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<META content=3D"29-Mar-2004 Ver.2" name=3DDate><!--BeginNoIndex-->
<META content=3D"Agricultural Sciences" name=3DSubject><!--EndNoIndex-->
<META=20
content=3D"Rodents are an important and ubiquitous group of mammals that =
occur as indigenous or introduced species throughout the world. The =
populations of a relatively few species that live in close association =
with humans sometimes cause economic damage or become threats to the =
health of humans or domestic animals. When rodent control efforts are =
contemplated, the type of problem and the objectives of these efforts =
should be carefully defined. Successful management of rodent problems =
depends upon correct identification of the rodent species involved and =
on obtaining information on the biology, ecology, and behavior of the =
species in the ecological setting where the problem occurs. "=20
name=3DSummary>
<META=20
content=3D"Pest control, Rodents, Plantation crops, Stored products, =
Forest crops, Urban Rodent, Reforestation, Hydraulic Structure, Habitat =
Management, Rodenticides, Traps, Ultrasonics,"=20
name=3Dkeywords>
<META content=3D"Mark E. Tobin and Michael W. Fall" name=3DAuthor>
<META content=3D"PEST CONTROL: RODENTS" name=3DTitle>
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Dleft><A=20
name=3D"PEST CONTROL: RODENTS">PEST CONTROL: =
RODENTS</A></P></B></FONT><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify>Mark =
E. <A=20
name=3Dhit1></A><SPAN style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffff00">Tobin</SPAN> =
and Michael=20
W. Fall</B></P><I>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>National Wildlife=20
Research Center, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Colorado, =
USA</P></I><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Keywords:</B>=20
Pest control, Rodents, Plantation crops, Stored products, Forest crops, =
Urban=20
Rodent, Reforestation, Hydraulic Structure, Habitat Management, =
Rodenticides,=20
Traps, Ultrasonics,</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Contents</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify><A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#1. Introduction">1.=20
Introduction</A></P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify><A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#2. Characteristics of Rodents">2.=20
Characteristics of Rodents</A></P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify><A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#3. Rodent Populations">3.=20
Rodent populations</A></P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify><A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#4. Types of Rodent Problems">4.=20
Types of Rodent Problems</A></P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify><A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#5. Control Methods">5.=20
Control Methods</A></P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify><A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#Related Chapters">Related=20
Chapters</A></P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 0px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0px" align=3Djustify><A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#Bibliography">Bibliography</A></P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Summary</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rodents are an=20
important and ubiquitous group of mammals that occur as indigenous or =
introduced=20
species throughout the world. The populations of a relatively few =
species that=20
live in close association with humans sometimes cause economic damage or =
become=20
threats to the health of humans or domestic animals. When rodent control =
efforts=20
are contemplated, the type of problem and the objectives of these =
efforts should=20
be carefully defined. Successful management of rodent problems depends =
upon=20
correct identification of the rodent species involved and on obtaining=20
information on the biology, ecology, and behavior of the species in the=20
ecological setting where the problem occurs. Analyzing the economic =
costs of=20
potential damage or assessing the risks of failure or inaction can =
assist in the=20
selection of appropriate combinations of control methods to employ. =
Progress in=20
rodent control programs should be monitored regularly and success should =
be=20
measured against the achievement of appropriate objectives (for example, =
prevention of crop damage or prevention of rodent infestations in =
warehouses or=20
feed mills), not by counting the numbers of rodents killed or the amount =
of=20
poison bait applied. No single method of rodent control will be =
predictably=20
effective in all situations; IPM programs that apply several methods =
appropriate=20
to the species and the environment where a problem occurs offer the best =
prospects for long-term success.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify><A=20
name=3D"1. Introduction">1. Introduction</A>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#PEST CONTROL: RODENTS"><IMG=20
height=3D31=20
src=3D"mhtml:file://C:\Documents and Settings\ddwyer\My Documents\PEST =
CONTROL =
RODENTS.mht!http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/arrow.gif"=20
width=3D31 border=3D0></A></P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rodents are the=20
largest, and one of the most interesting, groups of mammals. They are =
important=20
components of virtually all of the earth's terrestrial ecosystems and =
are=20
important herbivores that aerate the soil by burrowing activities and =
assist=20
plant propagation by consuming and disseminating seeds. They are often =
the most=20
important food base for many predatory mammals and birds, acting to =
sustain=20
populations of these species. However, rodents also are important =
vectors or=20
reservoirs of numerous diseases that infect humans, domestic animals, =
and other=20
wildlife species. They are significant economic pests that devastate =
crops,=20
gardens, orchards, or landscape plantings, and damage commercial forest=20
plantations or impede reforestation efforts. Rodents burrow through dams =
and=20
irrigation structures, gnaw through communications cables and damage=20
electronics, and consume or contaminate stored food and other =
commodities.=20
Rodents sometimes prey on the eggs or young of wild birds and compete =
with=20
native wildlife species for food or habitat, and thus have become =
important=20
concerns in the management and recovery of threatened or endangered =
species,=20
particularly in island environments.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rodent control=20
describes the processes that people use to alleviate rodent damage, to =
prevent=20
the spread of rodent-borne diseases, to reduce problem rodent =
populations, or to=20
eliminate rodent infestations. Depending on the species of rodents =
involved, the=20
kinds of environments where problems occur, the nature of the problem, =
and the=20
value of anticipated damage, a variety of methods is available for =
controlling=20
damage or reducing rodent populations. Usually, several methods need to =
be used=20
systematically to achieve lasting results. The process of selecting, =
applying,=20
and evaluating the results of such combinations of control methods in =
relation=20
to the ecological and economic aspects of specific damage problems is =
called=20
integrated pest management (IPM) or ecologically-based pest =
management.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify><A=20
name=3D"2. Characteristics of Rodents">2. Characteristics of=20
Rodents</A>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#PEST CONTROL: RODENTS"><IMG=20
height=3D31=20
src=3D"mhtml:file://C:\Documents and Settings\ddwyer\My Documents\PEST =
CONTROL =
RODENTS.mht!http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/arrow.gif"=20
width=3D31 border=3D0></A></P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Because of the=20
diverse characteristics of rodent species for which rodent control may =
be a=20
concern, only a very general discussion is possible. The biology, =
ecology, and=20
behavior of each species or even of the same species occurring in =
different=20
environments must be examined carefully to develop successful rodent =
control=20
programs. What might work effectively for rodent control in a grain =
warehouse or=20
urban sewer system would have little applicability or would be =
impractical in an=20
Asian rice field. However, the kinds of information needed and the =
principles=20
used to develop an IPM program are the same.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>There =
are more=20
than 2000 recognized species of rodents (Wilson and Reeder 1993), many =
of which=20
are described and pictured in Nowak (1999). A relative few of these =
species,=20
perhaps less than 250 worldwide, interact sufficiently with humans to =
cause=20
economic, conservation, or health concerns sufficient to warrant rodent =
control=20
efforts. Biologists often rename or combine different groups of rodents =
to=20
better reflect relationships as new scientific information becomes =
available.=20
Whenever possible, current scientific names for rodents (Wilson and =
Reeder 1993)=20
have been used when citing information from older literature.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Many =
readers are=20
most familiar with "rats and mice" as the animals commonly associated =
with=20
rodent control. The Norway rat (<I>Rattus norvegicus</I>), also known =
