LBL's national center for electron microscopy features the new 1.5 MeV high-volt
age electron microscope, the most powerful in the U. S. today.In 1945-46, the 184-inch was converted from a calutron to a synchrocyclotron; Lawrence and staff posed with the magnet.The magnet yoke for the 184-inch cyclotron was set in place and the building 
erected around it.The magnet yoke for the 184-inch cyclotron was set in place and the building erected around it.The Trinity test, first man- made nuclear explosion, Alamagordo, New Mexico, July 16, 1945.The 88-inch sector focused cyclotron, completed in 1961, uses the Thomas focusing principle refined by the MTA project.
UC's Office for History of Science and Technology is housed, appropriately enough, in Steghens Hall, a charming survivor of the older and more gracious school of academic architecture at Berkeley. Above, project director John Heilbron (at right), discusses the LBL history project with his collaborators Bob Seidel (left) and Bruce Wheaton.
Ernest Lawrence about the time he came to the University of California.The old Radiation LaboratoryEarly particle accelerators, like MIT's Van de Graaff machine, had difficulty containing the high voltages required.Lawrence's handwritten description of the event.Lawrence's handwritten description of the event.The first successful cyclotron (below).Early cyclotroneers (left to right): J. J. Livingood, F. Exner, M. S. Livingston, D. Sloan, Lawrence, M. White, W. Coates, L. J. Laslett, T. Lucci.The Laboratory's scientific and technical staff arranged within and on top of the magnet of the 60-inch cyclotron, 1939.The 11-inch cyclotron, shown installed in Room 329 Le Conte Hall, was the first cyclotron to exceed 1 MeV.David Sloan and J. J. Livingood work on the Sloan x-ray tube built at the University of California Hospital in San Francisco in 1932-3. With this machine, Lawrence's backers hoped to break the stranglehold of the large electrical manufacturers on the high-voltage x-ray tube market.From left to right, F. Kurie, D. Cooksey, E. McMillan, Lawrence, and R. Thornton encouraging a beam in the 27-inch cyclotron.Gilbert N. Lewis, the chemist who isolated heavy water and who was instrumental in bringing E. O. Lawrence to Berkeley.Participants at seventh Solvay congress in Brussels, Belgium, in October, 1933. Lawrence is standing second from right; Rutherford is sitting sixth from right, Chadwick on far right; Bohr third from left; Heisenberg stands fourth from left, and Cockcroft fifth from right."Cornog's robot," a product of downtime on the cyclotron, ca. 1939. Model unknown.Luis Alvarez about 1938, just before his work leading to the identification of helium-3.
Milt White beside the 60-inch cyclotron with which Alvarez showed the stability of helium-3.Joseph Hamilton drinking radiosodium, 1939; at right is R. Marshak.Lawrence appeared on the cover of <i>Time</i> for November 7, 1937, on the occasion of his winning the Comstock Prize of the National Academy of Sciences.
John Lawrence became interested in the biological effects of neotrons during a 1935 visit to Berkeley, and soon joined his brother's team.The blackboard in the old Radiation Lab recorded many important moments, including the first beam from the 60-inch cyclotron.A prewar cartoon of the 60-inch cyclotron.Critical adjustments to the oscillator of the 60-inch cyclotron.Critical adjustments to the oscillator of the 60-inch cyclotron.The first external cyclotron beam, obtained on March 26, 1936. The glow arises from the ionization of the air by the 5.8 MeV deuterons.Rad Lab camaraderie found a social outlet at Di Biasi's restaurant in Albany. Back row, left to right, standing: Bob Cornog, Ernest Lawrence, Luis Alvarez, Molly Lawrence, Emilio Segre; second row: Jerry Alvarez (seated), Betty Thornton, Paul Aebersold (standing), Iva Dee Hiatt, Edwin McMillan, Bill Farley; first row: Donald Cooksey, Robert Thornton, and one unidentified celebrant.Posing with the newly completed 60-inch cyclotron in the Crocker laboratory are, left to right, D. Cooksey D. Corson, Lawrence, R. Thornton, J. Backus, and W. Salisbury, and, on top L. Alvarez and E. McMillan.
