business, questions will arise as to whether he is
engaged in a trade or business in the United States or has a
permanent establishment in the United States. Therefore, it is
necessary to clarify the application of the U.S. trade or
business and permanent establishment concepts to persons engaged
in electronic commerce. In developing principles to classify
these activities, it will be important to consider the extent to
which electronic commerce simply represents an extension of
current means of doing business, the tax consequences of which
are understood. For example, to the extent that the activities of
a person engaged in electronic commerce are equivalent to the
mere solicitation of orders from U.S. customers, without any
other U.S. activity, it may not be appropriate to treat such
activities as a U.S. trade or business. It will also be necessary
to consider whether it is appropriate or practical to treat
foreign persons engaged in electronic commerce with U.S.
customers as being engaged in a U.S. trade or business if they
are physically located outside the United States.
            Another example is the treatment of foreign persons who
maintain or utilize a computer server in the United States.
Computer servers can be located anywhere in the world and their
users are indifferent to their location. It is possible that such
a server, or similar equipment, is not a sufficiently significant
element in the creation of certain types of income to be taken
into account for purposes of determining whether a U.S. trade or
business exists. It is also possible that if the existence of a
U.S.-based server is taken into account for this purpose, foreign
persons will simply utilize servers located outside the United
States since the server s location is irrelevant.
            Finally, consideration may also be given to the role
other activities should play in determining whether a U.S. trade
or business exists. For example, it may ultimately be decided
that a foreign person who operates a computerized research
service through computers located outside of the United States
might not be engaged in a U.S. trade or business unless other
U.S. situs activities exist. However, U.S.-based individuals
engaged in providing marketing and support services for a
foreign-based provider of computerized research may create a U.S.
trade or business for the foreign person even if the computer
servers and other activities are located outside the United
States.
                 7.2.4.  Permanent Establishment.  To the extent
that a foreign person is not engaged in a U.S. trade or business,
then the absence of a permanent establishment is irrelevant since
the United States will not tax that person s active business
income. However, some persons entitled to benefits under a U.S.
income tax treaty will not be subject to U.S. tax due to the lack
of a permanent establishment, notwithstanding the fact that they
may be engaged in a U.S. trade or business. A U.S. permanent
establishment generally requires a fixed place of business in the
United States although a permanent establishment can also arise
by imputation from the activities of an agent. Therefore,
persons engaged in electronic commerce may not have a U.S.
permanent establishment because they do not have a fixed place of
business in the United States, unless a permanent establishment
is created by imputation, as discussed in section 7.2.5 below.
            Telecommunications or computer equipment owned or used
by a foreign person engaged in electronic commerce raises a
question as to whether this equipment could constitute a fixed
place of business of the foreign person in the United States,
taking into account that there would not necessarily be any
employees present. It will be necessary to consider whether
a foreign person who owns or utilizes a computer server located
in the United States should be deemed to have a U.S. permanent
establishment. Again, it is useful to review the treatment of
existing, traditional commercial activities and consider whether
any existing exclusions from permanent establishment treatment
should apply in this situation. For example, a permanent
establishment generally does not include the use of facilities
solely for the purpose of storage, display, or delivery of goods
or merchandise. . . .  For a business which sells
information instead of goods, a computer server might be
considered the equivalent of a warehouse. Examination and
interpretation of the permanent establishment concept in the
context of electronic commerce may well result in an extension of
the policies and the resulting exceptions to electronic commerce.
                 7.2.5.  U.S. trade or business or permanent
establishment by imputation: telecommunications and Internet
service providers.  A U.S. trade or business or permanent
establishment can also arise by imputation from an agent s
activities. Agency issues arise from the relationship
between a foreign person and a computer online service or
telecommunications service provider. Even if a person engaged in
electronic commerce does not maintain a computer server or
similar equipment in the United States, issues of U.S. trade or
business or permanent establishment would also arise. In most
cases, information will be transmitted to the customer s computer
through telephone lines. For example, a foreign person who
operated a computerized research service might contract with a
U.S. telecommunications company to provide local dial access
service so that the foreign person s U.S. customers can access
its computerized databases. Alternatively, the U.S. customers
might access the foreign information seller s Web site using a
U.S.-based Internet service provider. Presumably, the foreign
person s relationship with a local telecommunications service
provider is such that the telecommunications service provider
would not even be considered an agent of the foreign person. Even
if an agency relationship were deemed to exist, the service
provider would likely be considered an independent agent, with
the result that a U.S. trade or business or permanent
establishment would not arise. Nevertheless, it may be
necessary to further clarify the applicable principles in this
area and seek to create an international consensus on this issue.
