Title  : IAIOES04 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP ON THE ON THE COMPARATIVE STUDIES
         OF OCEANIC, COASTAL AND ESTUARINE PROCESSES IN TEMPERATE ZONES
Type   : IAI Newsletter
NSF Org: GEO
Date   : August 8, 1995
File   : iaioes04


THE INTER-AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR
GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH







 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP
ON THE COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF OCEANIC,
COASTAL AND ESTUARINE PROCESSES IN
TEMPERATE ZONES






August 2-6, 1993
Montevideo, Uruguay



TABLE OF CONTENTS



=46OREWORD            1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY          4    =09

I.  BACKGROUND           9               =09

II. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE    12
  1. Coastal Areas        12            =09
  2. Ocean Currents        16           =09
  3. Evidence of Climate Change      18      =09
  4. Possible Environmental Changes     19  =09

III. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH PRIORITIES  24
  1. The Land-Sea Interface      24
  2. Oceanic Processes      =09
 26    =09
  3. Economic and Social Impacts of Global Change   32 =09

IV. UNDERLYING NEEDS       34
  1. Field Research        34    =09
  2. Modeling         37     =09
  3. Training and Education     =09
 38     =09
  4. Communications, Data & Information Management  41
 =09
V.    REFERENCES        48

APPENDIX 1: IAI Scientific Themes    51

APPENDIX 2: Acronyms      52
 =09
APPENDIX 3: Workshop Participants    54




=46OREWORD

 This report is the work of a new organization, the Inter-
American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI). The Institute
was created in May of 1992 to address the need for advanced study
of regionally significant global change issues.  It is designed to evolve
as a network of research facilities throughout the Americas which
will augment research capabilities and promote education and
training within the scientific fields most important to current and
future global change research.

  Establishment of such an institute had been discussed
extensively within the current decade, in a variety of forums.
Participants from throughout the region met in two workshops on
the development of IAI: in San Juan, Puerto Rico on July 15-19,
1991, and in Mar del Plata, Argentina on March 29-April 2, 1992.
The agreement establishing the IAI was signed by eleven countries
on May 13, 1992 in Montevideo, Uruguay, and an Implementation
Committee was established.  Since then, five more countries have
signed the agreement, increasing IAI member nations to sixteen.

 The organizational structure and scientific research agenda
of IAI have been carefully set up to reflect the goal of improved
research into global change.  The multinational agreement
establishing the institute notes the importance of an evolving
scientific agenda that reflects an appropriate balance among
biogeographic areas of scientific importance.  It also stresses the
need to address in an integral fashion the physical, biological,
economic, and social issues relating to global change.  Seven broadly
defined research topics have been identified as priorities for special
focus.

 To identify the most pressing scientific questions and socio-
economic issues within those seven priority topics, a group of
physical, biological, and social scientists met in Silver Spring,
Maryland on March 5-6, 1992.  The resulting document, the Report
of the Meeting of Scientific Experts,  provided the basis for a series of
workshops on scientific program development, intended to advance
the science agenda of the IAI.

 This report discusses the results of the first of those
workshops, which was held in Montevideo, Uruguay,  Aug. 2-6, 1993,
to advance the agenda for the topic, "Comparative Studies of Oceanic,
Coastal and Estuarine Processes in Temperate Zones."  It details a
scientific research plan that proposes an observational strategy, lays
down data management guidelines, and outlines the modeling
developments needed to achieve these objectives.  It is only a plan, a
guide to action.  The next step, as the science plan states, is to
develop an implementation plan or program for this topic.

 Most sincere thanks must be expressed to all those who
helped with this report, whether or not their names are mentioned.
Special acknowledgment must be extended to the local organizing
committee for its excellent efforts in managing the complications of
an international workshop.  Members of the committee were:   Ing.
=46ederico Garc=EDa Brum and Lic. Annie Hareau, from the Comisi=F3n
Nacional sobre Cambio Global of Uruguay and C/N Carlos E. Ere=F1o,
from the Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval of Argentina, as well as the
staff:  Mar=EDa Jos=E9 Aznarez, Carolina Garc=EDa, Mar=EDa Clara Bonino, Est=
ela
Pereyra and Elvira Gentile.

 Also acknowledged with much gratitude are those
institutions whose contributions allowed the workshop to occur.
These include:  Comisi=F3n Nacional Sobre Cambio Global (Uruguay),
Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente
(Uruguay), Ministerio de Defensa Nacional (Uruguay), Ministerio de
Relaciones Exteriores (Uruguay), Fundaci=F3n Cono Sur-Uruguay,
Comisi=F3n T=E9cnica Mixta de Frente Mar=EDtimo (Uruguay-Argentina),
Comisi=F3n Nacional de Cambio Global (Argentina),  the U.S. National
Science Foundation (NSF), the Organization of American States (OAS),
the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programma (IGBP/START)
Secretariat, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA).

  Gratitude must also be expressed to the working group
chairperson and co-chairperson who led discussions and whose
written reports and stimulating verbal contributions ultimately led
to the drafting and completion of this report.
=09
  Additionally, I would like to express my most sincere
thanks to Dr. Robert Corell (National Science Foundation), Dr. Michael
Hall, James Buizer, Lisa Farrow and Claudia Nierenberg (NOAA/Office
of Global Programs) for their constant enthusiasm and support
during the development of this workshop. Finally, I would like to
acknowledge the commitment, dedication and enthusiasm of my staff
members, Raquel Gomes, Marcella Ohira and D=E9lia Levandoski,
without whose support in preparing this report would have been
impossible to accomplish.








 Rub=E9n Lara Lara
 IAI Executive Scientist












EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

  More than 80 scientists from North and South America  plus
representatives from international marine programs shared
information about oceanic, coastal, and estuarine processes in
temperate zones in a three-day symposium in Montevideo.  This was
the first of seven thematic workshops to be sponsored by the Inter-
American Institute for Global Change Research.  The symposium was
followed by an intense two-day workshop in which the scientists
collaborated in producing an extensive report with recommendations
for an IAI science agenda on this subject.  The workshop divided into
six working groups discussing separately the following topics:  (1)
Oceanic Processes, (2) Coastal Processes, (3) Estuarine, Coastal
Lagoons, Fjords, Rivers and Salt Marshes, (4) Capacity and Needs for
Education and Training, (5) Data Management and Communications;
and (6) IAI and Other International Programs.  Periodically the
groups met in plenary to discuss their progress.  Following are
conclusions from each working group on the initial steps that need to
be taken in the development of the research program to further
explore the subject.

SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND PRIORITIES

Oceanic Processes

  The temperate coasts of North and South America present a
unique research opportunity, that of comparing two pairs of eastern
and western boundary currents that share some important features
but differ in others.  To further our understanding of the impacts of
global change on oceanic processes, some of the key issues that
should be addressed from this comparative perspective are as
follows:

* Development of better methods of studying seasonal climate in the south
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans;
* Enhancement of efforts to survey the continental shelf and slope,
particularly the time and area involved when changes take place;
* Implementation of a sequence for studying oceanic and coastal
processes;
* Development and use of retrospective records, i.e., use of high-resolution
anaerobic marine sediments;
* Description and understanding of the interdecadal change in oceanic
ecosystems;
* Development or adaptation of numerical models of atmospheric and
oceanic circulation, and ecosystem response to be applied on Southern
Hemisphere regions;
* Advancement of our understanding of distributions of plankton, and the
way they vary from year to year between the northern and southern
temperate oceanic zones of the Americas.

Coastal Processes

  The group focusing on coastal processes determined that the
following six general issues must be addressed to improve the
understanding of the impacts of global change in the coastal zone:

* Determine the mean state of the atmospheric and oceanic climate;
* Describe the typical scales of variability of the atmospheric and oceanic
climate;
* Understand how coastal ecosystems respond to variations in the
influences on them;  How much time might be involved, and over how
large an area?
* Determine the processes that control the variability of the atmospheric
and oceanic climate, and the way they interact;
* Define how socioeconomic systems and increasing human population
affect these processes;
* Incorporate the coastal zone processes into predictive models that reveal
both the probable and the actual response of those processes to global
change.

Estuaries, Coastal Lagoons, Fjords, Rivers and Salt Marshes

  These systems are the buffer zone between land and ocean, so
they are the receptacle for most natural and anthropogenic materials
reaching the ocean from land.  This group concluded that five key issues
should be addressed in understanding the land-sea interface:

* Evaluate the release of human-generated materials either directly or
indirectly into semi-enclosed ecosystems;
* Separate the effects of overharvesting or overcultivation from other
anthropogenic and natural effects on these ecosystems;
* Study changes in river flow, and their impacts on the biotic communities
and the biogeochemical cycles;
* Understand the morphological, hydrological, and hydrographic changes
associated with sea level rise;
* Evaluate how near-shore human development alters shoreline and
bottom topography.

  Workshop participants recognized the need to integrate natural
science with public policy.  One of the IAI's founding principals is that th=
e
general public must better understand global change and its impact on
society before the regional community can effectively work toward a
sustainable future.

Priority Socioeconomic Isses

   Traditionally, socioeconomic issues and concerns have not been
integrated with our physical knowledge. This must change as policy-makers
require scientific information on the interaction between human societies
and natural systems during a time of global change. Socioeconomic issues
include the rate of global change, the anticipated physical and
socioeconomic effects it might cause, and the possible response options.
Workshop participants recommended the following issues to be addressed:

 (1) What are the important time and space scales of global change that
society should be aware of?
 (2) How much population pressure will be exerted on land and marine
environments in the coastal temperate zones of the Americas?
 (3) How vulnerable are the important ecosystems in the oceanic and land-
sea interface zones?
 (4) How significant are the marketable and non-marketable resources that
would likely be affected?
 (5) What influences on the marine environment might be expected from
local and regional human activities such as exploitation of biological and
mineral resources, waste disposal, and recreation use?
 (6) How will the land-sea interface system evolve in the coming decades
under specific scenarios of climate, sea level, land use, and human
activities?
 (7) What changes have already occurred?

 RECOMMENDATIONS

   The situation in the Americas is very heterogeneous because of
the different historical backgrounds of the various countries. This has led =
to
(a) countries with adequate physical facilities but inadequate human
resources, (b) countries that lack both physical and human resources, and
(c) countries that have both physical and human resources but are in the
process of trying to integrate the different disciplines, especially climate
and biology, and the natural and social sciences.

   Of high priority is the adaptation and/or development of models
for the Southern Hemisphere regions. Model results should be presented in
a manner that can be useful to scientists from other disciplines, and under-
standable by policy-makers. For this endeavor also, there exists a great
need for human resources. Given the need for predictive capability, the
quantitative approaches should include both stochastic and mechanistic
models.

   It was recognized that, particularly in Latin America, an
inadequate number of individuals is being trained, retrained, or repatriated
to meet national and regional needs. Therefore, the following key
underlying issues should be addressed:

 (1) The value of scientific work should be recognized by society;
 (2) It is important to maintain an academic environment within the
universities of the Americas;
 (3) High priority should be given to improvement of physical and
operational facilities;
 (4) Priority should be given to existing institutions;
 (5) Scholarships should be established at all levels of scientific careers.
Post-graduate education in developing countries should be enhanced;
 (6) Establishment of a center or centers of excellence in interdisciplinary
oceanography should be of high priority.
=09
Capacity and Needs for Training and Education

   Several approaches to promoting multinational training and
education among IAI member nations were considered.  They included:

* Foster cooperative international and interdisciplinary research programs;
* Promote visits and short-term courses between nations by scientists
with recognized areas of expertise;
* Convene regional meetings for natural and social scientists;
* Update undergraduate and graduate-level curricula;
* Support exchange visits,  joint research projects, and pre-doctoral and
post-doctoral training opportunities in member IAI countries.
* Develop modeling capacities throughout the region.

Data Management and Communications

  The sharing of information about global change is the very basis
for the founding of IAI.  Data and information management provide the
critical bridge between nations seeking a greater scientific understanding o=
f
global change, and hoping to transfer that understanding into effective
public policy decisions.

  During this workshop, scientists from throughout the region
agreed on the need to generate new data.  They also agreed that the data
management infrastructure already available in other international
programs should have wider use, and that data in hand throughout the
Americas should be more accessible to the entire regional scientific
community.

IAI and other international programs

  A broad range of programs is already studying global change.
This group recognized that the IAI should seek cooperation and
coordination among these programs, thereby optimizing use of scientific
resources such as personnel, facilities, and finances.  The IAI should also
cooperate with other programs in identifying priorities for scientific study=
,
and identifying major gaps in information that need filling, so that the
various programs compliment each other.


