Personnel Accountability System Technology Assessment*
PERSONNEL ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT 
United States Fire Administration Federal Emergency Management Agency 
This publication was produced under contract EME-96-CO-0587 for the U. S. Fire 
Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency by IOCAD Engineering 
Services, Inc. Any information, findings, conclusions, or recommendations 
expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the 
Federal Emergency Management Agency, the U. S. Fire Administration or IOCAD 
Engineering Services, Inc.
3 
PERSONNEL ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Chapter I: Introduction 5 
Chapter II: Personnel Accountability Systems Throughout 
the United States 7 
Chapter III: Manual PAS Technologies 11 
Chapter IV: Electronic Assisted PAS Technologies 17 
Chapter V: Radio Frequency Technologies 23 
Chapter VI: Personal Alert Safety System Devices 33 
Chapter VII: Electronic Status Monitors 39 
Chapter VIII: Accountability Aids/ Safety Aids 45 
Chapter IX: Communications 53 
Chapter X: Accountability for Water Rescue Operations 63 
Appendix A: IAFF/ IAFC Guidance on the OSHA 2-In/ 2-Out Policy 67 
Appendix B: Examples of Personnel Accountability Systems Throughout the United 
States 75 
4 
5 
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 
In recent years the fire service has focused considerable and increasing 
attention on the issue of personnel accountability. Although many fire and 
rescue agencies are now acknowledging the necessity of having a way to track and 
account for their personnel, it is difficult and confusing for some to choose 
the system and equipment best for them because of the variety of options 
available.
Essentially, personnel accountability is an effort to improve the safety of 
emergency responders by keeping track of their locations and assignments when 
operating at the scene of an incident. Accountability can be maintained in many 
different ways. However, irrespective of the type of personnel accountability 
system (PAS) implemented, the goals are generally similar.
A properly implemented PAS will help to ensure that the incident command staff 
knows the exact number and identity of personnel working at an incident, their 
approximate locations, and whether they are in distress. In some form or 
another, regardless of size or nature, personnel account-ability is a part of 
every incident to which fire and rescue personnel may respond. Failure to 
maintain personnel accountability can, and does, have tragic results. In the 
event that an emergency responder is injured or otherwise incapacitated on the 
scene of an emergency, a properly functioning PAS should assist rescuers to 
locate the personnel in trouble and get them to safety quickly.
Structure of This Manual 
The intent of this manual is to provide an introduction to and explanation of 
the range of technologies that are designed for or that may be applicable to 
personnel accountability systems. The manual is presented as follows:
 Chapter II provides examples of personnel accountability systems used in 
various departments throughout the United States. Examples have been chosen from 
departments of different sizes and structures in an attempt to show the great 
variety of personnel accountability systems used in the field by actual fire and 
emergency medical services agencies. 
 Chapter III describes basic, manual personnel accountability technologies and 
how they can be employed in a PAS. 
 Chapter IV describes automated personnel accountability technologies and their 
uses in a PAS. 
 Chapter V describes the application of radio frequency technologies to 
personnel accountability. 
 Chapter VI describes Personal Alert Safety Systems (PASS) devices and their 
use in a PAS. 
 Chapter VII describes technologies developed in other fields, such as the 
military, that may have uses in a PAS. 
 Chapter VIII describes other technologies that can be used to increase 
visibility, safety, and accountability on the scenes of emergencies. 
 Chapter IX describes some of the different communications systems available 
for use in emergency service agencies and their application in the PAS setting. 
6 
 Chapter X discusses some of the technological solutions to accountability 
problems specific to operations in and around water. 
 Appendix A is a reprint of the joint IAFF/ IAFC guidance on the OSHA "2-in/ 2-
out" policy. 
 Appendix B is a compilation of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for PAS 
from fire depart-ments. 
Some Qualifying Comments 
This manual seeks to detail the various technologies that are available (and in 
development) that a fire, rescue or EMS department could use to implement and 
operate a PAS. The manual is not intended as a definitive guide to establishing 
a PAS program in a department. Not all of the technologies described in this 
manual have been developed specifically for use in a PAS. Some are being used in 
other fields, such as law enforcement or the military, and others are still in 
the research and development stage. Nonetheless, discussion of these 
transferable and pending technologies may provide readers with ideas as to how 
to improve an existing PAS or implement a new one.
Further, the estimated costs and cost ranges identified in the manual for 
various devices, equipment and systems does not include any costs for personnel 
or training. Some of the systems require that an officer at an emergency 
incident be assigned as the Personnel Accountability Officer; the costs 
associated with this additional person are not included in the manual. 
Similarly, nearly all equipment and systems mentioned in this manual require 
that personnel receive training in order to make the equipment/ system 
effective; the costs associated with this training are not included in the 
manual.
Finally, although this manual is an assessment of present and future PAS 
technologies, it must be recognized that no technology alone can ensure the 
safety and accountability of emergency responders. Rather personnel 
accountability technology must be employed as a part of an overall system 
designed and dedicated to ensuring the safety of all personnel operating at the 
scene of emergency incidents. No PAS can outperform a firefighter that does not 
want to be a part of it. Firefighters must be educated about the benefits of a 
PAS so that they understand and participate in it. PAS systems must be easy to 
operate and become a part of everyday operations. Saving the PAS for a large 
scale incident means firefighters will be unfamiliar with its use when the fight 
is on.
7 
CHAPTER II - PERSONNEL ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEMS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES 
Personnel accountability systems vary from state to state and, in some places, 
from department to department. The system used depends on a variety of factors - 
the size of the department, number of personnel, call volume, etc. Regardless, 
it is important to note that SOPs can only work when they are understood and 
followed - merely implementing them as policy is not enough. Personnel must be 
trained in how to use the particular PAS chosen by a department. The following 
examples and the SOPs contained in Appendix B are meant to be guides for 
emergency response agencies in the implementation of a PAS. They are in no way 
an entirely comprehensive list - there are many other implementation options 
available that are not listed here.
Large Departments 
Larger departments across the country are using a variety of PAS in their daily 
operations. Some are experimenting with more technologically advanced 
accountability systems. Newer technologies, such as bar-coding and RFID tags, 
which will be discussed later in this manual, may be found in larger departments 
with high call volumes.
Chicago Fire Department, Chicago, Illinois 
The Chicago Fire Department is an urban department with 100 stations and close 
to 5,000 uniformed personnel. Included in its PAS is the mandatory use of 
Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) devices - a policy in effect since December 
1995. That policy is included in Appendix B. Firefighters are required to be 
equipped with a working PASS device and must activate the devices on the scenes 
of emergencies. Also, the CFD is working with NASA to develop new technologies 
in personnel location and tracking using hydrogen/ carbon monoxide imaging. This 
technology has great potential for use in locating downed firefighters and mass 
casualty situations, but it is not in a proto-type stage at present. Research 
and development of this technology is continuing, and should it ever become 
operational might be of real use to the fire service.
Seattle Fire Department, Seattle, Washington 
The Seattle Fire Department, located in the Pacific Northwest, is composed of 
approximately 1,000 personnel and 34 stations. The Seattle Fire Department uses 
a "passport" system, consisting of two personal identification tags per person. 
One of these tags is placed on the company passport, a small board that 
accommodates a tag for each crew member. When an incident occurs, the passport 
is left with a designated individual as the company enters a hazardous area and 
is retrieved as the company exits. A similar system exists at the Command Post 
in order to aid Incident Commanders in maintaining an overall perspective of the 
personnel on scene and their assignments. In addition, each firefighter is 
supplied with a portable radio equipped with an emergency button, which can be 
acti-
8 
vated when in distress. 
Small Departments 
Many smaller volunteer fire departments use manual personnel accountability 
systems to track their personnel at the scene of working incidents. Each 
firefighter is assigned a tag/ clip that attaches/ clips onto a central 
collection ring. These rings are then collected and brought to the incident 
command post. The incident commander is then able to ascertain who is assigned 
to a piece of apparatus and what their assignments are. Also common are 
passport-type systems, similar to that in use by the Seattle FD. These systems 
have the potential to become problematic during incidents with mutual aid 
response from other departments or jurisdictions. Still other departments may 
use a different PAS or none at all, making it difficult to maintain 
accountability for all personnel at an incident.
In some cases, smaller departments, both career and volunteer, have experimented 
with more technologically advanced PAS systems. Small departments, in many 
instances, are more agile and flexible to accommodate changes and to implement 
new programs, and may have the financial and other resources to make more 
sophisticated PAS a reality within their agencies.
Canandaigua Fire Department, New York 
The Canandaigua Fire Department is a combination career/ volunteer department in 
upper New York State. They run approximately 1,500 calls per year. Nametags are 
issued to each firefighter and are attached to their turnout coats. At the scene 
of a working incident, each firefighter clips his/ her tag to the collection 
ring of the first-arriving apparatus. When taking an SCBA, each responder takes 
the ring assigned to that particular SCBA and attaches it to his/ her personal 
ring. At the end of an incident each firefighter collects his/ her nametag from 
the ring and reattaches it to his/ her turnout coat. Officers are responsible 
for knowing who is under their command and when/ where responders enter a 
structure. They are also responsible for informing the incident command staff of 
this informa-tion. Individual firefighters are responsible for keeping their 
officers informed as to their exact assignments and locations each time they 
enter a structure. Further, each team entering a structure is given a 
designation, an assignment, and a portable radio. 
Versailles Fire-Rescue, Versailles, Kentucky 
Located eight miles west of Lexington, this department is composed of 35 paid-
on-call members and one full-time chief. They run approximately 300 calls per 
year. Each firefighter and officer has a 2" by 4" laminated ID tag that hangs 
from the back of his/ her helmet at the station. Each tag contains the owner's 
photo, name, unit number, rank, station, apparatus assignment, blood type, 
allergies, medi-
9 
cations, and emergency contacts. On fire calls, personnel attach their tags to a 
central collection ring in the apparatus, which is collected by the officer and 
brought to the incident command post or collected by the safety officer. The 
incident commander has a dry-erase board where he/ she can track the personnel 
and apparatus operating on the scene of an incident. (Note: Dry-erase boards 
must be shielded from rain or precipitation to protect recorded information.)
10 
11 
CHAPTER III - MANUAL PAS TECHNOLOGIES 
Manual accountability systems involve the use of paper, tracking boards, or 
other devices, and are operated by one or more persons. They tend to be 
uncomplicated and not very dependent on technology. They require effective 
communication and adherence to accountability and communications procedures. As 
with any Personnel Accountability System (PAS), manual accountability systems 
can be inaccurate if personnel enter and exit the scene at non-designated 
locations. Further, manual accountability systems have no way of tracking 
personnel once they are beyond the entry/ egress checkpoints and have entered 
the scene, or if they use the PAS inappropriately or incorrectly.
Manual systems are technologically unsophisticated, and their simplicity often 
makes them the easiest to implement and most effective of the various PAS 
options. They tend to be low maintenance, easy to use, portable, durable, and 
effective.
These systems require that each person wear a tag or other device that 
identifies him/ her as well as the unit to which he/ she is assigned. These 
devices can be transferred to a PAS officer, and usually are kept near the 
entrance to a structure or scene, or with the apparatus to which a person is 
assigned.
Manual accountability systems show who is on-scene or inside a structure, and 
possibly even where, broadly speaking, that person is located. For example, a 
manual PAS may show that someone is inside a certain building, attending to or 
operating a piece of equipment, at the command center, or in the rest/ 
rehabilitation sector.
More sophisticated versions include portable electronic devices that can monitor 
how long teams have been on a scene, how long their self-contained breathing 
apparatus (SCBAs) have been active, and other pertinent information. These types 
of devices depend on two-way communications between teams and the control 
center.
Radio Rollcall 
Although not a "device," a radio rollcall is an effective way of tracking 
personnel. It requires that each person, or each small group of people, has a 
radio. It further requires the PAS officer to have a radio capable of 
communicating with units in the field, and that he/ she can monitor more than 
one transmission at a time should an emergency occur. Finally, field personnel 
must be attentive to their radios so they know when a radio rollcall is 
occurring.
A simple rollcall can be executed, in which the PAS officer questions each 
person or group operating at the scene. In return, each person or group answers 
with its location, status, condition, and any other information required or 
relevant to the situation. Radios can be equipped with an
12 
emergency tone that takes priority over other broadcasts and transmits on more 
than one frequency. The radio itself also may make an audible alarm, which might 
make it more likely that a firefighter in distress will be located.
Training - In order for a radio rollcall system to work, all personnel must be 
familiar with proper and effective radio procedures and how the equipment 
functions. Strict communication discipline is essential with a radio rollcall 
system.
Costs - Radio rollcall systems can be expensive because each person or unit must 
have a portable radio. For departments that have purchased a sufficient number 
of radios already, the cost of implementing a radio rollcall accountability 
system is minimal.
Future Trends - Some departments likely will shift away from radio rollcall 
systems as the price of new PAS technologies drop below the cost of providing 
the additional needed radios. This should not be construed as a decrease in the 
importance of individual radios for tactical operations and firefighter 
communications.
Clipboard and Paper 
This manual PAS technology entails someone standing by the entrance/ exit of a 
scene and physically recording who enters/ exits that particular area or scene, 
and how long each person stayed. Use of a clipboard and paper PAS requires good 
communication between the various PAS stations and the PAS officer.
One drawback to this type of system is that its use in inclement weather is 
problematic. Normal paper doesn't hold up well when wet, and pens and pencils do 
not write well on wet surfaces. A potential solution is to use a china marker 
(or other wax-based marker) in place of a pen and treated paper or a plastic 
board instead of regular paper.
Training - Minimal training is required for this system. Emergency personnel 
must be well disciplined to ensure they check in and out at a given PAS station. 
Confusion can occur when there are multiple PAS stations.
Costs - This is by far the least expensive means of implementing a PAS. The 
necessary items are probably already on hand, but if not, they can be obtained 
for under $25 for most departments.
Future Trends - Some departments have shifted away from clipboard and paper 
systems because of the problems inherent in coordinating the information from 
multiple PAS stations.
13 
White Board 
A white board (i. e., board and a dry-erase marker) functions very much like a 
clipboard and paper PAS; however, some of the properties of white boards make 
them better suited to PAS usage than clipboard and paper. Typically, these 
systems involve drawing a map of the scene indicating the locations of apparatus 
and sectors (such as command and rehabilitation), as well as personnel 
assignments. Some boards use small icons that are taped or otherwise attached to 
locate resources. Some boards may be magnetic, allowing icons for units and 
people to be moved and reassigned easily when necessary.
As with the standard clipboard and paper system, a drawback to using a white 
board is that its use in inclement weather can be problematic since information 
written with a white board marker will run if it gets wet. A potential solution 
is to use a china marker (or other wax-based marker) in place of a white board 
marker and a solvent to erase the markings. This may require testing the 
combination of the white board marker, grease pen, and solvent to ensure that 
they write and erase adequately.
As with other manual accountability systems, a white board PAS requires good 
communications to report where personnel are accurately and in a timely fashion.
Training - Some proficiency in the Incident Command System (ICS) may be helpful, 
but otherwise, no other significant training is needed.
Costs-While white board systems cost more than clipboard and paper, they are, 
nonetheless, quite inexpensive. Magnetic white boards and icons can add to the 
cost of a basic system. Expenditures would likely be under $100 for a typical 
department.
Future Trends - Similar to those of clipboard and paper. 
14 
Ring-Based 
A ring-based PAS uses a ring that can be attached to a hook or other device, and 
has a means of identifying the bearer (i. e., it contains the individual's name 
and unit assignment or department/ station). It is carried by a responder and 
handed over to the PAS officer at a PAS station. Upon exiting the hazardous 
area, the individual will receive his/ her ring from the PAS officer. Some 
departments use a duplicate set of rings for each piece of apparatus. Upon 
descending from the apparatus, each member of the crew hands his/ her ring to 
the apparatus operator or places the ring in/ on a designated collection point. 
1
Training - Minimal training is required to ensure that all responders know how 
the system operates, and what they have to do with their PAS rings.
Costs - A complete ring-based PAS for 150 responders and 12 pieces of apparatus 
can be obtained for about $750.
Future Trends - This is a low-tech, highly regarded technique for performing 
personnel accountability. For depart-ments unable to purchase high-technology 
PAS solutions, ring-based systems are a good solution. Because they represent a 
simple and moderately priced answer to PAS needs, their use likely will continue 
in the future.
Hook-and-Pile 
Hook-and-pile (commonly referred to as Velcro ) systems are very similar to 
ring-based ones. The primary dif-ference is in the mechanism used to attach the 
responder information. A hook-and-pile system involves two pieces of fabric- one 
with small "hooks" and the other with small "piles" or loops. When pressed 
together, the two pieces of fabric attach securely but can be pulled apart 
relatively easily. The fabric with the hooks is attached to the underside of an 
identifying device. Some systems use helmet shields as the identifiers while 
others use name patches from a uniform or turnout coat. When a firefighter goes 
through a PAS station, the helmet shield or name patch is removed and attached 
to a pile-covered status board. When the responder exits the hazardous area, the 
helmet shield or name patch is removed from the status board and reattached to 
the responder's helmet or turnout coat.
15 
This is a low-tech, highly regarded solution for personnel accountability. For 
departments unable to purchase high-technology PAS solutions, hook-and-pile 
systems are a reliable option.