locally as=20
the brown rat, wharf rat, sewer rat, or barn rat, has a nearly worldwide =
distribution and is almost always found living in close association with =
humans.=20
The roof rat or black rat (<I>Rattus rattus</I>) and the house mouse =
(<I>Mus=20
musculus</I>) are also widely distributed and, together with the Norway =
rat, are=20
known as commensal rodents because of their generally close association =
with=20
human habitation. Rodents range in size from the South American capybara =
(<I>Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris</I>), weighing more than 50 kg, to the =
harvest=20
mouse (<I>Micromys minutus</I>) of Eurasia, weighing 5 to 7g. Most =
rodent=20
species have thick fur, although great variations in pelage occur. The =
naked=20
mole rats (<I>Heterocephalus glaber</I>) of Africa have only bare skin, =
while=20
porcupine species, such as (<I>Erithizon dorsatum</I>) of North America, =
have=20
highly modified coats containing spines or quills that help provide =
protection=20
from predators. Hearing, smell, taste and touch are well-developed =
senses in=20
rodents, but as with many mammals, particularly the nocturnal species, =
their=20
vision is relatively poor and they apparently do not distinguish colors. =
Rodents=20
detect sound at frequencies substantially higher than humans; some =
species may=20
use ultrasound as a means of communication (Blanchard et al. 1991). Most =
rodents=20
have long whiskers or vibrissae around their muzzles that are highly =
sensitive=20
and may be used in following runways or burrows. Many rodent species are =
excellent climbers, using their long tails for balance. Most rodents =
readily=20
swim; some, like beavers (<I>Castor canadensis</I>), nutria =
(<I>Myocastor=20
coypus</I>), muskrats (<I>Ondatra zibethicus</I>), and web-footed rats=20
(<I>Holochilus sciureus</I>), have modified appendages such as flattened =
tails=20
or webbed feet that facilitate their use of freshwater aquatic =
habitats.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Most =
species of=20
rodents are born naked and helpless, but mature rapidly. Norway rats =
(<I>Rattus=20
norvegicus</I>), for example, have a gestation period of about 3 weeks, =
become=20
independent of the mother at about 3 weeks after birth, and can breed =
for the=20
first time within another 3 weeks. Rodents are omnivorous, exhibiting =
choices=20
and preferences in their diet, but often selecting the most abundant, =
palatable=20
foods available. They readily learn to reject or avoid unpalatable foods =
or=20
those containing toxins, which presents a problem for the development of =
bait=20
materials for effective delivery of rodenticides. The front teeth, or =
incisors,=20
of rodents grow continuously and are also worn continuously by gnawing =
on=20
objects or food. Because of the large space or diastema behind their =
incisors,=20
rodents can use these front teeth to investigate or nibble unfamiliar =
materials=20
without actually taking them inside their mouths.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify><A=20
name=3D"3. Rodent Populations">3. Rodent =
Populations</A>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#PEST CONTROL: RODENTS"><IMG=20
height=3D31=20
src=3D"mhtml:file://C:\Documents and Settings\ddwyer\My Documents\PEST =
CONTROL =
RODENTS.mht!http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/arrow.gif"=20
width=3D31 border=3D0></A></P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Because of the=20
high reproductive capacity of rodents, their populations can grow =
rapidly to=20
utilize available habitat and food. In stable environments rodents =
self-regulate=20
their populations. When a population reaches the carrying capacity of an =
environment, reproduction declines and excess animals die (usually from =
disease,=20
parasites, or predation) or emigrate to new areas. Yet rodents survive =
very=20
adverse conditions=E2=80=94even nuclear explosions!=E2=80=94by living in =
underground burrows=20
(Jackson 1969) and rebuilding their populations when conditions again =
become=20
favorable. Habitat disruption or climatic changes that lead to increases =
in food=20
and harborage sometimes give rise to population outbreaks or irruptions =
of some=20
rodent species, resulting in extremely high populations that can inflict =
severe=20
damage on crops (Fiedler and Fall 1994). Libay and Fall (1976) observed=20
densities of 1 adult rat per square meter (10&nbsp;000 rats per =
hectare!) in a=20
breeding population of <I>Rattus tanezumi</I> in a large marsh area in =
the=20
Philippines adjacent to a ricefield basin. </P><I>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rattus=20
argentiventer</I> in Southeast Asia, the multimammate rats (<I>Mastomys=20
natalensis</I>) in Africa, <I>Mus musculus</I> in Australia and Hawaii, =
the=20
jirds, <I>Meriones hurrianae</I> and <I>Meriones shawi</I>, in South =
Asia and=20
North Africa, the Microtines (voles and lemmings) in Eurasia and North =
America,=20
and cotton rats (<I>Sigmodon hispidus</I>) in southern USA and Central =
America=20
all undergo periodic population irruptions. Scientists are continuing to =
study=20
ways to predict such rodent outbreaks and prevent their occurrence (or =
at least=20
reduce the associated damage). Surveillance of rodent populations, =
particularly=20
in agricultural areas where outbreak species occur, is often an =
important=20
component of rodent control.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rodent population=20
irruptions may result in damage that is highly visible and often =
spectacular,=20
devastating crop fields over wide areas. However, chronic damage and the =
risks=20
of rodent-borne disease are often a greater concern from the viewpoints =
of=20
economics and public health and can occur when rodent populations are =
relatively=20
low=E2=80=94or in cases of diseases carried by rodent feces or urine, =
when rodents are=20
absent. There are few places in the world where rodents are not closely=20
associated with human enterprise. The potential for chronic losses of =
crops,=20
losses and contamination of stored products, and transmission of =
rodent-borne=20
diseases requires careful monitoring to determine if rodent control =
programs are=20
needed or appropriate.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify><A=20
name=3D"4. Types of Rodent Problems">4. Types of Rodent=20
Problems</A>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#PEST CONTROL: RODENTS"><IMG=20
height=3D31=20
src=3D"mhtml:file://C:\Documents and Settings\ddwyer\My Documents\PEST =
CONTROL =
RODENTS.mht!http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/arrow.gif"=20
width=3D31 border=3D0></A></P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>The =
diversity of=20
problems caused by rodents throughout the world is so great that only a =
few=20
examples of some general categories of problems can be discussed. We =
provide a=20
list of additional readings at the end of this chapter for readers who =
wish to=20
obtain more information about rodent pest species and the different =
types of=20
problems they cause in different areas of the world.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.1. =
Grain=20
Crops</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Rat =
damage to=20
ripening rice crops in Asia, Africa, and Latin America can be an =
extremely=20
serious agricultural problem, although economic losses are often =
difficult to=20
estimate because of complex patterns of growth and recovery of plants =
related to=20
the developmental stage when damage occurs (Fall 1977, Fall 1980, Buckle =
1994).=20
Rats can completely consume fields of growing rice and sometimes prevent =
planting where crops could otherwise be grown (Wood 1994). Wheat, =
sorghum, maize=20
and other grain crops are also damaged extensively by various rodent =
species in=20
different parts of the world, and patterns of damage vary considerably =
depending=20
on the behavior of the species involved. For example, <I>Bandicota=20
bengalensis</I> in southern Asia cuts mature wheat and rice in large =
patches and=20
establishes extensive underground food caches (Poche et al. 1982); =
<I>Rattus=20
tanezumi </I>and<I> Rattus argentiventer</I> in the Philippines and =
other areas=20
of Southeast Asia feed upon all stages of growing rice (Fall, 1977), =
while=20
<I>Sigmodon hispidus</I> in Central America avoids wet areas in rice =
fields and=20
causes damage after water is removed to dry the crop before =
harvest.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.2.=20
Sugarcane</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rodents cause=20
extensive damage to ripening sugarcane wherever it is grown, from Asia =
to=20
Africa, Latin America, the Pacific region, and Australia (Fiedler et al. =
1987,=20
Fall 1980, <A name=3Dhit2></A><SPAN style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: =
#ffff00">Tobin</SPAN>=20
et al. 1990). Rats gnaw on the internodes of growing stalks, thereby =
killing=20
stalks, diminishing yields, or allowing infection by bacteria or fungus, =
which=20
reduces cane quality and sugar yield. Losses are difficult to quantify =
but can=20
be substantial (Redhead 1980, Hampson 1984, Haque et al. 1985, Rampaud =
1993,=20
Engeman et al. 1998b). The major depredating species vary from area to =
area and=20
include: <I>Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus, </I>and<I> Rattus exulans=20
</I>in<I> </I>Hawaii<I>; Holochilus scuireus, Sigmodon hispidus, =
Oryzomys=20
