# Presentation: 559284

## Science and Technology              for Sustainable Well-Being

**John P. Holdren**
- Director, The Woods Hole Research Center
- Teresa & John Heinz Professor of Environmental Policy,                    Harvard University
- President, American Association for the Advancement of Science
**Presidential Lecture at the Annual Meeting of the    American Association for the Advancement of Science                                                                                     San Francisco, 15 February 2007**

## 	It is clear that the future course of history will be determined by the rates at which people breed and die, by the rapidity with which nonrenewable resources are consumed, by the extent and speed with which agricultural production can be improved, by the rate at which the under-developed areas can industrialize, by the rapidity with which we are able to develop new resources, as well as by the extent to which we succeed in avoiding future wars. All of these factors are interlocked. 
				Harrison Brown (1917-1986),   					The Challenge of Man’s Future, 1954

- 				Harrison Brown (1917-1986),   					T*he Challenge of Man’s Future,**** ***1954

- My pre-occupation with the great problems at the intersection of science and technology with the human condition – and with the interconnectedness of these problems with each other – began when I read *The Challenge of Man’s Future* in high school.  I later worked with Harrison Brown at Caltech.

## Harvey Brooks

**Harvey Brooks**

**Roger Revelle**

**Joseph Rotblat**

**Gilbert White**

**Jerry Wiesner**

- I had the great good fortune to work with several other giants in the study and practice of science-society interactions who have now passed on.

## Dick Garwin

**Dick Garwin**

**Murray Gell-Mann**

**Paul Ehrlich**

**Lew Branscomb**

**George Woodwell**

- The next generation of giants in interdisciplinary “public interest science” is still with us.  I learned much from those pictured here.

## Shirley Ann Jackson

**Shirley Ann Jackson**

**Peter Raven**

**Gil Omenn**

**Jane Lubchenco**

- A number of my predecessors in the presidency of the AAAS have likewise focused their efforts particularly on the intersection of science and technology with the problems of sustainable well-being that I will be discussing tonight.

## The AAAS is itself not about science in isolation, but about science in society.

- The AAAS is itself not about science in isolation, but about science _in_ society.

## Foundations of human well-being

- Human well-being rests on a foundation of three pillars, the
- preservation & enhancement of all 3 of which constitute the
- core responsibilities of society:
- _economic conditions and processes_
- 	such as employment, income, wealth, markets, trade,   productive technologies...
- _sociopolitical conditions and processes_
- 	such as law & order, national & homeland security,  governance, justice, education, health care, science, culture & the arts, liberty, privacy...
- _environmental conditions and processes _
- 	such as air, water, soils, mineral resources, the biota, nutrient cycles, climatic processes...

## Foundations (continued)

- Arguments about which one of the three pillars is “most important” are pointless.
- Each of the three is _indispensable_.
- 	Failure in any one of them means collapse of the human enterprise (the metaphor of the three-legged stool).
- The three _interact_.
- 	The economic system cannot function without inputs from the environmental system, nor can it function without elements of societal stability provided by the sociopolitical system.
- 	And societal stability itself cannot be maintained in the face of environmental disaster, as Katrina and New Orleans demonstrated is true even in the most economically prosperous country in the world.

## My definitions

- _Development_ means improving the human condition in _all_ its aspects, not only economic but also sociopolitical and environmental.
- _Sustainable development_ means doing so by means and to end points that are consistent with maintaining the improved conditions indefinitely.
- _Sustainable well-being_ implies pursuing sustainable development to achieve well-being where it is absent  _and_ putting the maintenance & expansion of well-being onto a sustainable basis where it is being provided unsustainably today.