                 7.2.6.  Taxation of telecommunications service
providers.  The principles used to determine whether a person is
engaged in a U.S. trade or business or maintains a U.S. permanent
establishment might differ if the person is primarily engaged in
providing telecommunications services, in contrast to a business
which is primarily engaged in selling goods or services for whom
the telecommunications services are merely incidental. A
distinction is generally recognized between activities that
 contribute to the productivity of the enterprise  and activities
that involve the  actual realization of profits.  In the
case of a foreign telecommunications service provider, the
operation of a computer server in the United States or the sale
of computing services and Internet access to U.S. and foreign
customers is clearly integral to the realization of its profits,
in contrast to the case of a foreign person who is primarily
engaged in selling data which is stored on a U.S.-based server.
            7.3.  Digitized Information: Classification of Income
                 7.3.1.  Transactions in digitized information.
Any type of information that can be digitized, such as computer
programs, books, music, or images, can be transferred
electronically. For example, a U.S. person could, via the
Internet, communicate with a computer located in a foreign
country and download a computer program or digitized image or
video in exchange for a fee. The purchaser s rights in the
information transferred could vary depending on the contract
between the parties.
            The purchaser of a digitized image could obtain the
right to use a single copy of the image, the right to reproduce
ten copies of the image for use in a corporate report, the right
to reproduce the image for use in an academic work that is
expected to have a limited press run, or the right to reproduce
the image in a mass-circulation magazine. Depending on the
facts and circumstances, some of these transactions may be viewed
as the equivalent of the purchase of a physical copy or copies of
the photograph, which would probably not subject the seller to
U.S. taxation, while other of these transactions would result in
royalty income because they involve payments for the use of or
the privilege of using copyrights or similar property in the
United States, which could be taxable in the United States.
            Technological developments have necessitated a
reexamination of existing income classification principles in
light of the ease of perfectly reproducing and disseminating
digitized information. Classifying transactions involving
digitized information may require a more complex analysis that
disregards the form of the transaction   without regard to
whether tangible property is involved   in favor an analysis of
the rights transferred. This is necessary to ensure neutrality
between the taxation of transactions in digitized information and
transactions in traditional forms of information, such as hard
copy books and movies, so that decisions regarding the form in
which information is distributed are not affected by tax
considerations.
                 7.3.2. Classification of income issues.
Information that can be digitized is generally protected by
copyright law. Payments made for the use of or for the privilege
of using copyrights are considered royalties. Similarly the
U.S. Model Tax Convention defines  royalties  as  payments of any
kind received as consideration for the use of, or the right to
use, any copyright of literary, artistic or scientific work
including cinematograph films . . . .  It is not always
clear how this definition applies to the sale of digitized
information. Yet, it is clear that some of these transactions,
such as the electronic purchase of computer programs, are merely
substitutes for conventional transactions involving physical
objects.
            Digitized information also presents unique issues
because it can be perfectly reproduced, often by the purchaser.
Although someone desiring to purchase ten copies of a bound book
will generally purchase ten copies from a publisher, someone
wishing to purchase ten copies of an electronic book may simply
purchase one copy and acquire the right to make nine additional
copies. This transaction might literally be considered to create
royalty income, at least in part, since the right to make
reproductions is a right reserved to the copyright holder and by
allowing a third party to make reproductions, the payment is, at
least in part, in consideration for the use of the copyright.
However, this transaction may also be viewed as merely a
substitute for the purchase of ten copies from the publisher in
which the purchaser has undertaken to make the copies, a process
which would not be feasible were the information not digitized.
Therefore, it is necessary to apply the definition of  royalties
in a manner that takes into account the unique characteristics of
digitized information.
            7.3.3. Proposed regulations on computer program
transactions.  The proposed regulations on the classification of
income from transactions involving computer programs represent an
initial attempt to resolve this issue. The regulations
invite comments prior to finalization. Although these regulations
are proposed to be limited to transactions involving computer
programs they may establish a framework applicable to any type of
digitized information, at least to the extent it is protectable
by copyright. Treasury requests comments on this issue.