palustris, Mus musculus, </I>and<I> Rattus rattus </I>in North and South =
America<I>; Rattus tanezumi </I>in<I> </I>Southeast Asia<I>; Millardia =
meltada,=20
Bandicota bengalensis, </I>and<I> Bandicota indica</I> on the Indian=20
subcontinent<I>; Rattus losea </I>and<I> Bandicota bengalensis</I> in =
China;<I>=20
Mus caroli and Apodemus agrarius</I> in Taiwan;<I> Rattus sordidus and =
Melomys=20
burtoni</I> in Australia; and<I> Rattus rattus, Arvicanthis niloticus,=20
</I>and<I> Thryonomys swinderianus</I> in Africa (Taylor 1984, Fiedler =
1988,=20
Prakash and Mathur 1988, Wood 1994).</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.3. =
Orchard and=20
Plantation Crops</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Voles =
(<I>Microtus sp</I>.) cause extensive damage in fruit orchards in USA =
and Europe=20
(<A name=3Dhit3></A><SPAN style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: =
#ffff00">Tobin</SPAN> and=20
Richmond 1993, Guedon and Combes 1990). Populations of these rodents =
typically=20
irrupt periodically and, when preferred vegetation is scarce, =
particularly in=20
winter, gnaw the roots and trunks of trees for the underlying phloem and =
cambium=20
tissue. The resulting damage interferes with transport of nutrients =
between the=20
roots and aerial portions of the tree and increases the chance of =
infection by=20
root pathogens. The resulting damage kills trees, reduces fruit =
production, and=20
increases the time for new plantings to come into production. Coconuts =
are grown=20
commercially in many tropical areas and are subject to damage by several =
rodent=20
species, particularly <I>Rattus rattus </I>and<I> Rattus tanezumi</I>. =
These=20
rodents climb palms of all ages, primarily to feed on developing nuts, =
which=20
then fall prematurely to the ground (Fiedler et al. 1982, Wood 1994). =
The=20
proportion of nuts that drop prematurely due to rat damage can be quite =
high.=20
Impacts on yield may not be proportional to the number of developing =
coconuts=20
that fall to the ground (Williams 1974, Reidinger and Libay 1981, =
Fiedler et al.=20
1982 ). Trees in some areas may compensate for early damage by =
increasing the=20
size and weight of remaining nuts; in situations where rats feed on =
coconut=20
flowers or damage very small nuts, yield losses may be underestimated by =
counts=20
of fallen, maturing nuts.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Macadamia=20
orchards in Hawaii and Australia sustain extensive damage from <I>Rattus =
rattus</I> (White et al. 1997, <A name=3Dhit4></A><SPAN=20
style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffff00">Tobin</SPAN> 1992). These arboreal =
rats gnaw=20
through the hard shell to eat the developing kernel inside. Damaged nuts =
fall=20
prematurely. Five to ten percent of developing nuts are damaged by rats =
in some=20
Hawaiian orchards. However, the economic impact of this damage is not =
clear (<A=20
name=3Dhit5></A><SPAN style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffff00">Tobin</SPAN> =
et al. 1993),=20
because some trees apparently partially compensate for this damage by =
producing=20
additional nuts (<A name=3Dhit6></A><SPAN=20
style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffff00">Tobin</SPAN> et al. 1 997a).</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rodents in=20
Africa, Asia, South America, and the West Indies open ripening pods of =
cacao and=20
either take whole beans or feed only on the mucilage which surrounds the =
beans,=20
depending on the species of rodent (Wood 1994). Damaged pods are lost =
due either=20
directly to rodent damage or indirectly to ensuing fungus infection. =
Damage=20
often is greatest where cacao is grown in mixed culture with other crops =
such as=20
coconut (Williams 1973, as cited in Wood 1994). Depredating species =
include=20
<I>Rattus tiomanicus, Rattus tanezumi, </I>and<I> Callosciurus notatus =
in Asia,=20
</I>and<I> Hylomyscus stella, Praomys tullbergi, Stochomys =
longicaudatus,=20
Dephomys defua, </I>and<I> Praomys morio</I> in West Africa (Wood =
1994).</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Commercial oil=20
palm plantations in Malaysia and Africa sustain damage from rodents that =
feed in=20
the crowns of trees on the oil-bearing tissue of developing fruitlets. =
Wood=20
(1994) reported that populations of <I>Rattus tiomanicus</I> reached =
between 200=20
and 600 rats per hectare in Malaysian orchards where no rodent control =
was=20
practiced, with estimated losses averaging about 5% of the yield. =
<I>Rattus=20
argentiventer </I>and<I> Rattus tanezumi</I> sometimes also become pests =
in=20
Malaysian orchards (Wood 1994). In Africa, the major rodent species =
causing=20
damage to oil palms include: <I>Dasymys incomtus</I>, <I>Lophuromys =
sikapusi,=20
Tatera valida, Oenomys hypoxanthus, Praomys morio, Mus minutoides, =
Lemniscomys=20
striatus</I>, and <I>Uranomys ruddi</I> (Wood 1994). Up to 80% losses =
have been=20
reported in Nigeria in one year (Wood 1994).</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.4. =
Stored=20
Products</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Rodent=20
consumption of stored food and grain and damage to storage structures =
and=20
containers, and indirect losses caused by spillage, spoilage, or =
contamination=20
that results in condemnation or rejection of shipments are important =
economic=20
and public health problems worldwide (Jackson 1977, Brooks and LaVoie =
1990,=20
Conover et al. 1995). The great diversity of rodent species, storage =
structures,=20
and environmental conditions and the difficulty in estimating =
incremental or=20
indirect losses help mask the economic impact of the problem. Since most =
rodent=20
species involved in stored product damage are nocturnal, heavy =
infestations may=20
persist unnoticed without careful inspection of stores or premises =
(Jackson=20
1990). In many situations, careful grain handling procedures, indoor and =
outdoor=20
sanitation, immediate disposal of spillage and garbage, frequent =
inspection for=20
rodent signs, and maintenance control programs are important ways to =
prevent the=20
development of more serious and difficult problems.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.5. =
Forest Crops=20
and Reforestation</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Foraging by=20
rodents can be a major impediment to reforestation efforts around the =
world.=20
Direct predation on seeds by deer mice (<I>Peromyscus sp</I>.) and house =
mice=20
(<I>Mus musculus</I>) in USA (Nolte and Barnett 2000) can preclude or =
reduce the=20
success of direct seeding efforts. Clipping and girdling of the roots =
and stems=20
of young seedlings by a wide variety of rodents is a major source of =
tree=20
mortality. Pest species include: squirrels (<I>Sciurus sp. </I>and<I>=20
Tamasciurus sp.</I>) strip bark from trees in Europe and North America =
(Gill=20
1992); voles (<I>Microtus sp</I>., <I>Clethrionomys sp</I>.) in the =
United=20
States, Europe, and Asia (Myllymaki 1977, Pigott 1985, Maguire 1989); =
deer mice=20
(<I>Peromyscus sp</I>.) in the United States (Maguire 1989); porcupines=20
(<I>Hystrix indica</I>) in Asia (Khan et al. 2000) and (<I>Erethizon=20
dorsatum</I>) USA (Wagner and Nolte 2000); pocket gophers (<I>Thomomys =
sp.</I>)=20
in USA (Crouch 1986, Engeman et al. 1998a); and mountain beavers =
(<I>Aplodontia=20
rufa</I>) in the Pacific Northwest (Wagner and Nolte 2000). In western =
USA=20
pocket gophers (<I>Thomomys sp.</I>) damage or destroy hundreds of =
thousands of=20
acres of forestland each year, severing stems and girdling roots and =
stems of=20
more conifers than all other wild mammals (Crouch, 1986). Even when =
rodent=20
control programs are in place, pocket gophers may quickly re-invade =
cleared=20
areas and re-occupy vacant burrow systems (Engeman and Campbell 1999). =
Beavers=20
(<I>Castor canadensis</I>) in North America, particularly in =
southeastern USA,=20
also cause considerable damage to trees and forests as well as to =
landscape=20
plantings, both directly by their feeding and dam-building activities, =
and=20
indirectly by flooding caused by blocking streams and drainage =
structures with=20
dams (Conover et al. 1995). Nolte and Otto (1996) have compiled analysis =
of tree=20
damage by rodents and other wildlife species that provides current =
sources of=20
management materials as well as a guide to identification of =
damage.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.6. =
Hydraulic=20
Structures</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Although little=20
has been published, a number of burrowing rodent species cause damage, =
water=20
loss, and the attendant risks of flooding, by excavating earthen dams,=20
irrigation canals, or flood control structures. Notable species involved =
are=20
beavers (<I>Castor canadensis</I>), muskrats (<I>Ondatra =
zibethicus</I>),=20
gophers (Geomyidae), and ground squirrels (<I>Spermophilus sp</I>.) in =
North=20
America; <I>Bandicota bengalensis</I> in southern Asia; and nutria =
(<I>Myocastor=20
coypus</I>) in North and South America. A variety of other burrowing =
species=20
cause problems on a localized basis. Determining the cause of breaks in=20
hydraulic structures is often difficult because animal activity is =
impossible to=20
assess if the evidence has washed away. Failure to control rodent =
infestations,=20
however, is potentially threatening to human life and may result in =
legal=20
actions and repairs ranging to millions of dollars (Hegdal and Harbour=20