I. BACKGROUND

  A symposium and workshop on Comparative Studies on Oceanic,
Coastal, and Estuarine Processes  in the Temperate Zones of the Americas
was held in Montevideo, Uruguay, between August 2-6, 1993.  The meeting
was instigated by the Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research
(IAI), created in 1992, and was the first of seven workshops to be held on
key areas of focus in the study of global change.
=09
  First, more than 100 scientists from the region, as well as
representatives from international programs, participated in a three-day
symposium in which scientists shared the results of their research studies
and programs.  In the two-day workshop that followed the symposium, a
smaller group of scientific experts collaborated in producing this report to
the IAI Conference of Parties, with recommendations on the science agenda
for this topic.

  The purpose of this report is to make available to the IAI
Conference of the Parties and to other interested parties, a scientific
research plan designed to investigate the key processes related to global
change in the oceanic, coastal, and estuarine regions of the temperate zones
of the Americas.

  The report outlines how the IAI will strengthen basic research
and promote advanced education and training in global change-related
fields.  The IAI aims to facilitate the dialogue between scientists and
decision-makers necessary for the development and implementation of
sound policies.  In order to accomplish these goals, the IAI seeks to
establish new modes of international cooperation and communication
networks.

  This report is, however, only the beginning, or perhaps, a
direction to what workshop participants think should be a long-term
program to address the main issues identified during the workshop. It is a
dynamic plan that should be advanced in response to on-going research
efforts and emerging challenges.
  Ultimately, the research plan outlined in this report aims at
providing a solid scientific understanding of global change processes--an
understanding that will allow the policy-makers of the Americas to make
better decisions with regard to the socio-economic impacts of global change.

  It is currently anticipated that the global environment is likely
to change more rapidly within a single generation than it has over
thousands of years.  Such a rapid change would hold potential for serious
impacts on life on Earth.

  In recent years, these potential impacts  have been well-
articulated in social, economic, and political terms.  The effects of
increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases and the decline of stratospheric ozone
on human health, climate patterns, and economic productivity are well-
recognized topics in the news media.  Land-use practices such as agriculture
and forestry, residential development, and industrial  practices are believe=
d
to be altering the global atmosphere, water resources, and biological
productivity.  Government leaders cannot afford to ignore the fact that the
ability to predict climate change and its potential impacts may be
extremely important in maintaining and increasing economic productivity.

  Coastal and estuarine regions are habitats with clear ties to
potential global changes in climate and human activity. Estuaries, coastal
lagoons, fjords, river mouths, salt marshes, and other features at the Land-
Sea Interface (LSI) are the buffer zone between land and ocean.  This
interface, therefore, is the receptacle for most natural and anthropogenic
materials reaching the ocean from land.  Biological communities of this
region are rich and productive, having high intrinsic value, and high human
utility.  They are, however, highly vulnerable.

  Many economically important features of coastal and estuarine
systems are related to large scale patterns of atmospheric and ocean
circulation, physical features that may change in currently unpredictable
ways even under natural influences.  Sporadic fluctuations in upwelling,
river runoff, storms and coastal circulation have consequences for
important biological processes such as plankton blooms, the recruitment
and distribution of commercially important fish and invertebrates, regional
and local biodiversity, and bird and marine mammal distributions.

  Human activity, on the other hand, also has heavy impact on
coastal zones in general, and bays and estuaries in particular.  Half the
world's population lives within 60 kilometers of the coastline, and those
numbers are expected to increase significantly in the coming decades.
Human populations directly alter coastal marine habitats by release of
sewage and toxic materials, by altering patterns of river runoff, by
changing the location and composition of shoreline habitats, by harvesting
species for food,and by introduction of new species.  The economic
consequences of these activities are often severe, affecting local food
supplies, the health of swimmers and consumers of seafood, local tourism,
and aesthetic components that affect quality of life.

  The primary global concerns for  marine environments thus fall
into two classes, those associated with local activity by humans at the
coastal zone and estuary scale, and those associated with potential global
changes in climate (perhaps also human-related) that might impact the
regional circulation and physical characteristics of coastal communities at
the ocean basin scale.  The temperate zones offer a logical laboratory for
studying both human and natural effects on coastal areas, as they serve as
the natural conduit between the poles and the tropics for atmospheric and
oceanic circulation and climate.

  The oceanic circulation is characterized by gyres that are, in
general, very stable.  The currents at their boundaries are regions of high
variability.  This variability is due to many processes, but most notably
eddy generation and meandering of the currents.  The temperate coasts of
both North and South America present a unique opportunity to compare the
effects of global change on two pairs of eastern and western boundary
currents that share some important features, but differ in others (e.g., the
disproportionate influence of river flow in the western boundary currents
of South America compared to those of North America).  The challenge is to
design and carry out interdisciplinary research projects that focus on the
interactions of external forces and responses.




II. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

  Because the marine areas represent numerous scientific
disciplines--physical, natural and social--and span large areas of the regio=
n,
there is considerable variation in the abilities of the relevant scientific
communities in addressing the identified issues. There is general consensus,
nevertheless, on some information, which will be discussed here.

Coastal Areas

  There are five major types of anthropogenic effects on bays,
estuaries, fjords, coastal lagoons and salt marshes:

(1) The release of human-generated materials either directly or indirectly
into semi-enclosed coastal ecosystems can have a serious effect on those
ecosystems.  The most critical materials are toxic compounds (e.g. heavy
metals, hydrocarbons, pesticides, etc.), nutrients from sewage and fertilize=
rs
(especially N and P), and pathogenic organisms.  Toxic wastes may have
direct negative effects on human and marine species.  Increase of nutrient
loading often results in eutrophication and phytoplankton blooms
(sometimes dominated by toxic species) which may lead to anoxic
conditions. The extent of the impact on each particular semi-enclosed
ecosystem depends upon several factors, including the magnitude of the
inputs, the flushing characteristics of the body (water renewal) and the
physico-chemical characteristics of each compound.  Understanding of all
these processes is of high priority at the land-sea interfaces.

(2) Harvesting of indigenous species from bays, estuaries and fjords, and
cultivation of both indigenous and exotic species modify ecosystems.  In
addition to intentional introduction, there can be deteriorative effects fro=
m
unintentional introduction (for example, discharge of ship ballast that
contains exotic species). Reductions in abundance of endemic or indigenous
species, alteration of community structure, and loading with excess organic
matter can occur in response to these various modifications of populations.
A scientific challenge is to separate the effects of over-harvesting or over=
-
cultivation from other anthropogenic effects (e.g. degradation of coastal
habitats) and natural effects (e.g. the impact of altered circulation patter=
ns
on recruitment).

(3) The alteration of river flow rates:  Changes in the rate or timing of
freshwater flows into semi-enclosed coastal ecosystems have direct
consequences on their physicaldynamics and morphology. As a
consequence, the alteration of habitats for species may lead to dramatic
changes in populations, many of them of commercial value.  One of the most
dramatic changes related to river flow modifications (e.g. through the
construction of dams) is the alteration of sediment supply to coastal
ecosystems.  In extreme cases the dramatic reduction of water flows has
not only produced a change from an estuarine into a hyper-saline system,
but has lead to erosion of the deltaic structure.  The effect of these chang=
es
on the biotic communities and the biogeochemical cycles is largely
unknown.

(4) Morphological, hydrological and hydrographic changes are associated
with sea level rise, and they have great significance on geologic time scale=
s.
On shallow shelves sea level rise may have a more immediate effect.  On
shorter time scales, coastal management and human development should be
considered together.  For example, erosion-accretion processes must be
monitored, especially in areas of high human impact.  Objective procedures
need to be developed to review the effects of natural and anthropogenic
processes in the coastal zone.  Policies need to be developed for issues of
particular socio-economic importance.

(5) Alteration of shorelines and bottom topography during near-shore
human development activities have often dramatically altered coastal
configuration both directly (e.g. by filling tidal wetlands) and indirectly
(e.g.
by altering patterns of deposition and erosion via alterations of shoreline
flows through the use of man-made structures.  Understanding the
response of the ecosystems to these activities is of high priority.

  Other, numerous fundamental variables and processes are poorly
known.  For instance, primary production in the region has not been
measured on a long-term basis.  The poor knowledge of primary production
and a number of other fundamental ecological processes and variables
limits our ability to manage fisheries in a sustainable fashion.  High prior=
ity
should be given to establishment of baseline data for these and other
important variables.

  A cornerstone to nearly all questions relating to global change is
the impact on biological diversity. There are clear social and economic
ramifications when large alterations occur in the geographic range of
harvested species. In addition, changes in the distribution of other species
that have little direct economic importance may have dramatic
consequences on marine communities, due to the potentially cascading
effects of altered species interactions.  Although we have extensive
knowledge about how both physical and biological processes affect local
patterns of  abundance of marine species, we have but a rudimentary
understanding of the processes affecting the biogeographic range of some
species.  Predicting or forecasting the impact of climatic changes or
increased anthropogenic effects requires a new focus on the processes that
set limits to species distributions. What sets these limits and how
susceptible are they to environmental change?

  We have long known that marine flora and fauna can be divided
into biogeographic provinces that are separated by locations representing
dramatic changes in species composition. These floral and faunal boundaries
are generally associated with regions of sharp gradients in the physical
environment. As a result, we have traditionally viewed distributions as a
simple expression of physiological tolerances. If predicting the effects of
climatic changes were merely an exercise in shifting the distribution of
marine species north or south, the problem would be relatively simple.
However, research in the last decade has shown that oceanographic
processes play a much more important role in the dynamics of marine
species than their responses to physical variables like temperature might
suggest.  Mesoscale patterns of circulation (e.g. eddies, gyres, jets, squir=
ts)
and upwelling, as well as larger-scale currents, can alter the abundance of
species by either changing their patterns of transport, particularly as
juveniles, or by altering the abundance of other species in the food chain.

  The coasts along the temperate zones of North and South
America contain several major faunal boundaries. These regions are all
locations of either the confluence of major currents or associated with majo=
r
stationary gyres.  In each case, the effects of large physical gradients in
temperature and other parameters are confounded by abrupt changes in
the pattern of transport. This replicate set of major faunal boundaries
provides a unique opportunity for separating the roles of physiological
limits versus barriers to effective dispersal as causes of species range
limits.

  The confluence region in the southwestern Atlantic contrasts
with the northwestern Atlantic because of the impact of the Rio de la Plata,
the second largest river system, after the Amazon, of the South American
continent. The Rio de la Plata's discharge is equivalent to those of the
Mississippi or the Orinoco Rivers. The river system delivering water and
suspended particles to the Rio de la Plata estuary drains some of the most
economically important areas of South America. The Rio de la Plata Basin is
undergoing extensive development of its hydroelectric and transportation
potential and the Basin is an important component in global food
production.

  In addition to posing unique features, the South American
continental margin may offer unique glimpses of past responses to climatic
variation.  The morphology of the Rio de la Plata was seriously altered at
least four times during the Pleistocene glaciations due to declines in sea
level that exceeded 120 meters. These drops undoubtedly caused incision of
the river valley followed by major transgressions in sea level. These events=
,
coupled with the relative stability of the continental margin, could yield
significant new evidence on the regional and global paleoclimate.

  The Rio de la Plata is a unique environment in that strong
sediment flux from the La Plata is being focused into a zone of high
biological productivity. The process at the sediment water interface by
which organic matter is being assimilated into the sedimentary column is
important both to understanding the global carbon budget and in the
location of new hydrocarbon resources. The dependence of these processes
on the long-term variability of the confluence and the sediment influx due
to climatic changes is also a question with broad impact in many fields.


Ocean Currents

  Western boundary currents share many common dynamics, but
each has its own peculiarities. Do they make any difference? Will the
response of a given boundary current depend on its unique features as well
as its common features?

  Currently, there is a large gap between what is known about
circulation in the northern versus the southern hemisphere. This can easily
be seen when one considers the disproportionate amount of geophysical,
oceanographic, and paleoclimatic data available for the two hemispheres.
The Gulf Stream, the western boundary of the North Atlantic gyre, is
undoubtedly the best studied western boundary current (Figures 1 and 2).





















=46ig. 1 - The track chart plots the month's movement of reported
operational drift buoys. Each track is 1 buoy and the large dot is
the buoy's last reported position for the month.
















=46ig. 2 - Mapping position plot chart of data received during the
month.

  Its importance in determining the climate of the east coast of the
U.S.A. and the west coast of Europe, as well as its influence on local
fisheries, is unquestioned. Similarly, in the case of the Kuroshio Current o=
ff
the coast of Japan, Japanese and international efforts led to the
establishment of programs designed to advance understanding of its
dynamics and local impact. In contrast, the dynamics of western boundary
currents off South America have been studied in more detail only in recent
years.

  The North Pacific boundary currents, particularly the California
Current along the west coast of the U.S.A., have received nearly as much
attention as the Gulf Stream. The South Pacific eastern boundary current
along the coast of Chile and Peru, the Humboldt Current system, has
received considerable recent attention by fishery researchers due to the
relation with El Ni=F1o and the Southern Oscillation. Studies of the region
north of 33=B0 S latitude have focused on inter-annual variability.  However=
,
the region of divergence of the West Wind Drift west of Chile is poorly
understood.  Very little is known about the seasonal variability of that par=
t
of the current and southward.