Training - Minimal training is required. Proper training will ensure that all 
responders know how the system operates and what they have to do with their 
identifiers.
Costs - This system is usually purchased as an option on helmets and generally 
adds between $15 and $20 to the price of the helmet.
Future Trends - Because hook-and-pile systems represent a simple and moderately 
priced answer to PAS needs their use likely will continue or grow in the future.
Card-Punch Technology 
Card-punch technology, similar to time-keeping systems used in private industry, 
is used by the Federal government on many large wildland fires. Cards indicating 
crew names operating at an incident are stored in a slotted carrier, which is 
maintained at the Command Post (CP). As crews arrive they turn in their cards to 
a PAS officer and collect them as they leave.
Accountability on major wildland fires differs widely from that on most 
municipal fire/ res-cue incidents. The wildland system tracks the assignment of 
crews, made up of twenty or more people, rather than individuals. Crew leaders 
and their subordinates are responsible for the individu-als they oversee. As a 
result, it is extremely difficult to locate an individual firefighter without 
knowing that firefighter's crew assignment. Further, IC's may not know the 
location of all of the crews under their command, as there may be thousands of 
people involved in the incident. This combination of factors makes individual 
accountability on wildland fires extremely difficult and requires cooperation 
from every level - from the IC to each of the firefighters on the fireline. The 
same cooperation is required at the municipal level.
Fire and rescue departments at the municipal level could still use a card-punch 
type of system to account for personnel. Cards could be issued to crews or to 
individuals. Cards issued to individuals could contain information such as fire 
department identification number, training level, pertinent medical history, 
emergency contact information, etc. As responders enter the scene, they would 
turn in their cards to the PAS officer, who then could maintain the cards in a 
way that could track an individual's current location and assignment.
Departments that choose to use this system will have to adapt it so that changes 
can be made as an individual's or crew's emergency incident status changes. 
Departments also may wish to consider laminating the cards to allow for 
prolonged use.
16 
Training - Training for this system consists mostly of basic accountability 
procedures. The designated accountability officer would require slightly more 
training to allow for the effective use of the system.
Costs - Costs for a card-punch accountability system should be minimal. A small-
to mid-sized department of 100 personnel should be able to implement this system 
for between $300 and $500.
Future Trends - As with other manual accountability systems, the future of card-
punch technology most likely will not hold significant change. Card-punch 
technology may, however, merge with other technologies to improve its 
information storage capacity. Card punches of the future may include bar codes 
or even radio frequency transmission capability. Most likely, however, the card-
punch system of the future will be very similar to the systems used at present.
Endnotes 
1 In one department studied, responders place their rings over the apparatus' 
radio antenna. In another department, a central ring was placed in the front 
seat of the apparatus, between the driver and officer's seats, and each rescuer 
attached his/ her tag to the ring. The key is having one central location on 
each piece of apparatus where the tags are to be hung.
17 
CHAPTER IV - ELECTRONIC ASSISTED PAS TECHNOLOGIES 
Electronic-assisted accountability systems combine elements of manual 
accountability systems with electronic technology to aid the Command Staff in 
tracking personnel at an incident. Some electronic technologies are rather 
basic, while other technologies can perform a wide range of person-nel status 
and location tracking functions. Several of the following technologies are in 
use already by fire departments, while others are not, but all of them offer the 
potential to assist with accountability measures in the future.
In all cases, an underlying premise of any electronic-assisted accountability 
system is that it aids, but does not eliminate the need for, a strict 
accountability policy. Fire departments must have accountability procedures that 
all personnel must follow, or even an advanced electronic system will not be 
able to monitor the status and location of personnel.
Bar-Code Technologies 
Basic bar-coding technology, commonly found in many retail checkout lanes, uses 
a series of differently shaped rectangular bar code units in varying sequences 
to store in-formation which can be read by a laser scanning device. Laser 
scanners can be units that must physically touch a bar code, or point-and-shoot 
devices that can scan bar codes from up to a foot away. They emit a low-power 
laser beam that reflects off a bar code into a mirror stored in the unit, which 
transmits the results of the scan to a processing and display area. Computer 
software associated with a bar-coding system then rapidly interprets the subtle 
patterns and translates the information stored in the bars into an easily 
understood format, which then can be displayed on a monitor.
Technological innovations in bar coding technology have expanded the amount of 
information bar codes contain and the way they are read by scanners. First-
generation bar codes, also known as one-dimensional bar codes, can only store 
information on the horizontal axis. The amount of information that one-
dimensional bar codes can store is limited by having only one factor that 
changes - the thickness of each bar. Each individual bar in a one-dimensional 
bar-code sequence is a solid rectangle of a different thickness than each of the 
bars around it. Lasers scanning the coded information read the information from 
side to side, noting the changing thickness of the bars. Since each one-
dimensional bar is a uniform shape, the thin laser can scan the length of the 
sequence at any given height, either by physically touching or scanning from a 
distance.
18 
Two-dimensional bar codes, the next generation of bar codes, can store much more 
information than one-dimensional bar codes because they use both a horizontal 
and vertical component in the sequence. Two-dimensional bar codes do not have a 
uniform shape from top to bottom: the height of each bar changes along its 
vertical axis. A typical two-dimensional bar code appears to have a solid border 
enclosing a series of grainy lines. By incorporating a vertical component, two-
dimensional bar codes can store up to 1,850 characters per bar code unit; 
roughly 100 times more information than one-dimensional bar codes. Because of 
the amount of data they can store, two-dimensional bar codes have been likened 
to portable databases. Two-dimensional bar codes require a special scanner that 
scans the entire bar code sequence, not just a cross-section, to process all the 
stored information.
Accountability Applications 
Bar coding is not a personnel accountability system in and of itself. Bar-code-
based accountability systems do, however, offer fire departments a computer-
assisted means to track personnel at emergency incidents. Current bar-code-based 
personnel accountability systems are designed to work within the ICS, and 
function similarly to certain manual systems; however they can process, store, 
and display a much greater amount of information.
Some bar code-based accountability systems outfit responders with several bar 
code tags that are worn on various parts of the firefighter's protective 
equipment for safety reasons. This may seem redundant, but it is possible that 
one of the tags may be lost during duty. These tags store varying degrees of 
information, depending on whether they are part of a one or two-dimensional 
system. The information contained in the bar codes is customized by each agency 
to suit its particular needs. For example, a fire department using a two-
dimensional system might include a responder's name, training level, pertinent 
medical history, and emergency contact information. Some depart-ments also issue 
laminated photo identification cards with bar codes for use in non-emergency 
situations.
The bar codes themselves also can build redundancy into the coding sequences, as 
some systems can read and interpret the information with only 50 percent of the 
bar code intact. This means that even if a bar code is dirty or partially 
destroyed, it is still possible to access all of the data stored in that bar 
code.
Some commercially available bar-code-based personnel accountability software can 
track personnel who have been logged into the system, their training levels, how 
long they have been on site, and their SCBA status. Security safeguards can 
restrict the types of information that scanners can decipher. For example, 
access to a firefighter's selected medical information could be restricted to 
include only authorized scanners.
19 
Personnel Accountability Using a Bar-Code System 
When responders arrive at an incident, they must report to the system scanner 
location, which usually operates at the Command Post or Staging sector, and have 
their individual tags scanned into the system. When the resource is deployed, 
the PAS officer links the resource with an assignment by scanning the 
appropriate assignment bar code created to represent common ICS terms and 
typical emergency control activities. This eliminates the need to write out or 
type this information. Often this is done using a preset bar code sheet. Another 
option is to place bar codes on magnets that can be arranged on a white board or 
another suitable display device.
Bar-code systems also require some kind of printer to create bar code sheets and 
tags. Since some mutual-aid companies may not have bar-coded PAS tags, spare 
"assignable" tags should be created and kept at the CP or with the PAS officer 
so that personnel from assisting departments can be included in the 
accountability system. In addition, some manufacturers recommend keeping a 
manual tag board to serve as a backup to the computer system.
An individual's status can be updated as the incident progresses either by re-
scanning the PAS tag and the assignment code prior to reassignment or simply by 
using the computer to change the individual's assignment and location. Since 
most tracking software notes the time associated with each data entry, the 
system can track total time elapsed on many activities, including the total time 
a responder has been using an SCBA or has been recuperating in the rest/ 
rehabilitation area.
The system can be programmed to sound an alarm if a responder is in danger of 
running low on air or has been operating on the scene for too long without 
visiting the rest/ rehabilitation sector. The ability of some systems to be 
programmed to sound alarms for low air and other safety-related issues is an 
important asset to the IC.
Using bar-code technology as a component in a well-disciplined personnel 
accountability system offers certain benefits. Bar-code systems increase 
efficiency by reducing the need to rely totally on accountability tags, display 
boards, and manually moving unit markers, or symbols around a CP. Although these 
manual systems should be used as a backup, the bar-code system serves as the 
primary personnel tracking system. Depending on the software package used, IC's 
are able to print out reports of the entered information much more quickly than 
if the information had to be compiled manually. Generating computer reports 
saves time and eliminates some of the errors associated with doing the same job 
by hand. Bar-code-based PASs typically do not have a limit on the number of
20 
personnel or assets they can track. 
There are, however, certain limitations associated with bar-code systems. Most 
importantly, bar coding itself does not automatically track personnel at 
emergency incidents - it merely facilitates data entry for tracking systems. To 
function effectively, personnel trained in proper accountability procedures must 
use bar-code-based PASs in a disciplined manner. Finally, some bar-code systems 
require that firefighters be scanned in at one central location prior to 
receiving their assignment. While this may be an important aspect of personnel 
accountability, in some circumstances it might limit emergency operations.
Training - Overall, learning to operate bar-code-based systems is not difficult. 
With minimal training, a department with previous PAS experience could implement 
a bar-code system rapidly. For agencies without previous accountability 
experience, a bar-code-based PAS would be easy to learn; however, such 
departments would benefit from having basic accountability training prior to 
implementation.
Cost - Bar-code systems cost more than homemade or commercially available manual 
ac-countability systems. Basic bar-code systems can be obtained for less than 
$5,000, while more expensive systems sell for under $10,000.
Future Trends - Future bar-code-based accountability systems will address some 
of the limitations mentioned above by introducing advanced systems that merge 
bar-code scanning technology together with radio-frequency technology. Prototype 
systems just now entering the market have multiple bar-code scanners that 
operate similarly to existing systems, but have the ability to communicate with 
each other via radio. This radio-linked network will ensure that changes made at 
one location are displayed automatically throughout the entire network. This 
will create the ability to establish multiple accountability sectors while 
maintaining the integrity of the overall accountability database. This should 
allow greater flexibility and increased accountability, since individuals will 
have more opportunities to be scanned into the system.
Technology developments in data compression techniques are expanding the amount 
of data stored in bar codes, with some recent compression innovations claiming 
the ability to compress up to 29,000 characters of information. Based on current 
trends and fire service needs, bar-code-based PAS of the future most likely will 
be smaller and able to contain more data.
Radar Technology 
Radar technology that can detect a person breathing on the other side of a door 
or wall has been in existence since 1989. It is a modification of ground-
penetrating radar. Using Ultra Wide
21 
Band (UWB) and UWB impulse technology, the radar can "see" people breathing by 
measuring changes in a person's cross section. The technology is similar to the 
tomography technology used in Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) scans. (The 
technology is also able to detect weakening structural components of a building, 
indicating where a potential collapse is likely to occur.) Technology available 
today is ten times as sensitive as what was available in 1989. This increased 
sensi-tivity makes it likely that today's radar is sensitive enough to even 
detect a person's heartbeat. At this time this technology has not yet been 
implemented, however, a ten-fold increase in sensitivity should not be required 
to differentiate between heartbeats and respirations.
The component size of the radar varies. While the transmitter and receiver used 
for searching large structures is the size of a stereo speaker, the transmitter 
and receiver for searching individual floor levels is about the size of a 
business card. Both are programmed to conduct a wide search or focus on a 
specific area. Also, both use a search pattern that divides areas into cubes, 
six inches on each side. Using pulse technology, and searching in six-inch 
cubes, a large area can be searched in as little as ten seconds.
A limitation of the technology is that it cannot penetrate solid metal areas. A 
structure that is surrounded by a metallic cage would be impenetrable to radar. 
However, if there are openings within the metal framework- windows, doors, 
nonmetal areas - the beams can be aimed into these openings. Reinforced concrete 
construction (" rebar") is penetrable.
Costs - Depending on the manufacturer, model, and option chosen, departments 
should expect to spend several thousand dollars.
Training - Moderate training would be required to operate the device. Personnel 
might also require specialized training in search and rescue techniques.
Future Trends - This technology, in conjunction with an advanced software 
package that could plot data received on a simple screen or grid, would have 
numerous applications to the fire service. It would allow a rapid search of a 
structure by a minimum number of personnel exposed to minimal danger, and could 
display the locations of any victims found. It could track firefighters' 
movements through structures, allowing the IC to locate personnel at all times. 
Also, Urban Search and Rescue (US& R) teams might be able to locate victims 
beneath the rubble either by their heart-beats or breathing patterns.
Trapped Miner Locating System 
The U. S. Bureau of Mines has developed the Trapped Miner Locating System 
(TMLS), a technology that uses a series of "geophones" to listen for tapping 
noises to locate trapped miners
22 
following a mine accident. A large unit located on the ground above the mine can 
sense noises resonating from as far as 1,500 feet below the surface.
Accountability Applications 
This technology is not designed for personnel accountability; however, it is 
likely that uses for it could be found within a PAS. For example, this device 
could assist IC's with accountability in below-grade operations. However, the 
TMLS does have its drawbacks. The system is extremely large and must be mounted 
on a tractor-trailer. Also, as with any listening device, the search area must 
be silent for the technology to work - an unlikely occurrence on most search and 
rescue incidents.
Costs - The TMLS technology is not yet available commercially, and it would be 
extremely costly to develop into a commercial application.
Training - Emergency response personnel need to be trained how to operate and 
apply the TMLS. The length of training required is unclear at this point.
Future Trends - Based on the reasons listed previously, the system appears 
impractical for fire and rescue use at the present time; however, if some of the 
system's drawbacks were to be corrected, it is possible that TMLS technology 
could be adapted for emergency services use.
23 
CHAPTER V - RADIO FREQUENCY TECHNOLOGIES 
Several accountability programs use radio-frequency technology to track 
emergency responder location and status at an incident. Current radio systems 
can assist accountability systems but cannot automatically track personnel. 
Recent radio frequency innovations offer the potential to improve accountability 
and to automate certain aspects of personnel location and status monitoring.
Radio-Transmission-Based Accountability Systems 
Radio-transmission-based accountability systems require incident command 
personnel to monitor radio transmissions to update a department's manual 
accountability system. A PAS officer listens to the radio for various crew 
assignments and locations and then updates whatever manual system (white board, 
magnetic board, etc.) the department uses. Radio-transmission-based systems 
assume that the CP will be able to monitor and hear all radio transmissions at 
an incident.
The basic components of this type of system are portable radios and some form of 
manual accountability system. If a department chooses to track personnel at the 
crew level, then each crew operating at an incident must have a portable radio. 
Departments might even consider issuing portables to individual rescuers. 
However, the system does require that all individuals have easy access to a 
portable radio. One benefit of this type of system is that departments are free 
to choose among various manual accountability systems.
Radio-transmission-based PASs need not rely only on manual tracking components. 
One manufacturer offers a computer system that the PAS officer can use to update 
crew locations and activities quickly. The system is programmed to track various 
department apparatus crews and their potential fireground assignments. It is not 
designed to track individual firefighters. To use it, a PAS officer listens to 
radio transmissions and uses the computer to select, for example, "Engine 10 
per-forming a primary search on the first floor." The computer system tracks the 
amount of time a crew has been performing a particular function and also has a 
countdown clock to monitor SCBA airtime. If a crew exceeds the allotted SCBA 
time, an alarm will sound. This option helps the IC to see which crews are in 
need of relief. The computer system can be expanded to meet a department's 
needs.
Accountability Applications 
Radio-transmission-based accountability systems are not automatic systems. They 
require that someone monitor all radio traffic and update resource statuses 
accordingly.
Although radio-transmission systems can be effective accountability systems, 
they do have several disadvantages. A department that relies on this system is 
forced to monitor radio transmissions closely. This requires that departments 
have reliable radio equipment and effective radio communications procedures, 
both of which can increase radio efficiency and allow ICs to quickly identify
24 
calls for help. If some radio transmissions are not heard, then the system will 
not work properly. Accountability officers also must update their manual or 
computer-assisted accountability systems continuously in order to reflect the 
most current locations and assignments of crews on the fireground.
Training - Radio-transmission-based accountability systems do not require 
extensive train-ing. Many fire departments are familiar with the use of portable 
radios and radio transmission technology. Departments with pre-existing manual 
accountability systems frequently can incorporate aspects of radio-transmission-
based accountability systems into their existing systems. Fire or rescue 
departments unfamiliar with accountability procedures would require 
accountability training. Departments that do not use established radio 
procedures would most likely have to develop and learn more formal radio 
communications procedures.
Cost - Radio-transmission-based systems vary in cost. The primary cost involved 
in this type of PAS is the purchase of the radio communication equipment. 
Departments with existing radio equipment would not necessarily be required to 
update their units, as long as their systems remain reliable. The costs of a 
radio-transmission-based accountability system also depend on the method chosen. 