## Impediments to sustainable well-being

- persistence of poverty & preventable disease
- impoverishment of the environment
- pervasiveness of armed conflict
- oppression of human rights
- wastage of human potential

## Factors driving or aggravating the impediments

- Non-use, ineffective use, and misuse of science and technology
- Maldistribution of consumption and investment
- Incompetence, mismanagement, and corruption
- Continuing population growth
- Ignorance, apathy, and denial

## Contributors to global mortality in 2000Millions of Years of Life Lost (WHO, World Health Report 2002)

- childhood & maternal malnutrition		200
- high blood pressure, cholesterol, over-             weight, low physical activity			150
- unsafe sex                                                 	  80
- tobacco							  50
- unsafe water					      	  50
- war & revolution, 20th century avg		  	  40
- indoor smoke from solid fuels		      	  35
- alcohol                                                    	  30
- urban air pollution 	                                         6
- climate change                                           	    5

## Contributors to global mortality in 2000Millions of Years of Life Lost (WHO, World Health Report 2002)

- childhood & maternal malnutrition **(POVERTY)**	200
- high blood pressure, cholesterol, overweight,            low physical activity **(CONSUMPTION)**		150
- unsafe sex **(IGNORANCE, DENIAL)** 	  		  80
- tobacco **(IGNORANCE, DENIAL)** 			  50
- unsafe water **(POVERTY)** 			      	  50
- war & revolution, 20th century avg **(CONFLICT)**	  	  40
- indoor smoke from solid fuels **(TECHNOLOGY)**  	  35
- alcohol **(IGNORANCE, DENIAL)****	****	****	** 	  30
- urban air pollution **(CONSUMPTION, TECHNOLOGY)**	    6
- climate change **(CONSUMPTION, TECHNOLOGY, DENIAL)**

## S&T for sustainable well-being:What can they contribute?

- Science:
- improving understanding of threats & possibilities
- enabling advances in technology
- Technology:
- driving economic growth via new products & services, reduced costs, increased productivity
- reducing resource use & environmental impacts
- S&T:
- integrated assessment of options
- advice to decision-makers & the public about costs, benefits, dangers, uncertainties
- S&T education toward a more S&T-literate society

## S&T for sustainable well-being:Four key challenges

- Meeting the basic needs of the poor
- Managing the competition for land, soil, water, and the net primary productivity of the planet
- Mastering the energy-economy-environment dilemma
- Moving toward a nuclear-weapon-free world

## Meeting the basic needs of the poor:The UN Millennium Development Goals

## 	The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide enough for those who have too little.
					Franklin D. Roosevelt
					Second Inaugural Address, 1937

*	**	**	**	**	*Franklin D. Roosevelt
- 					Second Inaugural Address, 1937

## TARGET:  Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people living on less than $1/day and the proportion of people suffering from hunger.

**TARGET:  Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people living on less than $1/day and the proportion of people suffering from hunger.**

## Slide 19

## Slide 20

## TARGET:  Reduce by 2/3, between 1990 and 2015, the under-5 mortality rate.

**TARGET:  Reduce by 2/3, between 1990 and 2015, the under-5 mortality rate.**

## Survival curve in sub-Saharan Africa resembles that of 1840s England

**Survival curve in sub-Saharan Africa resembles that of 1840s England**

## TARGET:  Reduce by 3/4,  between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality rate

**TARGET:  Reduce by 3/4,  between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality rate**

## TARGET:  By 2015 have halted and begun to reverse the spread of HIV aids and the incidence of malaria and other major diseases.

**TARGET:  By 2015 have halted and begun to reverse the spread of HIV aids and the incidence of malaria and other major diseases.**

## Slide 25

## Effective technologies need not be complicated

**UNDP Human Development Report 2006**

**Effective technologies need not be complicated**

## Total Official Development Assistance is to all developing countries.  

- Total Official Development Assistance is to all developing countries.
- LDCs  = Least Developed Countries

## The United States is the second stingiest of OECD nations in Official Development Assistance as a percentage of our GDP.