  Subduction of subpolar water below subtropical thermoclines
occurs along the poleward edge of the mid-latitude anticyclonic gyres.
Given proper meteorological conditioning, the subduction process can lead
to effective water mass formation/conversion. These processes lead to deep
ocean ventilation and redistribution of heat, salt and dissolved gases,
including CO2 and other greenhouse gases, in the deep ocean.

Evidence of Climate Change

  High resolution anaerobic marine sediment records permit us to
reconstruct a wide range of proxy variables related to
environmental/climatic change, through analysis of the remains of
important components of the pelagic ecosystem (phyto- and zooplankton, as
well as nekton) and associated geochemical "tracers" of physical conditions
and ecosystem function/processes (Baumgartner and Sautter, 1992).  The
presence of terrigenous material injected from coastal areas to the shelf an=
d
slope provides an additional record of the continental climate (Soutar and
Crill, 1977). The evidence includes pollen and charcoal deposition which
provide a record of variability of the terrestrial ecosystems due to changes
in vegetation and onshore fire regimes (Byme et al., 1979).  This record
allows us to compare the preserved history of ocean climate and the pelagic
environment with load-based proxy records more closely related to changes
in atmospheric circulation.

  Following is a brief description of the environmental conditions
and  processes  that  can  be  represented  by  natural  proxy  variables
reconstructed from high resolution sediment records:

Ocean Temperature
Variability  in ocean temperature can be reconstructed from oxygen
isotopes, and from analyses of foraminifera (Dunbar, 1983;  Sautter and
Thunnel, 1991). This variability provides insight into the changing intensit=
y
of physical processes related to large-scale variability of current systems
and coastal upwelling.

Ocean Fertility
Work is underway to use trace element analyses in foraminifera as an
historical index of nutrient concentrations in the water in which the
organisms lived (Bruland, 1980).  This will provide a proxy for the
fertilization processes governed by coastal upwelling and large-scale
changes in the major boundary currents.

Ocean Productivity
Estimated rates of flux of planktonic remains to the sediments can be used
as indices of inter-decadal scale changes in primary and secondary
productivity (Baumgartner et al., 1985; Lange et al. 1990).  Work in stable
carbon isotopes also shows great promise for developing another high-
resolution indicator of productivity.

Changes in Faunal and Floral Boundaries and Abundance
Latitudinal shifts in faunal and floral boundaries are also recorded in the
sediments by changes in the composition of species assemblages and the
rates of flux of phytoplankton and zooplankton remains (Baumgartner et al.,
1985;  Lange et al., 1990;  Casey et al., 1989).  These shifts are also
associated with productivity changes. The flux of the fish scales of the sma=
ll
schooling clupeoids (sardines and anchovies) also provide a sensitive record
of the growth and decline of these populations, representing the expansion
and contraction of their ranges over inter-decadal and centennial time
scales (Soutar and Isaacs, 1974;  Baumgartner et al, 1992;  Holmgren-Urba
and Baumgartner, 1993).  Recent work indicates that these changesin
geographic range appear to be closely linked to variability in ocean climate=
 .

Possible Environmental Changes

  This section discusses the possible environmental changes that
may occur in temperate coastal areas under current global change
scenarios.

  The main anthropogenic impact on the coastal ecosystem, other
than the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations, is the generation of
changes in rainwater runoff patterns through land use modifications,
pollutants, and the damming of rivers. By doing this, the total amount of
water delivered to the coast varies as does the timing of the flow. This wil=
l
have a significant effect on coastal currents since the flow of buoyancy-
driven coastal currents is typically ten times the river flow. A second effe=
ct
can be reduced sediment transport.  In the short term, reduced sediment
load can affect turbidity patterns in coastal areas. In the long term, this =
can
cause land subsidence (the Nile delta, for example) and then significantly
affect the location of coastal fronts.

  Climate change can have both direct and very indirect effects on
the ocean. Because of the extreme non-linear character of some of the
processes, our discussion is no doubt incomplete. The effects of climate
change can be categorized as those related to wind stress variations, runoff
variations, and heat flux variations, plus other ecological effects. Some
processes, such as stratification, depend on all of these processes.

Among possible Environmental Changes, the folllowing were considered:

Wind-related Processes
Variations in the wind field are manifested in both the absolute stress and
the magnitude of along-shore and cross-shelf components of the wind.
Increases in the absolute stress may increase wave energy and mixing
energy.  Changes in wind direction may actually change along-shore wind
stress, which drives upwelling and downwelling, without increases in the
absolute stress.  A change in direction of seasonal winds could occur
because of slight shifts in the position of  seasonal highs and lows, such a=
s
the Bermuda high over the North Atlantic or a high over the southeast
Pacific.

   Three processes highly affected by changes in wind stress or
changes in wind direction are:  cross-shelf upwelling/downwelling,
stratification/destratification, and along-shore surface current.

  Along-shore currents in shallow waters of the continental shelf
are driven by the wind stress.  As was described in the case of upwelling,
changes in the magnitude and direction of winds would significantly change
current strengths over the continental shelf.  This in turn could change the
residence time of shelf waters, significantly affecting various
biogeochemical processes.

  Changes in stratification due to wind stress variations may be of
particular significance based on the high number of biogeochemical
processes directly tied to stratification.  Changes in wind stress co-occurr=
ing
with coincidental changes in buoyancy fluxes could significantly change
stratification.

Buoyancy Flux Variations
Buoyancy flux is the process that controls water column stratification
directly and indirectly, affecting both across-shelf and along-shore current=
s.
Buoyancy flux processes include air/sea heat flux and river runoff.
Buoyancy flux can occur either via local flux (e.g. air/sea heat flux) or by
advective processes.  Obviously, air/sea heat flux can affect all ocean area=
s
while the effects of runoff are in most cases limited to approximately the
first 10 kilometers of the shelf. Changes in heat flux can occur because of
processes that change insolation rates or evaporation.  Wind speed and
air/sea temperature differences are critical factors and both can change
during climate shifts. Since mixing forces (wind) and stratification forces
(heat flux and runoff) are often closely balanced, small changes in these
factors can create large changes in the location of coastal fronts or shelf
break processes.

  Runoff into coastal waters controls, along with winds and tides,
the strength and extent of many coastal currents as well as stratification.
The annual cycles in runoff obviously cause great variations in coastal
currents and local stratification.  Thus, any variation in runoff through
damming or land-use can result in modifications of coastal currents and
stratification.  This can be quantified with realistic scenarios.

Sea Level Change
Recent analyses of projected sea level change due to global warming at
selected sites around the globe suggest that there will be minimal to
moderate impacts on the coastal states of the southern temperate zone. On
centennial time scales, this could be more of a problem, but it does not
appear to be a short-term issue. There could be some cases where coastal
slope is very low and coastal fronts could move.

  To conclude, the potential impact of climatic changes upon
marine ecosystems is difficult to assess due to the uncertainties in the
nature and magnitude of the expected changes in the physical system.  In
particular, there are two major weaknesses in our understanding of
potential changes in the physical environment that have implications for
ecosystem changes.  First, even though there is some level of consensus on
globally averaged effects, there is considerably less agreement on the
regional effects of climate change. Given the regional nature of most
ecosystems, the importance of quantifying regional changes, on fisheries for
example, is obvious.  Secondly, there is considerable uncertainty concerning
possible changes in the variability of the physical system (rather than its
mean state), including the frequency of extreme events. This is also
relevant to higher trophic level response. It has been demonstrated that
recruitment success may be influenced by episodic events (e.g. storms)
rather than by average conditions.

  Human activity can substantially influence the coastal
atmospheric circulation through changes in land use patterns. For example,
deforestation along the coast could increase surface temperature and
decrease surface roughness, which would increase the onshore component
of the winds. The modified atmospheric flow will then interact with the
oceanic circulation (Pielke et al, 1991).

   A second example results through the emission of gases and
particles to the atmosphere that are eventually deposited into coastal
waters. When gases like SO2 and NOX are brought into the water through
wet and dry deposition, the natural ecological balance may be altered
(Pielke et al., 1990).

  Other human modifications to the environment may also be
significant. Construction of many dams on rivers in the Americas has
reduced freshwater and sediment input into the coastal zone. In contrast,
some rivers may have higher runoff and sediment loads due to
deforestation and other land use changes within undammed catchments.

  These changes need to be assessed independently for each river
system. Only then can the net large-scale impacts on the open ocean be
assessed. Decreases in freshwater and nutrients may impact fisheries, while
decreases in sediment may cause coastal erosion and other changes on the
shelf.


Key Physical Processes in Oceanic Regions of the Americas
The previous section discussed possible effects of climate change in generic
terms. In this section, a tentative list of physical features of the America=
n
ocean margin is presented that might be affected by the climate changes
discussed. As noted by O'Kane, et al., "The response of the boundary
dynamics is an open question;  that of living resources not well known and
of ecological viability, excluding the effects of eutrophication, largely
unknown.  The response of the carbon cycle in the coastal zone remains
controversial". Following is a list of possible responses adapted from O'Kan=
e
et al. Following each process is a list of the region in South America where
the process occurs and a region in North America where similar processes
have been studied.

Eastern Boundary Process
TYPE:        LOCALE:
Wind driven upwelling and downwelling     Peru/Chile, California/Oregon
Cross shore processes dependent on up/downwelling Peru/Chile, California/Ore=
gon
(meandering and filaments)
Localized wind induced upwelling   Costa Rica Dome, Pt. Arguello

Western Boundary Processes
TYPE:       LOCALE:
Separation of western boundary currents   Brazil Current, Gulf Stream
Confluence of boundary currents    Malvinas/Brazil, Gulf
Stream/Labrador
Meandering processes     Malvinas/Gulf Stream
=46rontal instability processes    Malvinas/Brazil, Gulf Stream/Labrador
Boundary current/adjacent shelf interaction  Malvinas/Brazil, Gulf
Stream/Slope Sea
Boundary current diapyncnal upwelling   Brazil/Malvinas, Gulf Stream
Subduction      18=B0 water formation in North Atlantic
Bouyancy flux modification    Malvinas, Gulf Stream

Topographic Processes
TYPE:       LOCALE:
Headland processes     Geyer, Garrett, etc
Canyon processes     Monterey, others in Mid-Atlantic
Topographic waves    =09

Bouyancy Driven Coastal Currents
TYPE:       LOCALE:   =09
Coastal Current     Uruguay/Delaware,Maryland, Virginia
=46reshwater inflows     Rio de la Plata, Chesapeake Bay Mouth =09
=09




III. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH PRIORITIES

  The objectives of the Comparative Studies of Oceanic, Coastal and
Estuarine Processes in Temperate Zones are:

(a) to improve the knowledge of physical, ecological, biogeochemical and
biogeomorphological processes, and
(b) to develop new models to predict the impacts of continuing population
growth, land use, resource exploitation and global change on the functioning
of the ecosystems in the marine temperate zones of the Americas.
   To accomplish these objectives, it is suggested that the following
areas of study should have priorities in research:

1. The Land-Sea Interface=09

  The Land-Sea Interface (LSI) is dominated by external forces,
both natural and anthropogenic. These forces are changing rapidly. We
must understand the responses of the LSI to these forces. Several
organizing principles should be taken into consideration:
(a) It is imperative to understand the changes of inputs and outputs;
(b) Special considerations should be taken to determine important time and
space scales;
(c)  A systematic methodology to compare responses at different scales
should be established;
(d) Experimental approaches should be promoted; and
(e) Modeling and research should be coupled.

  Many of the important questions concerning the impact of global
change simply require extending existing research efforts and approaches
to the southern hemisphere.  For example:

(1) What is the status of bay and estuarine populations in temperate South
America? Are there unique anthropogenic inputs in these areas, or will the
extensive research from North American estuaries provide useful models?

(2) What are the trends in populations of commercially important species?
Are fluctuations in population associated with climatic variation (e.g.,
influencing mortality of adults or successful recruitment of juveniles), or
are changes largely a response to fishing efforts and local edaphic
conditions?

  Other key questions to be addressed at both hemispheres are:

(1) What is the mean state of the atmospheric and oceanic climate?
(2) What are the typical scales of variability of the atmospheric and oceani=
c
climate?
(3) What are the responses of coastal ecosystems to this variability?
(4) What are the processes that control the variability of the atmospheric
and oceanic climate and their interaction?
(5) What are the interactions of these processes with socioeconomic systems
and increasing human population?
(6)  How can the coastal zone processes be incorporated into predictive
models?

