O-164 

(used motor oil 
recycling tank decal, MD 
recycling program

<P>
O-166 

(used oil recycling 
poster, RI Ocean State Clean-
Up and Recycling)

<P>
O-167 

(Amer. Petroleum Inst. 
sticker/magnet "Put Used Oil 
in Its Place")

<P>
O-170 

used oil sticker, 
Florida Dept. of Environmental 
Regulation

<P>
O-73

a,b,c
Normal oyster, about 8 years old Oyster with first 5 years of growth
affected by TBT, followed by 3years after TBT ban Oyster, exposed to
high levels of TBT  throughout 8 years of life 
courtesy of Robert J.
Huggett

<P>
O-257

Biologists who performed an autopsy on an emaciated male sperm whale
beached at Sea Side Heights, New Jersey, found this party balloon,
ribbon still attached, blocking the animal's digestive tract.  courtesy
of Marine Mammal Stranding Center

<P>
O-64

Tampoon, a post-consumer recycled fishing lure produced by Clean Ocean
Action, a New Jersey-based conservation group

<P>
O-77

[One-quarter/one-sixth] of a compacted disk A 300-person Navy destroyer
generates about 35 cubic feet of plastic waste per day, which is
compressed into 5 to 6 disks.  [credit]

<P>
O-258

Manganese nodule, recovered from the sea floor, Blake Plateau,
southeastern Atlantic coast, U.S.  Mysterious manganese "marbles" lie
strewn on the abyssal mud of the ocean'sdeepest basins.  Most are
larger than golf balls.  Each appears to have grown, pearl-like, around
some nucleus--perhaps a shark's tooth.  courtesy of U.S. Department of
the Interior, Minerals Management Service
<P>
O-205

stencil says DON'T DUMP 
Chesapeake Bay Drainage
[uncaptioned]
<P>
O-200

Since 1978 all of Florida has 
been a manatee sanctuary.  
Signs on manatee rivers and 
estuaries identify safe speeds 
and caution boaters to look 
out for manatees.  Benefits 
from a special "Save the 
Manatee" license plate fund 
state manatee protection and 
environmental education 
programs.
<P>
O-81

Cod coffin
Fisherman Dan Murphy made this 
symbol of the closing of the 
Newfoundland cod fishery in 
1992.

<P>
O-40 

(optional)

<P>
O-95 

(miniature model)
Turtle excluder device 
deflects turtles before 
they become by-catch.  
[credit]
<P>
O-10 

The shoes washed ashore one at
a time but were wearable after
a scrub-down to remove
barnacles, algae, and tar.
Beachcombers held swap meets
to find matched pairs.

Credit:
shoes courtesy of Steve McLeod
and Donovan Johnson

<P>
O-11

The shoes washed ashore one at 
a time but were wearable after 
a scrub-down to remove 
barnacles, algae, and tar. 
Beachcombers held swap meets 
to find matched pairs. 

Credit:
shoes courtesy of Steve McLeod 
and Donovan Johnson
<P>
O-192

The Ship's "Eyes"
Carved figureheads--of men, 
women, or animals [more to 
come]--decorated the prows of 
sailing ships through the 
1880s.  Early mariners 
believed figureheads were the 
vessel's eyes.
courtesy of State Street Trust 
Company, Boston, Massachusetts

<P>
O-68

Buoys mark lobstermen's
territories

Maine lobstermen divide
fishing areas through informal
agreements, and mark their
territory by tying each trap
to a line and floating buoy
painted with an individual's
colors.  Long-time residents
claim and defend their
territories from newcomers and
men from other harbors.
Family relationships are
extremely important in
deciding who lobsters and
where.
buoys courtesy of Vinalhaven
Historical Society,
Vinalhaven, Maine

<P>
O-219 

Buoys mark lobstermen's 
territories

Maine lobstermen divide 
fishing areas through informal 
agreements, and mark their 
territory by tying each trap 
to a line and floating buoy 
painted with an individual's 
colors.  Long-time residents 
claim and defend their 
territories from newcomers and 
men from other harbors.  
Family relationships are 
extremely important in 
deciding who lobsters and 
where. 
buoys courtesy of Vinalhaven 
Historical Society, 
Vinalhaven, Maine

<P>
O-93

Deep-Sea Fishermen's Union T-
shirt

<P>
O-94

Cordova Fishermen's Union T-
shirt

<P>
O-70

Alaska Crab Coalition logo

<P>
O-160

Purse Seine Vessel Owners 
Assn. sticker

<P>
O-92

Women's Maritime Assn. T-shirt


<P>
O-132

Pacific Coast Fishermen's 
Wives Assn. T-shirt

<P>
O-5

Gloucester cookbook

<P>
O-45

Kodiak wives cookbooks

<P>
O-199

Tried and True Fish Trap

The traditional Caribbean fish 
pot from St. Lucia is used to 
catch reef fish and lobsters.  
Made of woven bamboo or other 
plant fibers, with a wooden 
stick framework, it's weighted 
with stones to keep it on the 
sea floor.

<P>
O-34

Toggle iron harpoon
Designed in 1848 by Lewis 
Temple, a blacksmith, this was 
the standard harpoon in 
American whaling from the mid-
19th through the early 20th 
centuries.
National Museum of American 
History

<P>
O-67

Speargun, Koror, Palau 
Islands, Micronesia
courtesy of Smithsonian 
Institution Women's Council 
and National Museum of Natural 
History

<P>
O-26

Leadline, 19th century
A lead weight attached to a 
line marked in fathoms (6-foot 
lengths) was used to "sound 
the bottom."  By pressing 
tallow into the weight, 
skippers could tell whether 
the sea floor was rocky, 
sandy, or shelly.  Some 
claimed they could even taste 
and smell flounders nearby.
National Museum of American 
History


<P>
O-198

Electronic fish finder
Sophisticated sonar and depth 
sounding have been 
indispensable to commercial 
fishermen since the 1970s.  
Blobs above an outline of the 
sea floor reveal schools of 
fish, so that fishermen know 
where and how deep to drop 
nets.
courtesy of Raytheon Marine 
Company


<P>
O-7

Shrimp net, Mexico
Before casting his net, a 
shrimper puts his head 
underwater to listen for 
clicking sounds that shrimp 
make.  From these, he can tell 
whether the shrimp are staying 
in the grasses on the sea 
floor, or moving in the water 
above. This net was made by 
Victor Osuna Tisnado, who 
fished in the Pacific.
courtesy of James R. 
McGoodwwin

<P>
O-78

Navigation stick chart, 
Marshall Islands
Marshall islanders learn basic 
navigation from charts that 
mark islands with shells or 
coral pebbles, while bent 
sticks show wave patterns 
between islands.  Navigators 
use waves, winds, clouds, 
stars, sun, moon, and birds 
and fish to know their 
location.
National Museum of Natural 
History

<P>
O-83/84

Kayak (model), Norton 
Sound, Alaska, 1910
Extremely light, flexible, and 
fast, wooden-framed kayaks are 
covered with walrus or sea-
lion skin.  Kayakers hunting 
marine mammals in the open sea 
needed navigational skill and 
strength as well as knowledge 
of animal behavior.
National Museum of Natural 
History

<P>
O-210

Outrigger (model), 
Sulawesi, Indonesia, 
contemporary
For at least three centuries, 
Indonesian seafarers and 
traders have sailed outriggers 
over open sea and along the 
often treacherous coasts of 
southwestern Asia and northern 
Australia .
courtesy of Eugene Ammarell


<P>
O-255

memorial wreath

Memorial Day wreath, 
Crescent City, California
In fishing ports across the 
country, wreaths are tossed in 
the sea on the outgoing tide 
on Memorial Day to remember 
fishermen lost in the 
preceding year.
Bar-O Boys Ranch, Gasquet, 
California


<P>
O-228

Life ring from USCG cutter 
Resolute
courtesy of U.S. Coast Guard

<P>
O-256

Oculus fishing charm, Lamu, 
Kenya
The oculus, or eye, is a 
painted wooden disk with 
Koranic text, and carved 
flags, flowers, and birds.
courtesy of the Afrika Museum, 
the Netherlands

<P>
O-85

Our Lady of Good Voyage 
(replica), National Shrine 
of the Fisherman, 
Gloucester, Massachusetts
The most common individual 
charms among North Atlantic 
fishermen are religious 
medals, the Portuguese fist-
of-power figures, or family 
mementos passed from father to 
son.


<P>
O-56

Weather charm, Puluwat 
Atoll, Caroline Islands, 
Micronesia, early 20th 
century
Canoe navigators consecrated 
charms to divert storms and 
bad weather, and to appeal to 
benevolent water spirits.
National Museum of Natural 
History


<P>
O-202

Shark priest's fishing 
float, Solomon Islands, 
1970s
Floats were baited with hermit 
crabs and set out about a 
dozen at a time.  Flying fish 
caught by the floats nourished 
dead priests as they became 
ancestor sharks.
courtesy of Sarah Keene 
Meltzoff


<P>
O-82

Spirit protectors, Nunivak 
Island, Alaska, 1927
Wooden plaques of masked 
images were placed inside 
kayaks to serve as protective 
charms.
National Museum of Natural 
History

<P>
O-3 

sticker 
[Mayday instructions]


<P>
O-197

a,b,c
Survival suits, assorted 
sizes
Without a survival suit, a 
person overboard will succumb 
to hypothermia in minutes in 
near-freezing Alaskan water. 
For fishing families, child-
size suits are a must.