If a department opts to use a computer to track the information transmitted, it 
can expect to pay between $1,000 and $2,500 to acquire the hardware and software 
needed. Overall, however, these types of electronic-assisted accountability 
systems are generally an inexpensive way to account for personnel. Since many 
departments already have portable radios, adapting an existing manual system to 
a radio-based protocol could offer increased accountability benefits at 
relatively little cost.
Future Trends - As more departments acquire portable radios, the likelihood of 
using this type of system will increase.
Radio-Frequency Identification Accountability Systems 
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology, already used for many security 
entry control systems, uses radio-transmitting "interrogators" to send out radio 
waves to preprogrammed receiver computer chips which "respond" to the radio 
query with another radio signal. Interrogators and receivers only recognize 
specific frequencies. If the frequency is not correct, the receiver or 
interrogator will not recognize it. The signals transmitted by receivers can be 
programmed to include information such as name, rank, training level, etc.
RFID interrogators and receivers have become smaller over the past several 
years. Cur-rently, RFID receivers are available as small portable devices, many 
the size of a credit card. As the size of the receiver decreases, however, it 
must be placed closer to the interrogator in order for the receiver's response 
signal to reach the interrogator. The small size of receivers makes it necessary 
to have it fairly close (less than one foot) to the interrogator in order for 
the receiver's radio signal to reach the interrogator. Current fixed-facility 
interrogators can be the size of shoeboxes or smaller.
25 
Portable interrogators also have decreased in size and typically are stereo 
speaker-size or smaller. As with other radio technology, RFID systems are prone 
to interference from such things as building construction, electrical sources, 
and other radio systems. Typical urban construction, including some modern 
homes, which uses a large amount of radio-interfering materials can limit the 
performance of RFID technology.
To combat potential radio interference and to ensure that the interrogator and 
receiver receive each other's signals, it can be necessary for departments to 
set up multiple interrogator units at large or complex incidents. By setting up 
several units at the corners of a building (in order to triangulate the radio 
signals and optimize the coverage area) departments can ensure that RFID systems 
will overcome interference. Large, multistory buildings may require that an 
interrogator be mounted on an elevating boom. For most buildings, the boom would 
potentially have to raise the interrogator only several stories and not the full 
height of the building. If the building were especially tall, another potential 
solution would be to equip crews with portable interrogators that could be 
deployed on each floor on which a crew is operating. Then, the signals and 
information from the various floors could be relayed manually or using repeater 
technology to the CP.
In addition to interrogator and receiver components, an RFID-based PAS will 
require a computer processor with interpretation software and a display device 
to show the status of emergency scene personnel. This display typically will be 
a liquid crystal display or a computer monitor.
RFID technology can be found in many applications and sectors of the economy and 
is being tested for use in the fire service. Although technology capable of 
performing the functions described above exists, it has not - with the possible 
exception of electronic transmitting PASS devices - been widely applied to fit 
emergency service personnel accountability needs. The following describes 
several cutting edge RFID accountability technologies that could be available 
commercially in the
near future. 
Accountability Applications 
RFID transmitters can improve emergency incident accountability by allowing for 
some automatic information gathering. RFID systems can be programmed to survey 
the scene periodically and display the results. RFID systems will be able to 
display some responder information and loca-tion. RFID systems currently are not 
able to display tasking assignments. For this reason, IC's must use supplemental 
methods to ensure that they can track each individual rescuer, their location, 
and current scene assignment.
26 
RFID PASS Devices 
RFID PASS devices, or electronic transmitting PASS devices, are commercially 
available. See Electronic-Transmitting PASS Devices on page 44 for more details.
Helmet-or SCBA-Mounted RFID Tags 
One new RFID accountability system under development envisions mounting a 
matchbox-sized RFID tag on a firefighter's helmet or SCBA. Fire departments 
would use stereo-sized interrogator units that could be either vehicle-mounted 
or portable units positioned outside the building.
Since the RFID tags are matchbox-sized, developers did not think it practical to 
mount the units on turnout gear. The tags might easily be knocked off of turnout 
gear or damaged on the scene of an emergency. Developers feel that by mounting 
the tags to SCBA's and/ or the underside of helmets, they might be more 
protected from damage and unintentional removal.
Helmet-mounted RFID tags can be programmed to transmit personnel information, 
including name, rank, training, or other department-specific information. SCBA-
mounted RFID tags will most likely transmit information reflecting the SCBA's 
location on a given piece of apparatus. For example, if Firefighter Smith's 
riding assignment were as the officer for Engine 8, then he would be tracked on 
the fireground as "Engine 8's officer," rather than as "Firefighter Smith." This 
technology can be programmed to transmit individual information as the helmet-
mounted tags do; however, if a department desired to track individual-specific 
information using SCBA-mounted RFID tags, they would have to reprogram the RFID 
tag each time a new person was assigned to the SCBA.
One drawback to an SCBA-or helmet-mounted RFID system is that the PAS will 
depend on emergency personnel always wearing their protective equipment. 
Although this should be commonplace, sometimes PAS protocols are not followed, 
which can compromise individual's safety and diminish the effectiveness of the 
PAS.
For this reason, it may be better to place the RFID tag on a piece of equipment 
that is more likely to be worn on all incidents (i. e., the helmet). For 
example, a fire department which issues SCBA-mounted RFID tags may not be able 
to track its personnel at a mass casualty incident, such as a passenger train 
derailment, since many personnel will not necessarily be wearing an SCBA. 
Similarly, rescue departments would be forced to select a piece of equipment 
worn on all incidents, and on which they could mount the RFID tags, to ensure 
that their RFID PAS can track personnel locations.
Training - Training to use RFID PAS technology will not likely be extensive. 
Individual firefighters would need only basic instructions on how the system 
will work and routine maintenance and care instructions for the RFID tags. 
Accountability officers will need some basic instruction on
27 
RFID technology and minimal training how to operate the system and manipulate 
the computer software and display monitors. Overall, this technology will 
require minimal training of personnel. Cost - Costs for RFID PAS will vary 
depending on the size of the system. RFID tags can be expected to cost several 
hundred dollars each (less if greater numbers of them are ordered). 
Interrogators will be more expensive, with models costing up to $5,000. 
Elevating booms, multiple interrogators, etc., will raise the price of an RFID 
PAS. Departments should be able to purchase a system to track 50 people for less 
than $10,000. These prices are all projections at this time since this 
technology is not yet commercially available for accountability applications.
Future Trends - Assuming the technology becomes commercially available, RFID PAS 
has the potential to be very useful in the fire service. Also, as the technology 
advances, more PAS applications may be discovered.
RFID Tags Sewn into Turnout Gear 
Recently, researchers have been able to develop a thin, flexible RFID receiver 
that can be sewn into the weave of a fabric. With this new capability, RFID tags 
can be sewn into turnout gear, station uniforms, or other fabrics.
Fabric-based RFID technology will promote accountability by allowing a flexible, 
non-bulky alternative to other RFID devices. Since all personnel operating at an 
incident will be wearing clothing of some form, accountability officers can 
expect that they will be able to track all individuals operating on scene. 
Fabric-based systems can allow for RFID tags to be sewn into uniforms as well as 
PPE, allowing system redundancy for added safety measures. The more places in 
which tags are sewn, the greater the likelihood of tracking personnel.
One problem currently being addressed deals with the small size of the tags, 
since small size can limit effective transmission range. Research is under way 
to ensure that the fabric-based RFID transmission signals are able to reach 
interrogator units, even if other layers of clothing or objects, such as an 
SCBA, covers the tag.
Costs - Fabric-based RFID technology is under development, and is not yet 
commercially available. Developers are unsure of the final equipment costs, but 
they hope to have their technology available at prices similar to other RFID 
devices.
Training - Training for this technology likely would be similar to training for 
helmet-or SCBA-mounted RFID technology. 
28 
Future Trends - Since much of the RFID technology is just now on the verge of 
becoming more common in the fields of the emergency services, it is difficult to 
say what the future will hold. RFID technology promises a number of 
accountability benefits for a moderate price. As the technol-ogy is developed 
further, one can expect that the size of the units will decrease, the signal 
strength and information amount will increase, and the price will fall.
RF Motion Sensors 
Another promising technology sends RF signals through nonmetallic objects to 
scan for movement on the other side of the object. A briefcase-size locator with 
directional or omni-directional antennae is used to "see" eight to ten feet 
beyond a cement wall. When motion is sensed, an audible signal sounds. This 
technology employs RF scanning and requires responders to wear mini data chips. 
When the chip is scanned, it sends information back to the interrogator.
The material through which the signals must pass and the signal transmission 
strength determine how much motion must be present for it to be detected by the 
unit. Easily penetrable materials combined with a strong signal should allow the 
unit to detect smaller movements, such as breathing. With thick materials and 
lower signal strengths, however, the unit may be capable only of detecting very 
large movements, such as walking.
Accountability Applications 
This technology is not a constant monitor, but can be used to assist 
accountability systems by allowing command personnel to scan areas rapidly for 
movement in the event that personnel become missing. For example, if a crew was 
thought to be operating in one particular area of a building, the unit could be 
used to scan that area for movement. If personnel are incapacitated or trapped, 
however, this unit might not be able to identify their location as they will not 
be moving.
Training - Training to use the unit would not be extensive. However, it would 
involve understanding basic concepts of radar physics, unit operations, as well 
as care and maintenance.
Cost - Were the system commercially available, a unit would range in cost from 
$2,500 to $5,000.
Future Trends - This system is not yet commercially available. It has much 
promise for enhancing personnel safety in a PAS setting once it becomes 
available.
29 
GPS-Based Accountability Systems 
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a spaceage navigational system developed 
in the 1970s. Since then, its network of satellites has been controlled and 
maintained by the U. S. Department of Defense (DoD). GPS was originally intended 
for military use, but from the outset the U. S. government realized that the 
system could meet numerous vital civilian needs as well.
The GPS system uses a network of 24 satellites in precisely controlled orbits. 
By locking on to the signals these satellites send, any GPS receiver can, with 
great precision, triangulate its precise latitudinal/ longitudinal coordinates. 
This satellite network operates 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions, and 
can be used worldwide for precise navigation on land, water, or in the air.
By measuring the travel time of the signals transmitted by these satellites 
multiplied by the speed of light, a GPS receiver on earth can determine its 
precise distance from each satellite being tracked. By locking onto the signals 
from three satellites, a GPS receiver can calculate current latitude/ longitude 
(a two-dimensional reading). If a fourth satellite is available, a GPS receiver 
also can calculate altitude (a three-dimensional reading).
There are two main types of GPS receivers: multiplexing receivers and parallel 
channel receivers. These terms refer to how a receiver receives and processes 
information from the satellites. Keep in mind how GPS works: a receiver must 
lock onto and measure the signals of at least three different satellites in 
order to navigate. This is called triangulation.
Multiplexing Receivers 
Multiplexing receivers use a shortcut to achieve triangulation. They establish 
contact with a satellite only long enough to sample its data, and then they hunt 
for another satellite to sample and acquire data, and then a third and possibly 
a fourth. All told, this process takes several seconds at a minimum. In order to 
provide a one-second update, most multiplexing receivers obtain an update from a 
couple of satellites and make a best guess at the position update.
Multiplexing receivers are the least expensive types of GPS receivers because 
they cost the least to build. Unfortunately, these savings result in less 
accurate positioning responses to changes in direction and speed. With only one 
channel to receive, the information must be pieced together and then averaged. 
Because of all this switching, multiplexing receivers tend to have more problems 
finding and keeping contact with satellites in areas covered by foliage and 
where parts of the sky are blocked by mountains, hills, trees, cliffs, slopes, 
or even tall city buildings.
30 
Parallel Channel Receivers 
Parallel channel receivers maintain a constant simultaneous lock on several 
satellites at once, eliminating the switching inaccuracies of multiplexing 
receivers. A parallel channel receiver holds all the navigational information 
needed for the most reliable, up-to-date, and accurate information possible.
Several GPS units use at least a five-parallel-channel receiver. This means that 
there are five channels reserved for satellite communication. Three of the 
channels lock on to satellites to triangulate position. Another channel locks on 
to a fourth satellite- computing altitude as well as longitude/ latitude. These 
four channels continuously and simultaneously track the four satellites in the 
best geometrical positions relative to the user.
The fifth channel tracks all other visible satellites, giving the receiver the 
ability to switch instantly to an alternative satellite in the event that any of 
the four primary satellites becomes obstructed. This tracking channel also 
constantly seeks the best possible satellite geometry to use for the greatest 
positioning accuracy. These four channels, coupled with the fifth tracking 
channel, ensure reliable, continuous, and uninterrupted navigation, even in 
adverse conditions like valleys or dense woods.
Because GPS was designed as a military navigational system, the DoD created two 
transmission codes: the "P" code (Precision Code) for military use and the "C/ 
A" code (Civilian Access code) for civilian use. The highest accuracy levels 
were to be reserved for the military to prevent hostile enemy attacks against 
the United States using our own navigational system. However, once in operation, 
the civilian code proved to be more accurate than the DoD had intended. 
Consequently, the military developed a system for randomly degrading the 
accuracy of the signals being transmitted to civilian GPS receivers. This 
intentional degradation in accuracy, controlled by the DoD, is called "Selective 
Availability" or "S/ A."
S/ A is a random error, intentionally created by the military. It can be low or 
high, and can vary in degree at any given moment. It should be emphasized that 
all brands of civilian GPS receivers are affected equally by S/ A; no 
manufacturer has an advantage. The government has stated that with S/ A turned 
on, civilian GPS accuracy levels consistently will be 100 meters or less, 95 
percent of the time. The other 5 percent of the time, the accuracy will be 300 
meters or less. With S/ A off, civilian GPS accuracy levels increase to 15 
meters or less. However, even with S/ A on, the majority of the time, most GPS 
users typically experience accuracy between 20 and 50 meters.
Although there's a strong possibility that S/ A will be turned off completely in 
the future, differential GPS (DGPS) has been developed to improve GPS accuracy 
to within a few meters. Originally initiated by the U. S. Coast Guard (USCG), 
DGPS adds a land-based reference receiver
31 
located at an accurately surveyed site. Since this nonmoving DGPS reference 
station knows where the satellites are located in space at any given moment as 
well as its own exact location, the station can compute theoretical distance and 
signal travel times between itself and each satellite. When those theoretical 
measurements are compared to actual satellite transmissions, any differences 
represent the error in the satellite's signal caused by S/ A. All the DGPS 
reference station has to do is transmit the error factors to your DGPS receiver, 
which gives the information to the GPS receiver so it can use the data to 
correct its own measurements.
Currently, there are two basic sources of corrective DGPS signals: (1) USCG 
land-based beacon transmitters broadcast the data to the public without charge, 
but are primarily located in coastal areas; and (2) commercial FM radio 
subcarrier transmitters that broadcast in both coastal and inland areas, but are 
limited to paying subscribers. In order to receive the DGPS correction data from 
the Coast Guard beacon transmitters, the mobile GPS unit requires a separate 
beacon receiver. To receive FM subcarrier DGPS signals from local subscriber 
radio stations, the GPS unit requires a separate FM receiver, normally the size 
of a pager. Naturally, a GPS unit must have the capability both to receive and 
to process DGPS data. Obviously, if the government turns S/ A off, the need for 
DGPS will be diminished greatly.
GPS receivers display the latitude and longitude of the unit, and some can be 
attached to a computer to display location using a computer-generated map. In 
addition to displaying coordinate information, some GPS units can lead rescuers 
to a specified location. The units can store multiple points, including the 
starting point of the mission. At any given point during the search, rescuers 
can recall any stored location, and the unit will direct them back to it.
Accountability Applications 
There are many current and future PAS applications for this technology, most of 
which involve operations taking place over large areas of land or water. 
Searching a very large area presents difficult challenges to rescuers. A basic 
compass can indicate direction of travel, but using it to calculate distance 
traveled and the size of the area covered by a search is difficult and time 
consuming. However, new global positioning technology makes searching large 
areas easier, faster, and more exact.
Emergency personnel equipped with GPS locators could report their specific 
locations to the IC during a rollcall or at any given time. Current technology 
innovations are linking GPS systems with radio frequency transmitters to allow 
the units to transmit data automatically to a receiver on a
32 
preprogrammed basis. The central receiver, usually a portable computer, then 
displays the data in a desired format that allows an IC to assess the location 
of rescue personnel continually. Some units also are being equipped with a panic 
key that could transmit a distress signal and location coordinates back to the 
central receiver.
Some GPS manufacturers have discussed the possibility of merging GPS functions 
into a PASS device that could measure certain factors, including motion, ambient 
temperature, and perhaps even selected vital signs. This automatic function 
would facilitate tracking both the location and status of all personnel, and 
significantly assist the IC in accounting for emergency personnel.
The U. S. Marine Corps (USMC), which frequently sends personnel from Camp 
Pendleton, California, to large wildland fires, uses GPS technology to track its 
personnel. The military is experimenting with GPS transmitters that will allow 
their commanders to track personnel automatically as they move about the fire. 
Officials from several State and Federal wildland fire agencies are working to 
develop similar systems.
Training - The training required to operate a GPS/ PAS would not be extensive. 
Personnel would require a minimal background in GPS technology and some training 
in the basic care and maintenance of GPS units. Accountability officers would 
require some more advanced training to ensure they understand the limitations of 
the technology.