  Specific issues regarding processes in the temperate zones that
should be considered in IAI's research activities and programs are:

(1) What are the net surface fluxes (heat, momentum, fresh water,
greenhouse gases, etc.) in the coastal ocean, and their relation to global
values?
(2) What are the fluxes within the water column (vertical fluxes of biogenic
particulate matter to the bottom sediment, horizontal fluxes along and
across the shelf, vertical fluxes of dissolved substances to the surface lay=
er,
etc.) including the biochemical pathways of biogenic substances, and their
recycling?
(3) What are the geographic gradients in these processes?
(4) What is the effect of river input as a source and fishery harvesting as =
a
sink in the budgets of biogenic and physical variables? How do changes in
river input (dams, deforestation, etc.) and fisheries affect these budgets?
(5) By region, what is the present circulation of the inshore region and its
linkages to the shelf and ocean circulation? What are the interactions with
land and atmospheric systems?
(6) What is the coupling between the inshore benthic and pelagic
ecosystems (transport of larvae and other early life stages of different
species, including the commercially important ones)?
(7) What are the processes that control sediment transport in the coastal
zone?
(8) What are the socio-economic impacts of global change on the inshore
region? A ranking of the key physical parameters in terms of their
vulnerability to human activity should be developed to assist policy
makers.

2. Oceanic Processes

  The seas around southern South America are among the least
known of the world's oceans.  Historically the majority of ocean
measurements have been made in the  northern hemisphere. This lack of
observations in the southern hemisphere directly impacts: (1) the current
description of oceanic processes in the southern oceans, (2) our ability to
test and/or validate numerical models of oceanic phenomena in the region,
and (3) our ability to forecast future changes in the oceanic system due to
climate and/or global change.

  Current and proposed satellite observing systems can help
address our lack of knowledge in this region. However, since satellite
systems can only sample a limited number of the required parameters, and
cannot sample much below the surface, such systems do not provide a
substitute for in situ observations from moorings, ships, buoys, etc.

  A variety of oceanographic processes are at work in the
temperate waters of the Americas. If we are to understand the effects of
global change on ecosystems, and ultimately on man, we must first
understand these processes. Then, knowing the possible environmental
changes, the effect on the process can be estimated.  Once we know how the
processes are affected we can estimate the impact on ecosystems.

  The discussion on ecosystems here is extremely limited and only
a few topics have been addressed. Further input is required from regional
scientists on effects of climate changes upon plankton populations
(including effects of increased UV radiation due to ozone depletion), and
changes in the biogeography of the temperate oceanic zones.
=09
  The geographic distribution of planktonic organisms may be
affected by climate change. Various biogeographical provinces have long
been recognized in both the Pacific and the Atlantic. They are characterized
by differences in species composition and basic physical-chemical
parameters. However, there is a great imbalance between distributions and
inter-annual variability between the northern and southern temperate
oceanic-zones of the Americas.

  One response of planktonic and other communities to climate
change may be shifts in the boundaries of biogeographical provinces.
However, our understanding of functional processes in planktonic
communities is limited, reducing our ability to forecast other types of
responses.

  As an example of the types of comparisons that need to be
addressed under this topic, consider the difference between the western
boundary currents of the Southern and Northern Atlantic. In the southwest
Atlantic, in contrast to the Gulf Stream, the cold water flowing towards the
equator, the Malvinas Current, is stronger in terms of velocity and transpor=
t
than the warm water flowing from the equator, the Brazil current.  Until
recently, very little was known about this system.  Today we know that at
theconfluence, cold and warm eddies are generated, and that there is
variability in the northward penetration of the Malvinas Current. This
variability is still not well characterized and even less is known about
inter-annual variability.

  The continental shelves and neighboring boundary currents are
often regions of significant fisheries with diverse species assemblages and
great economic impact. In the South Atlantic, for example, the variability o=
f
the confluence influences the local distribution of nutrients that, in turn,
influence the local fisheries. Satellite images show large concentrations of
phytoplankton off the South American continental shelf from Tierra del
=46uego to Uruguay. The Malvinas Current, which flows northward as a
branch of the Circumpolar Current, is a major conduit for nutrients.  The
chlorophyll maximum appears to be located at the outer continental shelf,
inshore of the nutrient maxima. Despite the clear economic and climatic
importance of this region,  we know little about variation in the transport
strength, width and path of the Malvinas Current.

  A similar suite of differences exist between the two eastern
boundary currents in the Pacific. Comparisons that examine the variation in
specific features of these boundary currents should provide a much better
predictive capability for the consequences of global climate changes.

  Understanding and anticipation of global climate change and its
effects on oceanic ecosystems requires that we also define and understand
the fundamental time scales of variability that characterize the natural
systems. This is essential in order to distinguish natural variability from
that produced by anthropogenic stress in the climate system due to the
introduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.  In some cases, other
anthropogenic effects such as fishing may introduce further confounding
effects in marine ecosystems.  Natural climatic variability  in the ocean an=
d
atmosphere occurring over time scales of several decades (inter-decadal) to
several centuries (centennial scales) will either mask the anthropogenic
change, acting as a buffer, or conversely, amplify effects of this change
whenever it is of the same sign.

  The temperate ocean zones around the American continent
include important commercial fisheries, which account for a significant
proportion of total world catches.  For instance, prior to its collapse, the
anchoveta fishery off Peru was the largest single species fishery in the
world in terms of weight.  The effects of biomass removal via fishing upon
the carbon budget of the oceans needs to be considered.

  A comparative approach may yield interesting insights into the
various temperate ecosystems of the region. A series of thorough
comparative studies would be extremely useful and should be sponsored by
IAI. Here, only a few general characteristics of the ecosystems will be
mentioned.

  The fish communities associated with the eastern boundary
current systems off both North and South America have similar
characteristics, sharing the same four major types of species (Bakun and
Parrish, 1982). The life cycles of these populations seem to be closely tied
to present environmental conditions, and much may be learned from a
comparison of such strategies.  Although the east coast of South America
has obvious environmental differences with respect to the west coast ocean
environments, the community of commercially important fish species has
been found to be relatively similar to those of eastern boundary currents.
One such similarity, for instance, is the relatively low number of major
commercial fish species.  In contrast, the fisheries off the east coast of
North
America seem to be composed of a larger number of species. The cause of
such differences is not clear and should be examined further.

  Present day fish populations are subject to inter-annual
variability in the oceanic environment which, in some cases, may be
comparable to, or greater than, the changes expected as part of global
changes in climate. For that reason, understanding the responses of fish and
other organisms to recent environmental variability may help to predict
potential responses to climate change. The effects upon fish populations of
large scale oceanic and atmospheric processes such as El Ni=F1o-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) have received significant attention on the Pacific Coast =
of
the Americas (Smith, 1985). In contrast, the effects of such processes on
fisheries in the Atlantic require future attention.  Both the influence of
ENSO via teleconnections and the effects of other processes such as the
North Atlantic Oscillation need to be considered.

  One obvious potential response of a fish population to climate
change is expansion or contraction of its range. These effects are likely to
occur first near the extremes of a species or stock range. For that reason,
the transitions between temperate and tropical or subpolar regimes are the
regions where changes in the distribution of a temperate species may first
be noticed.

  Sardines and anchovies account for a large proportion of the
catches in eastern boundary currents. These species are notorious for
undergoing considerable fluctuations in abundance (Lasker and MacCall,
1983), and considerable effort has been dedicated to determining whether
such fluctuations are natural or due to over- fishing (Radovich, 1981).
Traditionally, over fishing, inter-annual environmental variability, or a
combination of both, have been blamed for the collapse of a fishery (e.g.,
the California sardine or the Peruvian anchoveta).  However, studies based
on fish scales from sediments off the west coast of North America suggest
that these populations undergo natural fluctuations in abundance over time
scales of decades and centuries (Soutar and Isaacs, 1974;  Baumgartner et
al, 1992).  Furthermore, there seems to be an alternance between species,
although the reasons for this are unclear (Daan, 1980).  The effects of
fishing may precipitate the decline of a population that is already
decreasing, as well as delay its natural recovery (Baumgartner and Sautter,
1993).

  To date, fishery studies have been more successful at explaining
changes in the distribution of a species than changes in abundance.
Empirical correlations between fish recruitment and environmental
conditions usually have not held up after additional data were incorporated
(Skud, 1982). For that reason, a process-oriented approach has been
proposed for elucidating possible associations between recruitment and the
environment.  An example of such an approach is the first US GLOBEC
experiment proposed for the Georges Bank. The benefits of such an
approach, however, remain to be proven. Furthermore, its applicability in
areas for which there is not much background information, as for many of
the temperate zones of South America, needs to be assessed.

  Some of the priority science issues concerning global change are
processes associated with toxic algal blooms, pollution in coastal and shelf
environments and the recruitment of juvenile fish into the fishable
population. It is necessary to determine the role of large- scale variations
such as radiation changes due to the ozone depletion in the Southern
Hemisphere, on toxic algal blooms. The major larval mortality processes
have been identified within the scope of SARP, but the time-space
variability of these processes is unknown.

  Interpretation and use of the natural high-resolution proxy
records must be carried out in conjunction with the retrospective analysis
of existing data sets obtained through COADS and CalCOFI (California
Cooperative Oceanic and Fisheries Investigations). These data provide direct
observations for comparison and calibration of the proxy data in the better
sampled regions of the oceans. Moreover, attention to and analyses of the
existing historical oceanographic observations are critical for the
development of more detailed histories and understanding of decadal scale
variability. The data sets, together with theproxy information, provide the
historical context needed for developing rational sampling designs for
process studies to be carried under present climatic conditions.

Inter-Decadal Change In Oceanic Ecosystems
  The description and understanding of the inter-decadal through
centennial time scales require the integration of retrospective studies of
both natural "high resolution" records of environmental variability and
direct observations of ocean conditions and processes accumulated over the
past century. Indirect records of inter-decadal and centennial climate and
ecosystem variability are preserved in marine sediments deposited under
anaerobic conditions of regional oxygen minima along the margins of the
eastern Pacific and in enclosed silled basins on the continental shelf and
slope.

   In order to adequately document the character of inter-decadal
to centennial variability (Baumgartner et al, 1992), it is necessary to
describe the history of natural variability over the past 2000 years. This
length of records provides more than 20 occurrences of inter-decadal
climatic episodes, providing insight into the wide range of possibilities of
climatic states associated with inter-decadal change.

   Equally important are the major shifts between the longer
period climate regimes of the past 2000 years identified as the Little Ice
Age (Grove, 1988) and the Medieval Warm Period (Lamb, 1965;1982). The
importance of these larger amplitude changes can be underscored by noting
that natural changes of the same order as projected for 2x CO2 may occur
almost as rapidly (e.g. the transition into the Medieval Warm Period, which
took from approximately 950 to 1050) as predicted human-induced
warmings.

   This long record also provides the additional perspective that the
amount of global warming during the 20th century is measured from a
baseline that began at the end of the Little Ice Age which lasted into the
middle or latter part of the 19th century.
3. Economic and Social Impacts of Global Change

  Policy-makers require scientific information on global change,
including the interaction between human societies and natural systems.
Socio-economic issues include the rate of global change, anticipated physica=
l
and socio-economic impacts, and response options.

   Existing knowledge concerning rates of global change varies
according to the coastal processes considered. Global circulation models
predict that many important processes will change significantly in the
future.

  Estuarine areas are very sensitive to global change. Human
modifications including pollution may change systems radically in periods
as short as a decade. Longer term changes due to processes such as sea
level rise also occur. Therefore, society should be aware of time scales of
less than a decade to more than a century in order to understand major
aspects of global change in the LSI.

  At present, the healthiest estuaries are found in areas of low
population density. This suggests that the most effective management
policy to date is to prevent any change. Management by minimum
modification is ultimately impractical.  Given the growing coastal human
population, this would suggest that estuarine health is expected to decline
in the future. Instead, active estuarine management is essential and this
would depend on improved scientific knowledge about specific estuaries.
One of the key variables is human population pressure which, in turn,
influences pollution levels and changes in land use. Other variables include
changing runoff, sediments and dissolved material loadings and exchange
with the neighboring shelf sea. As an example of the benefits of improved
knowledge, better physical and ecological models of individual estuaries
will allow the implications of the changes described above to be
investigated in a quantitative fashion.  This will aid the development of
flexible management policies which take global change into account.

   By establishing the vulnerability of individual sites to global
change, it will become possible to consider the balance of environmental
protection, environmental enhancement and societal needs. Reconciling
these competing interests always presents problems and will require
interaction with the social sciences. For instance, the problem of evaluatio=
n
of market and non-market resources needs to be resolved.

  Human activity on or near coastlines contributes to pollution of
the coastline and its ecosystems. This pollution contributes to lower water
and air quality and hence, decreased quality of human life. While this
impact may be most noticeable in estuaries and marshes, it can have
adverse impacts on the entire ocean. Furthermore, human activity often
ignores existing coastal hazards such as storms and shifting coastlines and
destroys natural protective systems such as dunes. Destruction of natural
protection provided by dunes and natural sea barriers leaves communities
established in these areas more exposed to natural extreme phenomena
such as hurricanes, tsunamis, and events associated with ENSO, for example.

