CF AR CWC 12/98 Logging is perilous work 1992-97

Logging is Perilous Work

by ERIC F. SYGNATUR

Eric F. Sygnatur is an economist in the Office of Safety, Health and
Working Conditions, Bureau of  Labor Statistics.  Guy Toscano, in
the same office, provided technical guidance.
Telephone: (202) 606-6175
E-mail: cfoistaff@bls.gov

Despite the risks involved in logging, timber is a multi-billion dollar
industry in the United States.  Products and structures made from
trees are so prevalent that their origin is scarcely noticed.  Yet, in
1997, logging was the most dangerous occupation in the country.

Logging was the second most dangerous occupation (behind fishing) during
1992-96, according to data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Census
of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI).  With over 128 deaths per
100,000 workers, logging surpassed fishing as the most dangerous
occupation in 1997.(1)   (See charts 1 and 2.  Charts 1 and 2 are not
available in text format.  A copy of the charts can be obtained by calling
the Bureau of Labor Statistics at (202) 606-6175.)  Timber is a
multi-billion dollar industry in the United States, and  financial
incentives have maintained levels of employment to meet consumer demand.
Products and structures made from trees are so prevalent that their origin
is often scarcely noticed.  Homes and furniture, paper and pencils, some
cloth fibers, even many medicinal extracts are derived from wood.
According to one report, "an average American uses wood and paper
products equivalent to what can be produced from one 100-foot, 18-inch
tree every year."(2)   Trees provide the convenience of the Sunday paper
just as readily as they provided previous generations with fuel in the
winter. In fact, it takes a cord of wood (a  stack 8 feet by 4 feet by
4 feet) to produce 250 copies of a typical Sunday edition of The New
York Times.(3)

Timber resources come at a price, however: Each year, between 100 and
150 loggers lose their lives according to the CFOI, and many more
suffer non-fatal injuries.  Loggers face a risk of fatal work injury
approximately 27 times greater than the average for all occupations.
During 1992-97, loggers suffered, on average, 128 fatalities per
100,000 workers compared to 5 per 100,000 for all occupations.
(See table 1.)  Over the 6-year period, 1 out of every 780 loggers
lost his life to a work injury, which translates into 57 fatal injuries
per 1,000 workers over a 45-year lifetime of timber cutting.(4)

Working conditions

Logging occupations are physically demanding, involving lifting,
climbing, and other strenuous activities in remote locations, frequently
isolated from readily available medical services.(5)   In addition,
because the work is performed outdoors, loggers must often face adverse
weather conditions, irregular terrain, and contend with swarms of
mosquitoes, black flies, and deer flies.  Long hours and 6-day
workweeks are also common.(6)   None of these conditions, however, is
as menacing to the well-being of a logger as the trees themselves; of
the 772 fatal injuries to loggers in 1992-97, 70 percent resulted
directly from contact with trees and logs.  The magnitude of this
number is significant, as skidders(7)  and tractors, the next most
common sources of injury, together only accounted for 6 percent of
total fatalities.  The remaining 24 percent were from a variety of
sources (such as dump trucks, the ground, and pickup trucks), none
of which individually accounted for more than 2 percent of the
logging fatalities.

Trees pose a number of hazards to loggers.  Wind, structural
irregularities in the tree, wet or sloped terrain, and structural
failures within the tree such as heart rot, splits, breaks and cracks
may cause the tree to fall at unexpected times in unexpected directions.
Felled trees can become entangled in other trees or, less obviously
and more commonly, broken tree limbs can be caught in nearby trees
where they dangle capriciously, often falling onto unsuspecting loggers.
The latter scenario is so common that hanging limbs are often referred
to as "widow makers."  Falling trees can also hit overhead power lines
and telephone poles, or vines and other dense vegetation, resulting
in erratic falls, fires, or entanglement.  "Fish-tailing" trees sweep
a large surface area as they swing sideways, and "mousetraps"
sometimes occur when a felled tree strikes another, perhaps concealed
log, which in turn strikes the logger.  Even when the tree is settled
it poses dangers when limbs become locked or bent.  Loggers who cut
these limbs must guard against slingshot effects, which can throw large
limbs up to 50 feet.(8)

Some 65 percent of logging fatalities occurred as a result of being
struck by falling objects, almost all of which were trees and logs.
Various types of non-roadway vehicular accidents, including those
caused by tractors and skidders, accounted for 7 percent of fatalities;
loggers crushed or struck by rolling logs accounted for 5 percent; and
falls from trees, 2 percent.  In 95 percent of the cases where the time
of the incident was reported, they occurred between the hours of  7 a.m.
and 5 p.m.(9)

Economic and demographic 
characteristics

Many regions of the United States boast a rich sylvan heritage-the huge
douglas firs and redwoods of the Pacific Northwest, the hearty maples
of the upper Midwest, the white pine of the Northeast, and the southern
pines (long leaf, short leaf, slash, and loblolly) of the South are
some of the most well-known.  Logging of these trees is a
multi-billion dollar industry practiced in all States.  Some regions
(those characterized by the types of trees they harvest, the levels of
mechanization used, and other economic factors) have natural advantages
over others.

