# Presentation: 279206

## Floodplain ManagementSESSION 5

**Stream Systems on Dynamic Earth**
**Land Use & Cover**
**Prepared By**
**Donald R. Reichmuth, PhD.**

**Notes:**
Title Page for Session 5

## Land Use Framework

**Objectives:**
**Vegetative cover, animal use, and human activity significantly influence floodplain stability.**
**North America, until recent times, was biologically isolated from other landmasses. ****(Optional****)**
**vegetation response in North America to climate change during the last 20K years.**
**Humans have moved into North America and altered the environment. ****(Optional****) **
**Large North American animal habitat and populations have varied during the last 15K years and how these changes have altered floodplains. ****(Part Optional – I and II)**
**Exotic species of plants and animals that have invaded North America and impacted streams and floodplains. ****(Optional) **
**Human-induced reasons that have caused the dawning of a new geologic age.**
**Land use and land cover within the context case study floodplains.**

**Notes:**
Land Use Framework -- This slide lays out the objectives to be presented in this session.  The instructor should be tell the students what they are going to hear; then present the information and finally tell them what was said. 

## River Basin Stability

**Controlling Factors:**
- 		**Vegetative Cover**
- 			**Soil Type**
**	****	****	****Precipitation Patterns**
**	****	****	****Exposure**
- 		**Land Use**
**Benefits**
- 		**Moderates Runoff**
**	****	****Protects Stream Banks**

**Notes:**
River Basin Stability – Vegetative cover and land use significantly influence how stabile a river basin will be.  When river basins are relatively stable, runoff is moderated and stream bank erosion is minimized.

## Biologic Isolation

**Continental Drift**
- 		**North/South America**
- 			**Separate Independently**
**	****	****	****	****About 200 Million Years Ago**
**	****	****	****Join 2 Million Years Ago**
**	****	****	****	****Panamanian Land Bridge**
- 		**North America**
- 			**Sporadic Contact With Siberia**
**	****	****	****Bering Land Bridge**

**Notes:**
Biologic Isolation – The North and South American continents were isolated land masses for about 200 million years.  Approximately 2 million years ago, they became joined by the Panamanian Land Bridge.  Throughout much of the 200 million interval, North America had sporadic contact with Siberia across the Bering Land Bridge.

## Land Bridge Migration Patterns

**Notes:**
Land Bridge Migration Patterns – When the Panamanian Land Bridge formed two million years ago, animals then had a route between continents.  Because South America was more isolated, the megafauna  there did not face as much competition as did the megafauna of North America.  Consequently, 22 mammal families were able to move south while only the armadillo was able to move north because the North American mammals were more competitive. .

## Climate Change

**Last Glaciation**
**	****	****	****Starts 35K Years Ago**
**Climate Begins Warming**
**	****	****	****16K Years Ago**
**Modern Conditions Near**
- 			**6K Years Ago**
**	****	****	****Most North American Ice Melted**
**Climate Becomes Unstable**
**	****	****	****Present**
**	****	****	****Affected By Industrial Revolution**

**Notes:**
Climate Change – The climate began warming about 16K years ago after the last glacial maximum had passed.  By 6K years ago, most North American ice had melted and the climate became more stable.  Since the Industrial Revolution, greenhouse gases have increased and the climate is now showing signs of becoming unstable.

## Global Conditions18,000 Years Ago

**Notes:**
Global Conditions (18K PB) – At the end of the Last Glacial Maximum 18K years ago, large continental areas were extreme desert.  There were only scattered areas of closed forest present.  In North America, Extreme Desert occurred in the far north and in the northern Rocky Mtn. region.  The East coast, however, had closed forest.

## Global ConditionsNow

**Notes:**
Global Conditions (Now) – Extreme Desert conditions have shrunk considerably since the Last Glacial Maximum.   Sahara, Arabian and Gobi deserts now contain most of the Extreme Desert areas.  In North America, Closed Forest area expanded to cover most of eastern U.S. and Canada.  It must be noted that this in Potential Closed Forest cover.  Humans have now destroyed much of forests.

## LandCover/Use

**     ****18,000 Years**
**            ****Ago**
**Glacial Maximum**

**Notes:**
Land Cover/Use (18K) – Eighteen thousand years ago, the Last Glacial Maximum occurred.  Most of Canada and the northern U.S. border region were covered with ice.  The West was generally dryer than the East.

## LandCover/Use

**13,000 Years Ago**
**1****st**** Wave:**
**Paleo- Indians**
**       ****Arrive**

**Notes:**
Land Cover/Use (13K) – The first significant wave of Paleo-Indians spread out over the U.S.  The land had become somewhat warmer and  the East somewhat wetter.