Cost - The primary cost of using GPS technology is that of acquiring the GPS 
receivers. Current hand-held GPS units are available for under $1,000, depending 
on the features selected. Combining GPS tracking units with radio transmitting 
capabilities will increase the price slightly. The computer processor associated 
with radio transmitting GPS units most likely will be available for the price of 
a laptop computer.
Future Trends - GPS technology is evolving rapidly, and recent innovations offer 
insights into future capabilities. First-generation GPS technology frequently 
was hampered by physical obstructions such as trees and most forms of electronic 
interference. The earliest GPS technologies did not work at all inside 
structures. Accuracy with early units was problematic at best. Recent 
technological breakthroughs suggest that it is possible to create a GPS unit 
that can work inside a structure. Scientists have even reported some success 
with using GPS to determine elevation in multistory buildings. This, combined 
with GPS's ever-increasing accuracy range, indicates that the GPS of the future 
not only will be more accurate, but also will be able to function in a wide 
variety of situations in which it presently cannot. Moreover, GPS units have 
come down in cost considerably since they were first introduced for nonmilitary 
use. If this trend continues, future GPS units will become much more affordable 
- perhaps to the extent that equipping individual emergency responders would not 
be cost-prohibitive.
33 
CHAPTER VI - PERSONAL ALERT SAFETY SYSTEM DEVICES 
Characteristics of PASS Devices Compliant with NFPA 1982 
In 1980 the National Fire Protection Association's (NFPA) Technical Committee on 
Protective Equipment for Fire Fighters responded to requests from the fire 
service to develop requirements for a device that would signal for aid in the 
event that a firefighter became incapacitated on the scene of an emergency. 
These requirements, last revised in 1999, are known as the Standard on Personal 
Alert Safety Systems for Firefighters- NFPA 1982. The standard specifies 
operating and testing criteria for PASS devices. These devices must be able to 
function in hazardous environments and are required to be intrinsically safe. 
They have three modes of operation: off, manual, and automatic. To prevent 
accidentally deactivating the device, two manual actions must be required to 
switch the unit from automatic to off. PASS devices have three tones. The first 
is an operational signal to inform the operator that the device is functioning 
properly. An-other is a pre-alert signal that goes off ten seconds before the 
alert signal and can be disabled by the firefighter's moving. Finally, there is 
the alert signal which goes off either manually or when the device has not 
sensed motion in 30 seconds. (Some PASS devices may have four tones, with the 
fourth being a tone indicating a low battery.) Further, PASS devices are 
rigorously tested and must be able to function after exposure to extreme 
temperatures, immersion, and other extreme environments. PASS devices have 
become an essential element of a firefighter's protective envelope and are now 
standard issue in the fire service.
Although NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health 
Programs, requires that each rescuer involved in rescue, firefighting, or other 
hazardous duties be provided with and use a PASS device, personnel do not always 
activate their PASS devices at the scenes of emergencies. In some firefighter 
fatality investigations it has been discovered that firefighters killed during 
fire suppression operations failed to turn on their PASS devices. This 
phenomenon can be attributed to many reasons, however, regardless of the 
reasons, this presents a serious dilemma for ICs as PASS devices are an 
essential component in most accountability systems. When they are not activated, 
a potential safety hazard is created for everyone involved in the incident.
Manufacturers have begun to address the problem of PASS devices not being turned 
on by developing automatically activating PASS devices as well as developing 
devices that provide more information. The SCBA-integrated PASS, the electronic-
transmitting PASS, temperature-sensitive PASS devices, and other technology 
initiatives are all designed to increase PASS reliability.
34 
SCBA-Integrated PASS 
SCBA-integrated PASS devices are designed to allow for the automatic activation 
of the PASS device when the SCBA is turned on. Sensing mechanisms detect when 
the air pressure in an SCBA's cylinder is opened, and automatically activate the 
PASS device. Excluding the automatic activation feature, both types of 
integrated PASS devices function like traditional PASS units. Unlike traditional 
PASS units, however, SCBA-integrated PASS units undergo a severe vibration test 
in place of a drop test to meet NFPA 1982.
All integrated PASS units offer a panic button that can be pressed in a single 
motion to place the PASS unit in alarm mode. Integrated PASS devices will 
continue to operate even if the SCBA runs out of air. Each PASS device emits a 
pre-alarm warning indicating the PASS will go into full alarm mode if the user 
does not move shortly. If a false alarm does occur, depressing a button or 
switch will reset the integrated PASS device. Most integrated PASS devices 
include a visual indicator of the PASS device's status, enabling firefighters to 
see the status of their unit easily. When the PASS device activates, the visual 
indicator can assist rescuers in locating downed firefighters. Several 
integrated PASS devices incorporate temperature-sensing and electronic-
transmitting features. Many SCBA manufacturers offer conversion kits that allow 
the conversion of existing SCBAs to PASS-integrated SCBAs.
Partially and Fully Integrated Units PASS-integrated SCBAs are available either 
as fully integrated units or as partially integrated units. A number of 
partially integrated PASS devices are designed to operate both as an automatic 
PASS device activated as the SCBA is turned on, and as a detachable stand-alone 
PASS unit. Partially integrated PASS units generally are mounted in a special 
bracket that is connected to the SCBA. When the bottle is turned on, the flow of 
air causes a mechanical device in the bracket to activate the PASS device. If 
the user needs to use the PASS without the SCBA, the device can be removed from 
the bracket and clipped to clothing.
Fully integrated PASS devices and partially integrated PASS devices present 
unique advantages and disadvantages. Integrated PASS devices generally cost 
between two to four times as much as traditional nonintegrated PASS devices. 
Fully integrated PASS devices do not offer the versatility of partially 
integrated devices or traditional units and will function only in conjunction 
with an SCBA (i. e., they cannot be detached). Although they may cost more, and 
in some situations have more limitations than traditional devices, integrated 
PASS alarms offer the invaluable assurance that
35 
firefighters will be operating with their PASS devices turned on. 
Temperature-Sensitive PASS Devices 
Some newer model PASS devices are offered with temperature sensors in addition 
to motion detectors. Temperature-sensitive PASS devices are designed to sound an 
alarm after being exposed to dangerous temperature levels. Dangerous temperature 
levels are defined as a function of both temperature and time. If a firefighter 
enters an extremely hot area, the device will alarm quickly- usually within 
seconds. If a firefighter enters a moderately hot area and the temperature does 
not change, the device will alarm - usually within several minutes. For example, 
one temperature sensitive device is designed to alarm in 1 minutes at 450 F 
(232 C) and in twelve minutes at 212 F (100 C). The alarm tones for excess 
temperature and non-motion are different, allowing firefighters to readily 
distinguish between the two.
Electronic-Transmitting PASS Devices 
Electronic-transmitting PASS devices are designed to transmit a radio signal 
from the PASS device to a receiver in close proximity (see discussion of RFID 
technology). The basic components of this system con-sist of an individual PASS 
device and a portable receiver. An electronic transmitting PASS is roughly the 
same size and weight as a non-transmitting PASS. The only visible difference is 
a small flexible antenna ex-tending from the PASS device itself. The receiver, 
which weighs between five and ten pounds, is a battery-powered (with an A/ C 
port) combination microprocessor and liquid crystal display screen, usually 
housed in a weath-erproof, impact-resistant protective case.
Once electronic PASS devices are turned on, they are motion-sensitive. Some also 
include temperature- sensing capabilities. If the PASS device alarms, it sounds 
an audible alarm while simultaneously transmitting an alarm notice to the 
receiver. Some electronic PASS units also emit visual signals during alarm mode. 
Once it is notified of a PASS in alarm mode, the receiver will sound an audible 
alarm, display a visual warning, and place the field containing the activated 
PASS in a prominent location. The receiver will stay in alarm mode until the IC 
resets it. Only the firefighter wearing the PASS device can reset the unit if 
there is an erroneous alarm.
36 
Another feature of electronic PASS devices is that they transmit their on/ off 
status and personnel information every ten seconds, regardless of whether or not 
the PASS has been activated. These transmissions can include information 
specific to the individual such as name, rank, department identification number, 
blood type, etc., if a department assigns PASS devices to each member. If PASS 
units are assigned to a location on a particular apparatus, then they can 
include the apparatus information such as "Engine 18's officer" or "Truck 10's 
tiller." As mentioned earlier, electronic PASS units must be activated in order 
to detect motion and transmit distress signals.
Since electronic PASS units continuously emit PASS on/ off and personnel 
information, once a firefighter comes into range, the receiver will display the 
firefighter's identity and whether his/ her PASS is on or off. In this way, the 
IC can see all personnel who are operating on the scene, as well as which 
specific individuals have not turned on their PASS devices. If the firefighter 
whom the unit is tracking goes out of range or leaves the scene, the receiver 
notifies the IC. If the firefighter is authorized to leave, then the unit is 
simply reset. If the IC did not authorize the firefighter to leave, then efforts 
to establish the firefighter's status can be made. This feature is particularly 
useful at operations taking place over a large area.
Electronic PASS devices' lightweight design prevents them from housing large 
transmitters and reduces the effective range from which they can operate. In 
urban settings, range may be limited to a single structure or floor depending on 
the amount of electrical interference and building materials used. Rural areas' 
more open spaces offer a larger range, usually up to one mile. To overcome this 
limitation, manufacturers produce portable repeating units that can rebroadcast 
data to the CP. By linking several repeaters, or by placing them at corners of a 
structure, emergency personnel can decrease the amount of data transmission 
interference they encounter.
Key-Activated PASS Devices 
Key-activated PASS devices are activated by removing a key or pin housed in the 
top of the PASS unit. This key usually contains some information such as a 
firefighter's name or the PASS devices' apparatus assignment, such as "Engine 
5's officer." The key then can be turned over to the accountability sector and 
placed on a location board. As firefighters enter the incident command 
structure, they remove their accountability tags from the PASS devices, which 
activates the PASS device, and turn the tags over to the PAS officer. If an 
audible alarm occurs, the wearer can reset the alarm, but the only way to turn 
the device off is to replace the key. Linking PASS activation directly with 
personnel accountability can ensure that firefighters operate with activated 
PASS devices at an emergency scene. Key-activated PASS devices are commonly used 
by fire crews in Great Britain.
37 
Accountability Applications 
PASS devices are essential elements of any accountability system because they 
provide a means of constantly monitoring the status of emergency personnel 
operating at an incident. PASS devices can alert fellow responders to problems 
and can help rescue/ intervention teams locate person-nel who are in trouble. 
Although current technology is improving and becoming more sensitive and able to 
test for more hazardous situations, PASS devices are still only a component of a 
functioning accountability system- they should not be used as the entire PAS.
Training - Sophisticated PASS technology cannot substitute for effective and 
disciplined accountability procedures. A combination of regular accountability 
drilling incorporating PASS devices, devices that do not generate as many false 
alarms, and technology that activates automatically some or all PASS functions 
will serve to increase PASS reliability. Overall, though, the most important 
first step for many departments is to train rescuers to activate and use their 
current PASS
devices properly. 
Cost - Depending on the manufacturer, individual PASS devices can range from 
$150, for basic, motion-only devices, to $180 or more for advanced devices that 
can sense temperature, motion and/ or are key-activated. Electronic transmitting 
systems can cost upwards of $11,000 for the PASS devices and the monitoring 
system. Integrated PASS systems are usually purchased through the manufacturers 
in conjunction with an SCBA. These systems, including a facepiece, cylinder, 
etc., can cost several thousand dollars, depending on the options/ materials 
chosen. Purchased alone, kits for adding an integrated PASS element to an SCBA 
cost approximately $500. As PASS technology advances, these prices are likely to 
decrease.
Future Trends - Ideally, ICs should rely on emergency responders to activate 
their PASS devices on every call, every time. However, PASS devices are not 
always manually activated. This indicates that in the future PASS devices will 
probably become more automatic and less user-con-trolled. Current electronic 
transmitting PASS devices offer a glimpse into the future of the potential 
operations of automatic PASS technology. The PASS devices of the future are 
likely to be smaller, lighter, and able to sense and test for factors other than 
motion and extreme temperature. PASS devices of the future are likely to have 
increased transmission range and may help pinpoint a responder's exact location. 
In fact, military electronic status monitoring technology may offer a glimpse of 
the future capabilities of emergency responder status monitoring technology.
38 
39 
CHAPTER VII - ELECTRONIC STATUS MONITORS 
Most of these items were designed for military use, but it has been found that 
they may have significant fire/ EMS applicability as well. These devices can 
either be carried or worn. They provide continuous information on the physical 
condition and status of the wearer. Sensors include devices that can fit on a 
wrist, attach to various body parts, or even be worn as a vest. (In the case of 
the vest, this monitoring capability has been combined with some sort of 
protective function as well, such as protection against fragments, bullets, and 
other projectiles common in military situations.) The sensors in these devices 
are connected remotely by radio, satellite, or other means, to a monitoring 
facility, which may be a headquarters or simply one person with a computer.
Models that integrate real-time movement, position, and status data are being 
developed for the military. These systems also may integrate audio and visual 
transmitters worn by those out in the field, and provide images and sounds to 
whoever is monitoring and receiving the data. In some cases, a transparent 
"heads-up display" is integrated into the wearer's visor, providing information 
about the whole scene. This information can be tailored to individual needs by 
the control center. Due to its military applications, it is unlikely that this 
sort of equipment will be made available to emergency response units until well 
into the future.
In general, electronic status monitors are simply devices that transmit data 
about the person wearing the monitor back to a command and control center. Most 
of these devices are able to measure pulse, blood pressure, and respiration. 
More advanced models are able to measure perfusion and oxygen saturation levels.
At present, these instruments are relevant to personnel accountability in a way 
that may not be considered mainstream. While these devices cannot, at present, 
indicate the location of an individual, they do still have a valuable role, and 
are important to a PAS. Used in an appropriate system, they can establish who is 
in a structure or on a scene. They can also be used to determine who is in 
trouble or in imminent danger of becoming so. Should a person be need help, 
these devices could alert an IC and allow a search and rescue effort to be 
implemented.
In the future, it is hoped and expected that advances in positioning technology, 
such as GPS or radar, will be combined with these devices to provide a more 
complete picture of the location and status of any individual or group. Future 
models also are expected to be able to sense when an injury occurs or a wound is 
inflicted.
Sensor Vest 
This is essentially an elastic vest embedded with sensors and processors that 
both collect and disseminate information about the wearer. These vests are 
designed to detect torso penetration as well as areas of major bleeding. They 
also may be able to detect wounds and their location. The
40 
sensor vest monitors the wearer's heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration 
rate. The capacity for these devices to monitor such items as blood oxygenation, 
blood loss (through changes in body weight), dehydration, EKG, motion, and 
position is also being developed.
Training - Significant training or usage issues are not foreseen for this type 
of system. Using the vest in a PAS may require someone who is technically 
proficient to operate the monitoring station and interpret the data. For the 
most part, however, this technology operates on a stand-alone basis and should 
not interfere with what the wearer is doing. Good communication still will be 
required for optimum performance.
Cost - The costs of such systems probably will be prohibitive to fire and EMS 
agencies for the foreseeable future. Should a civilian application warrant 
commercial production, the costs could be expected to drop significantly. This, 
of course, would take place after the technology for such devices becomes more 
refined.
Future Trends - Future versions of this vest may integrate more sensing 
capability, such as EKG's, with an increased ability to provide location data. 
The vests also may provide a protective element and allow greater communication 
opportunities.
Noninvasive Medical Sensors (Personal Status Monitors) 
Noninvasive medical sensors are basically a type of sonar used on the human body 
for medical purposes. These types of devices are used to monitor respiration, 
circulation, blood pressure, and Central Nervous System (CNS) function. Sensors 
can be worn on the body in several locations, as they are the size of a silver 
dollar and can fit into grooves such as those around the carotid arteries. Once 
in place, the sensors monitor pulse, perfusion, and blood pressure. They relay 
their data to a transmitter worn on the belt, which then sends the data back to 
the monitoring station.
Training - The training for using these devices is not significant. These 
devices are easy to use and wear. All that is required is an ability to 
adequately and promptly interpret the data being sent, as well as the ability to 
maintain communication between those wearing the sensors, those monitoring them, 
and those in overall command of the operation.
Cost - Such devices may be prohibitively expensive until a reasonable commercial 
application necessitates that they be priced competitively.
Future Trends - In the future, this type of technology will be able to provide a 
more com-plete picture of an individual's status, but it is unlikely that they 
will be able to provide positional information.
41 
Silicone Rubber Optical Fibers 
Another type of monitoring system, silicone rubber optical fibers, is composed 
of elastic materials that attach around the torso. They are sensitive to 
expansion and contraction, allowing them to monitor respirations. Presumably 
they also can detect heart rate, skin temperature, and other vital signs. This 
type of system is especially desirable in areas where alternate monitoring is 
not possible due to electromagnetic interference, etc.
Training - No significant training or usage issues appear. These systems require 
basic capabilities for monitoring purposes.
Costs - As these devices are not yet commercially available, it is impossible to 
predict potential cost.
Future Trends - Silicone rubber optical fibers will provide an increased ability 
to collect information about vital signs and other physiological factors. This 
will enhance other technologies that have potential PAS application.