Posing with the newly completed 60-inch cyclotron in the Crocker laboratory are, left to right, D. Cooksey D. Corson, Lawrence, R. Thornton, J. Backus, and W. Salisbury, and, on top L. Alvarez and E. McMillan.The Lab blackboard announced Lawrence's Nobel Prize.Lawrence encourages Lab workers during World War II.The magnet yoke for the 184-inch cyclotron during construction.Tennessee Eastman officials and General Leslie R. Groves with Lawrence at the magnet for the 184-inch cyclotron in 1943.Tennessee Eastman officials and General Leslie R. Groves with Lawrence at the magnet for the 184-inch cyclotron in 1943.S-1 Committee at Bohemian Grove, September 13, 1942. Left to right: Harold C. Urey, Lawrence, James B. Conant, Lyman J. Briggs, E.V. Murphee, and A. H. Compton.Lawrence slumps in his chair from fatigue during calutron test.The magnet of the 184-inch machine testing alpha calutron tanks. To the right is the vertical-pole XA prototype test magnet for isotope separation.Frank Oppenheimer (center right) and Robert Thornton (right) examine the 4-source emitter for the improved alpha calutron.Detail of the two ion source guns of the initial alpha calutron. Ion beams exit upwards into the funnel- shaped electrode boxes.McMillan recreating the search for neptunium at the time of the announcement of the discovery, June 8, 1940.Glenn Seaborg adjusts a Geiger-Muller counter during search for plutonium at the Laboratory.First plutonium sample used to determine its fission properties in March, 1941.Twenty micrograms of pure plutonium hydroxide in capillary tube, September 1942.Lawrence challenged by Laboratory security guard at wartime Laboratory.J. Robert OppenheimerA view of tracks in the window of the 72-inch bubble chamber.A pion entering from the left and striking a proton produces two uncharged particles (K0 and L) that leave no tracks until they too decay.A negative kaon entering from below produces an uncharged kaon and an uncharged X0 that, in turn, decays into two uncharged particles (L+p0). The dotted lines in the inset follow the trackless participants.Artist's conception of the Bevatron. The beam injector is at 4 o'clock, the experimental area and emergent beam at 8 o'clock.Preparation of the foundation for the giant Bevatron magnet.Huge motor generators with 65-ton flywheels for storing power supplied 100,000 kilowatts to the Bevatron for each accelerating cycle of 1.85 sec.Fabricating one of the four straight connecting segments of the Bevatron.A Cockroft-Walton accelerator (right) fed protons to an Alvarez linac (center) for injection into the Bevatron at 10 MeV.Antiproton detecting setup at the Bevatron, 1955.Surrounding Edward Lofgren (center) are discoverers of the antiproton (left to right) Emilio Segre, Clyde Wiegand, Owen Chamberlain, and Thomas Ypsilantis.Day-to-day results of the antiproton experiment were displayed on a chalk-board in the Bevatron.Melvin Calvin shown with some of the apparatus he used to study the role of carbon in photosynthesis.The Lab as it appeared about 1955. The Bevatron occupies the central round building, the 184-inch sits under the dome above that."Old Town"-the city of the 184-inch cyclotron-during the peaceful days after the war.Operator maps particle tracks with Alvarez Scanning and Measuring Projector.First tracks observed in liquid hydrogen by John Wood, 1954.The 72-inch chamber removed from its instrumentation.The 72-inch liquid hydrogen bubble chamber in its home, building 59.Jack Franck's "Franckenstein" reduces bubble-chamber film to machine readable data.The semiautomatic Spiral Reader could analyze up to 150 bubble chamber events an hour.Nuclear chemistry prospered in the postwar era, with the discovery of several new elements