<P>
O-27

[newspaper account of sinking]


<P>
O-137

[safety-steps bandanna]
<P>
O-213 seaweed

Seaweed, Gelidium

<P>
O-213

products in manufacturer's 
packaging will not be labeled
[SeaKem/SeaKem Gold 
Agarose Gel]
courtesy of FMC BioProducts 
Corporation


<P>
O-259

Seaweed, Gastroclonium 
coulteri


<P>
O-225

[Phycobiliprotein dye]
courtesy of University of 
California at Berkeley


<P>
O-242

Seaweed, Ascophyllum 
nodosum
courtesy of Kelco 
International


<P>
O-151

[Sorbsan bandages]
courtesy of Courtaulds

<P>
O-158

[Miacalcin]
courtesy of Sandoz 
Pharmaceuticals


<P>
O-241

Pufferfish, Fugu rubripes
courtesy of California Academy 
of Sciences


<P>
O-150

[Tetrodotoxin]
courtesy of Sankyo Corporation


<P>
O-235

Mussel, Mytilus edulis
National Museum of Natural 
History


<P>
O-211

[Cell-tak]
courtesy of Collaborative 
Biomedical Products


<P>
O-226

Horseshoe crab, Limulus


<P>
O-226

[Limulus amebocyte lysate 
test]
courtesy of Associates of Cape 
Cod, Inc.


<P>
O-236

Crab Shells


<P>
O-237

Crab shells


<P>
O-238

[Pronova chitosan sutures]
courtesy of Pronova 
Biopolymers


<P>
O-233

Sponge, Tethya crypta
National Museum of Natural 
History


<P>
O-210

[Cytosar-U]
courtesy the Upjohn Company


<P>
O-245

Coral, Acropora


<P>
O-224

[Biocoral]
courtesy of Inoteb Corporation


<P>
O-247

For DIGESTIVE PROBLEMS, a 
traditional remedy is made 
from IRISH MOSS SEAWEED, 
Chondrus crispus.  It has been 
prescribed for diarrhea, 
dysentery, gastric ulcers, and 
colds.
courtesy of Rose Treat


<P>
O-88

For CONVULSIONS in epileptic 
children, an old English 
remedy specified RED CORAL, 
10 grains, powdered, given in 
breast milk or cherry water.  
It was also used to drive away 
ghosts, hardendiseased gums, 
and relieve stomach pain.
National Museum of American 
History



<P>
O-248

To help BREAST MILK flow 
freely, women of some 
countries wear SEAHORSES.  In 
Europe, seahorses have also 
been used to cure urinary 
incontinence, and in Ancient 
Greece, to cure cancer.
National Museum of American 
History



<P>
O-230

For ILLS of all sorts, people 
have tried EELS.  In England, 
Anguilla eels helped difficult 
childbirth.  Egyptians treated 
sweaty feet with eels for 
centuries.  In Japan, eels 
were eaten on the first day of 
summer for health all year.
National Museum of Natural 
History



<P>
O-86

For COLDS and as a general 
tonic,
COD liver oil was once a 
traditional American remedy, 
brought by Scandinavian 
immigrants.  Later it was used 
as a regular source of 
vitamins A and D for children.
National Museum of American 
History



<P>
O-249

For INSANITY and many other 
maladies, PEARLS were often 
prescribed in Europe and 
Persia.  In England, they were 
used for fevers and heart, 
brain, and stomach problems.  
Ancient Indians mixed pearls 
with coral to treat 
tuberculosis.


<P>
O-250

For CORNS, an old English 
remedy prescribed ABALONE 
SHELL:  squeeze lemon juice 
over mother-of-pearl buttons 
twice a day for 7 days till 
buttons turn to paste.  Spread 
on, cover with bandages,  and 
repeat daily until the corn is 
gone.
National Museum of American 
History


<P>
O-193

Green-turtle-shell guitar



<P>
O-214

Sea-turtle-shell manicure set



<P>
O-217

Turtle-skin shoes



<P>
O-216

Black-coral necklace
courtesy of the U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, National 
Fish and Wildlife Forensics 
Laboratory

<P>
G-538
view of earth from space, with 
fly-by route highlighted

NASA scientists have 
created a 60-second 
animated tour under the 
Pacific Ocean, based on real 
data about the sea floor's 
peaks and valleys.  Submerge 
near Hawaii, run like a 
submarine to Japan, and 
finally dive to the ocean's 
deepest point, between Japan 
and New Guinea.
courtesy of Gene Feldman and 
Dave Pape, National Air and 
Space Administration



<P>
G-535

Oarfish
Regalecus glesne
Once mistaken for a sea 
serpent, the oarfish is the 
longest bony fish, over 50 
feet (17 m). The name refers 
to red fins that pivot as it 
swims, like oars on a boat.
phylum Chordata
illustration E. Paul 
Oberlander



<P>
G-502

Green turtle
Chelonia mydas
Sea turtles have an uncanny 
sense of direction; some 
migrate over a thousand miles 
to lay eggs.  Like most sea 
turtles, green turtles are 
threatened by hunting and 
habitat loss.
phylum Chordata
photo Tom Campbell



<P>
G-534

Meiofauna
These animals--all less than a 
millimeter long--live between 
sand grains.  Meiofauna 
samples from a single bucket 
of sand taken off Florida may 
yield up to 22 phyla.  The 
world's rain forests have 15 
to 16 phyla of all kinds of 
organisms at most.
illustration Robert Higgins



<P>
G-478

Candy-stripe sea cucumber
Thelenota rubralineata
Like other sea cucumbers 
(relatives of sea stars and 
urchins), this species can 
shoot sticky poisonous tubular 
threads from its anus.  The 
writhing tubules entangle an 
attacker, while the "victim" 
escapes to regenerate new 
tubules.
phylum Echinodermata
photo Mary Jane Adams



<P>
G-528

Common sea dragon
Phyllopteryx taeniolatus
Sea dragons reverse 
traditional sexroles.  The 
male carries and incubates the 
eggs, which the female lays in 
a soft skin pouch under his 
tail.  He stores the eggs 
until they hatch.
phylum Chordata
photo Fred Bavendam



<P>
G-472

Pink vase sponge
Dasychalina cyathina
None of the five thousand or 
so species of sponges has 
specialized tissue.  They 
simply filter water through 
pores in order to "eat" 
detritus and plankton.
phylum Porifera
photo David Wrobel



<P>
G-476

Giant purple jellyfish
Chrysaora sp.
Many marine animals remain to 
be discovered.  This relative 
of corals and sea anemones was 
found in the early 1990s.  
Formal scientific 
identification of the species 
hasn't been published. 
phylum Cnidaria
photo Bob Cranston



<P>
G-470

Sea gooseberry
Pleurobrachia
If disturbed at night, sea 
gooseberries (and other comb 
jellies) glow in the dark.  At 
sea, people have reported 
waters filled with greenish 
comb-jelly "fireworks."  Even 
the embryos of this group 
light up.
phylum Ctenophora
photo David Wrobel



<P>
G-362
[may add sci. names]

Clownfish and anemone

The mobile fish draws 
predators; the non-mobile 
anemone kills them with its 
stinging cells.  The anemone 
eats; the fish gets leftovers 
and protection.
phylum Chordata and phylum 
Cnidaria
photo Michele Hall/HHP


<P>
G-457

Horsehair worms
These are marine members of a 
mostly fresh-water group 
(their name comes from having 
been discovered in watering 
troughs).  These parasites 
absorb nutrients through their 
body walls.
phylum Nematomorpha
photo Oxford Scientific 
Films/Animals Animals



<P>
G-459

Goose barnacles
Lepas anseripera
Larval barnacles can swim, but 
adults use environmental cues 
to choose a hard surface for 
settling down.  "Glued" in 
place, a barnacle stands on 
its head and uses its foot to 
scoop water (and food) into 
its mouth. 
phylum Arthropoda
photo Oxford Scientific 
Films/Animals Animals


<P>
G-509

Vent worms
Riftia pachyptila
Found only around sea-floor 
cracks, vent worms live in 
sulfurous hot water and rely 
on bacteria living in their 
body tissue for energy.  
Adults of this group do not 
have a mouth or digestive 
tract.
phylum Vestimentifera
photo Al Giddings/Ocean 
Images, Inc.



<P>
G-460
[sci. name?]