Foot Force Sensors 
Foot force sensor systems use a special insole to detect foot pressure. The 
sensors can be calibrated individually to transmit data. The system is limited 
in its ability to provide essential physiological data, but it can monitor 
movement. This system acts as a motion sensor that could be used to track the 
movement of emergency responders.
Training - No significant training or usage issues appear. This system would 
require basic monitoring capabilities.
Costs - These devices are not yet commercially available therefore an accurate 
prediction of cost is not possible at this time.
Future Trends - At this point this technology is still in the developmental 
stage. If it can be made commercially available, it might be very useful in the 
fire service.
Heart/ Lung Sound Project 
The heart/ lung sound project is an acoustic detection and classification system 
that is being developed by the military to detect heart and lung abnormalities. 
This system will allow onsite supervisors and medics to make diagnostic 
decisions based on physiological function. The advancement of computing, signal 
processing, and acoustic sensing technologies has made it possible to
42 
collect and analyze short-duration signals on inexpensive and portable off-the-
shelf equipment. This system is being developed using a portable laptop as the 
computing platform. The initial system will have the following attributes:
 two acoustic, one EKG, and two reference channels. The acoustic channels will 
have a bandwidth from 20 Hz to 2 kHz with a variable prewhiting filter to 
emphasize different detection of selected signal component; 
 background noise subtraction for detection of quiet sounds in noisy 
environments; 
 EKG for time-referencing cardiac events and detection of arrhythmias; 
 multiple time/ frequency analysis and display screens; and 
 automatic detection of selected signals. 
Training - Anyone receiving this information would have to be trained in the 
interpretation of cardiac rhythms and methods to correct arrhythmias (abnormal 
heartbeats).
Costs - This technology is not yet available and cost information is not known 
at this time. 
Future Trends - Assuming the military makes this technology commercially 
available, it has the potential to become a valuable diagnostic/ monitoring 
device in the fire service.
Hands-off Arrhythmia Monitor 
The hands-off arrhythmia monitor is a small, noninvasive sensor that can detect 
arrhythmia (abnormal heartbeats) in the wearer. The device could up-link to a 
distress transmitter that will notify monitoring personnel of the occurrence of 
a dangerous arrhythmia. The sensors also could transmit data to a control center 
or hospital.
Training - Anyone receiving this information would have to be trained in cardiac 
rhythm interpretation, and possibly in arrhythmia intervention techniques.
Costs - This technology is not yet commercially available and cost information 
is not known at this time.
Future Trends - Perhaps in the future this type of instrument will be able to 
provide other information about a wearer's status, or even have the capability 
to deliver anti-arrhythmic electrical shocks. 
43 
Secure Laser Communication 
A key element to electronic status monitoring for any PAS system is real-time 
data transfer. The military currently employs a secure laser communication 
system that is able to relay digital and acoustic data at high speeds digitally, 
in real time, over distances of up to five miles. This system could be useful in 
situations where activities were being conducted over a large area, and could, 
in combination with monitoring devices, be used to relay personnel status back 
to a command center. Alternatively, this type of system could be used to relay 
data about injured personnel to a physician or hospital from the scene, and 
allow a preliminary evaluation to be made. Instructions then could be given on 
initial care and requirements.
Training - This system would require some training as to proper usage, although 
it is unclear how much training would be needed for nonmilitary applications.
Cost - Because these units are so expensive, their day-to-day use in a PAS is 
not anticipated for some time to come. 
Future Trends - Future applications of this type of technology might provide 
personnel with individual communications equipment that would replace radios 
(and the associated problems of range and overlap of transmission).
44 
45 
CHAPTER VIII - ACCOUNTABILITY AIDS/ SAFETY AIDS 
Personnel accountability aids, both visual and audible, might enhance existing 
personnel accountability systems by increasing scene safety, preventing 
firefighters from becoming lost or disoriented, assisting firefighters with 
finding the way out of hazardous areas, and promoting scene visibility. Some 
structures or wildland areas are extremely confusing to navigate even in non-
fire conditions, while other seemingly routine areas can cause even veteran 
firefighters to become disoriented. Although current technology cannot replace a 
firefighter's good judgment, there are numerous innovations designed to prevent 
firefighters from becoming lost inside structures as well as to increase overall 
scene safety.
Sound-Based Exit Device 
The sound-based exit device is a self-contained, weather-proof, audible 
transmitter designed to be placed at an entry/ egress location. The device 
automatically emits a distinctive penetrating sound and strobe light every ten 
seconds, enabling lost or disoriented firefighters to the direction of an exit 
more quickly in low visibility environments. The audible signal has an effective 
range of 100 feet in most structures, although this can vary depending on the 
type of construction materials involved. The device also offers an emergency 
transmitter function that sounds a distinctive emergency tone if activated by a 
firefighter in distress. ICs also may use the device to transmit an emergency 
evacuation signal.
Sound-based exit devices, which augment an existing personnel accountability 
system, would be most useful on structural emergency incidents. An exit device 
could also be used in wildland or maritime operations. However, some sound-based 
devices are not intrinsically safe and are not recommended for use in 
potentially explosive environments.
Training - Minimal training would be required to integrate these units into fire 
suppression activities. Firefighters would have to be trained as to the best 
locations to place the devices and be made aware of its various alert tones. 
Cost - Individual units cost approximately $1,200 each. 
Future Trends - In the future, intrinsically safe models may appear on the 
market, increasing the types of situation where this device could be used. Used 
in conjunction with a PAS, this device could be very useful in the fire service. 
46 
Visual Safety Aids 
A number of existing technologies enhance visual recognition of personnel or 
provide visual safety cues. These technologies could be employed as part of an 
overall PAS.
Thermal Imaging Technology 
By sensing the heat patterns of infrared radiation signatures, thermal imaging 
technology has the capacity to locate and monitor emergency personnel operating 
in smoke, fog, night, and other low-visibility conditions.
Thermal imaging devices, which are especially sensitive to body heat, use 
infrared technology to sense very small differences in heat levels. Typical 
thermal imaging devices are able to discern differences of as little as 0.1 F 
between an object and its background, and can display this thermal contrast on a 
monitor. Thermal imaging devices cannot see through most structures, since 
infrared radia-tion cannot be detected through concrete, rock, brick, wood, 
drywall, or other materials that block heat patterns. The typical black 
and white image monitor varies in brightness depending upon an object's 
temperature and generally produces a silhouette-style image of a person, but 
will show neither detailed features nor colors. Most thermal imaging cameras 
available for the fire service use either a pyro-electric vidicon (PEV) unit or 
a focal plan array chip (FPAC). Many handheld thermal imaging devices contain 
PEV technology, which has a tendency to "white out" or flood the entire display 
screen with light when the unit is pointed directly at a high-energy heat 
source. FPAC technology displays a "virtual reality" image that does not white 
out when pointed at a high-energy heat source. While this technology is 
initially more expensive than PEV, it tends to have lower maintenance costs over 
time.
Personnel Accountability Applications 
Numerous fire departments around the country are using thermal imaging devices 
as to assist Incident Commanders in tracking emergency personnel, locating 
trapped victims, or doing size-ups at incidents where heat signatures are not 
blocked by surrounding objects.
Thermal imaging devices may provide a number of tangible benefits for personnel 
accountability at low-visibility wildland and other open-area emergency 
operations, as there would be few heat-signature-blocking structures to limit 
the device's effectiveness. Even though thermal devices cannot identify specific 
individuals on a regular basis, it could be used to track the movement of crews 
on wildland fires as well as the movement of the fire itself. Thermal imaging 
devices could also
47 
be useful in maritime operations since thermal devices are capable of scanning 
the surface of open bodies of water; some can even scan several feet under the 
surface. Incidents covering large areas, such as a major wildfire operation, 
however, would require powerful thermal devices capable of scanning large areas.
Thermal cameras can track firefighters on some structure fires, depending on the 
construction of the building, but most usually are unable to track personnel 
once they enter a building. Thermal cameras are probably more useful in that 
they permit intervention teams to locate comrades in need of assistance rapidly. 
With a properly functioning accountability system, an IC could know the identity 
and location of a firefighter in distress, and could direct a rescue team to 
that location. Thermal devices could enhance the safety and efficiency of 
rescue/ intervention teams significantly.
Thermal cameras offer other safety and efficiency improvements, outside of 
direct personnel accountability applications, which in turn promote the general 
themes of safety and accountability on the fireground. One fire department has a 
standard operating procedure (SOP) of using a thermal imaging camera, mounted to 
a telescoping antenna atop their command vehicles, to quickly scan a building or 
an area for hazards. Thermal cameras can show the differences in air temperature 
inside a structure, enabling firefighters to locate the seat of a fire rapidly, 
show fire spread in a building, predict flashover, and sometimes can show downed 
wires or other hazards in smoke-covered areas.
Personal Thermal Imaging Cameras 
Personal thermal imaging cameras range from helmet-mounted systems to small, 
handheld, camcorder-like devices. Helmet-mounted systems consist of a camera 
lens, attached to the side of a helmet, a video display area, anchored to the 
front of the helmet, and a power pack, worn on the belt. They provide a 
thermally enhanced image and allow firefighters the use of both hands, but are 
permanently attached to the helmet. Handheld units are designed for one-handed 
operation. Firefighters simply lift the camera to eye-level and look into the 
video display area. These units offer the advan-tage of being easily passed from 
one firefighter to another, without having to remove pieces of protective 
equipment.
Both types of personal cameras are designed ruggedly, for limited use in, and 
exposure to, areas near fire or water. They usually can be used for several 
hours before their batteries are exhausted. Some units must be turned off hourly 
to cool down, since their airtight design does not allow for easy cooling of 
internal components.
48 
Training - Use of this technology requires moderate training. Firefighters must 
become familiar with the equipment and must be able to interpret the images they 
see though the camera's lens. Often, manufacturers will offer assistance to fire 
departments in training personnel to operate their products. Sometimes, a 
training session is included in the overall cost of the system.
Costs - Personal thermal imaging cameras cost around $16,000 for basic models 
and $25,000 for more expensive units, which offer increased range and image 
clarity.
Future Trends - More and more fire departments are attempting to procure these 
devices because of their primary application in interior fire suppression-
search-and-rescue. Although the units are expensive, it is hoped that advances 
in thermal imaging technology eventually will lead to cost reductions that will 
enable more departments to acquire and use these devices. As departments become 
familiar with the devices, their use in a PAS is likely to become more 
commonplace.
Thermal imaging cameras of the future will be smaller, lighter, and more 
powerful. Experimental work has been performed to build a firefighting helmet 
that incorporates thermal imaging technology, an SCBA facemask, and an internal 
communications system. The growing popularity of thermal imaging cameras for use 
in a wide variety of roles will serve to stimulate the development of improved 
models.
Forward-Looking Infrared Radar 
Forward-looking infrared radar (FLIR) units used by law enforcement and some 
search and rescue teams to scan for people over large areas, are very powerful 
and expensive thermal imaging devices that mount to vehicles and aircraft. 
Depending on the lens, FLIR units can have a range measured in miles, so they 
are ideal for vehicles capable of covering large amounts of territory rapidly. 
For example, some helicopter-mounted FLIR units have a range of ten miles. 
Sophisticated new tracking technology allows FLIR units to lock-on and 
automatically track a thermal signature as long as it stays in range of the 
camera.
Training - Significant training issues are not foreseen for this technology. 
Cost - Helicopter-and vehicle-mounted FLIR units are more expensive than 
handheld models, usually costing over $100,000.
Future Trends - Because these units are so expensive, their day-to-day use 
within a PAS is not anticipated for some time to come.
49 
Reflective Hose 
Reflective (luminescent) directional hose incorporates reflective lettering and 
a directional arrow into the weave of each section of hose. The lettering and 
arrow can be seen in smoky condi-tions using a handlight or any other direct 
light source. The arrows and lettering point toward the female coupling (i. e., 
in the direction of the exterior of the structure). Firefighters need only to 
shine a light, instead of fumbling along a hose section in search of a coupling, 
to rapidly identify the direction of building exits or the location of the 
engine. This type of hose could enhance personnel accountability since it could 
allow lost firefighters to find their way back to safety more quickly.
Caution must be used with this approach. If the reflective hose alone is used to 
find an exit, a firefighter may pass other exits unknowingly or, worse, be drawn 
close to the fire if the hose is looped. Another concern is if this hose is 
somehow attached to a double female connection, this may lead a firefighter away 
from an exit.
Training - Very little additional training would be required. Firefighters 
already know how to operate a hose line; the addition of reflective material 
should not significantly change that process.
Cost - Reflective hose is more expensive than standard hose. For 1 -inch attack 
line, standard hose costs approximately $90 per section while reflective hose 
costs approximately $272 per section.
Future Trends - The use of hose in the fire service is not a trend likely to end 
any time soon. Improvements in the hose itself, such as reflectivity, which 
could help save lives, are likely to continue to be improved upon. As the 
technology advances, hose may become lighter and less expensive.
Reflective and Lighted Rope 
Reflective rope, which qualifies as a lifeline since it is built with the same 
strength as kernmantle rope, contains filaments that reflect light when 
illuminated by a light source. Lighted rope, which does not qualify as a 
lifeline, resembles a hollow plastic tube containing hundreds of small lights. 
These lights will remain lit if one burns out, and are intrinsically safe and 
waterproof. Lighted rope, which may be most useful as a tagline, is slightly 
stiffer than normal kernmantle rope, but it is flexible enough to use to tie 
some knots. Both types of ropes can be useful in a PAS by making potential 
safety hazards, like the ropes themselves, more visible on the fireground.
50 
Training - Very little additional training would be required. Firefighters are 
already well aware of the importance of ropes and knots in the fire service. The 
addition of reflective material is not likely to significantly impact fire 
departments' SOPs.
Cost - Reflective rope generally costs approximately 20 percent more than 
standard fire service rope.
Future Trends - The use of ropes and knots in the fire service is likely to 
continue and improvements that make this technology more useful in the field are 
likely to be embraced.
Reflective Clothing 
Reflective clothing, available as vests, gloves, and caps, uses bright colors in 
conjunction with elements that reflect light, some at a strength of 500 
candlepower and visible up to  mile away, to allow emergency personnel to be 
seen as they move about at emergency incidents. Bunker gear reflective material 
can fade over time or become soiled and ineffective. Reflective clothing, worn 
in addition to or in place of bunker gear reflective material, can assist 
Incident Commanders in monitor-ing the locations of personnel, and allow 
firefighters to be seen both during the day and at night. Fire departments 
should make sure that any reflective clothing that might be used during fire 
suppression activities meets the appropriate standards for such use.
Reflective clothing can be useful in a PAS by visually identifying personnel at 
the scene of an emergency as well as key incident command personnel, helping to 
alleviate on-scene confusion. In addition to clothing, some manufacturers 
produce free-standing reflective sector flags which are placed at the various 
sector locations, rest/ rehabilitation, Staging, the CP, etc., to clearly 
identify the location. Such sector identification is an aid to a PAS because PAS 
officers (as well as personnel operating at an emergency incident) can better 
identify specific operational areas.
Training - Very minimal training would be involved. Personnel would simply have 
to wear the reflective items.
Cost - Varies depending on the manufacturer and the types of items desired. 
Vests can range in cost from $7-$ 30, while gloves are approximately $15.
Future Trends - Reflective clothing may become more readily reflective and 
brighter in the future.
51 
Light Indicators 
Light indicators are small, light-emitting devices that clip to clothing, 
helmets, or SCBA, allowing person-nel working in low-visibility conditions to be 
seen more easily by fellow crew members. Visual indicating devices typically 
emit either a steady or pulsing light that helps personnel maintain crew 
integrity and command personnel to monitor responders' movements at an emergency 
incident.
Light indicators come in a wide variety of forms. Available in many stores, 
chemically activated glowsticks are inexpensive and weatherproof, but are not 
recommended for exposure to the extreme temperatures encountered in many fire 
operations. They must be discarded after use. An-other option is reusable, 
battery-powered strobe flashing indicators, which are small, lightweight devices 
that clip to an SCBA or turnout gear, and are able to withstand the temperatures 
and abuse associated with fire/ EMS operations.
Greater visibility increases the ability to coordinate activities and provides 
another tool to assist in locating downed personnel. Many firefighters use 
personal flashlights clipped to helmets as a simple light indicator. Visual 
indicators also increase visibility for personnel not directly engaged in 
firefighting activities, thus raising the overall safety level of the operation. 
Visual indicators are already common in underwater emergency operations.
Training - Minimal training is necessary. A firefighter simply has to activate 
the device and clip it onto a piece of equipment.
Cost - Individual units range in cost from $30-$ 45. 
Future Trends - These devices are likely to become lighter, brighter, and less 
expensive. 
52 
53 
CHAPTER IX - COMMUNICATIONS 
Clear, concise communications, which are mutually understood by the message 
transmitter and receiver, are an essential component of any effective PAS. A 
wide variety of communication systems are available to keep emergency personnel 
informed and connected to the ICS and PAS in which they operate.
Communications technology can transmit a signal via radio frequency waves or 
through a hardwired cable. Radio signals can be blocked by walls and metal, and 
are limited by distance and can be interfered with by other physical/ electrical 
barriers. It is estimated that radio communica-tion systems are approximately 95 
percent reliable at the most. Hardwired communications equipment may be close to 
100 percent reliable, but might not be as versatile since communication signals 
must travel through a physical wire.