##  Land  Cover/Use

**  ****11,000 Years         Ago**
**   ****Most**
**   ****Mega-Fauna**
**   ****Now Extinct**

**Notes:**
Land Cover/Use (11K) – By eleven thousand years ago, the West continued to become warmer and dryer and the East warmer and wetter.

## LandCover/Use

**    ****8,000 Years**
**   ****Ago**
**2****nd**** Wave:**
** ****Ne-Dene**
**   ****Paleo-Indians**
**  ****Arrive**

**Notes:**
Land Cover/Use (8K) --  By eight thousand years ago, most of the continental glaciers had retreated to far northeastern Canada.  Much dryer conditions covered the regions west of the Rocky Mtns.  Grasslands developed in to plains region and the east became forest covered.

## LandCover/Use

**      ****Present**
**       ****Natural      Conditions**
**     ****Assumes**
**    ****No Human Occupation**

**Notes:**
Land Cover/Use (Now) – If there were no human occupation, the west would be mostly semi-desert; the plains grasslands and the east forest covered.

## Humans Arrive

**            ****	****Via**
**Bering Land Bridge**
**Hunter/Gatherers**
** ****Follow Food Supplies:**
**	****    ****1****st**** – Large Animals**
**	****    ****2****nd**** – Pacific Marine**
**	****    ****3****rd**** – Arctic Marine**

**Notes:**
Humans Arrive – Starting about 13K years ago, significant numbers of Paleo-Indians entered North America via the Bering Land Bridge. The first large group hunted large animals. The second large group hunted Pacific marine animals. The third large group hunted Artic Marine animals.  It must be noted however that this pattern of settlement is probably oversimplified.  There is growing evidence that small groups arrived well before 13k years ago.  Apparently, these earliest  groups traveled along the Western coast of Canada using boats and hunted marine animals.

## Human Migration & Extinctions

**Notes:**
Human Migrations & Extinctions – Humans have had a long history of migrating eastward out of Africa and causing the extinctions of large numbers on megafauna along their path.

## More HumansArrive

**Agriculturalists:**
**After**
**	****Tillable Ground**

**Notes:**
More Humans Arrive – Beginning about 1000 AD, waves of migrants began arriving in North America from Europe and Africa by crossing the Atlantic Ocean. These waves included the Vikings, the Iberians, the Anglo-Saxons and the African Bantu.  Most of these settlers were agriculturalists and they converted large acreages to cropland.

## Cultures Clash

**Hunter/Gatherer Tradition (Indian)**
**	****	****Communal Land**
**	****	****Fire Used In Land Management**
**	****	****Live In Harmony With “Mother Earth”**
**	****	****Move To Available Resources**
**Agricultural Tradition (European)**
**	****	****Private Land**
**	****	****Suppress Fire**
**	****	****Exploit And Subdue Nature (Dominion)**
**	****	****Not Free To Move**

**Notes:**
Cultures Clash – The European agricultural tradition that was brought to North America soon clashed with the Indian hunter/gatherer tradition that previously had dominated the landscape.

## “Hard-Wired” Emotions

**Fire & Water Impacts**
**Utilization & Dependence Critical**
**Threats Of Uncontrolled Behavior Common**
**Range Of Emotions Extreme**
**Mesmerization ****→**
**Pleasure → Contentment → Satisfaction →**
**Curiosity → Anxiety → Fear → Panic →**
**Irrationality**
**Managers Must Understand & Cope **

**Notes:**
“Hard-Wired” Emotions – Utilization of fire and water (irrigation, travel, and etc.)  by humans is quite recent in our evolutionary history. These utilizations are only about 100K years old while homo sapiens’ evolution has taken about 7 million years. The range of emotions that are expressed when issues concerning water and fire are concerned are extreme.  Floodplain managers must understand and cope with these emotions when making decisions that affect the general public.

## Impact of Human Migration

**Africa:**
- 	**Long Term**
- 	 **Animal/Human Interaction**
**Other Areas:**
**	****Short Term**
**	****Animal/Human Interaction**

**Notes:**
Impact of Human Migration – Human/Megafauna interactions have been on going for over 100K years.  In Africa where homo sapiens evolved, the native megafauna have largely held their own.  This has occurred because they had time to evolve survival skills as humans were evolving.  In other places, however, this was not the case.  Many megafauna species became extinct shortly after humans arrived.  These extinctions have been observed in Australia, North America, South America, New Zealand, Madagascar and other islands.