  Improved scientific knowledge in all identified areas will
increase our understanding of environmental vulnerability and our ability
to manage coastal areas. For instance, sea-level rise tends to promote beach
erosion which, in turn, threatens tourist and other coastal infrastructure.
Existing models of beach erosion are based on system behavior (e.g. the
Brum Rule). The shape of the profile relative to sea level is considered to =
be
invariant in time and cross-shore conservation of mass is applied assuming
elevated sea level. Efforts toward improved system models and/or process-
based approaches that consider the total sediment budget of the coastal
zone would provide improved forecasts at shoreline position for coastal
policy purposes. The utility of such predictions is most apparent in
undeveloped locations where they provide guidance concerning appropriate
building setbacks for future construction.

  Similar improved scientific understanding of many of the other
parameters and processes already discussed will allow improved
management. In particular, a better understanding of human system-
natural system interactions--such as the ability to predict ENSO events--
will have many benefits for sustainable development of coastal resources.




IV. UNDERLYING NEEDS

    As mentioned earlier in this report, the differing historical
backgrounds of the various countries in the Americas call for a broad range
of programs in order to adequately study the temperate coasts.

  One of the most important identified needs in Latin America is
the recognition of the value of scientific work. This implies a socially
appropriate salary and full-time dedication to research and university
education. In addition, there is a need to keep national experts within the
countries as well as to repatriate scientists working abroad.

  One example of what can be done is found in the Mexican case,
in which a system linking salaries to productivity provides the means to
increase the income of scientists.

   Improvement of physical and operational facilities (ships,
libraries, data banks, and land-based sites for training and research)
requires inventory of major available facilities. Such an inventory would
assist in planning and implementation of research programs under the
auspices of the IAI.  Priorities should be given to existing institutions,
rather than to the construction of new institutions. Within this limitation,
sites for research in the LSI should be chosen based on utility for research
on environmental change, rather than on political considerations.

1. Field Research

  A suite of activities is needed to address the gaps in our present
knowledge and extend that knowledge into the future. These include
routine data collection, intensive field surveys, application of analysis to=
ols
such as statistical and numerical models, and the development of material
and human resources. In addition, data management systems and electronic
communication networks are needed to provide maximum access to
uniform quality data to a wide range of users.
  Data collection includes the construction of historical data sets
from measurements presently existing at different institutions and
monitoring of parameters relevant to global change at selected sites.
Monitoring includes the continuation of present measurements and the
initiation of new measurements of variables relevant to global change.
Where possible, sites selected for future monitoring should be located near
existing facilities and stations with historical measurements. These long
time series will enable investigators to address questions of climatic and
ecosystem variability at given locations.

  Field surveys, a more intensive form of data collection, are
needed to choose sites for long term monitoring which are representative of
the surrounding area. Field surveys are also needed to identify and study
the detailed processes and mechanisms that relate the biological and
physical components of the ecosystems to each other and to the external
climatic forcing.  IAI might develop common methodologies to allow
adequate general training and comparison of results.

  As noted earlier, the southern oceans are not well observed,
studied, or understood. Episodically, programs may improve observations in
parts of the South Pacific, South Atlantic, or Indian Oceans, but there has
been no sustained effort to increase the density of in situ observations. A
first-order problem for IAI is to establish observation networks in the
South Atlantic and Pacific Oceans that can be used for national, regional an=
d
global analyses.

  Experimental observation networks in northern hemisphere
ocean basins currently use mixes of moored buoys, drifting buoys, ship-of-
opportunity XBT/XCTD sections, research cruises, and satellite observations.
In the southern oceans, the large geographical area, a modest number of
shipping routes, limited availability of instrumentation and the size of the
research fleet suggests that a low cost strategy is a necessity.  This
implies a
very limited number of fixed buoys for high frequency time series in
selected locations, seasonal or lower-frequency research cruises, 100
drifting buoys per year, several cross-basin ship-of-opportunity XBT/XCTD
sections from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay, and improved
access to remote satellite observations.

  Fixed buoy time series of physical, biological, and chemical
parameters are a necessity to accomplish the following: (1) observe high
frequency variability in dynamic boundary current systems, (2) provide
observations to understand biogeochemical responses to changes in the
physical forcing, and (3) validate satellite-based estimates of ocean
temperature, productivity, gas exchange, and circulation.

  Process studies will require research cruises in selected regions.
Such cruises are the only current way to obtain the spectrum of parameters
needed to address ecosystem response to changeable physical forcing.
Research cruises also provide a way to validate fixed and drifting buoys,
and satellite observations.

  Drifting buoy deployment in each basin facilitates estimation of
the surface flow, SST, and surface pressure fields.  While 50 buoys in each
basin will not provide mesoscale resolution fields, they will generate much
needed measurements for models, satellite algorithm validation, and
routine weather forecasting.  Additional surface observations in the South
Pacific should permit substantial improvement in weather forecasts for
southern South America.

  Ship-of-opportunity sections permit a lower frequency (weekly
to monthly) elucidation of changes in temperature and/or density in the
upper ocean for several basin spanning sections. These sections are a cost-
effective way to monitor indices of upper ocean heat content, gyre and
boundary-current response to basin-scale changes in meteorological forcing,
etc.  Excellent ports in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil facilitate su=
ch
programs.

  Finally, access to satellite-derived fields of SST, biomass, height,
and surface wind stresses are a necessity for generating high quality
descriptions of the current ocean "weather." Availability of these fields wi=
ll
provide immediate benefits for model validation and improvement, marine
transportation routing, management and exploitation of fisheries, and
understanding of coupled biogeochemical responses to surface forcing.



2. Modeling

  As mentioned earlier, given the need for predictive capability,
the quantitative approaches should include both stochastic and mechanistic
models. Stochastic models include methods of modern time series analysis,
including multi-variate analysis, factor analysis, and canonical correlation
analysis.  Mechanistic models include numerical atmospheric, meteorologic,
and oceanic circulation models within which ecosystem models can be
imbedded.

  A better understanding of earth system processes will allow
improvements in both statistical and mechanistic models of the coastal
system; field surveys will also allow overall evaluation of the models.
Models can then be used to focus further field surveys to better address
unanswered questions.  Finally, the models can be used initially to assess
spatial and temporal variability around potential monitoring sites.  The
results of these model assessments and initial field surveys will be used to
design an efficient monitoring network.  Ultimately, the atmospheric,
oceanic and hydrologic (land) submodels should be coupled into a single
coastal systems model, possibly driven by a global ocean-atmosphere
model.

  The large differences in data density and quality between the
southern and northern hemispheres has already been mentioned. These
differences are at least as large when considering the state of development
of numerical models of atmospheric and oceanic circulation, and ecosystem
response.

  Some well-developed models such as the UK's Fine Resolution
Antarctic Model, Princeton's Cox model adapted to the South Atlantic, and
University of Miami isopycnal models of the South Atlantic/South Indian
Oceans have helped address some questions related to the large-scale
circulation of part of the regions of interest to the IAI. None of these
models, however, includes features related to climate or global variability,
nor are these models coupled with the atmosphere.

  In addition to the need to develop or adapt models for the
southern hemisphere regions, it is also noted that the necessary human
resources for this endeavor may not be available in most of the countries in
the region. There is also a need to present model results in a manner that
can be useful to scientists from other disciplines (e.g., fisheries, resourc=
e
managers) and understandable by policy-makers.

3. Education and Training

  Consideration of human resources leads to questions of education
and retention of expertise where it is most needed. At present there are
more opportunities to educate and train individuals from regions where
expertise in a subject is lacking, than there are opportunities for the
individuals to find employment once they are educated. The IAI should
encourage member nations to enhance those institutions which address
global change-related issues, including increasing employment
opportunities for returning graduates. Graduate student research at these
institutions will benefit, further enhancing the impact of the original
training.

  A second option to enhance the region's human resources is the
establishment of "young scientist awards" consisting of 3-5  year grants for
support of new Ph.D. researchers at universities and research centers.
These would be awarded through peer reviewed competitive proposals and
would include funding for necessary equipment, travel, etc., as well as a
stipend.  To further improve the capabilities to retain highly trained
scientists, the IAI may consider encouraging the establishment of
incentives based on academic productivity .

  A number of other activities in education should also be
explored.  Multi-disciplinary training should be encouraged at the graduate
level, after a solid basis in at least one basic science field is establishe=
d.
Opportunities for updating knowledge and retraining and learning new
fields should be offered to established scientists. Attempts to "balance"
disciplinary strengths between regions should also be encouraged by
exchanging scientists and students. A system should also be established for
validating credit for courses taken in universities in the region.  This wou=
ld
reduce the need to have one specialist in each field to teach the curriculum=
 .

   During the workshop, several means of education and training
were identified:

(a) Cooperative research programs which would involve both in-country
and regional institutions (universities, government laboratories, etc).
(b) Suggested modifications of graduate-level curricula would integrate
social aspects of global change and break down present disciplinary
boundaries, particularly at the graduate level.
(c)  Communication systems among  institutions and among the individual
scientists should be kept up-to-date (e.g. multi-media communication).
(d) Visits and short-term courses offered by scientists with recognized
expertise would aid in research and education.
(e) Ongoing laboratory and field training should complement education by
lectures.  This opportunity should be made available to students,
technicians, and junior scientists.
(f) Regional meetings should take place on a regular schedule for research
scientists and other educators.=09
(g) It is very important that educational campaigns exist to reach the entir=
e
spectrum of the population, ranging from kindergarten to senior citizens.
(h) Institutions with specific expertise could develop a basic curricula for
in-depth studies of their particular subject.

  The ocean processes component has specific and general needs in
education and training. Generally, the various educational programs need
long-term, stable support on the national level.  Since ocean science
education and training are typically an outgrowth of research efforts, this
implies fostering stable research environments in the participant countries.
Education and training can be enhanced through support of exchange visits,
pre- and post-doctoral training opportunities in member IAI countries, and
joint research projects.

  Review of the current gaps in ocean process capabilities suggests
that numerical ocean modeling is weak in the IAI region.  We  recommend
a program to establish a center (or centers) of excellence in ocean modeling
as an IAI priority. This effort would focus on numerical ocean circulation
modeling at the onset and then evolve to address coupled systems (ocean-
atmosphere, ocean-land-atmosphere, ocean-biology, ocean-chemistry, etc.).

  The following mechanisms relating to education, training, and
knowledge transfer have been proposed for IAI:

(a) Joint regional workshops, to support coordination of research efforts
conducted in different IAI countries on topics of regional priority.
(b) On-the-job training, possibly through these mechanisms:
 l. Support for participation of researchers from IAI countries in joint
 field activities.
 2. Support for short-term stays at other institutions for training
 purposes (i.e. to learn new research methods and technologies).
 3. Awarding of a number of low-cost fellowships to enable the
 participation of young graduate students as trainees in IAI-funded
 projects.
(c) Conducting short courses on topics of scientific priority.
(d) Dissemination of the results of IAI-funded research projects among
educational and research institutions, and decision- makers.
(e) Encouraging the establishment of working partnerships between sister
laboratories.
(f) Supporting the exchange of professors among institutions of different
countries for the purpose of teaching subjects of regional priority.
(g) Exchange of university students, using these mechanisms:
 l. Encouraging student exchange programs that allow students to attend=
  other universities as non-degree students for a limited period of time=
  and receive academic credit for their studies and/or work (this type
  of exchange scheme is already allowed and recognized in several  American
universities).
 2. Providing financial support for post-graduate studies in areas of IAI
 interest.
(h) Providing advice for preparation of curricula of educational institution=
s
 for the inclusion of global change-related subjects.

  The following IAI priority training areas are suggested:

(a) Multi-disciplinary approach to global change research (interaction
between disciplines, including social sciences);
(b) The social and human aspects of global environmental change;
(c) Large-scale (regional to basin scales) numerical ocean modeling of
physical, chemical, biological, etc., parameters emphasizing interdisciplina=
ry
aspects;
(d) The use of computer networks for data management, communication
and manipulation of data; and
(e) Use and interpretation of satellite images.

  Specific activities that could be carried out by IAI:

(a) Designing a mechanism for continuous surveying of training needs
among member countries;
(b)  Forming selection committees for the admission/incorporation of
qualified students and/or scientists to any of the mechanisms  mentioned in
section (g)-1., above;
(c) Developing (and/or advising governments on the development of) a
program for the recruitment of national scientists working abroad, and for
the retention of skilled researchers in their own countries as a way of
reducing the "brain drain". Such a program could establish mechanisms for:
 l. the integration of scientists who have obtained post- graduate  degrees
abroad, in IAI-supported projects; and
 2. the preparation and dissemination of a pool of information on job
 opportunities in IAI member countries.
(d) The preparation of a data base with world-wide information on recently
implemented post-graduate courses on global change.