Radio Frequency Systems 
Conventional radio frequency (RF) systems are widespread throughout all aspects 
of the emergency services sector. RF technologies convert a voice message into a 
specific radio wave frequency, measured in megahertz (MHz), and transmit those 
waves to allow other radio units to operate on the same frequency. These units 
then convert the radio waves back into a voice message.
RF systems, standard for fire department handheld and mobile communication 
units, transmit messages in the 25 MHz to 800 MHz radio frequency range. A 
general rule associated with radio waves is that lower frequency waves will 
travel a greater distance than higher frequency waves, but lower frequency waves 
will not be as able to penetrate barriers as higher frequency waves. For 
example, a 40 MHz signal from a standard mobile radio can travel 50 miles or 
more without a signal repeater, whereas an 800 MHz signal would have difficulty 
traveling the same distance, even under ideal conditions. An 800 MHz signal, 
however, can transmit through a concrete enclosed room that would block a 40 MHz 
signal.
Many RF communications systems rely on repeating stations to increase a 
network's range. Repeaters simply take an incoming signal and relay it to the 
radio network, sometimes at an increased strength. Repeating stations located at 
strategic points in an emergency response area increase the range of any one 
particular radio by decreasing the total distance that a radio signal must 
travel.
Trunked Radio Systems 
RF technology, already widely used throughout the emergency response service, 
offers advantages for a wide variety of emergency incidents, since it can 
transmit over a large area and,
54 
depending on the frequency, through a number of obstacles. RF technology does, 
however, have certain limitations. Obstructions such as concrete, metal, 
tunnels, static interference, similar high-powered frequencies, and atmospheric 
disturbances like electrical storms can interfere with radio signal 
transmissions. RF signals are not able to pass below the surface of water and 
are blocked frequently in many confined space emergencies. Technologies that 
address some of these problems are available such as portable repeaters or the 
use of a hardwired communications system.
Trunked radio systems allocate twenty or more channels to a particular radio 
frequency. Trunked radio systems do not require one frequency for every one 
channel; instead, the system picks an open frequency when the user transmits 
over a channel. Trunked systems work on the concept that even though there are a 
multitude of channels available to users, it is extremely unlikely that more 
than a few of them are in use simultaneously at any given moment.
The heart of a trunked system is a computer that assigns users an open 
frequency. This computer selection process is invisible to the user. The 
multiple channel capability of a trunked radio system offers many advantages at 
small-and large-scale rescue or fire incidents. Typically, there are many high 
priority operations occurring simultaneously at an emergency incident. Coor-
dination of the operation can be very difficult if only one or two channels are 
available to rescuers. The new trunked technology could offer multiple channels. 
For instance, each sector of an incident command could use a separate channel, 
while the commanders could utilize another channel for communications and 
coordination among themselves. Commanders, however, would have to monitor 
ongoing operations on the separate channels to ensure that they are coordinated.
A trunked system is designed to allow communications among multiple agencies, 
allowing fire, police, public works, and other agencies to communicate with one 
another, facilitating communications during a disaster. The technology also 
allows other jurisdictions to use the same radio system so that no patching of 
frequencies is necessary. One limitation with the trunked system is that if the 
signal does not reach the central trunked system receiver, the transmission will 
not reach other radios that are connected to the system.
Hardwired Communications Systems 
Hardwired systems are considered to be the most reliable media of communications 
available because a wire or cable directly connects users. Some systems use a 
console to interconnect several users. This allows for duplex communications, 
where two or more of the rescuers can talk simultaneously and everyone is able 
to hear them (similar to a conference call). These systems generally use 
headsets, sometimes with throat microphones, attached to a wire that runs to a 
central console. The headsets and microphones are very compact. The transmit 
button can be placed either in a rescuer's palm, or the system can be voice 
activated. These features facilitate
55 
movement within a confined space or inside a protective suit. Hardwired systems 
can be used effectively at incidents where RF signals cannot penetrate, such as 
confined spaces. Since a wire carries the signal, it is virtually ensured that a 
rescuer can be heard at any time. Many rescuers find the greatest advantage of 
these systems to be the psycho-logical reassurance of knowing that they always 
will be able to communicate, especially when they are out of visual contact with 
non-entry personnel.
Some hardwired units have emergency buttons that can be activated if a rescuer 
needs assistance. Some are intrinsically safe, making them useful at incidents 
where the atmosphere is flammable or explosive, such as silos, sewers, vats, 
storage tanks, or ship hulls. The main power supply for intrinsically safe units 
remains outside the explosive environment, the wire is fully shielded, and it 
conducts only a few milli-volts. Newer hardwired systems are insulated from 
outside electrical signals that can create interference or static.
Divers also can use hardwired communications systems. Underwater communications 
are particularly important in dark or dirty water, where visibility is 
restricted. This technology allows divers to communicate and coordinate their 
efforts. It also allows divers to communicate with rescue personnel on the 
surface. These systems also give psychological reassurance to divers.
The major limitation with any hardwired system is the length of the wire. 
Depending on the system, the wire generally is limited to between 500 and 1,500 
feet. For longer distances, a repeater may be necessary to boost the signal. 
Most hardwired systems are also limited to four or five users, unlike RF systems 
that can accommodate thousands. Sometimes, two hardwired systems can be 
connected at the control console to double the number of users. Users of 
hardwired systems must deal with dragging wire, which may become snagged or 
tangled.
Training - Many departments are already familiar with the use of radio 
communications. However, they may not be used to the tether of a wire and the 
safety hazards it creates. Further, they may need to be trained how to lay down 
the wires and connect them properly.
Cost - Multi-user hardwired systems range from $5,000 to $10,000. 
Future Trends - As long as wireless communications continue to face interference 
from a host of electrical and physical barriers, hardwired communications should 
provide a reliable option to ensure that messages are sent and received in 
emergency situations.
56 
Communications Wire/ Rope 
Many rescue incidents require a safety line (tag line) to be attached to 
rescuers at all times. Rescuers involved in confined space entry, diving, 
rappelling, or swiftwater entry often must use safety lines. Sometimes rescuers 
also need to take a hardwired communications line and/ or an air hose, Self-
Activated Breathing Apparatus (SABA), in with them for air supply. The three 
separate lines may present a hazard to rescuers if they become tangled, twisted, 
or caught.
Communications wire/ rope is technology that com-bines two of these lines into 
one in order to reduce the risk of tangling. It is usually made as a kernmantle, 
with the wire running through the inside of the kern (the rope's inside core). 
The encased wire does not compromise the strength of the rope, allowing it to 
serve as a safety line. Each end of the wire/ rope has a locking coaxial-type 
connection so that it can be attached to a radio, headset, or other 
communications console.
Most communications wire/ rope has a breaking strength of around 5,000 pounds; 
military-grade wire/ rope is rated as high as 9,000 pounds. The rope is made 
from synthetic fibers and is waterproof. Since the wire runs through the center 
of the rope, it is intrinsically safe for rescue operations in flammable 
environments. However, under high stress, the wire portion of the rope could be 
damaged due to the greater elasticity of the rope surrounding it. Communications 
wire/ rope is available in various widths and lengths.
Training - Rescuers would have to be aware of the dangers of their lines getting 
tangled and other dangers inherent in working in confined spaces.
Cost - Communications rope generally costs approximately $3 per foot, if it is 
encased in kernmantle rope.
Future Trends - Since wireless radios often cannot be used during confined space 
res-cues, this could be a reliable way to ensure communication. Hardwired 
systems may become less expensive and more reliable in the future.
Wireless Underwater Radios 
Hardwired communications systems were mentioned previously as a method for 
communi-cating underwater. New technology developments make wireless 
communications possible today. Wireless underwater communications systems 
transmit signals via ultrasonic waves. Some ultra-
57 
sonic systems can transmit signals up to five miles, allowing divers to 
communicate at greater distances than is possible with hardwired underwater 
communications systems; lower powered systems can transmit up to 5,000 feet. 
There is virtually no limit to the number of divers that can receive the signal, 
another advantage over hardwired systems.
The ultrasonic signals cannot travel outside of water (the 33KHz signal does not 
propagate through the air and is limited to line-of-sight transmission). 
Personnel on the surface must lower a transducer (antenna) into the water to 
receive and transmit signals. Some systems also require the divers to drag a 
transducer.
In order to talk underwater, divers must wear full facemasks. Besides offering 
communi-cations capabilities, full facemasks also protect the diver from 
hazardous chemicals or organisms in the water. More expensive communications 
systems use a full facemask with an earphone containing a bone microphone, which 
picks up vocal sounds, carried through a bone (often the skull or jawbone). In 
some models, a part of the microphone assembly itself if made of bone.
Training - Anyone using this technology would have to be familiar with 
underwater rescue and the equipment involved in such a task. Beyond that, a 
rescuer would have to become familiar with the specific system he/ she is using 
and understand its limitations.
Cost - A three-unit wireless system costs approximately $3,000. 
Future Trends - These units may become more powerful, more reliable, and less 
expensive as the technology is developed.
Water-Resistant Communications Equipment 
The use of portable radio equipment to maintain communications and personnel 
accountability is a growing trend in all types of water rescue. Any time 
rescuers are operating around a river or other wet area vital PAS communications 
equipment is exposed to water. Dive support personnel, water rescuers, boat 
operators, and other rescuers use radios that could be damaged by the water (see 
Accountability for Water Rescue Operations section). For these reasons, water-
resistant communications equipment plays an important role in water-rescue 
accountability sys-tems.
58 
Waterproof Radios 
Most major manufacturers of portable two-way radios produce models that are 
waterproof or water-resistant. These radios enable rescuers in the water to 
maintain radio contact with each other and with personnel on the shore.
Training - Only minimal training beyond care and maintenance of waterproof 
radios will be necessary, as most emergency response personnel already will be 
familiar with the operation of portable communications equipment.
Cost - Radio manufacturers often charge a considerable premium (as much as 
$3,000 per radio) for waterproof models. A more affordable alternative is to use 
existing USCG-approved marine band portable radios, which often can be purchased 
for under $200 each. These radios use FCC-approved public frequencies and are 
not limited to use by fire/ rescue personnel.
Future Trends - As this technology is developed, it likely to become less 
expensive and therefore more readily available to the fire service.
Waterproof Radio Bags 
Watertight bags that hold portable radios can be attached to the rescuer's chest 
or waist to carry the portable radio. Waterproof headsets with the microphones 
or throat mikes with palm push-to-talk buttons are ideal for a rescuer who needs 
to communicate with others over loud noises, but who cannot use his/ her hands 
to activate a radio.
Several companies produce rubber or plastic bags designed to protect radio 
equipment from immersion in water and to allow the radios to be operated within 
the bags. This is an inexpensive means to protect radios from accidental 
submersion in water, or for situations in a water-rescue incident where a radio 
is used only rarely. These bags are useful for shore support operations of dive 
or swiftwater incidents, or occasional uses in the water.
Training - Training beyond care and maintenance of waterproof radio bags is not 
necessary, as most emergency response personnel already will be familiar with 
the operation of portable communications equipment. Personnel also might need to 
be trained how to test the bags to ensure a solid water barrier is intact.
Cost - Waterproof radio bags range from $20 to $40 apiece, depending on the 
model and 
59 
manufacturer chosen. 
Future Trends - This technology will continue to be useful as long as waterproof 
radios are prohibitively expensive. Waterproof bags may become more watertight 
and less expensive.
Cellular and Satellite Technology 
Following major disasters, telephone systems may be totally disabled or severely 
limited. Communication cables may be down, incoming and outgoing calls may jam 
circuits, and switching stations may be destroyed. Communications towers of all 
types may be down. Many rescue teams have begun to use alternative telephone 
systems, such as cellular and/ or satellite phones, to work around potential 
telephone problems. Another application of cellular technology to PAS is its use 
as a means to track personnel at the scenes of emergency incidents.
Communications 
When hardwired systems are out of service, cellular phones are one alternative. 
This assumes that the cellular receiving sites are not destroyed. However, with 
the increasing number of cellular phones in use by the public, cells also may 
become jammed and prevent the rescuer's calls from getting through. Cellular 
transmission may not get through if the user is in an area where signals cannot 
reach a receiving cell.
Another communication option is to bypass the local telephone or cellular system 
entirely by using a satellite telephone. Satellite telephones can bypass the 
jammed circuitry of a disaster scene. These expensive units (the size of a 
suitcase) are particularly useful for rescuers in remote areas where neither 
hardwired phones nor cellular receiving sites are available, and might be 
particularly useful on large wildland incidents where radio communications are 
not feasible due to the long range the radio waves would have to travel.
Training - While many people are familiar with the use of cellular phones, 
minimal training might be required to familiarize rescuers with the setup and 
positioning of a satellite phone.
Cost - Cellular phones are commercially available, and rates vary according to 
the region, the service providers, and whether government service plans are 
available. Satellite telephones can cost more than $10,000.
60 
Future Trends - Cellular and satellite phones are becoming more and more common 
in all segments of society. This technology is likely to become less expensive 
and more reliable in the coming years.
Personnel Location 
New cellular technology is also being developed in response to new FCC 
regulations mandating enhanced cellular 911. By the year 2001 locating 
technology must be in place that will locate a cellular caller within 125 
meters. Such technology also has great potential in a PAS, as it may be possible 
to locate signals much more accurately - within 15 feet. Using this increased 
accuracy, "Automatic Personnel Locators" are able to track personnel wearing the 
pager-sized device. Incident commanders would be able to track the positions and 
assignments of personnel on the scene of an emergency incident.
Training - Significant training is not foreseen for this technology. Incident 
commanders would require training in the use of the tracking software available 
for use with this equipment.
Cost - This technology is not yet commercially available, however, it is being 
developed with the intention for its use in public safety. Accordingly, its cost 
will probably not be prohibitive.
Future trends - This is an emerging technology with great potential for use in a 
PAS. As it is refined and developed its use will become more commonplace.
Portable Repeaters 
Rescues deep within a confined space can create communications problems for 
several reasons. First, portable radio signals often cannot reach outside the 
space. Second, a hardwired system may not be able to extend far enough into the 
space to reach the victim.
Some rescuers are testing the viability of portable signal repeater technology 
borrowed from the military and mining industry. These units simply boost the 
signal from the portable radio so that it can reach personnel outside of the 
confined area. Individual repeaters can be placed within the space as rescuers 
enter. Depending on the number of bends and other barriers, the repeaters may be 
placed
61 
closer or farther away from one another. Portable repeater systems can be used 
for entry into caves, ship hulls, sewer lines, and tunnels. A portable repeater 
could be useful to ensure that voice and data transmissions for a PAS are 
received when operations take place over large distances or in areas where 
standard radio transmissions are hampered by construction, remoteness, or 
topography. Portable repeaters are useful in hurricane-and tornado-stricken 
areas as destructive winds usually destroy radio repeater systems. Portable 
repeaters, the size of a suitcase, can be set up throughout a damaged area to 
reestablish communications temporarily. Fire departments could mount a repeater 
on an extended platform ladder, which would act as a temporary communications 
tower.
Training - Personnel would need to know how to set up and monitor the device.
Cost - Units range from $1,800-$ 2,500, depending on the model and the 
manufacturer.
Future Trends - Units are likely to become smaller, less expensive, easier to 
use, and more powerful as the technology is advanced.
Real-Time Video Transmitter 
Damage assessments following a disaster are handled many different ways. Usually 
rescue teams send assessment teams out on foot or by vehicle to assess an area. 
They also watch news video taken by helicopters or use military photographs from 
airplanes and satellites to assess damage. A new technology used currently by 
the military allows real-time video transmission from a remote camera to a 
receiving video monitor.
The system is composed of two briefcase-sized instruments: a transmitter and a 
receiver. The transmitter unit takes a video from a standard or FLIR camera and 
transmits it using microwave technology to a receiving unit, which has a 
portable video monitor. Real-time video transmission is used most often to send 
video from a helicopter to a ground assessment point. The unit can transmit 
sharp video pictures for eight or more miles, depending on the wattage of the 
transmitter. However, its transmission distance decreases when used at lower 
altitudes (below 1,000 feet) and on the ground. This system
62 
has many applications for the remote monitoring of personnel in the context of a 
PAS. For ex-ample, on large wildland fires it could allow IC's to monitor the 
exact locations and actions of crews under their command.
Training - Personnel would have to be trained to set up and monitor the device 
as well as how to transmit and receive images.
Cost - The system costs approximately $40,000. 
Future Trends - For now, the cost of this technology prohibits it from becoming 
widely used in the fire service. However, if it were to become more affordable 
and more widely available, it might have many uses in the fire service.
63 
CHAPTER X - ACCOUNTABILITY FOR WATER RESCUE OPERATIONS 
Water rescue operations present special challenges for emergency response 
personnel ac-countability. This section details some of the special 
considerations and technologies that have been adapted for use in ensuring the 
safety and accountability of personnel operating in, beneath, or around water.
Surf Rescue 
Thousands of surf rescues are performed on beaches and lakes in the United 
States every year. Lifeguard services that conduct surf rescue generally account 
for their personnel through visual and audible signals. Visual signals include 
the use of semaphore signaling with flags to relay information from guard to 
guard. Audible signals are relayed with whistles. Most lifeguard services have 
adopted the use of portable radios or hardwired phone systems over the last 
decade as their primary means of communicating. Lifeguards usually are assigned 
along beachfronts within sight of other lifeguards. When they perform a rescue, 
other lifeguards rotate towards the incident to render further assistance and 
back up the lifeguards making the rescue.