## 13,000 Year Old Loss

**Notes:**
13K Year Old Loss – Large numbers of megafauna became extinct shortly after humans arrived in North America.  Many were huge but they were not adapted to humans.  Giant Beaver, mammoths and mastodons were keystone species that significantly altered streams and floodplains.  When they went extinct, the floodplain environment was altered.

## Agricultural Land Conversions

**Activity Spreads From East**
**Nothing In Rocky Mtn. Area**
**Minor California Development**

**Notes:**
Agricultural Land Conversions (1850) – After Europeans arrived in the U.S. land began to be converted to agricultural uses.  By 1850, a large percent of the farmable land east of the Mississippi River had been converted from native cover. Except for a few isolated areas in California, very little land west of the Mississippi River had been converted.

## Agricultural Land Conversions

**Farming Extensive In Upper Mid-West**
**Oklahoma Still Indian Country**
**Scattered Activity In West**

**Notes:**
Agricultural Land Conversions (1900) – By 1900, with the exception of Oklahoma, most land on the central Great Plains had been converted to farm land.  Conversions in the West had began but only the best land had been converted.

## Agricultural Land Conversions

**Full Utilization In Central States**
**Major Expansion In West**
**Significant Decreases In East**

**Notes:**
Agricultural Land Conversions (1950) – By 1950 full utilization of farmable land in the Central States had occurred.  The West experienced a major expansion in the converted acreages. In the East, a significant decrease in farming had occurred. In many cases this decrease was caused by poor farm practice that destroyed the land’s utility.  Gullies and erosion became so widespread that farms were abandoned.  The sediment produced by this erosion seriously impacted floodplains.

## Population Distribution

**Concentrations:**
**	****	****East Of Mississippi  &  West Coast**

**Notes:**
Population Distribution (1950) – In 1950, most people either lived east of the Mississippi River or on the West Coast.  The Rocky Mtn. west was only lightly populated.

## Population & Land Use Change

**Major Southwest Population Expansion**
**Farming Decreases In East & Gulf Coast**

**Notes:**
Population & Land Use Change (1990) – By 1990, there had been a major population shift to the Southwest and West Coast. There was also a continued decrease in farming in the East and Gulf Coast.

## ForestCover

**Pre-1800**
**  ****Status**
**    ****Area**
**  ****Heavily**
** ****Forested**

**Notes:**
Forest Cover (Pre-1800) – The western Great Lakes states were heavily forested before 1800. These forest ranged from oak in the more southern zones to boreal forests in northern Minnesota.

## ForestCover

** **
** ****Present**
**    ****Large**
**Decreases**
**      ****But**
**Aspen/Birch**
**  ****Increased**

**Notes:**
Forest Cover (Now) – Much of the forests in the southern zones of the western Great Lakes states have been cut and the land converted to other cover. Farther north, the pine and boreal forests have been converted to largely aspen-birch cover.

## Fire Ecology

**Pre-Columbus Period**
**	****Indians Utilized Fire**
**	****	****Land Clearing**
**	****	****Drive Animals**
**1900**
**	****Fire Suppression**
**	****	****More Fuel Load **
**	****	****Species Change**
**1980’s**
**	****Major Wild Fires**
**	****	****Controlled Burns**

**Notes:**
Fire Ecology – Prior to 1900 forest fires kept most forested areas thinned and there was minimal fuel load on the ground.  Nutrients released during burning kept the areas fertile, and new growth was quickly reestablished.  Starting in 1900, fire suppression became a major management goal.  The growth of trees and brush quickly caused many areas to become overgrown and open forest floor areas decreased.  This additional fuel load caused uncontrolled fires to burn very hot.  Often this extra heat caused secondary problems to develop.  Beginning in the 1980’s, management practices were altered to allow controlled burns in an attempt to reduce fuel loads.  Currently, policies have again shifted to tree thinning and removal.  This policy may also cause secondary problems in the future because critical nutrients are removed from the area along with the logs.

## Fire HistoryExample

**       ****Tree**
**       ****Ring**
**     ****Studies**

**Notes:**
Fire History Example – Burn marks often remain on trees that were burned but not killed.  Because tree rings mark annual growth, it is possible to date old fires.

## Fire History1600To2000Note:Fire SuppressionAfter 1900

**Notes:**
Fire History (1600 to 2000) – The study of burn marks on old trees and allowed researchers to construct forest fire frequency for the past 400 years. Between 1600 and 1900 there were frequent local fires the kept fuel loads low.  In certain years, however, conditions developed that caused regional forest fires to develop. Probably these regional fires were triggered by regional droughts.  Starting in 1900 when fire suppression management policies developed, there have been no regional fires.  Blazes such as occurred in Yellowstone Park in 1988 and other western areas probably are as close as we have come to having a regional fire season.