Weather and climate, and the percent of logging employment are important
factors to consider when comparing regional fatality numbers.
(See charts 3 and 4.   Charts 3 and 4 are not available in text format.
A copy of the charts can be obtained by calling the Bureau of Labor
Statistics at (202) 606-6175.)

The Southern region, as defined by Census,(10)  had 413 logging
fatalities, about 54 percent of the total between 1992-97.  In this
region, North Carolina, with 55 deaths, had the most fatalities of
any State; this represents 7.1 percent of all logging fatalities,
although North Carolina only accounts for 2.9 percent of all loggers.
(See table 2.)  Logging is a flourishing industry in the
South  " ... [where] timber harvesting costs are among the lowest in
the world, and perhaps the lowest."(11)   New mechanization procedures
in the South for wholetree (longwood) harvesting have decreased average
costs and increased efficiency, shifting the production output
dramatically over the 1979-87 period.  The number of less efficient
pulpwood (shortwood) firms decreased by half over the 8-year period and
average pulpwood harvesting costs declined significantly in real terms.(12)

The rich soils, ample rain, and mild climate of the West Coast make it
an ideal location to practice silviculture (the care and tending of
forest vegetation).(13)   In 1991, California's timber harvest value
exceeded $900 million, and California, Oregon, and Washington combined
produce nearly 14 million board feet of lumber per year.(14)   These 3
States accounted for 97 deaths, or 13 percent of the total, for the
1992-97 period.  The Western region had 186 deaths, or 24 percent of
all logging fatalities from 1992-97.

The remaining 2 regions, the Northeast and Midwest, accounted for 83 and
89 deaths, or 11 and 12 percent, respectively.  In these two regions,
only Pennsylvania ranked among the top 15 States in fatalities
with 33, or 4.3 percent of the total. Fifteen States experienced 70
percent of all logging fatalities, and the top 5 States, 30 percent.
(See table 2.)

During the 1992-97 period, less than 1 percent of the logging fatalities
involved women, who comprised about 3 percent of the logging industry
workforce.  Blacks made up between 7 and 12 percent of the workforce,
but were slightly over-represented in fatalities, with between 11 and
17 percent.  Whites, who made up 83 percent of the workforce, also
constituted 83 percent of the fatalities.  The remaining races, who
comprise only a small fraction of those employed, incurred very few
fatalities.

About one-third of logging workers are self-employed, a much higher
proportion than in most occupations.(15)   These workers incurred about
one-third of the logging fatalities between 1992-97.16   Employees
working for compensation or pay constitute the overwhelming majority
of remaining fatalities, with very few fatalities among those working
in family businesses or volunteering their efforts.  In the competitive
logging industry, the median weekly earnings for full-time wage and
salary earners in the forestry and logging occupations was $443,
compared to $490 for all occupations.(17)

Data for non-fatal injuries

Logging injuries that do not result in a fatality but require time away
from work to recuperate most often occur to the trunk of the body and
the lower extremities.  In 1996, the most recent year for which data are
available, there were an estimated 2,136 cases involving time away
from work.  However, this statistic does not account for the self-employed,
government workers, or workers in agricultural establishments with
fewer than 11 employees.(18)   As the following tabulation shows, the
injuries most often reported in 1996 for timber cutters, including
supervisors, were sprains and strains, followed by fractures and bruises.

		
                       Number   Percent
Nature of injury        of      of total
                       cases     cases

Total, 1996             2,136    100 
   Sprains, strains       713     33 
   Fractures              359     17 
   Bruises                305     14 
   Cuts, punctures        209     10 
   Bodily pain             87      4 
   All other(19)          463     22 

About half of the non-fatal injuries in 1996 were caused by events such
as being struck or crushed, followed by falls, which accounted for
about one-quarter.

Between 1992-96, over 30 percent of the logging injury cases resulted in
31 or more lost workdays and almost 17 percent resulted in 3-5
days away from work.  The median number of days away from work for
the 5-year period was 11.  As the following tabulation shows, an
important trend seems to have developed, as the number of non-fatal
injury cases involving lost workdays has steadily dropped from over
4,500 in 1992 to 2,136 in 1996.

Year           Number of
               injuries

1992.........   4,537 
1993.........   4,522 
1994.........   3,479 
1995.........   2,779 
1996.........   2,136

Conclusion

Loggers comprise one-half of 1 percent of the total workforce in
America, yet they account for nearly 2 percent of all fatalities.  This
astounding ratio is an indication of the unpredictable dangers involved
in logging.