            These proposed regulations do not seek to make
determinations based on whether property is  tangible  or
 intangible  because those concepts do not properly capture the
unique features of digitized information. For example, when a
computer disk containing a program is transferred, that would
appear, on its face, to be a transaction in a tangible object.
When the same program is transferred by means of electronic
impulses transmitted over a telephone line, it would seem to be
an intangible. Both of these classifications, however, ignore the
substance of the transactions and the analysis of the proposed
regulations avoids this confusion, in part by treating the means
of transfer as irrelevant.
            The proposed regulations treat transactions involving
computer programs as being either: (1) transfers of copyright
rights, (2) transfers of copies of the copyrighted program, (3)
the provision of services for the development or modification of
a computer program; or (4) the provision of know-how regarding
computer programming techniques. Because computer programs
are protected under copyright law and the rights that transferees
of computer programs obtain are primarily rights created by
copyright law, the proposed regulations take copyright law rights
as the starting point for the analysis. They demonstrate that an
understanding of these rights makes it possible to analyze
computer program transactions in the framework of existing
principles of tax analysis.
            The primary distinction established by the proposed
regulations is between transfers of copyright rights and
transfers of copyrighted articles. The proposed regulations use
copyright law principles to determine whether the rights
transferred are rights in the underlying copyright or are rights
in a copyrighted work. However, the proposed regulations depart
from copyright law when appropriate to take into account the
special characteristics of computer programs. Tax law principles
are then applied to determine whether or not there has been a
partial or complete transfer of these rights, which will
determine the tax classification of the resulting income. If a
transaction is considered to involve copyright rights, it is
either a sale or exchange of the copyright, or a license,
depending on whether  all substantial rights  in the copyright
have been transferred. If the transaction is a transfer of a
copyrighted article, then it is either a sale or exchange, or a
lease of the copyrighted article, based on an application of the
 benefits and burdens  test. Because this comprehensive framework
is based on an analysis of the underlying rights, it may be
flexible enough to handle transactions in computer programs and
other types of digitized information that are yet to be invented.
            These concepts and distinctions can, of course, be
found in existing law. The novel aspect of the proposed
regulations is that they take into account the unique
characteristics of digitized information. For example, for
copyright law reasons, computer programs are generally sold
pursuant to  license  agreements. Software developers transfer
rights in computer programs to individual users through licenses,
rather than sales, to prevent transferees from claiming the
rights that would be provided under copyright law to purchasers
of copies of the program. Therefore, the proposed regulations
seek to determine whether the rights obtained by a  licensee  are
copyright rights or are substantially equivalent to the rights
that would have been obtained had the transferee acquired a
program copy.
            As indicated above, the proposed regulations take the
unique characteristics of digitized information into account in
departing from a strict copyright law analysis. For example,
computer programs are frequently distributed through site
licenses. Under a site license, a  licensee  might obtain only
one disk containing the program but also obtains the right to
make a certain number of copies for internal use. Notwithstanding
the term applied to the transaction or the grant of a copyright
right under U.S. copyright law, the regulations propose to treat
this transaction as a sale of goods for tax purposes.
Although the right to reproduce  a computer program is a right
granted to the owner of the copyright, which would make the
transaction a license (resulting in royalties) under a pure
copyright law analysis, the proposed regulations recognize that
the bare right to copy a program is not relevant for purposes of
this analysis. Since digitized information can be perfectly
copied at little cost, the bare right to reproduce is disregarded
for tax purposes. The proposed regulations provide that the right
to reproduce is only relevant when it is coupled with the right
to sell the copies so made to the public. This is a case where
existing tax principles have been adapted to take into account
the unique features of electronic commerce.
                 7.3.4.  Definition of services income.  Digitized
information may also further complicate existing difficulties in
defining services income, as distinguished from sales of goods
income or royalties. This distinction is important for
purposes of determining the source of income, and for the
application of various Code provisions including the Subpart F
rules. Under subpart F, the definition of foreign base company
sales income differs from the definition of foreign base company
services income. Therefore, whether a transaction is deemed
to result in sale of goods income, as distinguished from services
income, may affect whether such income will be Subpart F income
that will be subject to current tax.