 4. Communications, Data and Information Management
=09
  The IAI is envisioned as a distributed research network
throughout the Americas that will conduct and sponsor basic research on
global change processes. The Institute will pursue the principles of scienti=
fic
excellence, international cooperation, and the full and open exchange of
scientific information, relevant to global change.  Achieving this goal will
require careful management of data and information resulting from the
observation program. IAI will encourage the production, documentation,
and preservation of high quality, long-term data sets, data exchange
standards, data access, and  maintain the lowest possible cost of data for
research purposes.

IAI Communication Network

  Networks are very helpful in enabling scientists to rapidly
exchange messages, to access on-line information about data availability,
and to obtain sets of actual data.

  Electronic networking in Latin America and the Caribbean for
exchange of data has been a subject of interest in the scientific community
for some time and several network projects have been launched in the past
few years.  Some of these networks are now operational and others are still
being implemented. Two initiatives, NSF and OAS, have helped to accelerate
the implementation process in the past two years.

  Electronic communication provides a cost-effective way to
mediate interactions between scientists on national, regional, and
international scales. We recommend the establishment of electronic data
networks (via Internet) as a high priority for the IAI. Today, it is routine=
 in
many countries to exchange electronic mail, access remote compilations of
data, access super-computing resources, etc. We believe establishment of
affordable networks in the region connected with international networks
will positively impact progress in understanding ocean processes in the
southern oceans. Internet capabilities for the IAI member countries will
also allow access to remote sensing systems and databases.

  What is the current status of connectivity? Severalresearch and
academic institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean are already
connected to the Global Internet Network (GIN).  Others are in the process
of being connected as part of the NSF and OAS projects, and are at different
stages of development.  Electronic mail, such as Bitnet and Omnet (now part
of Internet) has been in operation since the late 1980s to facilitate
international collaboration and access to data bases.  Implementation of
Omnet was straightforward, since it required just the telephone network,
but it had limitations on the information to be transferred, such as limited
ASCII and binary data files.  Transferring  graphics, images, and large data
files can be done only by Internet, but the dedicated high speed
communication network required makes its implementation expensive.

 =09
  The goal is that each participating IAI country be connected to
GIN through their main node.  The next step is to link the research and
academic institutions to the router at the main node. The IAI project
supported by the Global Environmental Facility, GEF, (World Bank) should
consider, within the training component, workshops and seminars to train
people in the use of this facility as well as in data manipulation.

Data Management

  Data and information management includes the means and
mechanisms to acquire, process, analyze, document, validate, archive, access
and disseminate the multi-disciplinary data needed to understand the
scientific interactions of  Earth processes on a global scale. It also inclu=
des
the management of information required by and resulting from derived
analyses and products, models, simulations, forecasts, and observations.

  The existing, accessible environmental knowledge base in
oceanic temperature zones is not adequate. This is due to a paucity of
observation, lack of effective computerization of existing observations, and
impediments to access to existing data. Thus we recommend (1) a program
to make IAI member country ocean observations computer compatible and
accessible, and (2) synthesis of all available observations in IAI member
countries and other repositories.

Data Quality

  Detecting long-term changes in the ocean requires precise
measurements of many physical and chemical variables. In many cases
these natural changes are of the same order of magnitude as the resolution
of the present methods or instruments.  In order to assure that the data
being collected serves to establish a long-term, high- quality data set, it =
is
essential that state of the art methods, instruments, and techniques be
available to the IAI scientific community.

  Various ongoing international scientific programs such as JGOFS,
WOCE, etc., have addressed the data quality and uniformity problem.  We
recommend that this issue be given special attention within the IAI
community as well as in the IAI goals.

  The IAI should establish a network of data management centers
to collect and archive the ocean observations. These centers should also
provide access to global data sets generated by other countries or
organizations (e.g. NASA, ECMWF, NOAA/NMC, etc.). These centers would
then be able to provide "one step" access for member scientists to national,
regional, and global environment databases.  However, in the near term,
data currently held in the IAI region must be synthesized as part of a
parallel effort.  That is, the observations must be put into computer-
compatible form, catalogued, and inventoried in an accessible, multi-
parameter database, and made easily accessible to all interested scientists.
Thus we recommend an early effort to develop an accessible ocean
processes database for the region, as well as a catalog of available dataset=
s
and relevant metadata.  The maintenance and regular update of such
catalogs should be encouraged.

  Material resources include the platforms and sensors necessary
to collect the data as well as the computational facilities needed for stora=
ge,
analysis and display of the final products. Above all, an increase in human
resources is the key to advancing our understanding of global processes.

What  Kind of Data Do We Have?

  One necessary project is to prepare and share more information
about the data holdings of laboratories, countries, and international
collections of data.  The goal should be to make a partial collection of suc=
h
information soon and then to add to this information later. The World
Meteorological Organization has gathered information about data from
many countries.  NCAR has written information about what can be found in
the WMO publications (and on floppy disk), and in other sources of
information. Many datasets, especially for the U.S. and Canada, are
described in the Master Directory, which is an on-line directory that is
administered by the Goddard Laboratory of NASA.  The data is described in
a DIF  format in this dataset catalog that can be reached on-line via
Internet. It is recommended that we first gather brief descriptions about
data in laboratories, and later integrate these descriptions into on-line
systems.  NCAR has a technical report about CD-Roms that are available;
this report should be updated as part of this project.

  It is recommended that IAI should start a project to encourage
laboratories to prepare lists of their datasets, along with a brief explanat=
ion
as needed. The level of detail is not to describe each XBT, but to say, for
example, that 5000 XBTs have been taken over a period of 17 years.

What Kind of Data Do We Need?

  A questionnaire has been prepared that asks laboratories to
prepare information both about what data they have and what data they
need.  The response to these questions and statements of the data needs
will help for necessary data gathering and exchange. Some types of data
such as sea surface temperature and sea level pressure and winds are
almost certain to be needed by all groups and we should plan to make these
data available, probably on CD-Roms.

  A mechanism should be developed to improve access to space-
based data, such as information products from NOAA's operational satellites
and information from other agencies. Access to GIS capabilities and data
sets should be available to all scientists.

  The current state of knowledge requires summarizing into a
database.  We suggest building on the format of the NOAA National
Estuarine Inventory (NEI) to include the entire coastline of the Americas
and to include other ecosystem types in addition to estuaries. This database
should be structured and disseminated so that it is available to individual
research scientists. The database should include GIS-based data within the
coastal zone.

Some Basic Data Needed in a Regional and World Data Center

  There are established global programs to collect data from some
types of measurements. We should not develop new methods and formats
under IAI to gather these data, but should use established procedures.
Some of these standard types of data follow:
(a) surface ship marine  data (COADS dataset);
(b) ocean station data (XBT, etc.);
(c) drifting buoy data;
(d) fixed buoy data (every hour or every 3 hours);
(e) tide gauge data (every day and every month); and
(f) coastal station data (SST, Meteorology data).

  Each nation needs to make certain that these types of data are
submitted through the international exchange procedure. For surface ship
marine data it is often possible to obtain more data by asking more
merchant ships to cooperate. Sometimes not enough measurements are
taken in a coastal area;  merchant ships might be asked to take three or
four observations within 300 km of shore.

  Data that has been gathered in global or regional data centers
does not help local scientists unless they have easy access to it or can eas=
ily
obtain copies of the data. CD-Roms can be used to help distribute copies of
the data to all groups that need them. Some of the data are already
available on CD-Rom.

  Scientific groups have realized that some necessary
measurements were not taken, and access to needed data often was not
good.  Some ways to help alleviate these problems might be:

(a) methods of data management and communications might be =09
designed to help local scientific groups;
(b) local meetings could be held.  A few meetings within countries might be
necessary to see how different organizations can help take more of the
needed observations and share data. A meeting between ocean groups,
atmospheric groups, merchant marine people, and navy or coast guard
groups may help to develop solutions.
=09
  The concern often exists that the flow of data is a one-way flow
from less developed countries to more developed ones, that local access to
data is not improved, and that local capability to analyze data is not
developed. In this program we hope to increase the access to data for all
groups.  For example, some data would be prepared on CD-Roms and then
all groups could obtain communications if they have a connection to
Internet.

  It has been noted that some developed countries take computers
on ship cruises and often have the data calculations made and papers in
preparation for journals by the time the ship returns to port. In developing
countries this process takes longer.  We should not expect scientists to
exchange their data before they have had time to prepare a paper.  A
general rule is that scientists should have one or two years to prepare a
paper before their data is exchanged.  Also there should at least be proper
acknowledgment when data prepared by other groups is used.

  A useful project may be to gather together selected time series
of data that serve as indicators. For example, such a dataset could have
some data series such as the following:

(a) 30 to 50 years series of indicators for the Chile-Peru up-welling region=
;
(b) data series for the California current that exist from about 1930. Also,
related paleoclimate series for 2000 years will become available;
(c) the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI);
(d) selected precipitation series that relate to the SOI; and
(e) selected tide gauge series.

















V. REFERENCES

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in the California and Per=FA Current System.  Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Inv=
est.
Reports, 23:99-112.

Baumgartner, T., V. Ferreira-Bartrina, H. Schrader, and A. Soutar, 1985.  A
20-Year Varve Record of Siliceous Phytoplankton Variability in the Central
Gulf of California. Mar. Geol., 64:113-129.

Baumgartner, T. and L. Sautter, 1992:  Paleo-oceanographic and Long-Term
Historic Evidence of Past Variability, In US GLOBEC Eastern Boundary
Current Program, Report on Climate Change and the California Current
Ecosystem, edited by D. Mackas, T. Strub, and J. Hunter, U.S. GLOBEC Report
No. 7:44-49.

Baumgartner, T. R., A. Soutar, and V. Ferreira-Bartrina, 1992:
Reconstruction of the History of Pacific Sardine and Northern Anchovy
Populations Over the Past  Two Millennia From Sediments of the Santa
Barbara Basin, Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Reports, 33:24.40.

Bruland, K. W. 1980:   Oceanographic Distribution of Cadmium, Zinc, Nickel,
and Copper in the North Pacific.  Earth and Planet. Sci. Letters,  47:176-19=
8.

Byme, R., Michaelsen, J., and A. Soutar, 1979:  Prehistoric Wlildfire
=46requencies in the Los Padres National Forest:  Fossil Charcoal Evidence
from the Santa Barbara Channel.  U.S. Forest Service Research Report, PSW-
47, 78 pp.

Casey, R., A.L. Weinheimer, and C.O. Nelson, 1989:  California El Ni=F1o's a=
nd
Related Changes of the California Current system from Recent and Fossil
Radiolarian Records.  In:  D. H. Peterson (ed.), Aspects of Climate Variabil=
ity
in the Pacific and the Western Americas.  American Geophys. Union,
Geophysical Monograph, 55:85-92.


Daan, N., 1980:  A Review of Replacement of Depleted Stock by Other
Species and the Mechanisms Underlying Such Replacement.  Rapp. P. y.
Reun. Cons. int. Explor. Mer, 177: 405-421.

Dunbar, R. B., 1983.   Stable Isotope Record of Upwelling and Climate From
Santa Barbara Basin, California.  In: J. Thiede and E. Suess (eds), Coastal
Upwelling, The Sedimentary Record, Part B. Penum Press, N. Y. :  217-246.

Grove, J. M., 1988:  The Little Ice Age.  Methuen, London, 498 pp.

Holmgren-Urba, D. and T. R. Baumgartner, 1993:  A 250-Year History of
Pelagic Fish Abundances From the Anaerobic Sediments of the Central Gulf
of California.  Calif. Coop.  Oceanic Fish.   Invest. Reports, 34: 60-68.

Lamb, H. H. 1965:   The Early Medieval Warm Epoch and Its Sequel.
Paleography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology, v. 1:  13-37.

Lamb, H. H. 1982:  Climate History and the Modern World.  Methuen,
London.  387 pp.

Lange, C.B., S.K. Burke, and W.H. Berger, 1990:  Biological Production Off
Southern California Is Linked to Climatic Change.  Climate Change, 16:310-
329.

Lasker, R. and A. MacCall. 1983:  New Ideas on the Fluctuations of Clupeoid
Stocks off California, p. 110-120.  In:  Proceedings of the Joint
Oceanographic Assembly 1982-General Symposia.  Canadian National
Committee on Oceanic Research, Ottawa.

Pielke, R. A., W. A. Lyons, R. T. McNider, M. D. Moran, D. A. Moon, R. A.
Stocker, R. L. Walko, and M. Uliasz, 1990:  Regional and Mesoscale Modeling
As Applied To Air Quality Models.  In:  Air Pollution Modeling and its
Application VIII (H. van Dop and D. G. Steyn, ed.), Plenum Press, New York,
259-289.

Pielke,   R. A. G. A. Dalu, J. S. Snook, T. J. Lee and G. F. Kittel, 1991:
Nonlinear
Influence of Mesoscale Land Use On Weather and Climate.  J. Clim., 4,1053-
1069.
Radovich, J., 1981.  The Collapse of the California Sardine Fishery--What
Have We Learned?  In:  M. H. Glantz and J.D. Thompson, eds., Resource
Management and Environmental Uncertainty.  Wiley-Interscience, New
York.