Employment levels and the demand for wood have been relatively stable
over the past 6 years, and any future increases in the demand for
wood products is expected to be offset by improvements in technology
rather than increases in employment.(20)   Recent history reveals a
disturbing pattern of regularity to logging fatalities that does not
appear to be changing.  Perhaps developments in logging techniques,
training, and equipment will provide a boost in safety.  Significant
decreases in the number of non-fatal injuries requiring time away from
work is encouraging, certainly, but logging still has the highest
fatality rate among all occupations.

Technical note

The lifetime risk for a specific industry or occupation was calculated
using an equation proposed by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration in 1995:

WLTR = [1 - (1 - R)y] x 1,000

where: WLTR = working lifetime risk.

R = probability of a worker having a work-related fatal injury in a
given year.

1 - R = probability of a worker not having a work-related fatal injury in
a given year.

y = years of exposure to work-related injury.

(1-R)y = probability of surviving y years without a work-related fatal
injury.

1 - (1 - R)y = probability of having a work-related fatal injury over
y years of employment.

For this article, y was set at 45 years.  This assumes workers are exposed
to work-related injury hazards for approximately 45 years, starting at
age 20.

The number of fatal occupational injuries per 1,000 workers is derived
as follows:

R = 0.00128 = 128 fatalities per 100,000 workers which is equal to
a .128-percent probability of a worker having a work-related fatal injury
in a given year.

1 - R = 1 - 0.00128 = 0.99872 which is equal to a 99.87-percent
probability of a worker not having a fatal occupational injury in
a given year.

(1 - R)4 5 = 0.99874 5 = 0.9431 which is equal to a 94.31-percent
probability of surviving 45 years without having a work-related
fatal injury.

1 - (1 - R)4 5 = 1 - 0.9431 = 0.0569 which is equal to a
5.69-percent probability of having a work-related fatal injury
over 45 years of employment.

Although it is tempting to view the inverse of 0.0569 (1:18) as the
probability a worker faces of suffering a fatal occupational injury
over a theoretical 45-year logging career, risk should be expressed
on a per 1,000 worker basis to account for such factors as turnover,
as follows:

[1 - (1 - R)4 5] x 1,000 = 0.0569 x 1,000 which is equal to 57 fatalities
per 1,000 workers over a 45-year period comprising a working lifetime.

State and region-specific employment estimates were obtained using the
Current Population Survey's Federal Electronic Research and Review
Extraction Tool (FERRET) for the years 1994-97, corresponding with
the earliest year for which FERRET micro data is available, and the
latest year for which CFOI numbers are available.  Given the stable
employment numbers and markets for loggers between 1992-97, this
average estimate for 67 percent of the period should prove reliable
for employment composition by State over the whole 1992-97 period.
Additional information on FERRET can be obtained from the Bureau of
Labor Statistics Internet site at
http://ferret.bls.census.gov/cgi-bin/ferret.
See "Explanatory Notes and Estimates of Error" in the January,
1998 Employment and Earnings for an explanation of CPS sampling
and estimation methodology, and standard error computations.  The
relative standard error of the CPS employment estimates can be used
to approximate confidence ranges for the fatality rates.

1  The Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries has collected
occupational fatality data since 1992, using diverse data sources
to identify, verify, and profile fatal work injuries.  Information
about each workplace fatality (occupation and other worker
characteristics, equipment being used, and circumstances of the event)
is obtained by cross-referencing source documents, such as death
certificates, workers' compensation records, and reports to Federal
and State agencies.  This method assures counts are as complete and
accurate as possible.
2  Washington Contract Loggers Association,  Washington State Timber
Facts, Figures and Issues for Concerned Citizens, on the Internet
at http://www.loggers.com/timbfact.html (visited Aug. 12, 1998).
3  Ibid.
4  For an explanation of the methodology used to derive this
statistic, see David E. Fosbroke, Suzanne M. Kisner, and John R.
Myers, "Working Lifetime Risk of Occupational Fatal Injury," American
Journal of Industrial Medicine, Vol. 31, Wiley-Liss, Inc., 1997, pp. 460-61.
Also see technical note at the end of this article.
5  Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1998-99 Edition, Bulletin 2500, Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 1998, p. 420.
6  John Gagnon, Hard Maple, Hard Work, (Marquette, MI: Northern Michigan
University Press), 1996, pp. 63-65.
7  Skidders are tractor-like vehicles used to drag logs through forest
terrain.
8  Gerald F. Beranek, The Fundamentals of General Tree Work, (Fort
Bragg, NC: Beranek Publications, 1996), pp. 362-383.
9  Ninety-four percent of the cases reported the time of incident.
10 Bureau of the Census regional designations:
Northeast: CT, ME, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT.
Midwest: IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE, ND, OH, SD, and WI.
South: AL, AR, DE, DC, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX,
VA, and WV.
West: AZ, AK, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NV, NM, OR, UT, WA, and WY.
11 Douglas R. Carter, et. al., Southern Pulpwood Harvesting
Productivity and Cost Changes Between 1979 and 1987, Research Paper
NC-318, U.S. Department of Agriculture, North Central Forest
Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN, 1994, pp. 31-32.
12 Ibid.
13 Earl Roberge, Timber Country, (Caldwell, ID: Caxton Printers,
1973), p. 1.
14 Little Hoover Commission, Timber Harvest Plans: A Flawed Effort
to Balance Economic and Environmental Needs, Sacramento, CA, 1994,
pp. 10-12.
15 Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1998-99 Edition, p. 420.
16 Two-thirds of the fatality records in the 1992-97 period indicated
the size of the establishment that employed the decedent.  Eighty-two
percent of those indicating employment size employed between 1 and 10
workers.
17 Employment and Earnings, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January, 1997,
table 39, pp. 206-210.
18 The Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII) collects
information from a random sample of about 200,000 establishments
representing most of private industry, with the exception of the
self-employed.  Worker characteristics are collected only for those
workers sustaining injuries and illnesses that require days away from
work (with or without restricted work activity) to recuperate.