1991).</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>High =
beaver=20
(<I>Castor canadensis</I>) populations in many areas are now a cause of=20
considerable concern for both forest managers and for those responsible =
for=20
flood prevention and control. These large rodents move to flowing water =
and cut=20
surrounding trees by gnawing around the circumference of their bases. =
Trees are=20
used for dam building, lodge construction, and food. Beavers also =
excavate dens=20
in the banks of reservoirs, streams, or canals, resulting in water loss =
and even=20
structural failure. Beaver dams that block culverts, ditches, streams, =
or=20
spillways can result in extensive flooding and damage to bridges, roads, =
and=20
other structures, as well as flooding and death of trees in commercial=20
plantations or reforestation and riparian areas (Hegdal and Harbour =
1991,=20
Conover et al. 1995, Fall and Jackson 1998).</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.7. =
Urban Rodent=20
Problems</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>In =
most of the=20
world's cities and towns, one or more of the cosmopolitan commensal =
rodents=20
(<I>Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus, </I>or<I> Mus musculus</I>) live =
with=20
people in homes, business establishments, markets, yards, and sewers. A =
variety=20
of other species occur in parts of their ranges as commensal rodents in =
urban=20
areas, notably, <I>Rattus exulans </I>and<I> Rattus tanezumi </I>in =
Southeast=20
Asia,<I> Bandicota bengalensis </I>in southern Asia, and<I> Mastomys=20
natalensis</I> in parts of Africa (Lund 1994). In close association with =
people=20
in dense settlements, rodents cause a variety of problems, including =
loss and=20
contamination of foodstuffs, destruction of property, rat bites, gnawed=20
electrical wiring resulting in fires, and transmission of diseases, =
notably=20
salmonellosis, but a variety of others in various parts of the world. =
</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Because of their=20
relative prominence, rodent infestations in urban areas generally =
attract=20
political attention and become the frequent subject of periodic, =
large-scale=20
control efforts. Davis (1972) contended, based on his research in =
Baltimore in=20
the late 1940s (Davis 1953), that enough was known about rodent =
population=20
principles to control urban rodent infestations and other rodent =
problems. His=20
research demonstrated that outdoor rodent populations in cities could be =
managed=20
by removal of the food and habitat on which Norway rat (<I>Rattus=20
norvegicus</I>) populations depended. Fifty years later, Fall and =
Jackson (1998)=20
saw the failure of this approach related to the difficulty in =
maintaining the=20
diligence of urban residents and the inconsistent support of the public =
and=20
private sectors. Colvin and Jackson (1999) maintain urban rodent control =
must=20
focus on strategic, comprehensive approaches that incorporate multiple =
tactics=20
and partnerships among government agencies, community groups, and pest =
control=20
companies. Clearly, large-scale rodent control efforts in urban areas, =
if=20
properly planned and managed using IPM approaches, can be quite =
effective=20
(Colvin et al. 1990).</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.8. =
Damage to=20
Cables, Wires, and Electronics</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Various species=20
of rodents gnaw on above- and under-ground communications and power =
cables,=20
resulting in service interruptions, fires, and other safety concerns =
(Shumake et=20
al. 1999, 2000; Cogelia et al. 1976). Seismic cables laid on the ground =
surface=20
for geologic mapping are often damaged by rodents and other wildlife =
species.=20
About 18% of telephone and 26% of electric manholes inspected in =
downtown Boston=20
had evidence of rat (Rattus norvegicus) activity (Colvin et al. 1998). =
Ramey and=20
McCann (1997) reviewed research conducted in USA since the 1940s to =
develop=20
cables resistant to damage by rodents, mostly pocket gophers =
(<I>Thomomys sp.=20
</I>and<I> Geomys sp.</I>). Much of this research evaluated either the=20
susceptibility of various types of cable to gnawing (McCann 1995, =
Shumake et al.=20
1999) or the effectiveness of repellents for deterring gnawing (Shumake =
et al.=20
1999, 2000). Rodents living in attics, walls, and basements commonly =
gnaw=20
electrical wiring, sometimes causing fires (Jackson 1990). Mice, in =
particular,=20
may readily gain access to sensitive electronic equipment, damaging =
wiring and=20
circuit boards.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.9. =
Rodents and=20
Disease</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>The =
list of=20
diseases of humans and domestic animals for which rodents serve as =
vectors or=20
reservoirs is long=E2=80=94and growing. Each decade sees new diseases =
described and new=20
epidemiologic associations made to particular rodent species. The =
commensal=20
rodents, particularly <I>Rattus rattus</I> and <I>Rattus norvegicus</I>, =
because=20
of their close association with man, are particularly important. Zinsser =
(1935)=20
provided an interesting account of the historical importance of =
louse-borne=20
typhus in decimating human populations and influencing the outcomes of =
human=20
conflicts over several centuries. Gregg (1985) similarly recounts the =
historyand=20
rodent-flea-human associations of plague pandemics, including the Black =
Death of=20
14<SUP>th</SUP> century Europe. Plague continues to be a disease of =
local=20
concern in several parts of the world. Leptospirosis, another =
rodent-borne=20
disease of worldwide importance to humans and domestic animals, has been =
recently reviewed by Faine (1994). Gratz (1988, 1994) provides =
comprehensive=20
reviews of diseases and rodent species associations for which rodent =
control=20
programs may be indicated as management measures. Detailed summaries of=20
communicable diseases for which rodents are implicated as vectors or =
reservoirs,=20
including symptoms, courses of treatment, and means of prevention are =
available=20
in Chin (2000). Rodent control efforts that minimize close human and =
domestic=20
animal exposure to rodent infestations, combined with surveillance and=20
monitoring in local problem areas can help prevent rodent-borne disease=20
outbreaks from becoming more widespread.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>4.10. =
Conservation of Rare Species</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Rats =
have had a=20
devastating impact on many native ecosystems, particularly remote =
islands where=20
the flora and fauna has evolved in isolation from predatory pressures =
(Atkinson=20
1989). Polynesian rats (<I>Rattus exulans</I>) spread with early =
Polynesian=20
immigrants across the Pacific basin, and roof rats (<I>Rattus =
rattus</I>) and=20
Norway rats (<I>Rattus norvegicus</I>) later accompanied western =
explorers=20
throughout the world (Atkinson 1985). All three species prey on =
ground-nesting=20
sea birds on remote oceanic islands (Austin 1948, Kepler 1967, Coulter =
et al.=20
1985, Bertram 1995). Roof rats, the only one of the three species that =
regularly=20
climbs trees, prey on the eggs and young of many species of forest birds =
(Atkinson 1977, Dunlevy et al. 2000). Rats have negative impacts on rare =
invertebrate fauna (Hadfield et al. 1993) and on native vegetation =
(Allen et al.=20
1994, Witmer et al. 1998) on many islands, and may help spread seeds of =
invasive=20
plant species (Dunlevy et al. 2000).</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify><A=20
name=3D"5. Control Methods">5. Control Methods</A>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#PEST CONTROL: RODENTS"><IMG=20
height=3D31=20
src=3D"mhtml:file://C:\Documents and Settings\ddwyer\My Documents\PEST =
CONTROL =
RODENTS.mht!http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/arrow.gif"=20
width=3D31 border=3D0></A></P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Many =
different=20
methods for controlling rodents or rodent damage have been passed down =
through=20
folklore or have been tested and proven effective in particular =
situations.=20
Others are promoted or marketed as ultimate solutions to a gullible =
public, but=20
are impractical or ineffective. Some materials or methods once widely =
used are=20
no longer available, having been recognized as unsafe or fallen victim =
to=20
increasingly stringent environmental regulations or changing cultural =
mores.=20
Development of new rodent control methods continues to be an exciting =
subject=20
for researchers. Fall (1990) summarized, in tabular form, the great =
variety of=20
methods and techniques suggested, used, or tested for various rodent =
problems.=20
Space allows us to discuss only a few of the diverse approaches to =
rodent=20
control; however the references and additional reading provided will =
give an=20
interested reader details on particular approaches.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.1. =
Integrated=20
Pest Management</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>The =
diversity of=20
rodent pests and types of pest problems worldwide requires a variety of=20
approaches for resolving site- and situation-specific problems. =
Controlling rat=20
damage in Asian rice fields requires a different approach from that =
required for=20
controlling the spread of diseases transmitted by rats in urban =
environments;=20