            The distinction between services income and other types
of income is a pervasive issue throughout the Code. For example,
in many cases, the distinction between service contracts and
other arrangements is unclear. Although many commercial
transactions involve elements of both the provision of tangible
property and the performance of services, these transactions are
generally classified in accordance with their predominant
characteristic. For example, a transaction involving the
performance of professional services may result in the provision
of a letter or other document. The aspect of the transaction
consisting of the provision of the tangible property is treated
as incidental to the performance of the services.
encyclopedia s content can be accessed. If the customer has a
sufficiently fast modem connection, there may be little practical
difference between accessing the on-line service and the CD-ROMs
on the customer s personal computer. The sale of the CD-ROMs may
result in sale of goods income while the classification of
the income arising from the on-line service is not clear. The on-
line service may result in services income although in some
circumstances it could be characterized as a means of
distributing copies of copyrighted works. However, a distinction
between sales of goods and services income may still be
appropriate in this area taking into account the frequency at
which the on-line service will be updated and the fact that the
user of the online service must continue to make periodic
payments, as contrasted with the fact that the purchaser of the
CD-ROM may acquire the right to use the disk in perpetuity for a
single payment. It will be necessary to consider the
principles to be applied in these situations that will best
implement the policy behind the underlying Code provisions.
                 7.3.5.  Effect on controlled foreign corporation
rules.  The ability of taxpayers to electronically sell digitized
information and services may have an effect on existing rules
regarding the controlled foreign corporation provisions of
Subpart F. Subpart F limits the use of tax deferral through
controlled foreign corporations (CFCs) by currently taxing
certain types of highly mobile income to the CFC s  United States
shareholders.  If CFCs can engage in extensive commerce in
information and services through Web sites or computer networks
located in a tax haven, it may become increasingly difficult to
enforce Subpart F. Some persons engaged in electronic commerce
may already be locating their businesses offshore. As
discussed in Chapter 8 below, this presents enforcement problems
because it may be difficult to verify the identity of the
taxpayer to whom foreign base company sales income accrues and
the amount of such income. It may be necessary to revise Subpart
F or the regulations thereunder to take these new types of
transactions into account.
            7.4.  Source of Services Income
                 7.4.1.  Geographic basis.  Income derived from the
performance of labor or personal services only constitutes U.S.
source income if the person performing the services is physically
present in the United States. This is also a generally
accepted international principle. This requirement is based
on the view that there is generally an independent, substantial
significance to the location where the person rendering the
services is located with the result that it is reasonable for
that country to tax such services. This concept is also relevant
for purposes of Subpart F since foreign base company services
income only includes services which  are performed outside the
country under the laws of which the controlled foreign
corporation is organized.  As travel and communications
have become more efficient and less expensive, the relationship
between the service provider s location and the service
consumer s location has weakened. For example, it is now possible
for physicians to remotely diagnose certain diseases through
telecommunications links and videoconferencing has eliminated the
need for many face-to-face meetings.
                 7.4.2.  Role of existing concepts.  These
technological developments are generally extensions of existing
communications devices. For example, a video conference is likely
to be a substitute for a conference telephone call. Although
these communications developments may pose some base erosion
potential since service providers will find it easier to relocate
to low-tax jurisdictions, it may be the case that the base
erosion potential is not so significant as to require review of
the current general principles of residence-based taxation
applicable to services. In devising rules to source this type of
income, it may also be necessary to consider the relationship
between the service-provider s physical location and other
potential indicia of source, such as the location of a computer
server or communications link.  Furthermore, to the extent the
source of this income is becoming both less meaningful and
increasingly difficult to determine, residence-based taxation
should necessarily play a larger role.
            7.5.  Global Services: Allocation Of Income And
Expenses
                 7.5.1.  Global collaboration.  The foregoing
section discussed the problem of determining the source of income
derived from the performance of services. A related issue arises
from increases in global collaboration arising from modern
telecommunications. One example is global dealing. As discussed
above, global dealing refers to the capacity of financial
intermediaries, mainly banks and securities firms, to execute
customers  orders and to take propriety positions in financial
products in markets around the world and around the clock. Global
dealing could not take place without modern computers and
communications, which permit a firm s trading position to be
transferred around the world as markets open and close.
Similarly, certain scientific and engineering projects are now
being worked on twenty-four hours a day as laboratories in one
region electronically hand-off the project at the end of the day
to a laboratory where the day is beginning. This type of
global collaboration is expected to increase.
                 7.5.2.  General principles of allocation.  Global
collaboration is not a new concept. When goods are manufactured
in one country and marketed and distributed in another, the
overall transaction could be characterized as global
collaboration in the sale of goods. Global collaboration requires
transfer pricing and source of income principles, to correctly
allocate the resulting income between the countries involved.