Some areas have lifeguards on bikes or all-terrain vehicles who patrol the beach 
and provide this additional assistance. Some busy beach lifeguard services have 
boats or helicopters that can perform rescues or back up lifeguards in the 
water. Some large lifeguard services use a "tower zero" concept, where a 
centralized lifeguard tower (tower zero) acts as a command center for other 
life-guard towers on the beach. This tower directs guards to respond to rescues, 
rotates other guards to assist or back up guards, fills in gaps in coverage, and 
directs other resources that may be necessary to assist. Accountability 
therefore is maintained through visual observation of operations by other guards 
and regular communications.
Technology for Surf Rescue Accountability 
Little technology is used to account for lifeguards in the water. Personnel 
accountability usually takes the form of a voice or visual roll call following a 
rescue. However, some services employ GPS for their rescue boats, or use 
enhanced imaging systems such as night vision devices or infrared cameras to 
conduct searches for victims in the water.
Dive Rescue and Recovery 
Departments that provide dive rescue and recovery teams maintain personnel 
accountability through "tenders" for dive operations. Each diver is assigned a 
topside tender to assist with entry and exit from the water and to maintain 
communications with divers during operations. A designated dive safety officer 
(who checks the divers and their systems) and a dive commander (who oversees the 
entire operation) also aid in maintaining personnel accountability.
64 
Aspects of dive operations are similar to confined space rescues. A typical dive 
operation will consist of a rescue diver, a backup emergency diver (to provide 
assistance or rescue for the first diver), and a "90-percent" diver (a third 
diver who is 90-percent suited-up and prepared to back up the emergency diver if 
he/ she enters the water).
Technology for Dive Rescue and Recovery Operations Accountability Rescue and 
recovery diving employs a variety of sophisticated equipment. Specific 
accountability technologies used include many types of communications gear, 
including hardwired and wireless communications equipment (discussed earlier in 
the Communications chapter, page 62).
Traditional rescue diving often includes tethering divers to ropes where they 
can use line signals to communicate with the surface by tugging on the rope. 
Hand signals or boards to write messages underwater also are used. Some divers 
use strobe lights or luminescent markers such as cyalume light sticks to mark 
themselves or their lines.
Some dive teams also use high-tech equipment before inserting divers into the 
water. This includes underwater cameras and towed sonar arrays that can help 
locate victims or objects underwater and enable divers to engage directly in 
recovery operations without conducting long underwater searches. Despite these 
procedures, diving remains a high-risk operation and it must be conducted by 
rescuers with appropriate rescue diving training.
Swiftwater Rescue Accountability 
Flash floods and moving water claim the lives of several hundred people each 
year. Increasingly, fire departments and EMS agencies are responding to 
incidents where people have become trapped in flooded creeks, roadways, or 
drainage spillways. These are dangerous events that claim the lives of would-be 
rescuers every year. In 1995, three firefighters died while attempting rescues 
in swiftwater.
Accountability for personnel at these rescues is maintained with the use of 
standard incident management and PAS practices. Personnel work in teams with 
backup safety personnel standing by, and are tracked by visual or radio contact. 
Standard practices often include having a designated downstream safety team in 
case a victim or rescuer is swept away. If personnel are available, an upstream 
safety team also is assigned to warn of hazards such as logs or other large 
debris that could be floating downstream towards rescuers and victims.
All personnel should be able to communicate via radios, and many teams use 
whistle signals to sound alerts or warnings. Helicopters or boats often are 
used, either as backup or as primary
65 
rescue methods, depending upon the scenario faced by rescuers. Any PAS employed 
should ensure that the crews of these units are included. As with any emergency 
incident, a disciplined incident command structure is the best method to account 
for the safety of all personnel. Each part of the rescue team must understand 
its assignment and role in the rescue operation.
Recently, some of the FEMA-sponsored US& R Teams have added local flood rescue 
response capabilities. They maintain accountability for their personnel through 
strong ICS, using backup units, and assigning appropriate personnel portable 
radios. Some individual fire departments also use their fireground 
accountability systems to track personnel at these types of incidents.
Technology for Swiftwater Rescue Operations Accountability 
Some technologies have been adapted to account for personnel during swiftwater 
rescue operations. Many departments use color-coded lifejackets. Swiftwater team 
members or members with specialized training wear lifejackets of a certain 
color, first responders wear another color, and civilians (or victims) yet 
another color. This helps personnel visually track members operating at the 
scene and allows them to differentiate quickly between a rescue swimmer who 
might be operating in the water and a civilian or support person who has slipped 
accidentally into the water and may need rescue.
Waterproof radios or radio bags (see Communications chapter) often are used to 
allow rescuers to maintain radio contact with other personnel. GPS tracking is 
being used more often to direct helicopters, boats, and land search teams to 
rescue locations. PAS during nighttime operations is aided greatly by 
technologies such as night vision, thermal imaging, or FLIR camera systems (see 
Visual Safety Aids). Additionally, color-coded light sticks often are used to 
track rescuers and boats.
66 
67 
APPENDIX A - IAFF/ IAFC GUIDANCE ON THE OSHA 2-IN/ 2-OUT POLICY 
This is a reprint of a document published by the IAFF/ IAFC regarding OSHA's 
revision of the 2-in/ 2-out policy.
The federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recently issued 
a revised standard regarding respiratory protection. Among other changes, the 
regulation now requires that interior structural fire fighting procedures 
provide for at least two fire fighters inside the structure. Two fire fighters 
inside the structure must have direct visual or voice contact between each other 
and direct, voice or radio contact with fire fighters outside the structure. 
This section has been dubbed the fire fighters' "two-in/ two-out" regulation. 
The International Association of Fire Fighters and the International Association 
of Fire Chiefs are providing the following questions and answers to assist you 
in understanding the section of the regulation related to interior structural 
fire fighting.
1. What is the federal OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard? In 1971, federal 
OSHA adopted a respiratory protection standard requiring employers to establish 
and maintain a respiratory protection program for their respirator-wearing 
employees. The revised standard strengthens some requirements and eliminates 
duplicative requirements in other OSHA health standards.
The standard specifically addresses the use of respirators in immediately 
dangerous to life or health (IDLH) atmospheres, including interior structural 
fire fighting. OSHA defines structures that are involved in fire beyond the 
incipient stage as IDLH atmospheres. In these atmospheres, OSHA requires that 
personnel use self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), that a minimum of two 
fire fighters work as a team inside the structure, and that a minimum of two 
fire fighters be on standby outside the structure to provide assistance or 
perform rescue.
2. Why is this standard important to fire fighters? This standard, with its two-
in/ two-out provision, may be one of the most important safety advances for fire 
fighters in this decade. Too many fire fighters have died because of 
insufficient accountability and poor communications. The standard addresses both 
and leaves no doubt that two-in/ two-out requirements must be followed for fire 
fighter safety and compliance with the law.
United States Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration 
Fire Fighters' Two-In/ Two-Out Regulation
68 
3. Which fire fighters are covered by these regulations? The federal OSHA 
standard applies to all private sector workers engaged in fire fighting 
activities through industrial fire brigades, private incorporated fire companies 
(including the "employees" of incorporated volunteer companies and private fire 
departments contracting to public jurisdictions) and federal fire fighters. In 
23 states and 2 territories, the state, not the federal government, has 
responsibility for enforcing worker health and safety regulations. These "state 
plan" states have earned the approval of federal OSHA to implement their own 
enforcement programs. These states must establish and maintain occupational 
safety and health programs for all public employees that are as effective as the 
programs for private sector employees. In addition, state safety and health 
regulations must be at least as stringent as federal OSHA regulations. Federal 
OSHA has no direct enforcement authority over state and local governments in 
states that do not have state OSHA plans.
All professional career fire fighters, whether state, county, or municipal, in 
any of the states or territories where an OSHA state plan agreement is in 
effect, have the protection of all federal OSHA health and safety standards, 
including the new respirator standard and its requirements for fire fighting 
operations. The following states have OSHA-approved plans and must enforce the 
two-in/ two-out provision for all fire departments.
Alaska Kentucky North Carolina Virginia 
Arizona Maryland Oregon Virgin Islands 
California Michigan Puerto Rico Washington 
Connecticut Minnesota South Carolina Wyoming 
Hawaii Nevada Tennessee 
Indiana New Mexico Utah 
Iowa New York Vermont 
A number of other states have adopted, by reference, federal OSHA regulations 
for public employee fire fighters. These states include Florida, Illinois and 
Oklahoma. In these states, the regulations carry the force of state law.
Additionally, a number of states have adopted NFPA standards, including NFPA 
1500, Standard for Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program. The 
1997 edition of NFPA 1 500 now includes requirements corresponding to OSHA's 
respiratory protection regulation. Since the NFPA is a private consensus 
standards organization, its recommendations are preempted by OSHA regulations 
that are more stringent. In other words, the OSHA regulations are the minimum 
requirement where they are legally applicable. There is nothing in federal 
regulations that "deem compli-ance" with any consensus standards, including NFPA 
standards, if the consensus standards are less stringent. 
It is unfortunate that all U. S. and Canadian fire fighters are not covered by 
the OSHA respiratory protection standard. However, we must consider the two-in/ 
two-out requirements to be the minimum acceptable standard for safe fire ground 
operations for all fire fighters when self-contained breathing apparatus is 
used.
69 
4. When are two-in/ two-out procedures required for fire fighters? OSHA states 
that "once fire fighters begin the interior attack on an internal or structural 
fire, the atmosphere is assumed to be IDLH and paragraph 29 CFR 1910.134( g)( 4) 
[two-in/ two-out] applies." OSHA defines interior structural fire fighting "as 
the physical activity of fire suppression, rescue or both inside of buildings or 
enclosed structures which are involved in a fire situation beyond the incipient 
stage." OSHA further defines an incipient stage fire in 29 CFR 1910.1 55( c)( 
26) as a "fire which is in the initial or beginning stage and which can be 
controlled or extinguished by portable fire extinguishers, Class II standpipe or 
small hose systems without the need for protective clothing or breathing 
apparatus." Any structural fire beyond incipient stage is considered to be an 
IDLH atmosphere by OSHA.
5. What respiratory protection is required for interior structural fire 
fighting? OSHA requires that all fire fighters engaged in interior structural 
fire fighting must wear SCBAs. SCBAs must be NIOSH-certified, positive pressure, 
with a minimum duration of 30 minutes. [29 CFR 1910.156( f)( 1)( ii)] and [29 
CFR 1910.134( g)( 4)( iii)]
6. Are all fire fighters performing interior structural fire fighting operations 
required to operate in a buddy system with two or more personnel?
Yes. OSHA clearly requires that all workers engaged in interior structural fire 
fighting op-erations beyond the incipient stage use SCBA and work in teams of 
two or more. [29 CFR 1910.1 34( g)( 4)( i)]
7. Are fire fighters in the interior of the structure required to be in direct 
contact with one another?
Yes. Fire fighters operating in the interior of the structure must operate in a 
buddy system and maintain voice or visual contact with one another at all times. 
This assists in assuring accountability within the team. [29 CFR 1910.134( g)( 
4)( i)]
8. Can radios or other means of electronic contact be substituted for visual or 
voice contact, allowing fire fighters in an interior structural fire to separate 
from their "buddy" or "buddies"?
No. Due to the potential of mechanical failure or reception failure of 
electronic communication devices, radio contact is not acceptable to replace 
visual or voice contact between the members of the "buddy system" team. Also, 
the individual needing rescue may not be physically able to operate an 
electronic device to alert other members of the interior team that assistance is 
needed.
70 
Radios can and should be used for communications on the fire ground, including 
communications between the interior fire fighter team( s) and exterior fire 
fighters. They cannot, however, be the sole tool for accounting for one's 
partner in the interior of a structural fire. (29 CFR 1910.134( g)( 4)( i)] [29 
CFR 1910.134( g)( 3)( ii)]
9. Are fire fighters required to be present outside the structural fire prior to 
a team entering and during the team's work in the hazard area?
Yes. OSHA requires at least one team of two or more properly equipped and 
trained fire fighters be present outside the structure before any team( s) of 
fire fighters enter the structural fire. This requirement is intended to assure 
that the team outside the structure has the training, clothing and equipment to 
protect themselves and, if necessary, safely and effectively rescue fire 
fighters inside the structure. For high-rise operations, the team( s) would be 
staged below the IDLH atmosphere. [29 CFR 1910.134( g)( 3)( iii)]
10. Do these regulations mean that, at a minimum, four individuals are required, 
that is, two individuals working as a team in the interior of the structural 
fire and two individuals outside the structure for assistance or rescues?
Yes. OSHA requires that a minimum of two individuals, operating as a team in 
direct voice or visual contact, conduct interior fire fighting operations 
utilizing SCBA. In addition, a minimum of two individuals who are properly 
equipped and trained must be positioned outside the IDLH atmo-sphere, account 
for the interior team( s) and remain capable of rapid rescue of the interior 
team. The outside personnel must at all times account for and be available to 
assist or rescue members of the interior team. [29 CFR 1910.1 34( g)( 4)]
11. Does OSHA permit the two individuals outside the hazard area to be engaged 
in other activities, such as incident command or fire apparatus operation (for 
example, pump or aerial operators)?
OSHA requires that one of the two outside person's function is to account for 
and, if necessary, initiate a fire fighter rescue. Aside from this individual 
dedicated to tracking interior personnel, the other designated person( s) is 
permitted to take on other roles, such as incident commander in charge of the 
emergency incident, safety officer or equipment operator. However, the other 
designated outside person( s) cannot be assigned tasks that are critical to the 
safety and health of any other employee working at the incident.
Any task that the outside fire fighter( s) performs while in standby rescue 
status must not interfere with the responsibility to account for those 
individuals in the hazard area. Any task, evolution, duty, or function being 
performed by the standby individual( s) must be such that the work can be 
abandoned, without placing any employee at additional risk, if rescue or other 
assistance is needed. [29 CFR 1910.134( g)( 4)( Note 1)]
71 
12. If a rescue operation is necessary, must the buddy system be maintained 
while entering the interior structural fire? Yes. Any entry into an internal or 
structural fire beyond the incipient stage, regardless of the reason, must be 
made in teams of two or more individuals. (29 CFR 1910.1 34( g)( 4)( i)]
13. Do the regulations require two individuals outside for each team of 
individuals operating in the interior of a structural fire?
The regulations do not require a separate "two-out" team for each team operating 
in the structure. However, if the incident escalates, if accountability cannot 
be properly maintained from a single exposure, or if rapid rescue becomes 
infeasible, additional outside crews must be added. For example, if the involved 
structure is large enough to require entry at different locations or levels, 
additional "two-out" teams would be required. [29 CFR 1910.134( g)( 4)]
14. If four fire fighters are on scene of an interior structural fire, is it 
permissible to enter the structure with a team of two?
OSHA's respiratory protection standard is not about counting heads. Rather, it 
dictates functions of fire fighters prior to an interior attack. The entry team 
must consist of at least two individuals. qf the two fire fighters outside, one 
must perform accountability functions and be immediately available for fire 
fighter rescue. As explained above, the other may perform other tasks, as long 
as those tasks do not interfere with the accountability functions and can be 
abandoned to perform fire fighter rescue. Depending on the operating procedures 
of the fire department, more than four individuals may be required. [29 CFR 
1910.1 34( g)( 4)( i)]
15. Does OSHA recognize any exceptions to this regulation? OSHA regulations 
recognize deviations to regulations in an emergency operation where im-mediate 
action is necessary to save a life. For fire department employers, initial 
attack operations must be organized to ensure that adequate personnel are at the 
emergency scene prior to any interior attack at a structural fire. If initial 
attack personnel find a known life hazard situation where immediate action could 
prevent the loss of life, deviation from the two-in/ two-out standard may be 
permitted, as an exception to the fire department's organizational plan.
However, such deviations from the regulations must be exceptions and not defacto 
standard practices. In fact, OSHA may still issue "de minimis" citations for 
such deviations from the standard, meaning that the citation will not require 
monetary penalties or corrective action. The exception is for a known life 
rescue only, not for standard search and rescue activities. When the exception 
becomes the practice, OSHA citations are authorized. [29 CFR 1910.1 34( g)( 4)( 
Note 2)]
72 
16. Does OSHA require employer notification prior to any rescue by outside 
personnel? Yes. OSHA requires the fire department or fire department designee 
(i. e. incident commander) be notified prior to any rescue of fire fighters 
operating in an IDLH atmosphere. The fire department would have to provide any 
additional assistance appropriate to the emergency, including the notification 
of on-scene personnel and incoming units. Additionally, any such actions taken 
in accordance with the "exception" provision should be thoroughly investigated 
by the fire department with a writ-ten report submitted to the Fire Chief. [29 
CFR 1910.1 34( g)( 3)( iv)]
17. How do the regulations affect fire fighters entering a hazardous environment 
that is not an interior structural fire?
Fire fighters must adhere to the two-in/ two-out regulations for other emergency 
response operations in any IDLH, potential IDLH, or unknown atmosphere. OSHA 
permits one standby per-son only in those IDLH environments in fixed workplaces, 
not fire emergency situations. Such sites, in normal operating conditions, 
contain only hazards that are known, well characterized, and well controlled. 