controlling rodent damage to forest plantings in North America presents =
a=20
decidedly different situation from controlling depredations of rodents =
in=20
African wheat fields. Smith and Calvert (1978) defined IPM as broad,=20
ecologically based control systems that use and manipulate multiple =
tactics in=20
an effective and coordinated way. Smith's personal, concise definition, =
"=E2=80=A6an=20
ecological approach to pest control," conceptualizes the actions =
required to=20
manage the multiplicity of plant and animal pests, including rodents, =
that lower=20
the efficiency of humankind's production systems or reduce the quality =
of life=20
for people worldwide. In its broadest sense, integrated rodent pest =
management=20
(IPM) is the utilization of a variety of control methods, appropriate to =
specific damage situations, emphasizing the use of environmental =
controls on=20
population growth, and continuously evaluated in relation to achieving =
levels of=20
damage that can be tolerated economically and socially, to resolve =
specific=20
problems (Marsh 1981, Fall and Jackson 1998, Singleton et al. 1999). =
Decision=20
support systems are available for a few rodent control problems (others =
are=20
under development) that can help a user to process ecological =
information,=20
evaluate the variety of options and techniques appropriate to the =
problem, and=20
better predict when control actions need to be taken (Engeman and Witmer =
2000).</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.2. =
Habitat=20
Management</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>All =
animals=20
require food, water, and cover to survive and reproduce. Where these =
resources=20
are abundant, rodents thrive; where they are in short supply, animals =
either=20
emigrate or die. Whenever possible, control programs should focus on =
altering=20
the habitat and reducing its potential for attracting and supporting =
pest=20
species. Otherwise, the effectiveness of rodent control measures will be =
of=20
short duration and must be frequently repeated (Davis 1972, Engeman and =
Campbell=20
1999). </P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Rat =
(<I>Rattus=20
sordidus </I>and<I> Melomys burtoni</I>) damage to sugarcane is a major =
problem=20
in Australia. Traditional control measures that rely on widespread =
aerial=20
application of toxic baits have resulted in highly variable success. The =
most=20
effective control consists of herbicide treatments or early harvest and=20
"trash-blanketing" to reduce in-crop weeds that attract rodents, =
combined with=20
timely application of rodenticides (Hampson 1984, Whisson 1996). </P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>In =
temperate=20
areas, where voles (<I>Microtus sp</I>.) damage apple trees, =
particularly during=20
winter, rodenticide baiting programs frequently have failed to prevent =
damage.=20
Many commercial apple growers in USA maintain a vegetation-free zone =
under the=20
orchard canopy to discourage voles from living near the bases of trees, =
where=20
they cause the greatest damage. Many also mow orchard ground cover =
frequently=20
during the growing season to discourage voles from residing in the =
orchard and=20
to reduce vegetative competition with trees for water and nutrients (<A=20
name=3Dhit7></A><SPAN style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffff00">Tobin</SPAN> =
and Richmond=20
1993). </P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Wide-scale=20
alteration of the habitat often is not feasible in tropical countries =
where=20
critical resources are ubiquitous and available year-round. Open =
construction of=20
housing and storage structures makes it possible for rodents to readily =
move=20
from fields to buildings. The resources needed to apply herbicides or =
other=20
means of reducing rodent habitat are often out of reach of people in =
rural areas=20
or in dense human settlements lacking basic services and sanitation. The =
ecological consequences of major habitat alterations to reduce rodent=20
infestations might be far-reaching, impacting desirable wildlife and the =
lives=20
of human inhabitants in unacceptable measure.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>In =
situations=20
involving commensal rodents, every effort should be made to reduce food =
and=20
cover that attract rats (Howard and Marsh 1981). This includes heavy =
pruning of=20
ivy, palm trees, berry thickets, or any densely growing plants adjacent =
to=20
structures, as well as maintaining sanitary conditions in homes, =
businesses,=20
streets, and vacant areas. Garbage cans and industrial trash containers =
should=20
have tight-fitting covers, and trash should be collected frequently. A =
general=20
removal of all rubbish and trash helps reduce food and harborage for =
rats. The=20
most effective means of limiting rodent damage in buildings and =
structures is to=20
prevent their initial entry (Baker et al. 1994). Rats can crawl through =
or under=20
any opening higher or wider 1.3 cm, and mice can gain entry through any =
opening=20
larger than 0.6 cm. Both rats and mice can run along or climb electrical =
wires,=20
pipes, fences, poles, ropes, cables, vines, shrubs, and trees, as well =
as climb=20
almost any rough vertical surface such as wood, brick, concrete, =
weathered sheet=20
metal, and many plastic products. Rats and mice can crawl horizontally =
along or=20
through pipes, augers, conveyors, conduit, and underground utility and=20
communications lines, as well as gnaw through a wide variety of =
materials,=20
including lead and aluminum sheeting, window screens, wood, rubber, =
vinyl,=20
fiberglass, plastic, and low-quality concrete block. Buildings should be =
inspected carefully to detect any potential entry points. Cracks and =
openings in=20
foundations should be sealed, and all openings where water pipes, =
electric=20
wires, telephone wires, sewer pipes, drain spouts, and vents enter a =
building=20
should be tightly sealed to prevent rodent access. Doors, windows, and =
screens=20
should be tight-fitting.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.3.=20
Traps</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>An =
amazing=20
variety of traps, commercially available or constructed in homes or =
villages,=20
are used in efforts to control rodents; the centuries-long search for "a =
better=20
mousetrap" has not ended (Bateman 1971, 1979). Trapping is widely used =
by=20
specialists for surveillance and monitoring of rodent infestations and =
is,=20
perhaps, the most selective technique to remove individual rodents from =
problem=20
situations. Although trapping is very labor intensive and requires skill =
to be=20
used effectively, its relatively low cost compared to other approaches =
often=20
makes it a primary method of choice for rodent control. Trapping is also =
utilized where non-target animals are an important concern or where use =
of=20
toxicants or other more effective methods are prohibited. Regulated =
commercial=20
harvest of some species of rodents for their furs has been a successful =
method=20
used by wildlife managers for holding rodent populations in check so =
that they=20
do not reach levels that inflict serious economic damage. In recent =
years, use=20
of certain types of traps and trap-setting methods has been restricted =
in=20
various countries, largely through the efforts of animal rights =
organizations=20
that have viewed trapping animals as inhumane (Fall and Jackson 1998). =
This has=20
particularly affected the management of larger rodents such as beaver =
(<I>Castor=20
canadensis</I>), muskrat (<I>Ondatra zibethicus</I>), and nutria or =
coypu=20
(<I>Myocastor coypus</I>), and in some areas control of smaller rodents =
such as=20
gophers (Geomyidae). Procedures for trapping different species vary =
widely and=20
considerable behavioral information on the species of concern in a =
particular=20
habitat is often required. Assessment of the selectivity of particular =
traps is=20
useful, since capture of other animals reduces trap efficiency and may =
affect=20
populations Jackson (1990) outlines procedures for capturing rats and =
mice with=20
snaptraps or "breakback" traps, cage traps, and glue boards. Trap =
densities must=20
be adjusted to pest population levels and the home range size of the =
species=20
involved; and traps must be placed where animals are active, such as =
along walls=20
or under the shelter of grain pallets. Traps may be baited to attract =
animals to=20
the triggering mechanisms or may be set to capture animals in the course =
of=20
their normal movements by carefully choosing the set locations. Trapping =
generally is not practical for managing large infestations or removing =
entire=20
populations over extensive areas. However, traps can be used effectively =
in=20
limited areas or where substantial resources are available and more =
efficient=20
techniques cannot be used or developed. Gosling and Baker (1989), for =
example,=20
describe successful, sustained efforts over many years by British =
government=20
biologists using leghold and cage traps to eradicate populations of =
muskrats and=20
nutria.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.4.=20
Rodenticides</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Toxicants=20
frequently are the most practical and cost-effective tools for reducing=20
troublesome rodent populations over large areas. Rodenticides require =
minimal=20
manpower to apply and, when properly formulated and applied, have the =
potential=20