Peanut worm

The name comes from the shape 
they assume when they 
contract.  Adults burrow in 
sand or dwell in crevices in 
rocks or coral.  The long-
lived larvae swim in warm 
surface waters the world over.
phylum Sipuncula
photo Kathie Atkinson/Oxford 
Scientific Films/Animals 
Animals


<P>
G-513

Polychaetes
Chloeia viridis
For reproducing, many "bristle 
worms" have split 
personalities.  They develop 
an extra body part containing 
sex cells (and even "eyes" and 
"feet" for swimming), which 
breaks off, rises to the 
surface, and releases the 
cells.
phylum Annelida
photo Woody Lee/Smithsonian 
Marine Station



<P>
G-471

Brachiopods
Laqueus californiensis
Often called lamp shells 
because of their resemblance 
to Aladdin's lamp, this 
ancient group has been around 
at least 400 million years, 
with 26,000 species in the 
fossil record.  Only 335 
species survive today.
phylum Brachiopoda
photo David Wrobel


<P>
G-474

Pencil urchin
Heterocentrotus mammillatus
Sea urchins maintain 
ecological balance in coral 
communities by devouring algae 
that could outcompete the 
corals.  Thick spines help 
stabilize the urchin in rough 
waters.
phylum Echinodermata
photo Bob Cranston



<P>
G-461

Arrow worms
Billions of these small 
predators live in the upper 
layer of open seas.  Named 
"hairy jaws," they have 
movable hooks to grasp and 
swallow prey--young fish, 
protists, copepods.
phylum Chaetognatha
photo Peter Parks/Oxford 
Scientific Films/Animals 
Animals


<P>
G-438

Sea grass and kelp
Phyllospadix scouleri and 
Macrocystis pyrifera
In the oceans, algae far 
outnumber flowering plants.  
The surf grass on the left is 
a flowering plant.  The kelp 
on the right is a brown alga.
phylum Angiospermophyta 
(grass)
phylum Phaeophyta (kelp)
photo Jeff Rotman



<P>
G-462

Sea-star larva
Many immature marine 
invertebrates (which may not 
even look like the adults of 
the same species) drift over 
long distances.  This swimming 
sea-star larva will become a 
bottom-dwelling adult.
phylum Echinodermata
photo Peter Parks/Oxford 
Scientific Films/Animals 
Animals


<P>
G-456

Dinoflagellates
Ceratium
Some of this group of one-
celled, mostly planktonic 
organisms are plant-like and 
photosynthetic; others are 
animal-like and "eat" food.  
Some produce potent 
neurotoxins and may cause red 
tides that kill animals.
phylum Dinoflagellata
photo E. R. Degginger/Animals 
Animals



<P>
G-320

Brown algae
Macrocystis pyrifera
For size, giant kelp has no 
rivals among sea plants and 
algae--it can grow to lengths 
of 260 feet (80 m) or more. 
Upper fronds, exposed to the 
most sunlight, can grow up to 
2 feet (0.6 m) in a day.
phylum Phaeophyta
photo Helmut Horn


<P>
G-469

Red algae
Maripelta
Red algae grow from the 
intertidal zone down to 900 
feet (274 m).  Their color 
allows them to absorb the 
parts of sunlight that 
penetrate deeper water. Agar 
(used to culture bacteria) 
comes from a species of red 
algae.
phylum Rhodophyta
photo David Wrobel



<P>
G-507

Radiolarians
Sarcodina radiolarida
With their elaborate skeletons 
of silica, these single-celled 
organisms are often preserved 
on the sea floor after they 
die.  Buried in sedimentary 
rock layers, they mark changes 
in oceanic conditions.
phylum Actinopoda
photo Al Giddings/Ocean 
Images, Inc.


<P>
G-72

Forams
Almost all of the 40,000 known 
species are fossils and 
microscopic.  The white chalk 
cliffs of Dover, England, are 
deposits of calcium-carbonate 
foram shells.  Some forams are 
good oil-deposit markers.
phylum Foraminifera
photo Peter Parks/Norbert Wu



<P>
G-158

Blue-green algae
Oscillatoria
These photosynthesizing 
bacterial cells may have 
released oxygen into the 
primordial atmosphere.  
Although most are blue-green, 
one can appear red--it colors 
the Red Sea.
phylum Cyanophyta
photo Sinclair 
Stammers/Science Photo 
Library/Photo Researchers, 
Inc.


<P>
G-508

Blue whale
Balaenoptera musculus
Larger than any animal ever 
(including dinosaurs), the 
blue whale has a heart the 
size of a car.  An adult sucks 
in 45 tons of water in a gulp, 
and filters out 3 to 4 tons of 
small shrimp and fish daily.
phylum Chordata
photo Doc White/Ocean Images, 
Inc.



<P>
G-521

Sea hare
Aplysia sp.
Sea hares, unlike their 
relatives the snails, don't 
have shells.  Instead, they 
release purple ink for escape 
and toxic white fluid for 
protection when disturbed.
phylum Mollusca
photo Mike Severns/Tom Stack & 
Associates


<P>
G-550

Xenophyophores
Reticulammina labryinthica
These giant single-celled 
organisms can be seen by the 
naked eye, yet little is known 
about them.  They've been 
found only on the sea floor.  
In some Pacific trenches, half 
the bottom is covered by slime 
they produce while feeding.
phylum Xenophyophora
photo courtesy of Institute 
for Oceanographic Sciences 
Deacon Laboratory



<P>
G-64

Diatoms
Pleurosiama balticum
The remains of billions of 
silica diatom shells have made 
history--geologic, biological, 
and even industrial.  Alfred 
Nobel used diatomaceous earth 
to stabilize nitroglycerine 
when he invented dynamite.
phylum Bacillariophyta
photo Peter Parks/Norbert Wu


<P>
G-504

Sea otter
Enhydra lutris
Sea otters help to keep kelp 
healthy by eating the sea 
urchins and abalones that 
graze on kelp.  When 19th-
century hunting almost wiped 
out California sea otters, 
grazers destroyed giant kelp 
in some areas.
phylum Chordata
photo Tom Campbell



<P>
G-548

Marine viruses
These bits of genetic material 
coated with protein aren't 
really living organisms (they 
can't reproduce outside of 
host cells--mostly bacteria).  
From 50,000 to 50 million 
marine viruses can be found in 
a teaspoon of sea water.
viruses don't belong to a 
phylum
photomicrograph John 
Waterbury/Woods Hole 
Oceanographic Institution


<P>
G-543

Vent food web depends on 
sulfur--not sunlight.  
Bacteria convert chemicals 
(from the sulfur-rich fluid 
spewed out of vents) to 
energy, in a process called 
chemosynthesis.  Other animals 
eat bacteria, harbor bacteria 
in their bodies, or eat 
bacteria-eaters.
	Vent worms have no mouth 
or digestive tract.  Instead, 
chemosynthetic bacteria living 
in their tissues provide 
nourishment.  Hemoglobin(which 
transports hydrogen sulfide to 
the bacteria) makes the vent 
worms red.
illustration Linda Huff, 
courtesy of Sigma Xi, the 
Scientific Research Society



<P>
G-539

Black smokers, the hottest 
submarine hot springs, can 
reach 518-716 F (270-380 C).  
The super-hot water laced with 
hydrogen sulfide and other 
minerals spews out of cracks 
in the earth's crust.
photo courtesy of National 
Oceanic and Atmospheric 
Administration

<P>
G-540

<P>
G-541

The first known 
loriciferan, Pliciloricus 
enigmatus
Actual size is about one-
quarter of a millimeter.
illustration Carolyn Gast, 
National Museum of Natural 
History
scanning electron micrograph 
Robert Higgins



<P>
G-416

Pygmy beaked whale, 
Mesoplodon peruvianus
These small whales are often 
caught accidentally and sold 
in local fish markets, where 
Smithsonian scientist James 
Mead (who later identified 
thespecies) first obtained a 
skull.
photo Julio C. Reyes



<P>
G-542

This elusive species has never 
been seen alive, but an 
artist's composite 
illustration gives a glimpse 
of the whale in its natural 
habitat.
illustration Pieter Folkens


<P>
G-581

East Pacific Rise seamount 
field, located by satellite 
altimetry and mapped by sonar, 
was unknown until 1993.



<P>
G-547

Close-up of three 
seamounts, East Pacific 
Rise
[new caption info on height 
and geologic activity to come]

computer images courtesy of 
Ken McDonald, Dan Shierer, Don 
Forsyth, University of 
California, Santa Barbara


<P>
G-455

Diatoms, photosynthetic algae 
of many sizes and shapes but 
mostly microscopic, with 
shells of silica, are among 
the oceans' primary producers-
-the first and most vital link 
in food webs.
photo Oxford Scientific 
Films/Animals Animals



<P>
G-93

Copepods are the most 
numerous of grazers in the 
oceans--they may even be the 
most numerous multicellular 
animals on earth.  Most of 
them are filter feeders that 
scoop up diatoms and other 
phytoplankton.
photo Peter Parks, Norbert Wu



<P>
G-464
[pls check...]