by the team including Seaborg (left) and Albert Ghiorso.LBL's national center for electron microscopy features the new 1.5 MeV high-voltage electron microscope, the most powerful in the U. S. today.The SuperHilac, successor to the HILAC, accelerates beams of heavy ions.Temperature and radioactivity of a hot geothermal pool in Ruby Valley, Nevada, are measured by LBL scientists in a comprehensive study of geothermal energy sources.The Bevalac link joins the SuperHilac (top of picture) to the Bevatron, allowing the accelerators to work together in a tandem mode known as the Bevalac.An atmospheric research laboratory on wheels is part of LBL's air-pollution research program.Lasers have a variety of uses in the Laboratory today; here, a postdoc in the Materials and Molecular Research Division uses a nitrogen-pumped dye-tuned laser to separate a compound into its constituents.An abandoned iron mine in Stripa, Sweden, is the site of nuclear- waste disposal studies under the direction of LBL geologists and the Swedish government.Mark II (no kin to the MTA) is the successor to the Mark I detector in which the new class of particles known as the psi or J particles was found; it is being used at PEP.The Time Projection Chamber (TPC), shown with inventor David Nygren (left), was designed by LBL physicists for use at PEP, the positron-electron colliding beam ring at Stanford.Rectifier decks are part of the high voltage system for Abel, the new injector at the SuperHilac, which permits acceleration of ions as heavy as uranium.The Plastic Ball, developed by a collaboration between scientists from LBL and West Germany, is the first detector system that records electronically the products of high-energy nuclear collisions simultaneously from all angles; it is being used in Bevalac experiments.HISS, the heavy ion spectrometer system at the Bevatron, permits a number of different heavy-ion experiments to be done at the same time.The triangle in the glass tube contains the world's first sample of americium, produced in the 60- inch cyclotron in 1944.Artist's conception of the 184-inch cyclotron with a fanciful beam emerging toward the observer.Vannevar Bush (left) and Arthur
H. Compton at Del Monte
Lodge, 1948.Schematic of the arrangement within the tank of the 184-inch synchrocyclotron devised by Gardner et al. to detect negative mesons, the paths of which are bent around the shielding and into the plate by the accelerator's field, 1948.Emulsion holder used in the pi-meson search. The curved channels act to prevent particles with the wrong radii of curvature from reaching the plates placed in back.The first annihilation star ("Faustina") of an antiproton found in film exposed by the Segre group, 1955.Vacuum vessel of the MTA Mark I under construction at Livermore.Laboratory physicist Denis Keefe with spark chambers developed in the 1960s for 
particle identification.View inside the partially opened  Iinac chamber showing the drift tubes between which protons are successively accelerated.The 40-foot long radio-frequency cavity of the proton linac lifted out of its vacuum vessel.The steel vacuum chamber for the proton linac built in 1947 by a group under Luis Alvarez.Looking down the vacuum tank of Mark 1: railroad tracks were used to move the massive drift tubes within the vessel.Looking down the vacuum tank of Mark 1: railroad tracks were used to move the massive drift tubes within the vessel.Lawrence, Brobeck, Harold Fidler, and Donald Cooksey in the aperture of a Bevatron magnet section, 1950.Machine shop crew at the Laboratory during World War II.Workmen at Federal Telegraph smoothing two castings for 80-ton magnets. The tall central pole had to be machined down for use in the cyclotron.