to provide quick results with minimal impact on the environment and =
non-target=20
animals. The effectiveness of rodenticide treatments varies considerably =
among=20
toxicants, bait formulations, methods used, and timing of application.=20
Fast-acting, single-feed toxicants like red squill, sodium =
fluoroacetate,=20
strychnine, and zinc phosphide have the potential for rapid knock-down =
of the=20
pest population, although success often declines with repeated =
applications=20
because animals that survive quickly learn not to eat the bait. The =
naturally=20
cautious behavior of many rodents helps them to survive poisoning =
campaigns. For=20
this reason, repeated applications of fast acting, single feed =
rodenticide baits=20
often are futile. Pretreatment with non-toxic bait, or "prebaiting", is =
often=20
used to help overcome this problem. </P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Alternating=20
toxicants and bait materials can also help forestall the development of =
bait=20
shyness. The development of anticoagulant rodenticides during the late =
1940s was=20
a major advance in rodent control. At the concentrations used, first =
generation=20
anticoagulant rodenticides, such as warfarin, pindone, fumarin, =
coumafuryl,=20
diphacinone, and chlorophacinone, usually had to be consumed for several =
days=20
for rats to receive a lethal dose. The delayed onset of sickness, =
together with=20
the small amounts of the toxicant in baits effectively eliminated the =
problem of=20
bait shyness. These low concentrations, coupled with their slow action =
and the=20
availability of antidotes to reverse the anticoagulant effect, made =
these=20
rodenticides very safe for human use. Second generation anticoagulant=20
rodenticides, such as brodifacoum, bromadiolone, difenacoum, and =
difethialone,=20
were developed during the 1970s and are much more toxic, usually =
requiring only=20
a single feeding by commensal rodents for ingestion of a lethal dose. =
Genetic=20
resistance to anticoagulant rodenticides emerged as early as 1958 and =
continues=20
to be a concern with second generation anticoagulants (Buckle et al. =
1994). The=20
increased toxicity and biological persistence of some second generation=20
anticoagulants has also raised regulatory concerns about environmental =
and human=20
health effects, although these materials are also viewed as safe and are =
commonly available for household rodent control by untrained people. =
Stringent=20
regulation of rodenticide use in many countries, however, has increased =
the=20
costs of developing new materials and restricted the kinds of problem =
situations=20
where rodenticides may be used (Fagerstone et al. 1990); a number of the =
older=20
materials are no longer marketed. Use of some rodenticides may be =
allowed only=20
by trained specialists.</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>The =
failure of=20
many rodenticide baiting programs results not from bait shyness or =
resistance to=20
toxicants, but because of improper application of bait. Rodenticide =
baiting=20
programs used by some Hawaiian macadamia growers were ineffective =
because rats=20
spent most of their time in the orchard canopy and rarely consumed baits =
that=20
were broadcast on the orchard floor (<A name=3Dhit8></A><SPAN=20
style=3D"BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffff00">Tobin</SPAN> et al. 1997b). In =
Philippine=20
coconut orchards, crown-baiting, as opposed to ground applications, =
selectively=20
targeted the specific individual animals active in tree crowns that =
caused=20
damage to developing coconuts (Fiedler et al. 1982). All available =
rodenticides=20
are poisons that must be used with great caution. Package directions for =
use and=20
pesticide labels must be carefully followed. When rodenticides are used =
for=20
large-scale rodent control programs, local health authorities must be =
notified=20
of the materials being used so that accidental poisoning cases can be =
readily=20
diagnosed and treated.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.5. =
Biological=20
Control</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Biological=20
control, or the introduction of predators, parasites, or disease =
organisms to=20
control pests, is an ecologically and conceptually appealing approach to =
reducing rodent pest populations. This tactic has been used successfully =
in many=20
insect IPM programs to control insect crop pests. However, the =
principles and=20
parameters relevant to insect IPM measures should not be applied =
unquestioningly=20
to vertebrate pest problems (Marsh 1981). Introducing biological agents =
to=20
control rodents is a promising area for research, but many challenges =
remain to=20
find a candidate which is sufficiently pathogenic to achieve the desired =
level=20
of control, has a high transmission rate, and is target specific =
(Singleton and=20
Redhead 1990). We know of no examples of the successful introduction of=20
predators or diseases that have been effective in preventing damage by =
rodents.=20
Often, such attempts have not only been ineffective, they have resulted =
in=20
serious environmental problems. </P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>The =
role of=20
natural predators in controlling rodent pests is an interesting, but =
frequently=20
misunderstood, concept that rarely is effective in reducing pest =
populations to=20
tolerable levels (Howard 1967, Hygnstrom et al. 1994). Numerous studies =
have=20
demonstrated the importance of rodents in the diet of selected predators =
and=20
have encouraged the establishment of predator populations in crop areas =
(Lenton=20
1980, Hall et al. 1981, Duckett 1982), but few have critically evaluated =
the=20
utility of such predation for reducing pest populations or increasing =
crop=20
yields. Fall (1977) observed that most predators in rice fields =
patrolled dikes,=20
rather than entering wet paddies where rats were active. Or they =
congregated=20
around fields after harvest when crop damage had already occurred and =
rats had=20
no food or cover. Interest in fostering barn owl (<I>Tyto alba</I>) =
populations=20
in oil palm plantations continues as a potential way to reduce =
rodenticide use.=20
The introduction of barn owls to Hawaii for rodent control in the 1960s =
was=20
ineffective. </P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Successful=20
introduction of exotic vertebrate predators into new areas for pest =
control=20
purposes has never been demonstrated and, in some cases, has resulted in =
unanticipated, calamitous ecological effects. During the late 1800s, the =
small=20
Indian mongoose (<I>Herpestes javanicus</I>) was introduced into both =
the West=20
Indies and Hawaii to control rat populations in sugarcane fields. =
Although this=20
predator survives in some areas on a diet composed mainly of rats =
(Baldwin et=20
al.1952, Kami 1964), the introductions failed to achieve the desired =
result of=20
reducing rat populations in sugarcane fields. In both the West Indies =
and=20
Hawaii, mongooses have severely impacted ground-nesting bird species by =
preying=20
on their eggs and young (Ebenhard 1988). In some areas in the Caribbean, =
the=20
species has become a reservoir for rabies. Most studies that have =
investigated=20
predator-prey relationships have concluded that predators exert a =
controlling=20
influence on their prey only under rare circumstances, such as when prey =
populations are already at low densities and alternative prey are =
scarce. More=20
commonly, the presence of high rodent or other prey populations attracts =
and=20
sustains predators which relocate when prey animals become more =
difficult to=20
find and capture. Thus, except under rare conditions, predators do not =
hunt=20
their prey to the low levels required for effective management of rodent =
damage.=20
</P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Where =
rodent=20
populations present health hazards for humans or domestic animals, they =
must be=20
maintained at very low levels to minimize exposure risks. In such =
situations,=20
disease organisms or parasites may have difficulty sustaining infection =
unless=20
an alternative host population exists (Davis et al. 1976). Davis and =
Jensen=20
(1952) released <I>Salmonella enteriditis</I> into a population of =
Norway rats=20
(<I>Rattus norvegicus</I>) and observed only very restricted spread of =
the=20
infection and a likely development of resistance among the rodents. They =
concluded that the introduced disease was not effective in lowering the =
rat=20
population. In another study, Singleton et al. (1995) released the =
nematode=20
parasite, (<I>Capillaria hepatica</I>), into wild populations of house =
mice=20
(<I>Mus musculus</I>) and concluded that the parasite could not limit=20
low-density mouse populations. Many of the diseases and parasites to =
which=20
rodents are susceptible are readily transmitted to humans and domestic =
animals,=20
indicating the need for great caution in considering the use of such =
approaches=20
for rodent control.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.6. =
Reproductive=20
Inhibition</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Reproductive=20
inhibition, in theory, would seem to be a useful method of reducing =
rodent=20
populations. The rapid reproductive potential of most rodent species =
often=20
enables them to rapidly overcome other population reduction measures.=20
Reproductive inhibition is a non-lethal alternative that has the =
potential to=20