Surface dwellers:  goose 
barnacles, Spirula shell, 
porpita, Portuguese man-of-
war.
photo Peter Parks/Animals 
Animals


<P>
G-574    

photo of nuclear mushroom 
cloud, uncaptioned

Radioactive tritium became 
a perfect marker for 
tracking ocean water. 
Scientists sampling North 
Atlantic water found that 
tritium released into the 
atmosphere before the 1962 
nuclear test ban treaty, mixed 
downward by 1973.  By 1980, 
the same tritium had moved 
into deep areas off Florida.  
The water had taken about 20 
years to travel 3000 miles 
(4800 km) through the sea at 
an average speed of less than 
half a mile a day, about half 
the speed of a snail.
photo courtesy of National 
Atomic Museum


<P>
G-560

Launching a mooring buoy
photo courtesy of Woods Hole 
Oceanographic Institution

<P>
G-563

Alvin, a three-passenger deep 
submergence vehicle, can dive 
to 14,850 feet (4,500 m).  It 
has been instrumental in 
discovering many oceanographic 
features, including 
hydrothermal vents.  Its 
titanium sphere houses 
sophisticated navigation, 
scientific, and film and video 
equipment.
photo courtesy of Woods Hole 
Oceanographic Institution

<P>
G-562

Hauling aboard a CTD sensor 
with sampling bottles 
attached, after a day's work.  
Onboard computers connected to 
the CTD have collected the 
data.
photo courtesy of Scripps 
Institute of Oceanography



<P>
G-545

In just two minutes a 
satellite collected data 
for this map of phytoplankton 
around Tasmania, Australia.  
Higher concentrations of 
phytoplankton are shown in 
red.  It would have taken a 
ship moving at 10 knots an 
entire decade to collect the 
same type of data on this area 
slightly larger than Texas and 
New Mexico.  
photo Gene Carl 
Feldman/National Aeronautics 
and Space Agency


<P>
G-544

Gulf Stream, western North 
Atlantic, June 1984
photo courtesy of O. Brown, R. 
Evans, M. Carle, University of 
Miami Rosenstiel School of 
Marine and Atmospheric Science
Miami

<P>
G-193

Stilt fishing, near Galle, 
Sri Lanka, 1983 
photo Heather Angel


<P>
G-221
photomural

Welcoming the Fleet
Kayar villagers wait every day 
for fishing boats to come in, 
in order to bargain for fish, 
near Dakar, Senegal.
photo Wolfgang Kaehler



<P>
G-142

Unloading swordfish, 
Sesimbra, Portugal, mid-
1980s
photo Louis Goldman/Photo 
Researchers, Inc.

<P>
G-260

Fishing for king crab, 
Bering Sea
Most fishermen around the 
world allot profits from the 
catch by "shares." Owners may 
get as much as half; the crew 
divides the rest.  Skippers 
get two or three shares.  The 
crew gets quarter, half, or 
full shares, based on their 
experience.
photo Mark J. Rauzon



<P>
G-151

Cleaning the catch (brown 
pelicans are interested, 
too), Galapagos Islands
photo C. J. Collins/Photo 
Researchers, Inc.



<P>
G-256

Annual harvest of awa (milk 
fish), Christmas Island, 
eastern Indian Ocean, 1982
photo Mark J. Rauzon


<P>
G-347

Meeting in the fish house, 
Monhegan Island, Maine
photo Jeff Rotman


<P>
G-188

Polar Inuit women sewing 
kayak cover, northwest 
Greenland, 1971
Women help prepare gear.
photo Fred Bruemmer



<P>
G-124

<P>
G-125, inset

Salmon cannery, Poronaysk, 
Sakhalin Island, Russia, 
1990
Three shifts work round the 
clock during the peak salmon 
run.  Women are wage earners, 
paid according to their team's 
production.
photos Natalie B. Fobes

<P>
G-237

Selling the fresh catch, 
Hong Kong
Women sell fish the world 
over.
photo Wolfgang Kaehler



<P>
G-241

Women fishing, le aux 
Nattes, Madagascar
Women have traditionally 
fished near shore.
photo Wolfgang Kaehler



<P>
G-365

<P>
G-371

<P>
G-366

Women enter men's 
traditional domain, fishing 
the open ocean
photos Women's Maritime 
Association


<P>
G-5

Angela A. Sanfilippo, 
lobbying, Gloucester, 
Massachusetts
photo Nance S. Trueworthy



<P>
G-564
fisherman's wife addressing 
audience at a demonstration



<P>
G-161  

background photomural

Geared Up

Magnificent frigatebirds will 
lose their perch when this 
fishing boat lowers its nets 
in the Sea of Cortez, Mexico.
photo Art Wolfe


<P>
G-281

Sperm whalers prepare an 
iron harpoon, 1904
During the 19th century, New 
England whaling crews included 
men from Cape Verde, the 
Azores, and the West Indies.
photo courtesy of New Bedford 
Whaling Museum


<P>
G-303

Fishermen use a speargun to 
capture an octopus, Ponape, 
Micronesia 
Sometimes a diver puts a moray 
eel (an octopus predator) into 
octopus's burrow, so that the 
octopus will come out far 
enough to be speared.
photo Philip Rosenberg



<P>
G-153

Tuna fishing, St.-Jean-de-
Luz, France
photo Franois Delaporte


<P>
G-261

Fisherman splicing rope, 
Prince Rupert, British 
Columbia, Canada
photo Mark J. Rauzon



<P>
G-192

Cantilevered Chinese fish 
traps for catching fish 
close to shore, Cochin, 
India
photo Heather Angel



<P>
G-135

On the lookout for whales, 
Gambell, Alaska
photo Natalie B. Fobes



<P>
G-357

<P>
G-356 (inset)

Lobster traps stacked on 
dock for Trap Day--January 
1, Monhegan Island, Maine 
inset A father teaches his 
7-year-old son to set traps
photos Jeff Rotman



<P>
G-14

A father shows his son how 
to build an outrigger 
canoe, Madagascar
photo Frans Lanting/Minden 
Pictures



<P>
G-577

Fisherman using a GPS.  
Safety-conscious mariners rely 
on the Global Positioning 
System for bearings at sea.  A 
GPS monitor on board a vessel 
receives signals from orbiting 
satellites, giving the skipper 
exact latitude and longitude 
coordinates.
[credit]


<P>
G-132

Unloading pollock during a 
blizzard, Dutch 
Harbor/Unalaska, Alaska, 
1992
photo Natalie B. Fobes



<P>
G-98

Fishing boat and container 
ship, Puerto Princesa, 
Palawan Island, Philippines
Aptly named for its desired 
catch, the Dog Shark loads ice 
before setting out to Sulu Sea 
reefs.
photo Steve Simonsen 


<P>
G-406

Rescue at Sea
[new info to come]

photo U.S. Coast Guard



<P>
G-214

Fishermen's monument, St. 
Pierre, St. Pierre Island, 
off Newfoundland
photo Wolfgang Kaehler



<P>
G-446

Temple for fishermen's safe 
return, Bali
photo Curtis W. 
Callaway/Passage Productions



<P>
G-440

Fishermen's memorial, 
Gloucester, Massachusetts
photo J. D. Sloan/The Picture 
Cube



<P>
G-445

Pearl divers' memorial, 
Thursday Island, off 
northwestern Australia
photo David O. Brown/Passage 
Productions



<P>
G-439

Blessing the fleet, 
Stonington, Connecticut
photo Stan Ries/The Picture 
Cube



<P>
G-15

Turtle hunter adorns his 
canoe bow with turtle blood 
to honor prey, Madagascar
photo Frans Lanting/Minden 
Pictures


<P>
G-122

First salmon ceremony, 
Tulalip tribe, Marysville, 
Washington, 1990
photo Natalie B. Fobes


<P>
G-129

Kissing the first sockeye 
salmon for good luck, 
before throwing it back, 
Bristol Bay, Alaska, 1991
photo Natalie B. Fobes



<P>
G-431

Bahia, Brazil
photo Stephanie Maze/Woodfin 
Camp & Associates


<P>
G-51

Crac'h, Brittany, France
photo Randall Hyman


<P>
G-434

Atchafalaya Bay, Louisiana
photo Eastcott/Y. 
Momatiuk/Woodfin Camp & 
Associates


<P>
G-254

Shipwreck, Kure Atoll, 
Hawaii
photo Mark J. Rauzon



<P>
G-133

Factory trawler in 90-knot 
winds, Bering Sea
photo Natalie B. Fobes


<P>
G-191

Icy waters surround a 
semisubmersible drill 
vessel used in oil 
exploration, Beaufort Sea
photo Fred Bruemmer

<P>
G-494

Sea urchins have enlarged our 
understanding of embryology.  
This urchin is releasing 20 
million eggs that will be used 
for research.
photo Eric Davidson, 
California Institute of 
Technology



<P>
G-530

Squids make news in 
neuroscience because they have 
the animal kingdom's largest 
single nerve cell.  The giant 
axon makes them prime models 
for studying how nerve 
impulses travel--with 
applications for research on 
Alzheimer's disease.
photo Roger Hanlon, University 
of TexasMedical Branch, 
Galveston



<P>
G-529

Octopuses, with advanced eyes 
and brains, serve as models 
for studies of short- and 
long-term memory and learning 
mechanisms.
photo Roger Hanlon, University 
of Texas Medical Branch, 
Galveston



<P>
G-565

Sponges as research subjects 
contributed to our 
understanding of the 
mechanisms of human diseases 
and how to combat them.  This 
species, Teichaxinella 
morchella, has shown potential 
in antibacterial research.
photo John Reed, Harbor Branch 
Oceanographic Institution



<P>
G-520

California sea hares, 
Aplysia californica, have 
revealed basic molecular 
mechanisms that govern 
behavior, because the few and 
large neurons of the animal's 
nervous system could be 
partially mapped, and 
thenrelated to specific 
behaviors.
photo Randy Morse/Tom Stack 
and Associates



<P>
G-566

Smooth dogfish, the shark 
Mustelus canis, was used in 
research that uncovered the 
cause of gout, a form of 
arthritis, and led to 
production of effective drug 
treatments for it.
photo Photo Researchers, Inc.