Sautter, L.R. and R.C. Thunnel, 1991:  Seasonal Variability in the D 18 O  a=
nd
13 C of Planktonic Foraminifera From an Upwelling Environment: Sediment
Trap Results From the San Pedro Basin, Southern California,
Paleoceanography, 6: 307-334.

Skud, B. E. 1982:  Dominance in Fishes:  The Relation Between Environment
and Abundance.  Science., 216:144-149.

Smith, P.E. 1985:  A Case History of An Anti-El Ni=F1o Transition on Plankto=
n
and Distribution and Abundances.  In: W. S. Wooster and D. L. Fluharty
(eds.), El Ni=F1o North Effects in the Eastern Subarctic Pacific Ocean:  121=
-142.

Soutar, A. and P. Crill, 1977:  Sedimentation and Climatic Patterns in the
Santa Barbara Basis During the 19th and 20th Centuries.  Geol. Soc. Amer.
Bulletin,  88:1161-1172.

Soutar, A. and J. D. Isaacs, 1974:  Abundance of Pelagic Fish During the 19t=
h
and 20th Centuries As Recorded In Anaerobic Sediment of the Californias.
=46ishery Bulletin,  72:  257-273.














APPENDIX 1

IAI INITIAL SCIENTIFIC THEMES


* The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems;

* High Latitude Processes;

* Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-tropical Americas;

* Tropical Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Cycles;

* ENSO and Interannual Climate Variability;

* The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems;

* The Study of the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity.



APPENDIX 2

ACRONYMS


IGBP/START International Geosphere-Biosphere Program/System for =09
       Analysis,
Research and Training

GIS   Geographical Information System

LSI    Land Sea Interface

GLOBEC     Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics

COADS   Comprehensive Ocean and Atmospheric Data Set

CalCOFI    California Cooperative Oceanic and Fisheries  =09
 Investigations

XBT/XCTD   Expendable
Bathythermograph/Expendable Conductivity  =09
 Temperature Depth

SST   Sea Surface Temperature

GIN    Global Internet Network

NSF    National Science Foundation

OAS    Organization of American States

ASCII   American Standard Code for Information Interchange

GEF    Global Environmental Facility

JGOFS   Joint Global Ocean Flux Study

WOCE   World Ocean Circulation Experiment

ECMWF   European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts

NASA   National Aeronautic and Space Administration

NOAA   National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA/OGP NOAA/Office of Global Programs

NOAA/NMC NOAA/National Meteorological Center

NCAR   National Center for Atmospheric Research

WMO   World Meteorological Organization


APPENDIX 3

WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS


Luis Angel Cers=F3simo
Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa
C=F3rdoba 831
1054 Buenos Aires
ARGENTINA
Tel. (54 1) 311 3178
=46ax (54 1) 312 1482

Alberto Piola=09
SIHN Departamento de Oceanograf=EDa=09
Av. Montes de Oca 2124=09
1271 Buenos Aires=09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 212 918=09
=46ax (54 1) 217 797  =09

Ana Maria Gayoso=09
Instituto Argentino de Oceanografia  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 91) 23 555=09
=46ax (54 91) 553 933  =09

Monica Hoffmeyer=09
Instituto Argentino de Oceanograf=EDa  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 235 55=09
=46ax (54 1) 553 933  =09

Maria Cintia Piccolo   =09
Instituto Nacional de Investigaci=F3n y Desarrollo Pesquero   =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 517 818=09
=46ax (54 1) 517 442  =09

Jorge Marcovecchio=09
Instituto Nacional de Investigaci=F3n y Desarrolo Pesquero=09
Dept. Ambiente Marino  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 23) 517 818=09
=46ax (54 23) 517 442  =09

R. R. Kokot
Universidad de Buenos Aires=09
Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales,
Depto. de Geolog=EDa  =09
ARGENTINA=09
 =09
Carlos Rinaldi=09
Instituto Ant=E1rctico Argentino=09
Cerrito 1248=09
1010, Buenos Aires =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 812 1689=09
=46ax (54 1) 812 2039=09

S. C. Marcomini=09
Universidad de Buenos Aires=09
Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Depto. de Geolog=EDa  =09
ARGENTINA=09

Eduardo Ban=FAs=09
Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global=09
Av. Cordoba 831, Piso 1,  Buenos Aires1054
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 312 1482=09
=46ax (54 1) 312 1482  =09



Jorge Codignotto=09
Universidad de Buenos Aires   =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 982 6670=09
=46ax (54 1) 982 4494  =09

Alberto Ford    =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 954 1011 ext. 744=09
=46ax (54 1) 951 1100  =09

Mariana Framinan   =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09
=46ax (54 1) 217 797  =09

Elvira Gentile=09
IAI Newsletter=09
Av. Montes de Oca 2124=09
1271 Buenos Aires =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 217 576=09
=46ax (54 1) 303 2299=09
70501.2436@compuserve.com=09

Daniel Collazo=09
Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial
y Medio Ambiente   =09
ARGENTINA=09
=09
Maria Paula Etala=09
Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval   =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (541) 312 5001 ext. 2533=09
=46ax (541) 311 2459  =09



Alejandro Bianchi=09
Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval=09
Depto. de Oceanograf=EDa  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09
=46ax (54 1) 217 797  =09

Hector Petit=09
Universidad de Buenos Aires=09
=46acultad de Filosof=EDa y Letras, Instituto de Geograf=EDa  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 756 0738=09

Nestor Lanfredi=09
Laboratorio de Oceanografia Costera y Estuarios=09
Casilla de Correo 45 1900 La Plata=09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 527 945=09
=46ax (54 1) 530 189 =09

=46ederico Isla=09
Centro de Geolog=EDa de Costas y del Cuaternario   =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 23) 727 144=09
=46ax (54 23) 728 297  =09

Gerardo M.E. Perillo=09
Instituto Argentino de Oceanograf=EDa=09
Depto Geolog=EDa Marina  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 91) 235 55=09
=46ax (54 91) 553 933  =09

Eduardo Rodriguez=09
SIHN Departamento Oceanograf=EDa  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09
=46ax (54 1) 217 797  =09
Ramiro P. S=E1nchez
Instituto Nacional de Investigaci=F3n y Desarrollo Pesquero=09
Pesquer=EDa Pel=E1gicas  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 23) 514 285=09
=46ax (54 23) 517 442  =09

Carlos Urien=09
Centro Oceanogr=E1fico Buenos Aires=09
Instituto Tecnol=F3gico Buenos Aires  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (54 1) 311 6624=09
=46ax (54 1) 342 5437  =09

Guillermo Verazay
Comisi=F3n T=E9cnica Mixta del Frente Maritimo=09
Secretario Administrativo  =09
ARGENTINA=09
Tel. (5982) 962 773=09
=46ax (5982) 961 578  =09

Alfredo Yung=09
Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval   =09
ARGENTINA=09

Hector Atilio Poggiese=09
=46LACSO (Programa Argentino)=09
=46acultad Latinoamericana  =09
ARGENTINA=09

Ricardo Ayup-Zuain=09
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul=09
Instituto de Geoci=EAncias =09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 51) 336 9822=09
=46ax (55 51) 336 5011  =09


Renato Herz=09
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09
Instituto Oceanogr=E1fico =09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 11) 210 4311 ext. 6582=09
=46ax (55 11) 210 3092  =09

Luiz Martins=09
=46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande =09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 51) 336 9822 =09
=46ax (55 51) 336 5011  =09

Luis Bevilacqua=09
Instituto de Matem=E1tica Pura e Aplicada (IMPA)
Estrada Dona Castorina, 110
Jardim Bot=E2nico, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 22460-320
BRAZIL
Tel. (55 21) 294 9447
=46ax (55 21) 512 4115
=09
=46rederico Pereira Brandini=09
Universidade Federal do Paran=E1=09
Centro de Estudos do Mar=09
Pontal do Sul, Paranagu=E1, PR 83255-00=09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 41) 455 1333=09
=46ax (55 41) 455 1105  =09
=09
=46ernando D'Incao=09
=46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande=09
=46aculdade de Ensino e Pesquisa =09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 532) 323 659
=46ax (55 532) 323 659=09
doccarci.at.br.furg.bitnet=09


Clarisse Odebrecht=09
=46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande (FURG)=09
Departamento de Oceanograf=EDa=09
P.O. Box 474=09
96201-900 Rio Grande-RS=09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 53) 232 9122 ext. 21=09
=46ax (55 53) 232 8510=09
doclar@br.furg.bitnet =09

Izabel Gurgel=09
Departamento de Oceanografia da UERJ=09
Rua S=E3o Francisco Xavier, 524/4 andar
Maracan=E3 20559-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 21) 284 8322 ext. 2689=09
=46ax (55 21) 284 5033  =09

Afranio R. de Mesquita=09
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09
Instituto Oceanogr=E1fico=09
Caixa Postal 9075, S=E3o Paulo, SP=09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 123) 813 3222 ext. 23 1=09
=46ax (55 123) 211 4422=09

Jorge Pablo Castello
=46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande (FURG)=09
Departmento de Oceanografia=09
PO Box 474, Rio Grande, RS 96201-900=09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 532) 329 122 ext. 32=09
=46ax (55 532) 32 8510  =09

Daniel Joseph Hogan=09
Universidade Estadual de Campinas
N=FAcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas Ambientais
13081 Campinas, SP =09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 192) 397 690=09
=46ax (55 192) 397 690  =09

Edmo J. D. Campos=09
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo -IOUSP/DOF
Pra=E7a Oceanogr=E1fica, 191=09
Cidade Universitaria=09
S=E3o Paulo, SP 05508-900=09
BRAZIL=09
Tel. (55 11) 210 4311 ext. 6584=09
=46ax (55 11) 210 3092  =09

Belmiro Castro=09
Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09
Instituto de Oceanografia =09
BRAZIL =09
Tel. (55 11)210 3092  =09

Luis Roberto Martin=09
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)=09
Centro de Estudos de Geologia Costeira e Oceanogr=E1fica (CECO)=09
BRAZIL =09
Tel. (55 51) 336 5011=09

Silvio Guido Marinone =09
The University of British Colombia=09
Department of Oceanography=09
6270 University Blvd.=09
Vancouver, B.C.=09
CANADA
Tel. (604) 822 4297=09
=46ax (604) 822 6091  =09

Mohammed El-Sabh=09
Centre Oceanographique de Rimouski=09
Departement d'Oceanography  =09
CANADA=09
Tel. (418) 724  1707=09
=46ax (418) 724 1842 =09

Vivi=E1n Montecino=09
=46acultad de Ciencias,
Universidad de Chile=09
Departamento de Ciencias Ecol=F3gicas=09
Casilla 653 Santiago=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 271 2977=09
=46ax (56 2) 272 7363=09

Jos=E9 Eduardo Sanhueza=09
Instituto de Ecolog=EDa Pol=EDtica=09
Casilla 16784-Correo 9, Santiago=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 274 6191=09
=46ax (56 2) 223 4522  =09

Patricio Arana=09
Universidad Cat=F3lica de Valparaiso=09
Escuela de Ciencias del Mar,
Casilla 1020, Valparaiso=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 032) 281 867=09
=46ax (56 032) 281 870 =09

Jos=E9 Rutllant=09
Universidad de Chile
Departamento de Geof=EDsica=09
Blanco Encalada 2085, Casilla 2777, Santiago=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 2) 696 8790=09
=46ax (56 2) 696 8686=09
jrutllan@uchcecvm.cec.uchile.cl =09



Jos=E9 Stuardo=09
Universidad De Concepci=F3n=09
Barrio Universidad Casilla 156-C, Concepci=F3n=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 41) 242 465=09
=46ax (56 41) 242 546  =09

Tarcisio Antezana=09
Universidad de Concepci=F3n=09
Departmento de Oceanograf=EDa=09
P.O. Box 4010, Concepcion=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 41) 234 985 ext. 2345=09
=46ax (56 41) 240 280  =09

Hellmuth A. Sievers=09
Universidad de Valparaiso=09
Instituto de Oceanolog=EDa=09
Casilla 13-D, Vi=F1a del Mar=09
CHILE=09
Tel. (56 32) 833 214=09
=46ax (56 32) 833 214  =09

Wolfgang Scherer=09
Comisi=F3n Oceanogr=E1fica Intergubernamental=09
=46RANCE=09
Tel. (33 1) 456 84042=09
=46ax (33 1) 405 69316=09
w:scherer, GOOS Paris =09

=46rancisco  Ocampo T=F3rres=09
CICESE=09
Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada Km. 107 =09
Ensenada, Baja California=09
MEXICO=09
Tel. (52 667) 442 00 ext. 4011=09
=46ax (52 667) 451 54  =09