provide long-lasting control. During the 1960s and 1970s, researchers =
explored=20
the potential of various chemosterilants such as synthetic steroids, =
estrogens,=20
and progestins as reproductive inhibitors (McIvor and Schmidt 1996). =
More recent=20
research has focused on immunocontraception as a means of inducing=20
self-sterilization in pest populations (Miller et al. 1998). However, to =
date=20
the only successful use of wildlife reproductive inhibitors has been in=20
laboratories, pens, and limited field situations, where animals are =
either=20
captured, treated, and released, or are injected with darts at close =
range=20
(obviously impractical for small, nocturnal mammals). The effective =
control of=20
free-ranging wildlife populations would require oral delivery systems or =
species-specific, infectious carriers that could deliver reproductive =
inhibitors=20
to a sufficiently high proportion of animals to effect population =
control. The=20
technologies for achieving such delivery systems are still being =
researched. The=20
ultimate development of reproductive inhibitors for controlling =
free-ranging=20
wildlife populations will require the resolution of many complex legal,=20
biological, economic, and ethical issues (Guynn 1997), and may be =
practical only=20
for long-lived animals with lower reproductive capacities.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.7.=20
Ultrasonics</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>Many =
devices that=20
emit high-intensity ultrasound (sound frequencies greater than 20 kHz) =
have been=20
marketed for rodent control, usually with a claim that the ultrasound is =
aversive to rodents or somehow interferes with their communication. =
However,=20
many studies that have evaluated ultrasound as a practical means of =
rodent=20
control have concluded that ultrasound has only a partial or transitory =
effect=20
(Shumake et al. 1982) or no effect at all on target species (Howard and =
Marsh=20
1985, Lund 1988, Bomford and O'Brien 1990). Jackson (1990), citing work =
by=20
McCartney and Jackson (1986, 1988), contended the use of ultrasonics may =
be=20
appropriate in some IPM programs to displace rodents from sensitive =
areas in=20
structures to locations where traps or bait stations can be used. He =
cautioned=20
that users of this tool need to be conversant with the =
technology.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify>5.8. =
Bounties and=20
Insurance</P></B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Bounties, or=20
payments for carcasses or body parts of rodent pests, have frequently =
been used=20
in many parts of the world in attempts to reduce rodent populations or =
to induce=20
public participation in rodent control programs. Despite their =
widespread use,=20
we know of no instances where bounties have succeeded in achieving the =
desired=20
result, the reduction of pest populations to sufficiently low levels =
necessary=20
for damage management purposes. Like wild predators, people often =
participate in=20
bounty programs as long as animals are relatively easy to capture. =
However, as=20
the pest population declines or as animals become more wary or difficult =
to=20
capture, participation wanes. Because of rodents' high reproductive =
capacity,=20
populations recover very quickly if conditions remain favorable. From an =
economic standpoint, it is not in the interest of participants in bounty =
programs to eliminate a source of income (the rodent population). =
Commonly, in=20
areas where bounties are in effect, people are tempted to introduce =
breeding=20
animals into the control area, to release mutilated animals, or to =
submit=20
carcasses or body parts from other areas where animals are more easily=20
collected. </P>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Residential or=20
business insurance policies sometimes cover property damage, fires, lost =
shipments from contamination, or other losses attributed to rodents if=20
negligence is not involved. Insurance has not, however, been found to be =
a=20
practical solution for dealing with crop losses caused by rodents, =
because of=20
the statistical difficulties in relating damage that accumulates over =
the crop=20
period to yield loss, because of the intermittent occurrence and=20
unpredictability of damage, and because of the high costs of =
administering such=20
programs.</P><B>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify><A=20
name=3D"Related Chapters">Related Chapters</A>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <A=20
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24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#PEST CONTROL: RODENTS"><IMG=20
height=3D31=20
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Chapters>Click Here To View The Related Chapters</A> <B><FONT size=3D2>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" align=3Djustify><A=20
name=3DBibliography>Bibliography</A>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <A=20
href=3D"http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/E5-24/E5-24-10/E5-=
24-10-06/E5-24-10-06-TXT.aspx#PEST CONTROL: RODENTS"><IMG=20
height=3D31=20
src=3D"mhtml:file://C:\Documents and Settings\ddwyer\My Documents\PEST =
CONTROL =
RODENTS.mht!http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/mss/C10/arrow.gif"=20
width=3D31 border=3D0></A></P></FONT></B><FONT size=3D2>
<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Allen, R.B., W.G.=20
Lee, and B.D. Rance. 1994. Regeneration in indigenous forest after =
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
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1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly Rattus rattus L., that =
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
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1985. The spread of commensal species of Rattus to oceanic islands and =
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
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1989. Introduced animals and extinctions. Pg. 54-79 in D. Western and =
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
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Pages B-137-150 in S.E. Hyngstrom, R.M. Timm, and G.E. Larson, eds. =
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
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G.K. LaVoie. 1990. Rodent control will reduce post-harvest food losses.=20
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1994. Damage assessment and damage surveys. Pages 219-248 in A.P. Buckle =
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2000. Control of Communicable Diseases Manual. American Public Health=20
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G.K. LaVoie, and J.F. Glahn. 1976. Rodent biting pressure and chewing =
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their effects on wire and cable sheath. Proceedings Wire and Cable =
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<P style=3D"MARGIN-TOP: 14px; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 14px" =
align=3Djustify>Colvin, B.A.,=20
D.A. Ashton, W.C. McCartney, and W.B. Jackson. 1990. Planning rodent =
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Boston's artery/tunnel project. Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest =
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p.</P></FONT><BR><!--BeginNoIndex-->
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}
DIV.Glossary {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
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P.GlossaryBody {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 2cm 1cm 0pt 0pt; TEXT-INDENT: 0pt; =
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}
LI.GlossaryBody {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 2cm 1cm 0pt 0pt; TEXT-INDENT: 0pt; =
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"Glossary Body"; mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; =
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}
DIV.GlossaryBody {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 2cm 1cm 0pt 0pt; TEXT-INDENT: 0pt; =
FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: =
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}
P.Acknowledgements {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
"Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: =
Acknowledgements; mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; =
mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; =
mso-outline-level: 3; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-style-parent: =
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}
LI.Acknowledgements {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
"Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: =
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DIV.Acknowledgements {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
"Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: =
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P.Bibliography {
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LI.Bibliography {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
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}
DIV.Bibliography {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
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mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; =
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Acknowledgements
}
P.RelatedChapters {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