<P>
G-39   
photo in 
natural habitat


Shortfin Mako Shark
species		Isurus 
oxyrinchus
classification	cartilaginous 
fish
habitat		open ocean
feeding habits	mainly 
bluefish, 
some squid, 
octopus, 
swordfish

photo Howard Hall/Innerspace 
Visions





<P>
G-553  
photo of cooked critter

Serving Suggestions
Shortfin Mako Shark
nutritional information:  high 
protein, some heart-healthy 
Omega-3 fatty acids; like 
other top predators, may 
accumulate mercury and other 
persistent contaminants
commercial information:  
matures at about 6 ft (2 m); 
extremely sensitive to fishing 
pressure because of slow 
reproductive rate
photo courtesy of Florida 
Department of Agriculture and 
Consumer Services 


<P>
G-282  
photo in 
natural habitat

American Lobster
species		Homarus 
americanus
classification	arthropod 
(crustacean)
habitat		rocky bottoms
feeding habits	scavenges 
mussels, 
crabs, dead 
fish 

photo Herb Segars



<P>
G-308  

photo of cooked critter

Serving Suggestions
American Lobster
nutritional information:  meat 
high in calcium, iron, 
protein, thiamine, niacin and 
sodium; tomalley (liver & 
pancreas) may contain 
contaminants
commercial information:  
mature between 5 and 9 years; 
legally harvestable at about 1 
pound; caught in baited traps 
and pots
photo William B. Folsom



<P>
G-573  

photo in 
natural habitat

Brown Shrimp
species		Penaeus 
aztecus
classification	arthropod 
(crustacean)
habitat		estuaries, 
open ocean
feeding habits	algae, 
detritus,micr
oorganisms 

photo National Oceanic and 
Atmospheric Administration

<P>
G-551
photo of cooked critter

Serving Suggestions
Brown Shrimp
nutritional information:  high 
in protein, vitamin C, iron, 
calcium; moderate sodium 
content; low calorie
commercial information:  
medium and large sizes sold 
range from 31 to 60 shrimp per 
pound; caught in fixed nets, 
baited pots, trawls
photo King & Prince Seafood 
Corporation



<P>
G-527  

photo in 
natural habitat

Atlantic Herring
species		Clupea 
harengus
classification	bony fish
habitat		coastal 
waters
feeding habits	copepods, 
shrimp, 
prawns, fish 
larvae

photo Fred Bavendam


<P>
G-554   

photo of cooked 
critter

Serving Suggestions
Atlantic Herring
nutritional information:  high 
in protein and heart-healthy 
Omega-3 fatty acids
commercial information:  small 
herring canned as sardines; 
others processed to make 
poultry and livestock feed, 
oil for diet supplements, 
paints, soaps
photo North Atlantic Sardine 
Council



<P>
G-523  

photo in 
natural habitat

Skipjack Tuna
species		Katsuwonus 
pelamis
classification	bony fish
habitat		coastal, open 
water
feeding habits	fish, squid, 
crustaceans
photo Norbert Wu



<P>
G-555   

photo of cooked 
critter

Serving Suggestions
Skipjack Tuna
nutritional information:  low 
in fat, high in protein, iron
commercial information:  more 
than 50% of all tuna caught, 
the most common canned "light" 
tuna
photo National Museum of 
American History Archives 
Center



<P>
G-522  

photo in 
natural habitat

Swordfish
species		Xiphias 
gladius
classification	bony fish
habitat		coastal, open 
water
feeding habits	fish, squid, 
crustaceans
photo James D. Watt/Earthviews




<P>
G-552   

photo of cooked 
critter

Serving Suggestions
Swordfish
nutritional information:  high 
in protein, niacin, vitamin A; 
some heart-healthy Omega-3 
fatty acids; like other top 
predators, may accumulate 
mercury and other persistent 
contaminants
commercial information:  
available year-round; most 
caught with baited hooks on 
long fishing lines
photo Hawaii Department of 
Business, Economic Development 
& Tourism


<P>
G-584  

photo in 
natural habitat

Alaska Pollock
species		Theragra 
chalcogramma
classification	bony fish
habitat		ocean bottom
feeding habits	crabs, other 
invertebrates

photo Phil Edgell



<P>
G-556   

photo of cooked 
critter

Serving Suggestions
Alaska Pollock
nutritional information:  high 
in protein, riboflavin, 
calcium; lean
commercial information:  
caught by bottom trawls; 
inexpensive, used to make fish 
sticks and imitation crabmeat
photo Alaska Seafood Marketing 
Council



<P>
G-159  

photo in 
natural habitat

Red Snapper
species		Lutjanus 
campechanus
classification	bony fish
habitat		reefs, 
coastal 
waters
feeding habits	shrimp, 
crabs, 
octopus, 
small fishes
photo Allan Power



<P>
G-557    

photo of cooked 
critter

Serving Suggestions
Red Snapper
nutritional information:  high 
in protein, low in fat
commercial information:  
caught year-round with power 
reels and bait
photo Florida Department of 
Agriculture and Consumer 
Services



<P>
G-177  

photo in 
natural habitat

Sockeye Salmon
species		Oncorhynchus 
nerka
classification	bony fish
habitat		spawns in 
streams, 
lakes; 
matures in 
estuaries, 
open ocean
feeding habits	plankton, 
insects

photo Jeff Foott




<P>
G-558    

photo of cooked 
critter

Serving Suggestions
Sockeye Salmon
nutritional information:  high 
in protein, vitamin C, iron, 
heart-healthy Omega-3 fatty 
acids
commercial information:  
mature between 1 and 4 years; 
usually caught with netsin 
streams and lakes when 
returning to spawn; some 
salmon runs are endangered
photo Alaska Seafood Marketing 
Council



<P>
G-537  

photo in 
natural habitat

Eastern Oyster
species		Crassostrea 
virginica
classification	mollusk 
(bivalve)
habitat		estuaries
feeding habits	plankton 
filter-
feeders, up 
to 4 gallons 
per hour

photo Andrew J. Martinez



<P>
G-559   

photo of cooked 
critter

Serving Suggestions
Eastern Oyster
nutritional information:  high 
in iron, zinc; bacteria and 
viruses may pose risk if eaten 
raw
commercial information:  grown 
on natural reefs or ropes or 
containers hung from floats; 
hand-harvested when shell is 
approximately 5 inches (13 cm) 
across
photo National Fisheries 
Institute


<P>
G-579

Paul with 
plat du jour)

A dish too good for its own 
good 

It all began in 1984, when 
Chef Paul Prudhomme presented 
his now-famous recipe for 
blackened redfish.  He 
intended to use tuna but at 
the last minute had to 
substitute red drum, or 
redfish.  The dish became 
wildly popular, the price of 
redfish skyrocketed.  Heavy 
fishing exhausted the supply 
of adult fish and was stopped 
by the federal government.


<P>
G-331

Big Sur, California
photo Helmet Horn



<P>
G-81

Natural Nurseries


Where rivers meet oceans, the 
young of many species find 
ideal nurseries. These 
transition zones between fresh 
and salt water are called 
estuaries.  They are rich in 
river-deposited and recycled 
nutrients, and sea grasses 
provide good hiding places for 
the young. Many commercially 
useful fish feed in estuaries 
when young.  Shrimps, crabs, 
oysters, cockles, and mussels 
are caught in estuaries.