Timothy Baumgartner=09
CICESE=09
Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada Km 107=09
Apdo. Postal 2732, Ensenada, Baja California=09
MEXICO=09
Tel. (619) 534 2171=09
=46ax (619) 534 7641=09
tbaumgartner@cicese.mx=09

Victor Camacho Ibar=09
Universidad Autonoma de Baja California
Apartado Postal 423
Ensenada, B.C.=09
MEXICO=09
Tel. (52 617) 451 54=09
=46ax (52 617) 446 01=09

Mar=EDa Ana Escofet  =09
CICESE
Km. 103 Carretera Tij.-Ensenada
Ensenada, B.C.
MEXICO=09
Tel. (52) 617 667
=46ax (52) 617 667 =09

Sa=FAl Alvarez Borrego=09
CICESE=09
Dept. de Ecolog=EDa, Divisi=F3n de Oceanolg=EDa=09
Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada Km. 107=09
Ensenada, Baja California=09
MEXICO=09
Tel. (52 667) 450 50 ext. 4090=09
=46ax (52 667) 451 54=09

Roberto Mill=E1n Nu=F1ez
UABC =09
=46acultad de Ciencias Marinas
Apartado Postal 423, Ensenada, B.C.=09
MEXICO=09
Tel. (52 617) 445 70=09
=46ax (52 617) 441 03  =09

Silvia Ibarra =09
CICESE
Depto. Ecolog=EDa
Divisi=F3n de Oceanolog=EDa
Carretera Tij-Ensenada, Km 107=09
MEXICO=09
Tel. (52 617) 442 00=09
=46ax (52 617) 451 54  =09

Manuel Vegas V=E9lez=09
Comisi=F3n Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa=09
Coordinador del Comit=E9 =09
PERU=09
Tel. (51 14) 428 948=09
=46ax (51 14) 428 951

Carlos Eduardo Ere=F1o=09
Agregado Naval a la Embajada Argentina=09
Av. Pardo y Aliaga,  Piso 12=09
San Isidro, Lima =09
PERU=09
Tel. (541) 217 576=09
=46ax (541) 303 2299 =09

Hector Soldi=09
Direccion de Hidrograf=EDa y Navegaci=F3n=09
Gamarra 500, Chucuito Callao=09
PERU=09
Tel. (51 14) 297 564=09
=46ax (51 14) 652 995=09
omnet toga.peru=09



Pablo Lagos=09
Instituto Geof=EDsico del Per=FA =09
Apartado 3747=09
Lima 100=09
PERU=09
Tel. (51 14) 752 996=09
=46ax (51 14) 370 258=09
plagos@gateway.omnet.com =09

Balbino J. Alvarez=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo =09
URUGUAY    =09

Luis Anastasia=09
Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente
Divisi=F3n de Ecosistemas Costeros  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 963 954=09
=46ax (59 82) 965 182  =09

Mario Bidegain=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ciencias=09
Trist=E1n Narvaja 1674=09
Montevideo, 11200
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 416 771=09
=46ax (59 82) 409 973=09

Daniel Panario=09
Departamento de Geograf=EDa
=46acultad de Ciencias
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (598 2) 715 2 78=09
=46ax (598 2) 715 4 46  =09


Magdalena Blanco=09
Grupo de Estudio de la Din=E1mica de los Oc=E9anos y la Atm=F3sfera=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
Av. 18 De Julio 1968=09
2o Piso Montevideo=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (598 2) 715 278=09
=46ax (598 2) 715 446  =09

Carlos Serrentino=09
Direcci=F3n Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (598 2) 405 655=09
=46ax (598 2) 497 391  =09
 =09
Mario Caffera=09
Direcci=F3n Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa=09
=46acultad de Ingenier=EDa=09
Trist=E1n Narvaja 1674=09
Montevideo 11200=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09
=46ax (59 82) 715 446  =09

Gabriel Cazes=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ingenier=EDa =09
URUGUAY    =09

Daniel de Alava=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ciencias  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 965 133=09
=46ax (59 82) 965 132  =09



Alejandro Dellepere=09
Comisi=F3n de Tecnolog=EDa Nuclear=09
Lab. Hidrolog=EDa Isot=F3pica e Ing. Ambiental  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 906 919=09
=46ax (59 82) 921 619  =09

Jorge Dotta
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores=09
Servicio Exterior  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 917 122=09
=46ax (59 82) 921 327  =09

Carlos Fern=E1ndez Jauregui=09
UNESCO   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 772 023=09
=46ax (59 82) 772 023  =09

Mario Fontanot=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo   =09
URUGUAY =09
Tel. (59 82) 960 331  =09

Ernesto Forbes=09
SOHMA   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 393 861=09
=46ax (59 82) 399 220  =09

Bernabe Gadea=09
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 960 788=09
=46ax (59 82) 399 220  =09


Silvana Giordano=09
CIID   =09
URUGUAY    =09

Mar=EDa Ofelia Guti=E9rrez=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica-UNCIEP=09
=46acultad de Ciencias  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 416 771=09
=46ax (59 82) 409 973  =09

Hugo Lobato=09
Direcci=F3n Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 409 973=09
=46ax (59 82) 409 973  =09

Jorge L=F3pez Laborde=09
SOHMA   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 393 775=09
=46ax (59 82) 399 220  =09

Gabriela P. Mantero=09
INAPE   =09
URUGUAY
Tel. (59 82) 404 698=09
=46ax (59 82) 413 216=09

Annie Hareau=09
Inciativa del Cono Sur=09
Instituto Manuel Oribe=09
Edil Hugo Prato 2197=09
Montevideo CP 11200=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (598 2) 488 248=09
=46ax (598 2) 487 037

Carlos Orlando =09
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores =09
Montevideo=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (598 2) 901 243=09
=46ax (598 2) 921 327  =09
=09
Enrique Mart=EDn Del Campo=09
UNESCO-ORCYT   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 772 021=09
=46ax (59 82) 772 140  =09

Maria Severina Navarrete=09
Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 32) 965 133=09
=46ax (59 32) 965 132  =09

Hubert Nion=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
Divisi=F3n Evaluaci=F3n de Pesquer=EDas  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 492 777=09
=46ax (59 82) 413 216  =09

Juan Oribe Stemer=09
Comisi=F3n T=E9cnica Mixta de Frente Mar=EDtimo   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 961 973=09
=46ax (59 82) 961 578  =09

Juan Carlos Perdomo=09
SOHMA=09
Divisi=F3n de Meteorolog=EDa Aplicada =09
URUGUAY    =09


Orestes Pereyra=09
SOHMA   =09
URUGUAY    =09

Ismael Piedracueva=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ingenier=EDa =09
URUGUAY    =09

Gustavo Pineiro=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ciencias  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 415 923=09
=46ax (59 82) 409 973  =09

Gabriel Pisciottano
IMFLA Fl
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ingenier=EDa=09
J. Herrera y Reissig 565=09
11300  Montevideo=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09
=46ax (59 82) 715 446=09
cliol@imfial.edu.ay=09

Adriana Jorajuria=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ciencias=09
Trist=E1n Narvaja 1674=09
Montevideo, 11200=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 409 973=09
=46ax (59 82 )409 973  =09



Jos=E9 Luis Genta=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ingenier=EDa INFIA=09
Av. 18 De Julio 1968 2oPiso=09
Montevideo=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09
=46ax (59 82) 715 446=09
Cli01@Imfia.edu.uy =09

Guillermo Ramis=09
Direccion Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa=09
Casilla de Correo 64, Montevideo =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 405 655
=46ax (59 82) 497 391 =09

Hugo Roldos=09
Servicio de Oceanograf=EDa, Hidrograf=EDa y Meteorolog=EDa =09
URUGUAY    =09

Andr=E9s Saizar=09
Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente
Ecosistemas Costeros y Marinos  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 965 133=09
=46ax (59 82) 965 132  =09

Dimitriy Severov=09
SHOMA=09
INAPE/Instituto Nacional de Pesca  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 492 333=09
=46ax (59 82) 492 333  =09

Jos=E9 S.J. Squadroni=09
Universidad Cat=F3lica del Uruguay=09
Asesor de Rectoria  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 472 717=09
=46ax (59 82) 470 323  =09

Ignacio Stolkin=09
Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09
=46acultad de Ciencias=09
Av. 18 De Julio 1968=09
2=B0 Piso Montevideo=09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 413 910=09
=46ax (59 82) 409 973  =09

Diego V=E1zquez Melo=09
Ministerio de Ganader=EDa, Agricultura y Pesca=09
Asesor de Secretar=EDa MGAP  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 392 219=09
=46ax (59 82) 320 74  =09

Carlos Vera
Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo=09
Asesor T=E9cnico/Jefe de Proyecto  =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 986 330=09
=46ax (59 82) 921 619  =09

Ricardo Dupont=09
SOHMA   =09
URUGUAY=09
Tel. (59 82) 393 861=09
=46ax (59 82) 399 220  =09

James L. Buizer=09
NOAA Office of Global Programs=09
1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1225=09
Silver Spring, MD  20910=09
USA=09
Tel. (301) 427 2089=09
=46ax (301) 427 2082=09
buizer@ogp.noaa.gov =09

Lisa Farrow=09
NOAA/OGP=09
1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1225=09
Silver Spring, MD 20910 =09
USA=09
Tel. (301) 427 2089=09
=46ax (301) 427 2073=09
farrow@ogp.noaa.gov =09

Rub=E9n Lara =09
IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09
1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09
Silver Spring, MD 20910
USA
Tel. (301) 589 5747=09
=46ax (301) 589 5711=09
lara@ogp.noaa.gov =09

Raquel S. Gomes
IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09
1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09
Silver Spring, MD 20910
USA
Tel. (301) 589 5747=09
=46ax (301) 589 5711

Sergio A. Navarrete=09
Oregon State University=09
Department of Zoology=09
Corvallis, OR 97331-2914 =09
USA=09
Tel. (503) 737 5359=09
=46ax (503) 737 0501=09
navarres@bcc.orst.edu =09
Guillermo Pablo Podesta=09
Rosentiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science=09
University of Miami RSMAS/MPO=09
4600 Rickenbacker Cswy.=09
Miami, FL 33149=09
USA=09
Tel. (305) 361 4142=09
=46ax (305) 361 4622=09
gui@banana.rsmas.miami.edu (Internet) or
podesta@miami.rsmas.miami.edu =09

Otis Brown=09
University of Miami=09
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science=09
4600 Rickenbacker Causeway=09
Miami, FL  33149=09
USA=09
Tel. (305) 361 4018=09
=46ax (305) 361 4622  =09

Ted Strub =09
College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences
Ocean Admin. Bldg. 104=09
Oregon State University=09
Corvallis, OR 97331
USA=09
Tel. (503) 737 3015=09
=46ax (503) 737 2064=09
pts@osuvax.oce.orst.edu =09

Gene Rosenberg=09
National Museum of Natural History=09
Division of Botany  NHB 166=09
10th & Constitution Ave., NW=09
Washington, D.C. 20560=09
USA=09
Tel. (202) 483 7485=09
=46ax (202) 786 2563  =09
Lino Gallo=09
Technology Enterprises=09
5514 Alma Lane, Suite 400=09
Springfield, VA 22151=09
USA=09
Tel. (703) 537 0743=09
=46ax (703) 642 5595  =09

Stephen V. Smith=09
University of Hawaii=09
Department of Oceanography=09
1000 Pope Road MSB 307=09
Honolulu, HI  96822=09
USA =09
Tel. (808) 956 6751  =09

Jeff McQueen=09
NOAA/ARL SSMC III, Rm.# 3464=09
1325 East-West Hwy.=09
Silver Spring, MD 20910=09
USA=09
Tel. (301) 713 0295=09
=46ax (301) 713 0119  =09

Richard Valigura=09
NOAA/ARL SSMC III, Rm 3229=09
1315 East-West Hwy.=09
Silver Spring, MD. 20910=09
USA=09
Tel. (301) 713 0295=09
=46ax (301) 713 0119=09
rich@arlrisc.ssmc.noaa.gov=09

Larry Atkinson=09
Old Dominion University=09
Oceanography Department=09
CCPO Crattenoton Norfolk, Virginia 23529=09
USA=09
Tel. (804) 683 4926=09
=46ax (804) 683 5550=09
atkinson@ccpo.odu.edu=09

Roy Jenne=09
NCAR P.O. Box 3000
Boulder, CO  80303 =09
USA=09
Tel. (303) 497 1215=09
=46ax (303) 497 1137=09
Jenne@ncar.ucar.edu =09

Alberto Lonardi=09
Organizacion de Estados Americanos=09
Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa=09
OAS 1889 F. St., NW=09
Washington, D.C.  20006=09
USA
Tel. (202) 458 3339=09
=46ax (202) 458 3167  =09

Robert Nicholls=09
University of Maryland=09
Department of Coastal Research=09
College Park, MD  20740 =09
USA=09
Tel. (301) 405 4060=09
=46ax (301) 314 9299=09
rn23@umail.umd.edu =09