Donald Cooksey
The principle of phase stability- basic to the 184-inch cyclotron and the electron synchrotron and their successors-is explained by its author Edwin McMillan.The 184-inch cyclotron operated for the first time on November 1, 1946. In
the foreground, left to right, are Thornton, Lawrence, McMillan, and James
Vale.Robert Serber, Laboratory theorist, writing for a photographer shortly after the announcement of the discovery of machine-made mesons by Gardner and Lattes in February, 1948.C. M. G. Lattes (left) and E. Gardner with the nuclear emulsion positioning apparatus for the 184-inch cyclotron.Wilson Powell (on ladder) with his propane bubble chamber.Edwin McMillan became director of the Laboratory when Lawrence died in 1958.General Groves and UC President Sproul admire the Medal for Merit awarded Lawrence in March, 1946 for wartime achievements of the Laboratory.Another Nobel Prize announcement on a Lab blackboard.From left to right, H. P. Hernandez, McMillan, L. W. Alvarez, and J. D. Gow, standing before the 72-inch bubble chamber.Bubble-chamber inventor Donald Glaser examines a xenon chamber built at LBL in the early 1960s.Physicist Angelina Galtieri consults log with operator in control room of the Bevatron.Lunch during the International Conference on High Energy Physics, 1966. Left to right: McMillan, Val Fitch, Murray Gell Mann, Victor Weisskopf, Geoffrey Chew, and Sidney Drell.The completed oscillator for Mark I.The magnet yoke of the model for Mark III showing the three strong/weak field regions.Shaped pole faces for the 1/10 scale electron model of the Mark 111 sector-focused cyclotron, 1951.Artist's concept of a possible target configuration for Mark III.The vacuum vessel for Mark I went up before its enclosure, 1952.Aligning the central support for one of Mark 1's drift tubes.Schematic of Mark II, 1500 feet long. The injector is at near end, target at far.Proposed target structure for the 1500-foot Mark 11 accelerator. Scale is given by the two figures at lower right.Assembly of the powerful radio oscillator for Mark 1.Shaping the copper ends of the large drift tubes for Mark 1.Evidence for the first Berkeley "resonance," a brief combination of a L particle and two pions called Y*(1385).Correlation evidence for the Y*(1405) hyperon resonance.Two detectors of anti-protons. At left is the arrangement Segre's group used successfully in 1955. M indicates bending magnets, Q focusing quadrupole magnets, S scintillation counters and C Cerenkov counters to eliminate false counts. At right is the Lofgren group's detector that analyzed the. beam from Segre's magnets. The small Cerenkov counters distinguished the antiproton from a meson, the large one registered the annihilation of an antiproton with a proton.
An early view of the facilities at Oak Ridge; hundreds of workers were trained at Berkeley for the Tennessee-Eastman Company, operator  of the Oak Ridge plant.The alpha calutrons required constant attention to keep the ion beam current at a maximum.Underneath each racetrack was a vast vacuum pumping system for the calutron tanks.The "C" shaped alpha calutron tank, together with its emitters and collectors on the lower-edge door, was removed in a special "drydock" from the magnet for recovery of uranium-235.Control panels and operators for calutrons at Oak Ridge. The operators, mostly women, worked in shifts covering 24 hours a day.A vast bank of diffusion vacuum pumps operated underneath the alpha calutron racetrack to free the tanks of air.The huge electromagnetic separation complex at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, became the heart of a bustling, closely-guarded community.The completed ring-shaped non-metalic vacuum chamber for McMillan's electron synchrotron, ca. 1947.Lawrence lunching with future president Eisenhower and past president Hoover at Bohemian Grove, July 23, 1950.Luis Alvarez with Berkeley-built bubble chambers.Wolfgang "Piel" Panofsky collaborated with Alvarez on the proton linac and built SLAC, still the world's most powerful electron accelerator and home of PEP. M. Stanley Livingston 
Newspaper headlines announced the discovery of another new element, berkelium.Newspaper headlines on August 7, 1945, revealed to the Bay Area public for the first time that the laboratory had played a crucial role in the war effort.Mesons produced by the beam hitting the small target at left follow curved paths in the magnetic field of the cyclotron. This sketch is from E. Gardner's notebooks.The Ilford company produced special photographic plates containing extra chemical elements for the meson search.Troubles plagued the exposure of emulsions and entire series of results were marked "bad."David Shirley, formerly head of the Materials and Molecular Research Division, became Laboratory director in 1980.The Berkeley evening fog rolled away