<P>
G-81

Minnow school in red-
mangrove-root community, 
Pelican Cays, Belize  
photo Tony Rath


<P>
G-290

Offshore oil drilling 
platform, Gulf of Mexico
photo Robert W. Parvin

<P>
G-194
background

Untreated waste from a 
tannery and meat-packing 
factory pours into the 
Pacific, Oamaru, South Island, 
New Zealand
winner of a photo contest 
sponsored by the United 
Nations Environment Program, 
taken by Kurt Adams, then 12 
years old

<P>
G-82

Mangroves nurture young fish 
and shellfish, and control 
erosion and water quality.  To 
date, nearly half of the 
world's mangrove forests and 
salt marshes have been 
cleared, drained, diked, or 
filled.
photo Tony Rath


<P>
G-441

Polar ecosystems are no 
longer beyond the reach of 
human activity.  Tourism, 
commercial fishing, and 
pollution are putting pressure 
on populations of penguins, 
whales, seals, and krill.
photo Onne Van Der Wal/Stock 
Newport


<P>
G-67

Kelp forests shelter many 
kinds of life in temperate 
coastal waters of the 
Americas, Europe, and Asia, 
but these habitats are 
vulnerable to declining water 
quality, over-harvesting of 
kelp and fish, and 
fluctuations in water 
temperature.
photo Norbert Wu



<P>
G-160

Intertidal zones may support 
as many as two thousand 
species, but these interfaces 
between land and sea are in 
jeopardy from coastal 
development, land-based 
runoff, and ocean pollution.
photo Art Wolfe
<P>
G-108
background image

Crude oil from a tanker 
that ran aground, Kill Van 
Kull Channel, between 
Staten Island and New 
Jersey, 1991
photo Michael Baytoff/Black 
Star


<P>
G-466, rain on pavement

Road runoff adds up.  Every 
year road runoff from a city 
of 5 million could be as much 
as one large tanker spill.
photo Fred Whitehead/Animals 
Animals

<P>
G-432

Dead oiled otter, a victim 
of the Exxon Valdez spill, 
Prince William Sound, 1989
Oil-covered fur or feathers 
can't insulate marine mammals 
and diving birds from cold 
water, and when an animal 
cleans itself, it also 
swallows oil.
photo Gary Braasch/Wheeler 
Pictures, Woodfin Camp & 
Associates


<P>
G-481

NOAA scientist collects 
samples from a rock sole 
after an oil spill, 1989 
Even if oil exposure isn't 
immediately lethal, it can 
cause long-term harm. Bottom-
dwelling fish exposed to 
compounds released after oil 
spills may develop liver 
disease and reproductive and 
growth problems.
photo Northwest Fisheries 
Science Center/National 
Oceanic and Atmospheric 
Administration



<P>
G-36

Mangroves stand in oil from 
a ruptured refinery tank, 
Panama, 1986
Smithsonian Institution 
scientists monitored effects 
of this 1986 spill, one of the 
largest in tropical North 
America.  Five years later, 
mangrove sediments still held 
fairly fresh, toxic oil.  It 
may take the mangroves fifty 
years to recover fully.
photo Carl C. Hansen 


<P>
G-506

Workers install a machine 
for cleaning waste oil off 
the sides of the ship's 
cargo tanks  
MARPOL requires installation 
and use of oil-pollution 
prevention equipment on 
tankers and other ships, and 
prohibits discharges within 
certain distances of land.
photo International Maritime 
Organization 



<P>
G-380

Factory waste pipe, Widnes, 
Cheshire, England, 1991
Industrial, agricultural, 
household cleaning, gardening, 
and automotive products 
regularly end up in water. 
About 65,000 chemicals are 
used commercially in the U.S. 
today, with about 1,000 new 
ones added each year. Only 
about 300 have been 
extensively tested for 
toxicity.
photo David Woodfall/Tony 
StoneWorldwide



<P>
G-482

NOAA scientists study 
reproductive problems in 
fish from contaminated 
water in Puget Sound, 1989
Toxic materials don't always 
kill wildlife but they can 
still cause severe damage.
photo Joni Packard/National 
Marine Fisheries Service, 
National Oceanic and 
Atmospheric Administration


<P>
G-505

Analyzing sediment samples 
to classify level of 
contamination, Puget Sound, 
1990
State sediment-management 
standards and federal law 
regulate methods for dredging, 
disposing, and cleanup of 
contaminated sediments.
photo Puget Sound Water 
Quality Authority


<P>
G-76

A northern sea lion, 
entangled in an old net, 
St. Paul Island, Alaska, 
rescued by the National 
Marine Mammals Laboratory 
photo Charles Fowler



<P>
G-12

A decaying albatross chick, 
fed plastic garbage by its 
parents, reveals the 
objects that killed it, 
Leeward Island, Hawaii
photo Frans Lanting, Minden 
Pictures


<P>
G-109

Medical waste, Coney 
Island, 1988
Needles and syringes suspected 
to have washed from  New York 
City streets and sewer systems 
after heavy rain storms, 
washed up onto Long Island and 
New Jersey beaches during the 
summer of 1988.  Although 
medical trash turns up 
infrequently on beaches, 
estimated costs from lost 
tourism and recreation that 
year were as high as $3 
billion.
photo Michael Baytoff



<P>
G-57

Ducie Atoll, Pitcairn 
Islands, South Pacific
An important breeding area for 
seabirds, the atoll is 
littered with as much trash as 
some European beaches.
photo Tim G. Benton



<P>
G-449

Mustang Island cleanup, 
Texas
photo Linda Maraniss, courtesy 
Center for Marine 
Conservation, Washington, D.C.


<P>
G-452

Falmouth's Morse Pond 
School sixth graders, Woods 
Hole, Massachusetts, 
October 1993



<P>
G-451

Red Cross beach cleanup, 
British Virgin Islands, 
September 1993
photo BVI Red Cross



<P>
G-453

Susquehanna River cleanup, 
Broome County, New York, 
September 1993


<P>
G-487

One day's worth of plastic 
trash from a typical crew 
of 300 on a U.S. Navy 
destroyer
Compressed into blocks, thirty 
days' worth can be stored in 
the space that would be filled 
by one day's worth of 
uncompacted plastic trash.
photo George Filiopoulus, U.S. 
Navy



<P>
G-167

MV Anson dumping jarosite 
at sea, April 1990 
Australia has permitted 
dumping of jarosite, a by-
product of zinc smelting, 
since 1973.
photo [? Hewetson/Greenpeace]


<P>
G-364

Collecting coral to process 
for lime, Solomon Islands, 
1988
Mining coral removes habitat 
of local marine species, and 
weakens coastal storm 
defenses.  Rebuilding coral 
takes time because colonies of 
tiny coral animals grow 
slowly.  Mined or dredged 
areas take a very long time to 
recover.
photo Sarah Keene Meltzoff



<P>
G-84

Mining sand for landfill, 
Belize,
Sand and gravel are in demand 
as fill, and as an ingredient 
of concrete. Mining near 
shores may lead directly to 
beach erosion.  Removing sand 
from river beds may also cause 
beach loss, because floods 
would have eventually brought 
that sand to beaches.
photo Tony Rath



<P>
G-568

Madeleine Albright, U.S. 
Representative to the 
United Nations, signaled 
U.S. approval of the Law of 
the Sea treaty by signing the 
sea-bed mining provision on 
July 29, 1994 (four months 
before the treaty took 
effect).
photo United Nations
<P>
G-435
landscape with photos, 
objects, captions inset

Chesapeake Bay watershed, 
Maryland
photo David H. Harvey/Woodfin 
Camp & Associates


<P>
G-398

Pond after nutrient build-
up, Chesapeake Bay 
watershed, 1994
photo David Harp/Chesapeake 
Bay Foundation


<P>
G-533

Analyzing barnyard manure 
for nutrient content allows 
farmers to use manure as an 
alternative to commercial 
fertilizers for corn, and to 
control nutrient-laden runoff 
from livestock operations.
photo Kathie Bentley, 
Northeast Iowa Demonstration 
Project


<P>
G-447

Storm-drain signs remind 
Baltimore neighbors that 
discards can harm the 
Chesapeake Bay. 
photo David W. Harp/Chesapeake 
Bay Foundation


<P>
G-172

Sewage spills onto a North 
Sea beach, Hartlepool, 
England
Every day in the early 1990s, 
300 million gallons of sewage 
entered British coastal 
waters, most of it untreated.
photo Simon Fraser/Photo 
Researchers, Inc.


<P>
G-569

Surfers Against Sewage 
publicizes health risks from 
polluted water.  This is dried 
toilet paper on the beach in 
Troon, Scotland.
photo Surfers Against Sewage


<P>
G-396

Fish kill caused by 
nutrient build-up, 
Nanticoke River, Chesapeake 
Bay, 1992
photo David W. Harp



<P>
G-178 Golden Gate warning sign

<P>
G-107 Wildwood, NJ beach 
closing sign

<P>
G-489 shellfish bed closing 
sign



photo Jeff Foott


photo Michael Baytoff


photo Bruce Wodder/The Image 
Bank


<P>
G-468

Marshes, the final filters 
in waste-water treatment, 
Arcata, California
photo Ted Streshinsky



<P>
G-570

Blue Plains Sewage 
Treatment Plant, 
Washington, D.C.
The Clean Water Act provided 
the regulatory tools and 
financing to build this state-
of-the-art plant that treats 
more than 300 million gallons 
of sewage per day.  Along with 
a ban on phosphate detergents, 
the plant has helped to 
drastically cut the level of 
phosphorus entering the 
Potomac River and Chesapeake 
Bay.
photo Hedrich Blessing


<P>
G-244

Zebra mussels clog a water 
intake pipe, Detroit 
Edison's Monroe Plant
photo Ron Peplowski, courtesy 
of Detroit Edison