Because the scope and methodology of CFOI and SOII are slightly
different, comparison of the fatal and nonfatal data is problematic.
Additional information on either CFOI or  SOII can be obtained from
the Bureau of Labor Statistics Internet site at
http://stats.bls.gov/oshhome.htm or via email at cfoistaff@bls.gov.

19 Includes non-classifiable responses and response numbers too small
to publish according to the confidentiality standards established by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Safety, Health and Working
Conditions.
20 Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1998-99 Edition, p. 421.
 
 

TABLE 1.  Number and rate(1) of fatal occupational
injuries to loggers by year, 1992-97
__________________________________________________________
          |                                               
          |             Logging occupations(2)            
          |_______________________________________________
          |               |               |               
          |               | Supervisors,  |    Timber     
   Year   |     Total     |   forestry    |    cutting    
          |               |  and logging  |  and logging  
          |_______________|_______________|_______________
          |       |       |       |       |       |       
          | Number|  Rate | Number|  Rate | Number|  Rate 
__________|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______
          |       |       |       |       |       |       
          |       |       |       |       |       |       
1992-1997.|   772 | 128.3 |    76 |   81.7|   696 | 136.8 
          |       |       |       |       |       |       
1992......|   146 | 162.2 |    13 | 108.3 |   133 | 170.5 
1993......|   135 | 121.8 |    11 |   64.7|   124 | 133.3 
1994......|   131 | 123.6 |    19 |   95.0|   112 | 130.2 
1995......|   110 | 100.0 |    12 |   92.3|    98 | 101.0 
1996......|   129 | 139.2 |    10 |   62.5|   119 | 157.3 
1997......|   121 | 128.7 |    11 |   73.3|   110 | 140.7 
__________|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______

  1 The rate represents the number of fatal occupational
injuries per 100,000 employed workers and was calculated
as follows:  (N/W) x 100,000, where                       
                                 
  N = the number of fatal work injuries to workers 16
years of age and older.                
  W = the number of employed workers 16 years of age and
older.                       
  
  100,000 = number of workers.                            
                                  
Employment figures are annual average estimates of
employed civilians 16 years of age and older from the
Current Population Survey (CPS), 1992-97.             
  See "Explanatory Notes and Estimates of Error" in the
January 1998 Employment and Earnings for an explanation of
CPS sampling and estimation methodology, and standard
error computations.  The relative standard error of the
CPS employment estimates can be used to approximate
confidence ranges for the fatality rates.
  2 Based on the 1990 Occupational Classification System
developed by the Bureau of the Census.
  
  
  SOURCE:  U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, in cooperation with State and Federal
agencies, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1992-97

TABLE 2. States with the largest number of logging fatalities, 1992-97

                       Fatalities      Percent of
                                        logging
                    Number   Percent   workforce
                   --------  -------   ---------
All States             772    100.0       100.0
North Carolina          55      7.1         2.9
Mississippi             51      6.6         3.3
Kentucky                45      5.8         3.7
Virginia                42      5.4         2.8
Washington              41      5.3         9.7
Alabama                 37      4.8         6.0
Pennsylvania            33      4.3         3.3
Oregon                  32      4.2         7.0
West Virginia           31      4.0         2.0
Montana                 29      3.8         2.0
Texas                   29      3.8         4.5
Tennessee               27      3.5         5.3
Georgia                 25      3.2         5.0
California              24      3.1         2.4
South Carolina          23      3.0         1.3
------------------------------------------------
 1 Includes supervisors.
 2 See Technical note.
 3 Not all States had logging fatalities between 1992-97.