Current transfer pricing principles are focused on global
collaboration in the manufacture and sale of goods and the
creation and transfer of intangibles. The cost sharing
regulations under section 482 apply to allocate the results of
certain global research and development efforts, but only when
intangibles are created.
            By contrast, global dealing income has been allocated
through case-by-case negotiations between the competent
authorities involved,  although a guidance project on global
dealing is currently developing rules of general
application. As the ways in which companies collaborate
globally to provide services continue to grow, it may be
appropriate to consider the creation of general principles for
the arm s length allocation of broader categories of services
income based on each situation s particular facts. These rules
could be implemented through Treasury Regulations and
international consensus. To the extent that capital is not a
material income-producing factor in this situation, it would be
expected that the place where the component services were
performed would be of primary importance in allocating such
income.
            8.          TAX ADMINISTRATION AND COMPLIANCE ISSUES
         8.1.  General.  In the area of tax administration and
compliance, electronic commerce may create new variations on old
issues as well as new categories of issues. These developments
require that practical techniques be developed to deal with these
technological innovations. As discussed in this chapter, these
technological developments touch on a wide range of issues
affecting the administration of our tax laws. In many
cases, the products and techniques that will be required cannot
be developed or implemented by Treasury or the IRS on a
unilateral basis. Private sector and international cooperation is
likely to be necessary to develop and implement appropriate
software and hardware technologies.
         Electronic commerce is still developing and no
electronic money system has yet achieved widespread usage.
Nevertheless, it is important to consider these issues now since
some issues may require that the needs of tax administration be
addressed while electronic commerce systems are still under
development. Others issues may not require immediate action and
decisions can be delayed while Treasury and the IRS obtain more
experience with these systems.
         8.2.  Categories of issues.  These technological
developments create issues under many different sections of the
Code. Instead of dealing with these issues with respect to
particular Code sections, they will instead be approached on the
basis of their technological features. This is both a more useful
means of categorizing these issues and is also more likely to
identify potential solutions since solutions must be tailored to
the technology. These broad categories of issues, which are
discussed in detail below, are:
              (i) electronic money;
              (ii) identity verification;
              (iii) record keeping and transaction verification
              for electronic transactions; and
              (iv) disintermediation and information reporting.
         8.3. Electronic money.  As discussed in chapter 5,
developments in electronic payment systems have the potential to
create  electronic money.  Electronic money is a broad term, and
just as electronic money systems differ in their technical
features, they also differ in the extent to which they create
issues for tax administrators. Depending on the type of system
used, electronic money can be either an advantage or a
disadvantage for tax administrators.
         As discussed below, electronic money poses a tax
evasion potential similar to that created by paper money. This
raises the issue of whether the evasion potential is manageable
and what must be done to manage it. As discussed below, it is
possible that the techniques that have been developed over time
to combat evasion using paper money can be adapted and expanded
to combat evasion through electronic money. In particular, it may
be necessary to consider the role that issuers of electronic
money can play in this effort, since they represent the interface
between the physical economy and the electronic economy. In
general, however, the extent to which electronic cash will be a
problem will likely depend on the extent to which it results in
an extensive payment system outside of normal banking channels.
Treasury intends to study, and requests comments on these issues,
including the extent to which (i) current techniques can be
adapted to combat tax evasion using electronic cash, (ii) new
audit techniques will be necessary, and (iii) information
reporting and similar requirements can and should be imposed on
issuers of electronic money.
              8.3.1. Accounted systems. Chapter five
distinguished electronic money systems in part based on whether
they are accounted or unaccounted systems. In accounted systems,
the electronic money issuer maintains a central record of the
flow of its electronic money through the economy. In unaccounted
systems no such central record exists. Accounted systems are
unlikely to present substantial tax administration concerns
because the central record of transactions, if it is available
for examination on audit, will permit tax administrators to match
payments and receipts to specific taxpayers. In fact, the growth
of accounted systems will be an advantage for both taxpayers and
tax administrators since the central records maintained by an
accounted system could be used by taxpayers and auditors to
verify payments. Some taxpayers may therefore choose to use
accounted systems when a record of the transaction is necessary
for tax or other purposes.
         Treasury intends to study, and requests comments on,
how the records maintained by accounted systems can be integrated
into the system of tax administration and the standards that
should be applied to determine whether the records maintained by
an accounted system are acceptable for tax purposes.