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LI.RelatedChapters {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
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}
DIV.RelatedChapters {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
"Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: "Related =
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P.SummaryBody {
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}
DIV.SummaryBody {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0pt; MARGIN-LEFT: 1cm; MARGIN-RIGHT: =
1cm; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; =
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}
P.HeadingUnnumbered {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 12pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
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}
LI.HeadingUnnumbered {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 12pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: "Heading Unnumbered"; =
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}
DIV.HeadingUnnumbered {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 12pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: "Heading Unnumbered"; =
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}
P.BodyText {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 0cm 2cm 0pt; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: BodyText; mso-style-update: auto; =
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LI.BodyText {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 0cm 2cm 0pt; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: BodyText; mso-style-update: auto; =
mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New =
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DIV.BodyText {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 0cm 2cm 0pt; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
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mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New =
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}
P.FigureCaption {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
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LI.FigureCaption {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
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}
DIV.FigureCaption {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
TEXT-ALIGN: center; mso-style-name: "Figure Caption"; mso-style-update: =
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P.TableCaption {
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DIV.TableCaption {
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P.Table {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 0cm 1cm 0pt; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
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}
LI.Table {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 0cm 1cm 0pt; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
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mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt
}
DIV.Table {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 0cm 1cm 0pt; FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; =
TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: Table; mso-pagination: =
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}
P.Listbullet {
	FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN: 0cm 1cm 0pt; TEXT-INDENT: -18pt; FONT-FAMILY: =
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DIV.Listbullet {
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P.Equation {
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LI.Equation {
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DIV.Equation {
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mso-style-name: Equation; mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: =
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}
P.KnowledgeinDepth {
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FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: =
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}
LI.KnowledgeinDepth {
	MARGIN-TOP: 0cm; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0pt; MARGIN-LEFT: 1cm; =
FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: =
"Knowledge inDepth"; mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: =
widow-orphan; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"
}
DIV.KnowledgeinDepth {
	MARGIN-TOP: 0cm; FONT-SIZE: 12pt; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0pt; MARGIN-LEFT: 1cm; =
FONT-FAMILY: "Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: =
"Knowledge inDepth"; mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: =
widow-orphan; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"
}
P.Biography {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
"Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: Biography; =
mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; =
mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-outline-level: 3; =
mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-style-parent: Acknowledgements
}
LI.Biography {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
"Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: Biography; =
mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; =
mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-outline-level: 3; =
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}
DIV.Biography {
	FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: =
"Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: Biography; =
mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; =
mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-outline-level: 3; =
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}
------=_NextPart_000_000F_01C5F42C.D2777670
Content-Type: application/octet-stream
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Content-Location: http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/hitnav.js
//
// Hit navigation JavaScript for the dtSearch 6 ASP sample
//
// Copyright 2000 dtSearch Corp.
//
// This JavaScript is included in both retrieved documents and in
// the search results list, to enable hit navigation using the
// button bar in the sample search form.  The button bar
// uses JavaScript to call these functions in the search results frame
// or in the retrieved document frame.
// The first two variables in this file may need to be changed
// if you modify dtsearch.asp to change the layout of search results.
//
// nFirstLink is the offset in search results of the first
//            link to a retrieved item.
// nLinksPerItem is the number of links for each search results item.
//            nextDoc() and prevDoc() use these values to navigate =
through the
//            list of links on a search results page.
//
nFirstLink =3D 1;
nLinksPerItem =3D 1;
nDoc =3D -1;
nHit =3D 0;
fAutoNextDoc =3D 0;
var simpleNav =3D 1;
var browser =3D navigator.appName;
var version =3D parseInt(navigator.appVersion);
if ((browser.indexOf("Microsoft") !=3D -1) && (version >=3D 4))
    simpleNav =3D 0;
function setCurrentDoc(n) {
    nDoc =3D n;
    }
function gotoDoc(n) {
    nLink =3D nFirstLink + (n * nLinksPerItem);
    if (n < 0)
        return;
    if (nLink >=3D document.links.length)
        return;
    setCurrentDoc(n);
    link =3D document.links[nLink];
    // Can also set parent.doc.window.location.href but that sometimes =
crashes IE
    parent.window.open(link.href, "doc");
    if (link.y)
        // Netscape
        window.scrollTo(0, link.y);
    else
        // IE
        window.scrollTo(0, link.offsetTop + link.offsetHeight + =
link.offsetParent.offsetTop);
    if (!simpleNav) {
        var s =3D document.body.createTextRange();
        if (s =3D=3D null) return;
            s.moveToElementText(link);
            s.moveEnd("word");
            s.scrollIntoView(1);
            s.select();
        }
    }
function nextDoc() {
    gotoDoc(nDoc+1);
    }
function prevDoc() {
    gotoDoc(nDoc-1);
    }
function old_gotoHit(where) {
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function findLink(links, name)
{   if (links.namedItem)
        return links.namedItem(name);
    for (i =3D 0; i < links.length; ++i) {
        if (links[i]) {
            if (links[i].name =3D=3D name)
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}
function gotoHit(where)
{   if (simpleNav) {
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        return;
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    var a =3D findLink(document.anchors, where);
    if (a =3D=3D null) return;
    if (a.length > 1) return;
    if (a.y) {
        // Netscape
        window.scrollTo(0, a.y);
        }
    else {
        // IE
        window.scrollTo(0, a.offsetTop - a.offsetHeight + =
a.offsetParent.offsetTop);
        }
    var s =3D document.body.createTextRange();
    if (s !=3D null) {
        s.moveToElementText(a);
        s.moveEnd("word");
        s.select();
        s.scrollIntoView();
        }
}
function gotoNthHit(n) {
    nHit =3D n;
    if ((n > 1) && (n =3D=3D maxHits))
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    else if (n =3D=3D 0)
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    else
        gotoHit('hit' + n);
 }
function nextHit() {
    if (nHit < maxHits) {
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    else if (fAutoNextDoc && parent && parent.res)
        parent.res.nextDoc();
    }
function prevHit() {
    if (nHit > 0) {
        gotoNthHit(nHit-1);
        }
    }
------=_NextPart_000_000F_01C5F42C.D2777670--