<P>
G-518

Golden Gate Bridge, San 
Francisco Bay
photo David W. Hamilton/The 
Image Bank


<P>
G-92

Algal bloom
International Maritime 
Organization guidelines advise 
ships to avoid taking on 
ballast water in heavily 
silted areas or waters with 
algal blooms.
photo Norbert Wu


<P>
G-486
background photo

Sand crabs in salt marsh, 
Sapelo Island, Georgia, 
1989
photo S. C. Delaney/courtesy 
of Environmental Protection 
Agency


<P>
G-87

Red and black mangroves, 
Belize

Thickets of mangrove roots are 
perfect nurseries for wild 
shrimp and fishes. An added 
bonus, the roots protect 
coasts from wind and wave 
erosion.  Most tropical 
countries have lost more than 
half of their mangrove forests 
to logging, urban development, 
or conversion to rice fields, 
cropland, or fish-farming 
ponds.
photo Tony Rath


<P>
G-524

White ibis
The Everglades' sawgrass 
fields, dry pinelands, 
"islands" of trees, and 
mangrove forests once 
supported over 600 kinds of 
animals and 900 of plants.  In 
the past 50 years, pollution 
or water-flow disruption and 
complete drainage in some 
areas have disturbed or 
destroyed many habitats.  Wild 
populations, especially of 
birds, have plummeted; the 
number of wading birds that 
nest in the national park has 
dropped by more than 90 
percent.
[photo credit]   

<P>
G-526

Planting projects play a 
major role in saving 
Louisiana's coastline
Vegetation helps hold the mud 
together and prevents it from 
washing away. Smooth 
cordgrass, a salt-tolerant 
plant, is widely used.
photo Louisiana Department of 
Natural Resources

<P>
G-379
background photo

Snorkelers and cruise ship, 
Caribbean islands, 1988
Coral reefs in 90 of 109 
countries are being damaged by 
cruise-ship anchors and 
sewage, by tourists breaking 
off chunks of coral, and by 
commercial harvesting for sale 
to tourists.
photo Dan Ham/Tony Stone 
Worldwide


<P>
G-40

Splitting headaches

What happens when a ship drops 
anchor? The anchor, which may 
weigh up to 5 tons, can break 
coral heads, like this one 
broken by a freighter in the 
Turks and Caicos islands, and 
the long swaying anchor chain 
can crush coral in its wide 
swing.  Just one anchoring in 
calm seas with no wind can do 
damage that will take a reef 
50 years to repair.
photo Doug Perrine



<P>
G-85

Bumps and bruises
Strolling snorkelers in Belize 
may not know they've stepped 
out of line.  Just walking on 
a reef can damage coral that 
takes years to regrow.
photo Tony Rath


<P>
G-430

Nicks and Cuts
Boat propellers leave visible 
scars on the ocean bottom.  
Sea-grass meadows, scraped and 
clogged with silt stirred up 
by propellers, may take 
decades to recover.  Less 
visible are effects on fish 
and nesting birds.  Noise from 
personal watercraft, like 
these in the Florida Keys, 
scares them away.
photo Catherine Karnow/Woodfin 
Camp & Associates


<P>
G-171

Manatee, Crystal River, 
Florida, 1986
A typical adult manatee, a 
marine mammal, weighs 800 to 
1200 pounds (363-544 kg).  
Perhaps two thousand of them 
still live in the southeastern 
U.S.
photo Jeff Foott


<P>
G-182

Propeller-scarred manatee, 
Crystal River, Florida, 
1986
Researchers have identified 
900 manatees with 
distinguishable propeller 
scars on their backsides.  
Watercraft kill about 40 
animals a year--a quarter of 
all manatee deaths.
photo Jeff Foott



<P>
G-354

Divers installing mooring 
buoy, Florida, 1989
With help from the National 
Marine Sanctuaries Program and 
the grass-roots organization 
Reef Relief, Greenpeace divers 
learn how to install a type of 
single-hole mooring used by 
boats transporting divers and 
snorkelers. Reef Relief has 
installed more than a hundred 
mooring buoys in Key West.
photo Robert Visser/Greenpeace



<P>
G-504

Sea otter, one of the more 
popular residents of the 
Monterey Bay National 
Marine Sanctuary
Monterey Bay is the largest 
federally regulated marine 
sanctuary.  Its diverse 
habitats range from rocky 
shores and sandy beaches to 
sandy sea floor and thelargest 
and deepest underwater canyon 
off the continental U.S.  It 
also includes the largest kelp 
forest in the U.S.
photo Tom Campbell


<P>
G-393

background on right

Indopacific goldfish above 
a healthy coral wall 
covered with sea anemones, 
Balayan bay, Philippines, 
1992
photo Dale Glantz


<P>
G-208

Heavily silted reef, 
Philippines
photo Lynn Funkhouser



<P>
G-501

Taking down a tropical-
forest tree, Papua New 
Guinea, 1983 
During the 1980s over 381 
million acres 
(154 million hectares) of 
tropical forests were lost--an 
area almost three times the 
size of France.  Clearing 
continues for logging, farming 
and ranching, and rural 
development.
photo James Blair/National 
Geographic Society


<P>
G-186
background on left

Sockeye salmon swimming 
upstream to spawn, Brooks 
River, Katmai National Park 
and Preserve, Alaska, 1990
photo Jeff Foott



<P>
G-467

Mature second-growth forest 
logged to the border of a 
salmon-spawning stream, 
near Botany Bay, Vancouver 
Island, British Columbia
photo Doug Wechsler/Animals 
Animals


<P>
G-531

Logging old-growth sitka 
spruce, Lyell Island, 
British Columbia
Old-growth logging may cost 
more jobs in the salmon 
industry than jobs at risk 
from restrictions on logging.  
Fishing on the Pacific coast 
of North America is a $10 
billion industry that employs 
as many as 200,000 Americans 
and Canadians annually.
photo Steve Jackson/URSUS

<P>
G-433

Bonneville Dam, completed 
in 1938
Before the 56 Columbia River 
dams were built for irrigation 
and hydroelectric power, 16 
million wild salmon swam 
upriver each year.  Today, 
streams and tributaries yield 
only 2.5 million salmon, most 
bred in hatcheries.
photo Gary Braasch/Woodfin 
Camp & Associates



<P>
G-515 
photo on pull-down panel

San Joaquin/Sacramento 
Delta, San Francisco Bay
More than a hundred dams and 
water-diversion systems built 
to provide irrigation and 
reclaim cropland have 
transformed the watersheds 
that feed San Francisco Bay.  
Water withdrawals have 
depleted the San Joaquin 
River's flow by up to 90 
percent.
photo California Department of 
Water Resources 

pulled down:

Salinity has spread into the 
delta. Combined losses of 
salmon, striped bass, shad, 
and other estuarine fisheries 
have exceeded $3 billion.  
Control structures have been 
built to reduce the amount of 
salt water entering the delta.



<P>
G-412

photo on pull-down panel

Aswan High Dam, Nile River, 
Egypt, 1983
In the early 1960s Egypt 
dammed the Nile to generate 
electricity and provide year-
round irrigation for 
agriculture. During droughts, 
the Aswan High Dam diverts up 
to 95 percent of the Nile's 
normal water flow, holding 
back silt.
photo Robert Caputo



pulled down:

The dam has deprived the Nile 
Delta and Mediterranean shores 
of more than 1 million tons of 
nutrient-rich silt. Sardine 
and shrimp fisheries in the 
southeastern Mediterranean 
have declined sharply.



<P>
G-516

San Joaquin/Sacramento 
Delta, San Francisco Bay
New regulations sharply reduce 
pumping from the estuary 
system during fish migrations.
photo California Department of 
Water Resources


<P>
G-571

Traditional toilets turned 
in under a rebate program, 
Los Angeles, 1993
Although Los Angeles County 
spent $100 for each turned-in 
toilet, the state will save 
millions of gallons of water 
as residents switch to low-
flow toilets that use less 
than 2 gallons per flush.
photo Rick Rickman/National 
Geographic Society

<P>
G-495

Subsurface drip irrigation 
developed by USDA scientist 
Claude J. Phene

Although drip irrigation 
systems are expensive to 
install, they are a good 
investment.  Farmers have 
doubled their yield with only 
half the water other growers 
use.
photo James A. Sugar/Our 
Changing Earth
Photo caption:
<P>
G-212

Fishing boats, Friday 
Harbor, San Juan Island, 
Washington
photo Wolfgang Kaehler


<P>
G-350

Mattanza! (landing a giant 
bluefin tuna), Favignana, 
Italy, 1990
Bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, 
are migratory and among the 
largest and fastest marine 
fish.  An adult may weigh 1500 
pounds (680 kg) and can swim 
in spurts of up to 55 miles 
per hour (88.6 kph).
photo Jeff Rotman


<P>
G-338

Frozen tuna, Tsukiji fish 
market, Tokyo, 1993 
Bluefin tuna is a highly 
prized delicacy in exclusive 
Japanese sushi restaurants.
photo Jeff Rotman