              8.3.2. Unaccounted systems.  In contrast to
accounted systems, problems may arise with unaccounted systems,
which maintain no such central record and are therefore analogous
to cash. The extent of this problem will be measured by the
extent to which unaccounted systems are used instead of accounted
systems. It may be that unaccounted systems will be used
primarily for certain types of small transactions, just as cash
is used primarily for certain types of transactions. In many
cases consumers will prefer existing payment mechanisms, such as
credit cards, for the payment terms and the consumer protection
that they provide. In other situations, consumers will use
electronic money but will use accounted systems in order to have
a central record in case a dispute arises with the merchant.
While unaccounted electronic systems are unlikely to completely
displace other payment systems, the tax evasion potential they
create could be substantial.
         Transactions using unaccounted electronic money create
the opportunity for both not reporting or underreporting the
resulting income because detection of these transactions is
difficult. For example, a taxpayer might sell physical goods in
exchange for unaccounted electronic money, which might be
transferred via a card-based system. This problem currently
exists for paper currency-based businesses. However, it has been
historically possible to examine a business  flow of inventory
and similar physical indicia of the magnitude of the taxpayer s
business. This may not be possible for a taxpayer who sells
electronic goods or services; there is unlikely to be any
physical indicia of the amount of the taxpayer s receipts.
              8.3.3.  Bank secrecy. Finally, electronic money
creates increased opportunities to deposit unreported income in a
bank or other financial institution. As a result of electronic
money s advantage in transmitting large amounts of money with
relative ease, combined with the continued use of cash, the
problem of an underground, unaccounted for economy is likely to
be exacerbated.
         Electronic money and the Internet substantially
increase the ease and safety with which bank accounts can be
opened abroad, letterbox companies and trust accounts can be
established abroad, and funds transferred anonymously. Unlike
paper currency, electronic money can be securely and
instantaneously transmitted anywhere in the world. It is now
possible to open a bank account over the Internet in a bank
secrecy jurisdiction, without actually traveling to the bank s
location. Electronic money could be instantaneously and
anonymously transferred to such an account, thereby eliminating
the risks and reporting requirements involved in transferring
cash. Alternatively, a smart card encoded with a large amount of
unaccounted electronic money could be slipped into a pocket and
taken anywhere in the world without the bulk and weight of cash.
However, in the case of a bank or financial institution located
in the United States or a country with which the United States
has a tax treaty or Tax Information Exchange Agreement, it may be
possible in most cases to gain access to the taxpayer s bank
records or records of the funds  transmittal.
         8.4.  Identity verification.   A New Yorker cartoon
once featured two dogs sitting in front of a computer with a
caption that read  [O]n the Internet, nobody knows you re a dog.
Tax administrators face a similar issue. On the Internet it is
possible to use a false identity and it is not currently possible
to independently verify a party s identity. This raises a number
of issues because the identity of a counterparty is important for
numerous tax provisions. For example, if securities are purchased
electronically, the issuer is still subject to information
reporting and record keeping requirements. If the purchasers are
nonresident aliens or foreign corporations, payments of interest
and dividends are subject to withholding and reporting. This
withholding may be reduced or eliminated by a tax treaty if the
beneficial owner is entitled to treaty benefits. Claiming an
expense deduction requires proof of the payee and the
transaction. Under Subpart F, the identity of the purchaser of
goods is relevant in determining whether the sale creates foreign
base company sales income. For example, a U.S. seller of
electronic goods could route sales through a Web site maintained
by a base company and claim that the purchases were for use
within the base company s country of incorporation.
Therefore, it will be necessary to develop techniques to verify
that the purchases were indeed for use within that country.
Finally, if tax returns and other documents are to be
electronically filed, an acceptable form of digital signature
will be required.
         Verification of identity is also a problem for
consumers, who want to be assured that the persons with whom they
do business are who they claim to be. As a result,
companies engaged in electronic commerce are developing  digital
certificates  or  digital IDs  that can be used to verify a
person s identity over the Internet.  Digital certificates
are issued by a trusted intermediary who verifies the identity of
a person and performs appropriate background checks, depending on
the level of assurance to be granted. Once a person s
identity has been verified, he is issued a digital ID, which is
the on-line equivalent of a driver s license or passport which
can be transmitted to a potential customer. The certificate is
created using public key encryption techniques, which makes it
independently verifiable by the recipient and immune from
tampering.