## Fire Management Summary

**Early 1900’s****	****	**
**	****	****Fire Suppression**
**	****	****Increased Fuel Load**
**	****	****Triggered Species Changes**
**1980’s Period **
**	****	****Major Wild Fires**
**	****	****Controlled Burns Started**
**Post 2000 Period**
**	****	****Increased Logging & Thinning**
**	****	****Decreased Fertility & Increased Erosion**

**Notes:**
Fire Management Summary – Fire suppression began in the early 1900’s and the forest responded by changing species and increasing fuel load.  During the 1980’s, management practice changed to allow controlled burns because major wild fires were developing in areas where heavy fuel loads were encountered.  Starting in 2000, a new emphasis has been placed on logging and thinning to reduce the fuel load.  This new practice can possibly trigger other secondary problems by increasing erosion and decreasing the forest land fertility. Decreased fertility occurs because the critical nutrients are removed from the site when  the logs are removed.

## Exotic Species Invasion

**Notes:**
Exotic Species Invasion – Many foreign animal and plant species have been brought into North America by humans.  Some of these introductions were accidental while others were intentional.  In many cases, these new introductions have been able to out compete indigenous species and take over their ecological niche. In 1900, most exotic species were found in the East but by 1996 the spread of exotic species has enlarged to cover the entire U.S. except Alaska.

## Kudzu Invasion

**Notes:**
Kudzu Invasion – In many areas in the Southeast, Kudzu has taken over and is chocking out native vegetation.

## Saltcedar Invasion

**Notes:**
Saltcedar Invasion – Saltcedar has invaded many riparian areas in the more arid areas of the Southwest.  These trees are very aggressive and displace other riparian vegetation.  They can utilize salty water and have so depleted some streams that surface flow has ceased.

## Population Explosion

_**Future Pressures:**_
**	****Migrations To U.S.                 Population Shifts**
**	****Food Supply Demand     ****	****      Clean Water Demand**

**Notes:**
Population Explosion – Since 1950, the world’s population has tripled and is now about 6 billion.  It is projected that the population will reach 10 billion by 2075.  This population expansion has already placed enormous demands on the available freshwater supply.  Future pressure of U.S. fresh water supplies are expected to increase as migration continues; populations shift to the Southwest; and agricultural demand for water increases.

## New Geologic Age

**Called “Anthropocene”**
**Started With Industrial Revolution**
**Profound Human Impacts**
**Human Population Explodes**
**Species Extinctions High**
**Climate Significantly Altered**
**Planet’s Water Threatened**

**Notes:**
New Geologic Age – There have been so many profound changes on earth since the Industrial Revolution that it is proposed that a new geologic age has began.  This proposed new age has been called the “Anthropocene”.  Of most concern is the human population explosion; high rates of species extinctions and climate changes.  All of these changes are putting great pressure on the Planet’s fresh water supply.

## Population Distribution

**	****	****	****	**_**Future Pressures:**_
**U.S. Small Minority****	****	****       Asian Economy Expands**
**U.S. Excess Resource Use****	****       World’s Resources Less**

**Notes:**
Population Distribution – The U.S. population is but a small fraction of the total but the U.S. now uses a disproportionate share of the earth’s resources.  In the near future there will be pressure (especially from Asia) to address this imbalance. 

## Mississippi Basin Nitrogen Input

**Notes:**
Mississippi Basin Nitrogen Input – Excess nitrogen fertilizer coming off agricultural land in the Mid-west and Great Plains is causing the Gulf of Mexico to be over-fertilized.  This excess nitrogen is causing hypoxia conditions to develop off the Louisiana coast.

## Mississippi Dead Zone

**Excess Nutrients Cause Algae Blooms**
**Oxygen Is Depleted**
**Marine Life Dies**

**Notes:**
Mississippi Dead Zone – Within the hypoxia zone, excess nutrients cause algae blooms which deplete the water’s oxygen supply.  The lack of oxygen kills marine life in the zone and a major marine food source has been lost.

## Slide Presentation Prepared ByGeomax, P.C.Dr. Donald R. Reichmuth, President1023 W. 30th Ave.Spokane, WA 99203-1324Phone & FAX – 509-838-6390E-mail – geomax@comcast.net

**Notes:**
This slide set for Session 5 was last edited on 12/17/04.