<P>
G-411

Farming Atlantic salmon, 
Faroe Islands, Denmark, 
1991
photo Jos Azel/Aurora


<P>
G-407

Checking the mesh size of a 
fish net.
Nets with improper or illegal 
mesh size capture and kill 
younger fish and non-target 
species.
photo U.S. Coast Guard


<P>
G-404 

Load of cod, near Fogo 
Island, Newfoundland, 
before the cod fishery was 
closed, July 1990
photo Gordon Peterson


<P>
G-314

Exhausted fishermen rest 
after the halibut "derby"
In 1992, fishermen landed 
about 60 million pounds (27.2 
million kg) during the 48-hour 
halibut season.
photo Bob Sacha 


<P>
G-312

Regardless of weather and 
exhaustion, fishermen race 
against time and each other 
in the dangerous halibut 
"derby," Alaska, 1993
Most halibut hooked weigh 
between 20 and 100 pounds 
(9.1-45.4 kg), but when a 300-
pounder is on the line, the 
whole crew must help land it.
photo Bob Sacha

<P>
G-418

16,000 pounds of pollock in 
one haul
More pounds of Alaskan pollock 
were caught in 1993 than any 
other fish in the U.S.  
Steller sea lions also prefer 
pollock.
photo National Atmospheric and 
Oceanic Administration



<P>
G-245

Steller sea lions fishing 
for pollock, Alaska
Low birth weights and less 
healthy adults indicate that 
food shortages may be limiting 
Steller sea-lion and harbor-
seal populations in some areas 
of the North Pacific.
photo Kennan Ward/Natural 
Selection



<P>
G-491

A haul mostly of skates 
instead of cod, Georges 
Bank
photo Richard Howard 
Photography


<P>
G-390]

Emperor penguin, one of 
many antarctic species that 
could suffer from 
overfishing of krill
photo Ben Osborne


<P>
G-195

Krill, a vital link in the 
antarctic food web 
In 1991 a limit was set on 
krill catch after CCAMLR 
evaluated the impact of the 
krill harvest not only on the 
krill population but also on 
other species that depend on 
these tiny shrimp-like animals 
for food.
photo Flip Nicklin/Minden 
Pictures




<P>
G-361


<P>
G-180

Cyanide fishing, Luzon, 
Philippines 
Fishermen squirt sodium 
cyanide into reef crevices 
where fish hide.  Almost 80 
percent of the marine aquarium 
fish sold internationally come 
from the Philippines, many 
caught by cyanidefishing.  
Although the practice has been 
outlawed, and many importers 
refuse cyanide-tainted fish, 
widespread use of cyanide 
continues.
photo Howard Hall/[HHP?]
photo Jeff Foott


<P>
G-202


<P>
G-206


<P>
G-200

Blast fishing, Philippines, 
1987
Blast fishing is also common 
in Guam, Indonesia, Malaysia, 
Thailand, and Tanzania.  
Blasting has caused reef 
damage in half of the 
countries in the South 
Pacific.  A beer-bottle-sized 
bombexploding near the bottom 
will shatter all stony corals 
in a circle 10 feet (3 m) 
wide.  A gallon-sized bomb 
takes out an area about 33 
feet (10 m) in diameter.
photos Lynn Funkhouser



<P>
G-322

background photo, shallow 
water

photo Helmut Horn


<P>
G-572

Bottom-trawler, off the 
coast of Denmark
Trawlers often scrape the same 
area several times each year.  
Sea-floor species can be 
displaced, and the types and 
availability of nutrients 
changed. Sediments whipped up 
by trawling can make water a 
thousand times cloudier than 
normal, limiting resettlement 
and feeding of plants and 
animals.
photo Danish Fishing Museum


<P>
G-426

Net-training class for 
tropical-fish collectors, 
Luzon, Philippines, 1992 
photo Steve Robinson/Sea of 
Cortez Handcaught Marines, 
Inc.



<P>
G-427

Anti-cyanide campaign 
banner, Luzon, Philippines, 
1992
photo Steve Robinson/Sea of 
Cortez Handcaught Marines, 
Inc.


<P>
G-512

Replanted mangroves, 
Negros, Philippines, 1993
photo Don Hinrichsen


<P>
G-298
background photo

A shrimping crew culls the 
by-catch, Gulf of Mexico
Commercial marine fisheries in 
the U.S. alone toss away up to 
20 billion pounds of by-catch 
each year--twice the 
commercial and recreational 
catch combined.
photo Robert W. Parvin



<P>
G-480

Sorting catch and by-catch 
on a shrimpboat deck, 
Georgia, 1986
Shrimpers tow nets that 
collect shrimp, and many other 
animals in their path. Red 
snapper, croaker, mackerel, 
seatrout, spot, drum, and 
other fishes
--up to nine times more than 
the shrimp catch--are dumped 
overboard, already dead or 
dying.
photo John Domont/courtesy of 
Center for Marine Conservation



<P>
G-477

Dead by-catch from shrimp 
trawlers, Texas coast, Gulf 
of Mexico, 1993
photo Bob Cranston


<P>
G-100

Driftnetting in the North 
Pacific, August 1990
When strung together, 
driftnets could sweep almost 
40 miles (60 km).
photo Lorett 
Dorreboom/Greenpeace


<P>
G-75

Drowned white-sided 
dolphin, North Pacific, 
1990
During the peak years of 
driftnetting in the late 
1980s, more than ten thousand 
dolphins and whales and 
millions of sharks were killed 
annually.
photo Roger Grace/Greenpeace



<P>
G-102

3-mile-long Japanese 
driftnet displayed on the 
National Mall, Washington, 
DC, October 1990
photo Robert Visser/Greenpeace

<P>
G-386
background

Oceans would affect and be 
affected by worldwide 
warming.
photo Luc Cuyvers


<P>
G-253

Storms would rage
If oceans grow warmer, more 
and stronger hurricanes and 
typhoons could hit coastal 
North America and the Far 
East.
photo Mark J. Rauzon


<P>
G-341

Shores would be submerged
Water expands as it warms up.  
If polar ice caps melt, sea 
level will rise.  A rise of 
only a few feet would 
devastate low-lying islands 
and coastal cities.
photo Jeff Rotman 


<P>
G-473

Coral reefs would die back
Coral's colors (and energy) 
come from algae that live 
within the coral tissue. 
Warmer temperatures stress the 
coral, which expels the algae. 
photo Bob Cranston


<P>
G-532

Compact fluorescent bulbs 
use only one-fourth as much 
electricity as conventional 
incandescent bulbs. Although 
socket-type fluorescent bulbs 
are more expensive, they last 
about thirteen times longer 
and save about three times 
more money than they cost.


<P>
G-408
background

Adlie penguins on 
antarctic ice floe
Like falling dominoes, each 
level in the antarctic food 
web could be hit by increased 
ultraviolet radiation. 
Ultimately the supply of 
seafood for penguins (and 
humans) could change.
photo Jos Azel/Aurora



<P>
G-196

Krill under ice
Are CFCs krill killers?  
Reactions set off by increased 
ultraviolet radiation in the 
Antarctic could move up the 
food chain, from algae to 
small animals that krill eat, 
with far-reaching results in a 
food web that includes 120 
species of finfish, 80 species 
of seabirds, 6 species of 
seals, and 15 species of 
whales and dolphins--not to 
mentionhumans.
photo Flip Nicklin/Minden 
Pictures



<P>
G-549

A sea of CFC-cooled 
refrigerators awaits 
recycling
photo James A. Sugar



<P>
G-493

SMUD team safely removes 
CFCs
The Sacramento Municipal 
Utilities District removes 
CFCs from old refrigerators, 
returns the coolants to the 
manufacturer for recycling, 
and sells the metal for scrap.  
During the program's first 
four years, SMUD recovered 
21,000 pounds (9,500 kg) of 
freon, a type of CFC.
photo James A Sugar


<P>
G-414

Barrier-island development 
crowds New Jersey's Island 
Beach State Park
Coastal development does have 
down sides:  more and more 
roads, water, and sewer 
facilities must be built, all 
of which are susceptible to 
storm damage. Shoreline 
erosion often follows, 
lowering water quality and 
reducing wildlife habitats.
photo Robert Perron 


<P>
G-415

A nor'easter tore through 
barrier-island housing, 
Westhampton Beach, New 
York, 1992
Since 1982, federal subsidies, 
including federal flood 
insurance and grants for 
infrastructure, have been 
prohibited by law on 
designated barrier islands and 
beaches.
photo Robert Perron




<P>
G-397

photo David Harp





<P>
G-409

Key Biscayne, Florida, then 
and now

A photograph taken in the 
1950s or 1960s shows a bare 
beach, but the man holding the 
photograph stands on the last 
vacant lot in the same area, 
in March 1984.
photo Jos Azel/Aurora


<P>
G-525

Tourists enjoy the 
Mediterranean, near Cannes, 
France, 1991
photo Natalie B. Fobes


<P>
G-112

Fourth of July weekend, 
Absecon Island, New Jersey, 
1983
photo Michael Baytoff/Black 
Star