            If they operate as designed, these digital IDs are
likely to represent an important means by which taxpayers and tax
administrators can prove the identity of electronic counter
parties. For example, if it were necessary for tax purposes to
prove the identity of an electronic counter party or comply with
an information reporting requirement, a taxpayer could be
required to obtain a digital ID from the counterparty and
maintain a record of that ID which could be examined on audit.
However, because some issuers of digital IDs may not perform
sufficiently thorough identity checks prior to issuing a digital
ID, the IRS may be required to develop standards for issuers of
digital IDs and certify issuers. In order to do so, the IRS may
be required to issue its own digital IDs to issuers of digital
IDs so that they can electronically prove that they have received
IRS certification. Treasury requests comments on the extent to
which digital IDs can be utilized for tax purposes, including the
extent to which they can serve as signatures on electronically
filed documents, the extent to which their use should be required
for certain purposes, and the role that the IRS should play in
certifying issuers of digital IDs.
            8.5.  Record keeping and transaction verification.
Taxpayers are required to keep accurate books and records, which
are subject to examination by the IRS in order to verify the
income and expenses reported on the taxpayer s return.
Although many taxpayers rely on computerized record keeping
systems to a large extent, many transactions still originate as
paper records which can be used to verify the accuracy of the
electronic records. However, for taxpayers engaged in the sale of
electronic goods or services, no paper records are likely to be
created because customer orders are placed and fulfilled
electronically and therefore the only record that exists of these
transactions could be an electronic one. As all users of
computers know, this creates the possibility for tax evasion and
fraud because computerized records can be altered without a
trace. Even taxpayers engaged in the sale of physical, as
opposed to electronic, goods may soon receive orders and issue
invoices electronically. Electronic  documents  must be
verifiable in order to minimize the potential for tax evasion.
            This is also an issue for non-tax businesses reasons.
For example, a recipient of an electronic order needs to verify
both that the order was sent by the proper person, and also needs
to verify that the order was not altered in transit. Public key
encryption techniques, which are used to create digital identity
certificates, can also be used to verify that electronic
documents and records have not been tampered with. For example,
 digital notarization  systems have been developed which are
intended to make it possible to verify that electronic documents
and records have not been altered. One such system purports to
provide the digital equivalent of a notary stamp which can be
used to certify and seal digital records in content and time so
that it can later be proved that the electronic record was
created when claimed and was not altered after the fact.
            Treasury requests comments on the extent to which such
technologies can, in fact, be used to verify the authenticity of
electronic transactions and on the role that Treasury should play
in the development of these systems.
            8.6.  Disintermediation and information reporting.  Tax
reporting and compliance relies in part on the use of centralized
institutions and intermediaries that can be used to comply with
information reporting and withholding requirements. For example,
withholding on payments to foreign persons relies on the use of
 withholding agents  who will generally be sophisticated persons
who understand their obligations and can be identified, and the
ability of the IRS to audit them. As discussed above, it is now
possible for individual and relatively unsophisticated taxpayers
to engage in cross-border investment and licensing transactions
that previously would have taken place through traditional
intermediaries, if at all. Disintermediation refers to the
elimination of these traditional intermediaries. For example, a
payment made for the right to download and reproduce a digitized
image may be a royalty, depending on the transferee s
rights. The parties to these transactions may be
unfamiliar with their withholding obligations and current
technology does not yet provide a means for computing and paying
such taxes electronically. Such a system is, presumably,
technically feasible but may not be accepted by electronic
merchants and consumers. The small amounts involved will also
complicate tax administration. In addition, the parties may be
unfamiliar with their information reporting requirements.
Information reporting plays an important role in tax
administration and it may also be necessary to integrate these
transactions into our system of information reporting.
            Treasury requests comments on how the tax system can be
adapted to deal with such disintermediated micro-transactions,
and the role of information reporting in such transactions.9.          CONCLUSION
            As the communications revolution continues to sweep
through the world economy, tax principles and systems of tax
administration will have to adapt. This paper represents an
attempt to further that process. It is not intended to resolve
the tax policy and administration issues posed by the
communications revolution but is intended to identify and assess
some of these issues. Certain issues may initially appear to be
so complex that they cannot be dealt with by existing principles.
Further study is likely to result in the conclusion that one or
more existing principles are more flexible than they may seem and
they remain relevant notwithstanding technological developments.
However, some of these technological developments, such as the
potential growth of extensive anonymous transactions involving
electronic cash, do raise certain existing administration and
compliance issues to new levels of concern.