[29 CFR 1910.120( q)( 3)( vi)]
18. When is the new regulation effective? The revised OSHA respiratory 
protection standard was released by the Department of Labor and published in the 
Federal Register on january 8, 1 998. It is effective on April 8, 1998. "State 
Plan" states have six months from the release date to implement and enforce the 
new regulations.
Until the April 8 effective date, earlier requirements for two-in/ two-out are 
in effect. The formal interpretation and compliance memo issued by James W. 
Stanley, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Labor, on May 1, 1 995 and the compliance 
memo issued by Assistant Secretary of Labor Joe Dear on July 30, 1 996 establish 
that OSHA interprets the earlier 1971 regulation as requiring two-in/ two-out. 
(29 CFR 1910.134( n)( 1)]
19. How does a fire department demonstrate compliance with the regulations? Fire 
departments must develop and implement standard operating procedures addressing 
fire ground operations and the two-in/ two-out procedures to demonstrate 
compliance. Fire department training programs must ensure that fire fighters 
understand and implement appropriate two-in/ two-out procedures. [29 CFR 
1910.134( c)]
20. What can be done if the fire department does not comply? Federal OSHA and 
approved state plan states must"- assure so far as possible every work-ing man 
and woman in the Nation safe and healthful working conditions." To ensure such 
protection, federal OSHA and states with approved state plans are authorized to 
enforce safety and health stan-dards. These agencies must investigate complaints 
and conduct inspections to make sure that specific
73 
standards are met and that the workplace is generally free from recognized 
hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm. Federal OSHA and state 
occupational safety and health agencies must investigate written complaints 
signed by current employees or their representatives regarding hazards that 
threaten serious physical harm to workers. By law, federal and state OSHA 
agencies do not reveal the name of the person filing the complaint, if he or she 
so requests. Complaints regarding imminent danger are investigated even if they 
are unsigned or anonymous. For all other complaints (from other than a current 
employee, or unsigned, or anonymous), the agency may send a letter to the 
employer describing the complaint and requesting a response. It is important 
that an OSHA (either federal or state) complaint be in writing.
When an OSHA inspector arrives, he or she displays official credentials and asks 
to see the employer. The inspector explains the nature of the visit, the scope 
of the inspection and applicable standards. A copy of any employee complaint 
(edited, if requested, to conceal the employee's iden-tity) is available to the 
employer. An employer representative may accompany the inspector during the 
inspection. An authorized representative of the employees, if any, also has the 
right to participate in the inspection. The inspector may review records, 
collect information and view work sites. The inspector may also interview 
employees in private for additional information. Federal law prohibits 
discrimination in any form by employers against workers because of anything that 
workers say or show the inspector during the inspection or for any other OSHA 
protected safety-related activity.
Investigations of imminent danger situations have top priority. An imminent 
danger is a hazard that could cause death or serious physical harm immediately, 
or before the danger can be eliminated through normal enforcement procedures. 
Because of the hazardous and unpredictable nature of the fire ground, a fire 
department's failure to comply with the two-in/ two-out requirements creates an 
imminent danger and the agency receiving a related complaint must provide an 
immediate response. If inspectors find imminent danger conditions, they will ask 
for immediate voluntary correction of the hazard by the employer or removal of 
endangered employees from the area. If an employer fails to do so, federal OSHA 
can go to federal district court to force the employer to comply. State 
occupational safety and health agencies rely on state courts for similar 
authority.
Federal and state OSHA agencies are required by law to issue citations for 
violations of safety and health standards. The agencies are not permitted to 
issue warnings. Citations include a description of the violation, the proposed 
penalty (if any), and the date by which the hazard must be corrected. Citations 
must be posted in the workplace to inform employees about the violation and the 
corrective action. [29 CFR 1903.3( a)]
It is important for labor and management to know that this regulation can also 
be used as evidence of industry standards and feasibility in arbitration and 
grievance hearings on fire fighter safety, as well as in other civil or criminal 
legal proceedings involving injury or death where the cause can be attributed to 
employer failure to implement two-in/ two-out procedures. Regardless of OSHA's 
enforcement authority, this federal regulation links fire ground operations with 
fire fighter safety.
74 
21. What can be done if a fire fighter does not comply with fire department 
operating procedures for two-in/ two-out?
Fire departments must amend any existing policies and operational procedures to 
address the two-in/ two-out regulations and develop clear protocols and 
reporting procedures for deviations from these fire department policies and 
procedures. Any individual violating this safety regulation should face 
appropriate departmental action.
22. How can I obtain additional information regarding the OSHA respirator 
standard and the two-in/ two-out provision?
Affiliates of the International Association of Fire Fighters may contact: 
International Association of Fire Fighters 
Department of Occupational Health and Safety 
1750 New York Avenue, NW 
Washington, DC 20006 
202-737-8484 
202-737-8418 (FAX) 
Members of the International Association of Fire Chiefs may contact: 
International Association of Fire Chiefs 
4025 Fair Ridge Drive 
Fairfax, VA 22033-2868 
703-273-0911 
703-273-9363 (FAX) 
75 
APPENDIX B - EXAMPLES OF PERSONNEL ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEMS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED 
STATES 
The following are examples of personnel accountability Standard Operating 
Procedures (SOPs) from fire/ rescue departments throughout the United States. 
76 
GENERAL ORDER 95-009 
December 1, 1995 
SUBJECT: MANDATORY USE OF PERSONAL ALERT SAFETY SYSTEMS 
(PASS ALARMS) 
I. PURPOSE 
This order: 
A. establishes the Chicago Fire Department's policy and procedures regarding the 
mandatory use of Personal Alert Safety Systems (PASS Alarms).
B. defines department and member responsibilities in the maintenance, repair and 
replacement of pass alarms.
C. becomes effective December 16, 1995. 
I. POLICY 
A. In the event a member or members become disabled or trapped at an incident, 
the use of the pass alarm shall enable the member or members who are so 
equipped, to be located more readily.
B. It is mandatory that all personnel - with the exception of engineers - 
engaged in suppression activities, responding to a fire (confirmed or 
unconfirmed), hazardous materials incident, and all other incidents of an 
unknown nature, wear and activate their pass alarm device upon arrival at the 
scene of the incident.
C. The pass alarm will be affixed to the department issued utility belt, or to 
the pass alarm device holder if the member's turnout coat is so equipped.
I. PROCEDURE 
A. All members equipped with pass alarms shall wear and activate their devices 
on the fire ground or emergency scene. Possible exceptions would be at ambulance
77 
assist incidents or T. O. C. inspections, etc, where pass alarm would be worn by 
the member but no activated.
B. The wearing and use of the pass alarm device is required on the fire ground, 
with the exception of those chief officers and other personnel operating at the 
command post, staging area or similar areas.
C. A pass alarm device that is damaged (unserviceable) not due to a member's 
negligence, shall be replaced at the department's expense. If negligence is 
determined the member shall replace the pass alarm, as per department policy, 
and may also result in appropriate discipline.
I. TESTING OF PASS ALARM DEVICES 
A. Immediately, upon completion of testing their sefl contained breathing 
apparatus each morning, all chiefs, company officers and firefighters shall test 
their pass alarm device that has been turned over to them by their relief.
B. The results of the pass alarm device shall be reported to the company 
officer, who shall record the results in the company journal. The information in 
the journal shall consist of the pass alarm unit identification number alongside 
the name of the member using the unit.
C. Pass alarms shall be retested after each use during the duty day. 
D. Chief officers assigned to non-platoon duty shall test their pass alarms at 
least once each week and after each use.
E. Any need for a replacement battery, defects, or requests for service shall be 
immediately reported through channels to district headquarters by the company 
officer. District chiefs/ deputy district chiefs shall be responsible for 
contacting Breathing Apparatus Service, and for issuing a spare pass alarm unit 
until the problem has been resolved.
F. The results of all testing, replacement of batteries, or exchange of units 
shall be logged on the individual record card for that pass alarm device, 
indicating who performed the activity and the name of the officer who supervised 
such activity.
78 
I. RESPONSIBILITIES 
A. Chief officers and company officers shall enter the receipt of all pass alarm 
devices into their company inventory records.
B. Chief officers and company officers shall have the joint responsibility to 
ensure all personnel are in compliance with this order.
79 
Canandaigua Fire Department S. O. P. 
Accountability # A-014 
Date: 4-1-91 
I. PURPOSE 
A. It is necessary to be able to account for all personnel that may be assigned 
to or working at the scene of an emergency. Occasionally, our members respond on 
a fire apparatus as does the mutual aid personnel. Generally, our personnel will 
respond to the scene in their private automobile and participate in the 
emergency operation. We must ensure that all personnel, regardless of the method 
of transportation, will be accounted for in case of a change in strategies such 
as changing from an offensive position to a defensive position, a building 
collapse, or other circumstance that would require an accounting for all 
personnel at the scene.
II. METHOD 
A. A name tag shall be issued to every active firefighter. This tay will be 
attached to the outside of the firefighter's turnout coat. Note that they were 
made purposefully large to aid as a reminder to use them.
B. On arrival at the scene of every incident all firefighters will clip their 
accountability tags on the collection ring of the first arriving apparatus.
C. When putting on an airpack, the firefighter will take the airpack tag off the 
breathing apparatus and clip it on their own accountability tag ring, even if it 
is already on the collection ring.
D. Upon returning to the apparatus just prior to returning to service, you 
should retrieve your name tag from the apparatus collection ring.
E. Leave the airpack tag on your personal ring until the breathing apparatus is 
put back in service.
80 
III. OFFICERS 
A. Firefighters should be working under your direction in teams of two or more. 
Firefighters entering the structure should be doing so in order to accomplish a 
tactical objective. If not needed inside, they should be held together in 
readiness until the incident commander assigns your team/ crew an assignment. 
Once you and/ or your team/ crew enters the struc-ture, someone should be aware 
that you are entering, the approximate area where you are going, the general 
time when you are entering, and the number of personnel going inside. It may be 
the incident commander, safety officer, pump operator, or other person that you 
inform. The intent is if conditions should deteriorate, someone would know your 
approximate location and the number of persons we are looking for.
B. The incident commander should advise mutual aid officers and firefighters of 
the procedure and establish a means of accounting for them.
IV. FIREFIGHTERS 
A. It is imperative that you inform someone prior to entering the structure so 
that in the event of a deterioration of conditions, someonw will be aware of 
your position and be looking for you. A system of communication must be 
maintained so that the firefighters may be notified or that firefighters may 
inform persons outside of problems. The tag system is intended to identify the 
number and names of persons who may be in need or assistance and for your 
safety. Please help make it work.
V. COMMUNICATIONS 
A. Each team/ crew entering a structure should have a portable radio, be given a 
tactival objective and assigned a team/ crew identification, i. e. Interior 1, 
Search 1, etc.
81 
PERSONAL ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEM (P. A. S.) 
In February of 1996, Versailles Fire-Rescue implemented an accountability system 
to keep up with personnel at fire scenes. Each firefighter and officer has a 2" 
by 4" laminated ID tag which hangs from the back of their helmet at the station. 
Each tag contains the following information (but not necessarily in this order): 
 Photo-Name-Unit Number 
 Rank-Station-Apparatus Assignment 
 Blood Type-Allergies-Medications 
 Emergency Contacts 
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE 
1. I. D. tags shall be attached to the firefighter helmet attachment ring. 
2. Upon fire runs, all firefighters will remove I. D. tags and give to the 
officer of the apparatus or the individual in the officer seat before reaching 
the scene.
3. The officer will make sure that he or she has all the I. D. tags of his or 
her personnel and attach them to the P. A. S. ring hanging inside the apparatus.
4. Each apparatus P. A. S ring will have the apparatus number on it. 
5. If at the scene an incident command post is established, the officer of each 
apparatus will remove the ring and take it to the I. C. for assignments.
6. If upon arrival at the scene, an I. C. post is not already extablished, the 
officer will leave the P. A. S ring in the apparatus and if needed it will be 
retrieved by the safety officer.
7. At the completion of the incident, the officer of each apparatus will make 
sure the P. A. S ring is in the apparatus, and if not, he or she will retrieve 
it from the I. C. post and reinstall it before leaving the scene.
8. Upon return to the station, each firefighter will re-attach the I. D. tag to 
their helmet ring. 
82 
PERSONNEL ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEM 
MARION COUNTY FIRE RESCUE 
1. PURPOSE 
To establish a procedure to account for personnel at the scene of an emergency 
incident. 
2. RESPONSIBILITY 
It shall be the responsibility of every member of the MCFR to have thorough 
knowledge of this Standard Operating Guideline and to follow its guidelines so 
that the appropriate steps are taken to ensure personnel accountability at all 
times during an emergency incident.
3. POLICY 
The personnel accountability system gives the incident commanders a fast, 
effective and efficient means to account for all fire rescue members at any 
point during an operation. In order to ensure the effectiveness of this system 
and the subsequent safety of all personnel, accountability procedures will be 
strictly adhered to at all times.
4. PROCEDURES 
A. Personnel Accountability Card (PAC) 
Every member of the MCFR will be issued a PAC that will be printed with their 
name, appropriate information and be color coded by rank. 
WHITE - Battalion Chief and above 
RED - Lieutenants, Captains and Station Captains 
BLUE - Firefighter/ Paramedics and EMTs 
YELLOW - Combat Qualified Firefighters 
ORANGE - Support Members 
83 
GREEN - Unit Identification Tags 
1. Each member shall keep his/ her PAC with their bunker gear when not on duty 
or when not assigned to a unit. The PAC will be attached to the front of the 
bunker coat so that it is easily visible.
2. Replacements are available through the Training and Safety Division. A. 
Collector Ring Each emergency vehicle, except automobiles, shall be equipped 
with a PAC collector ring.
1. The collector ring shall consist of a large ring with a unit identification 
tag attached.
2. The collector ring shall be maintained in the cab of each unit in such a 
manner that it is readily accessible and removable.
B. Information Gathering Components 
1. Each first due apparatus shall be equipped with two grease pencis and a 
supply of towels.
2. Battalion Chiefs shall have in their vehicle an expanded accountability 
board. These boards will be used to assemble information about the incident upon 
their arrival at the scene.
5. IMPLEMENTATION 
A. Upon being dispatched to a call, the firefighters will attach their PAC o the 
collector ring on the responding unit. Stations with only one unit may place 
their PACs on the ring at the start of the duty tour.
B. Upon arrival at the scene, the first due unit shall announce that they are 
assuming command and announce the command post location in accordance with the 
MCFR SOGs. If the situation warrants, the first due unit may pass command to the 
next in unit.
84 
C. If possible, the unit that assumes command will use their grease pencil to 
write unit assignments on a window of their unit. All collector rings will be 
brought to this unit upon being assigned a task.
D. Upon arrival, the responding chief officer will proceed to the command post 
to review the information and take command.
E. Upon transfer of command the chief officer shall retrieve all collector rings 
and attach them to his/ her expanded accountability board. At this time the 
chief officer shall announce that he/ she has assumed command and the new 
location of the command post.
F. It shall be the responsibility of the Incident Commander to maintain the 
collector rings under the proper sector throughout the entire operation. The 
exception will be when a crew is sent to rehab; at this time the crew will take 
their tags with them and the IC shall note this in his/ her records.
G. It shall be the company officer's responsibility to account for all of his/ 
her firefighters whenever finished with an assigned task and prior to leaving 
the scene.
H. It shall be the responsibility of the individual member to ensure that his/ 
her PAC be reattached to their gear upon return to quarters.
I. It shall be the responsibility of the driver to ensure that the collector 
ring, as well as the grease pencil, be returned to the unit upon being released 
from the scene.
6. PROCEDURE FOR LOCATING A MISSING FIREFIGHTER OR CREW 
A. General protocol 
1. Roll call of crews will be taken directly after every benchmark: 
 Completion of primary search 
 Fire out 
 Completion of secondary search 
85 
 Completion of overhaul 
 When changing from offensive to defensive operations 
B. Action to be taken upon a supervisors knowledge of missing crew. 
1. When a supervisor presumes a firefighter or company may be missing or 
trapped, the supervisor shall initiate rescue efforts as soon as possible at the 
last known location. This information will be transmitted to the IC and he/ she 
shall initiate a roll call of the emergency incident to confirm the status of 
the missing personnel.
2. Whenever possible the roll call procedure should follow this example: 
"Command to dispatch and all sectors, an inidentified MAYDAY distress call has 
been transmitted." Command to all sectors, "conduct a roll call of your units."
"Command to fire sector, report"- "Fire to command, all accounted for." "Command 
to roof sector, report"- "Roof to command, all accounted for." "Command to side 
3, report"- "Side 3 to command, all accounted for." "Command to dispatch, all 
accounted for."
7. Roll Calls: All roll calls at the company level should be done by face to 
face communications so that the radio can be kept clear. Also, while roll call 
is taking place all crews will be securing their assignments and preparing for 
possible search and rescue orders. If a search is necessary, the IC will 
formulate the plan with the area supervisor at the last known location. This 
face to face roll call will take place at any of the previously mentioned 
benchmarks.
8. Evaluation Signal: The standard evacuation signal will be three long blasts 
on an air horn. At the same time, the communications center will send a "warble 
tone" over the fire ground channel for five seconds, then announce: "Attention 
all personnel operation at the incident on ________, EVACUATE THE BUILDING 
IMMEDIATELY!" They will repeat this again on all channels.
86