and the stars came out just long enough for Lab photographer Doug McWilliams to take the color photograph of the 184-inch cyclotron, the Laboratory, and the view beyond that is featured on the cover of this issue of the NEWSMAGAZINE. Doug hauled his cameras up the hill to a point midway between the cyclotron and the Lawrence Hall of Science to find this spectacular vantage point.Andrew Sessler, director from 1973 to 1980, widened the Laboratory's research interests to include energy and environment studies.John CockcroftErnest Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory.E.T.S. WaltonC. C. Lauritsen and R. D. Bennet in the Caltech High Voltage Testing Laboratory at the control board of the high-voltage x-ray tube Lauritsen later redesigned as a particle accelerator.Robert A. Millikan, shown here in 1935 with the Neher self-recording electroscope used in cosmic-ray studies.Carl D. Anderson (left) and Millikan (right) on Pike's Peak, where Anderson found evidence for the mesotron in 1936.U.C. Berkeley campus circa 1940. The Old Radiation Laboratory is the small, house-like structure to the right of the campanile at clock height; Le Conte hall is directly beneath the lab, Crocker Laboratory above it.This cloud-chamber photograph, showing the track of a positively charged particle of electronic mass slowed down by passing upward through a lead plate, was among the earliest evidence of the existence of the positron adduced by C. D. Anderson (1932).Rolf Wideroe's diagrams describing a method for accelerating ions (left) inspired Ernest Lawrence's invention of the cyclotron.Diagram of the first successful cyclotron constructed by Lawrence and M. S. Livingston. The single dee is five inches in diameter.Sketch from Lawrence's notebook af an early shim for the 11-inch cyclotron.Economic Depression and calls for a "New Deal" dominated the national consciousness during the years Lawrence was building his Laboratory.The first million-volt reading: January 8, 1932, 11-inch cyclotron.Frederic Joliot and Irene Joliot-Curie in their laboratory at the Institut du Radium, Paris, ca. 1930."The lions den" of the Cavendish: Rutherford, foreground, with colleagues; Chadwick is at right.Top: Schematic diagram of Lawrence's hypothesis for disintegration of the deuteron to a proton and a neutron in the electric field of a nucleus. Bottom: Rutherford's proposal that two colliding deuterons decay either to hydrogen-3 or helium-3, yielding protons and neutrons.Enrico Fermi in Rome, mid-1930sEmilio Segre in the early 1930s.Schematic diagram of uranium isotope separation in the calutron.Design of receiver for alpha calutron. Uranium-235 collects in the small pocket between "Q carbon" and "defining carbon."Installing magnet shims in an alpha calutron tank to increase output of uranium-235.Installing magnet shims in an alpha calutron tank to increase output of uranium-235.Installing magnet shims in an alpha calutron tank to increase output of uranium-235.John Gofman initiated studies that led to the understanding of the effects of lipoproteins on cardiovascular disease.Cal Tech's Carl Anderson set off te search for the mesons with his discovery of a particle with the charge of the electron but a greater mass.Photomicrograph of the track of one of the first       mesons found by Gardener and Lattes, 1948.Schematic of the experiment of Bjorkland et al., showing observation through a port in the concrete shielding of disintegration photons proceeding against the proton beam; photons moving in the direction of the protons were observed through the same port with the beam reversed, 1950.Schematic of the experiment of Steinberger et al. Coincidences registered as a function of the angles [alpha] and [beta] agreed with thi hypothesis that the photons, which created the pairs that activated the countrs, were the only decay products of a neutral relativistic pion, 1950.Edward TellerThe principle of sector focusing: a particle crossing the bulging field ast the edge of a sector is pushed back into the horizontal plane.Sector focusing produces particle orbits with lobes, one per sector-pair.Livermore Naval Air Station at about the time it became the site for Mark I.Relative sizes, magnet weight, and cost of earliest particle accelerators at Berkeley. ES is the electron synchrotron, BV the Bevatron.Sketch of the first liquid hydrogen bubble chamber (1.5-inch diameter), built by John Wood and A. J. Schwemin in 1954.Sources: National Defense Project Contract W-7405 Report, UCRL Budget Estimates FY 1951, Pro Forma Berkeley Financial Summary Fiscal Years 19511960, and UCRL Annual Reports. Data for 1954 and 1955 are estimates; little attempt then being made to segregate Berkeley and Livermore operations costs.Edward Lofgren, physicist in charge of the Bevatron, examines it with its designer and builder, William Brobeck.