          Treasury looks forward to receiving comments from, and
working with taxpayers and their advisors, including both tax law
specialists and computer technology specialists, academics, and
foreign tax policy makers and administrators, to better
understand these technologies and develop rational and
enforceable tax rules. This can play an important role in
fostering the growth of these technologies and transactions.
Clear and rational principles will ensure that the tax law will
not be an impediment to the growth of these exciting technologies
that have such a great potential to improve our lives.
          Comments on any of the issues raised by this paper should be
addressed to: Joseph H. Guttentag, International Tax Counsel,
Department of the Treasury, 1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20220. Comments may also be submitted to
Treasury via Internet e-mail to TAXPOLICY@treas.sprint.com, with
the subject line  technology issues.  All comments will be
available for public inspection and copying       GLOSSARY
Bandwidth: (Also known as  capacity ) In simple terms, how much
information or traffic can be carried on the Internet in a given
amount of time. The simple rule is that the greater the
bandwidth, the greater the opportunities for commerce. As a
specific example: with low bandwidth, transferring the contents
of a music CD via the Internet is not feasible; with higher
bandwidth, it is entirely feasible.
Browser: A program used to access the World Wide Web.
Bit: A contraction of the term  binary digit;  a unit of
information represented by a zero or one. The speed of
information transmission is measured in bits per second.
CD-ROM: Compact Disc with Read Only Memory; compatible with
computers, compact discs are inexpensive, high-capacity storage
devices for data, text and video.
Commercial Web Site: A computer site, attached to the Internet,
which sells Internet merchandise.
Convergence: The  coming together  of formerly distinct
technologies, industries or activities; the most common usage
refers to the convergence of computing, communications and
broadcasting technologies.
Cyberspace: The three-dimensional expanse of computer networks in
which all audio and video electronic signals travel and users
can, with the proper addresses and codes, explore and download
information.
Digital: Information expressed in binary patterns of ones and
zeros.
Digital Signature: Data appended to a part of a message that
enables a recipient to verify the integrity and origin of a
message.
Digitization: The conversion of an analog or continuous signal
into a series of ones and zeros, i.e., into a digital format.
Electronic Commerce: Consumer and business transactions conducted
over a network, using computers and telecommunications.
Encryption: The coding of data for privacy protection or security
considerations when transmitted over telecommunications links, so
that only the person to whom it is sent can read it.
Fiber Optic: A modern transmission technology using lasers to
produce a beam of light that can be modulated to carry large
amounts of information through fine glass or acrylic fibers.
Global Information Infrastructure or GII: The convergence of
previously separate communications and computing systems into a
single global network of networks.
Hypermedia: Use of data, text, graphics, video and voice as
elements in a hypertext system. All the forms of information are
linked together, so that a user can easily move from one form to
another.
Hypertext: Text that contains embedded links to other documents
or information.
Information Superhighway: See Global Information Infrastructure.
Intellectual Property: A collective term used to refer to new
ideas, inventions, designs, writings, films and others; protected
by copyright, patents, trade-marks, etc.
Internet: A vast international network of networks that enables
computers of all kinds to share services and communicate
directly.
Internet Merchandise: Goods, services or other property
(typically property in which intellectual property rights
subsist, such as music, software etc.) sold via commercial web
sites. A distinction can be drawn between those cases where
delivery is effected via the Internet itself (e.g. downloaded
software) and where delivery is effected via conventional means.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Organizations which provide
individuals and businesses with access to the Internet (including
commercial web sites). ISPs may be wholesalers or retailers or
both. A wholesaler normally resells bandwidth and certain other
services to smaller ISPs who act as retailers. The most
significant component of the sale price is the amount of
bandwidth purchased.
Modem: A contraction of  mo(dulator)  and  dem(odulator),  an
accessory that allows computers and terminal equipment to
communicate through telephone lines or cable; it converts analog
data into the digital language of computers.
Protocol: A standard procedure for regulating data transmission
between computers.
Server: Computers which store information for access by users of
a network, including the Internet.
Virtual Reality: An interactive, simultaneous electronic
representation of a real or imaginary world where, through sight,
sound and even touch, the user is given the impression of
becoming part of what is represented.
World Wide Web, Web, or WWW: The graphical, hypertext portion of
the Internet. The World Wide Web is described in chapter 3.

                           FOOTNOTES