**The United States is the second stingiest of OECD nations in Official Development Assistance as a percentage of our GDP.**

## Managing the competition for land, soil, water, and the net primary productivity of the planet

## Competing human uses for the land, soil, water, and NPP of the Earth

- land for housing, commerce, industry, and transport infrastructure
- land, soil, water, and net primary productivity for production of food, forage, fiber, biofuels, chemical feedstocks
- land, water, & biota for recreation, beauty, solace of unspoiled nature, and ecosystem functions

## Key ecosystem functions

- regulation of water flows
- purification/detoxification of soil, water, air
- nutrient cycling
- soil formation
- controls on pests & pathogens
- pollination of flowers & crops
- biodiversity maintenance
- climate regulation (evapotranspiration, reflectivity)
- carbon sequestration

## Challenges to managing the competition among these uses

- pressure of rising population & affluence
- rising tide of toxic spillovers from agriculture, industry, energy supply
- disruption of global & regional climate by greenhouse gases from fossil-fuel combustion
- haphazard, unintegrated, and short-range planning
- frequent failure to charge a price for destroying environmental resources and services

## The competition for fresh water:Where’s the water and where is it going?

- 						                   *cubic kilometers*
- Water in the oceans                                        1,400,000,000
- Water locked up in ice	                      	 30,000,000
- Ground water                                           		 10,000,000
- Water in lakes & rivers                                              100,000
- 						       *cubic kilometers per year*
- Precipitation on land                                                 120,000
- Evaporation from land				        70,000
- River runoff & groundwater recharge                         50,000
- Available river flow & recharge*                                 12,000
- Withdrawals for human use                              	         5,000
- World desalting capacity				              13
-        * = runoff + recharge – uncaptured storm runoff – remote areas

## Key numbers for water demand

- 					                  cubic kilometers per year
- Global withdrawals for human use                5,000
- 	of which agriculture 				   *3,500*
- 	           ...industry                    			   *1,000*
- 		    ...domestic				      *500*
-                       of which drinking water                             *5*
- 			           ...bottled water    		            *0.17*
- 					       cubic meters per person per year
- Global average withdrawals per person           		 800
- 		  Nigeria... 		    		   		   50
- 		  Israel...                                         		 300
- 		  China...				 		 500
- 		  Mexico... 						 800
- 		  Italy...					         1,000
- 		  United States...      				           2,000

## The geography of water stress

**UNDP Human Development Report 2006**

**The geography of water stress**

## Sinking aquifers:  the case of Mexico

**UNDP Human Development Report 2006**

**Sinking aquifers:  the case of Mexico**

## The competition for land

**The competition for land**

**Croplands & pasture-lands now cover ~40% of world land area.**
**Forest area has declined by ~10 million km2 (about 20%) in the last 300 years, with most of the loss in the last 50.**
**Desert & near-desert land has **_**increased**_** by nearly as much.**
**Cities, roads, & airports now cover 2% of world land.**

- Foley et al., SCIENCE 309, 2005

## Deforestation for soy growing in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil

**Deforestation for soy growing in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil**

**Moutinho and Schwartzman, 2005**

## Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005

**Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005**

## Percentage of species threatened with extinction

- Chapin et al., 2000

**Notes:**
F.S. Chapin et al. 200. Consequences of changing biodiversity.  Nature 405:234-242, Fig 2

## Comparing past, present, and future extinction rates

**Comparing past, present, and future extinction rates**

**Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005**

## Mastering the                            energy-economy-environment dilemma

## The essence of the dilemma

- Reliable and affordable energy is essential for meeting basic human needs and fueling economic growth.
- But many of the most difficult and dangerous environmental problems at every level of economic development arise from the harvesting, transport, processing, & conversion of energy.

## Energy supply is the source of...

- most indoor and outdoor air pollution
- most radioactive waste
- much of the hydrocarbon and trace-metal pollution of soil and ground water
- essentially all of the oil added by humans to the seas
- most of the human-caused emissions of greenhouse gases that are altering the global climate.

- After four decades of studying these issues, I’ve concluded that energy is the core of the environment problem, environment is the core of the energy problem, and resolving the energy-economy-environment dilemma is the core of the problem of sustainable well-being for industrial & developing countries alike.

## History of world supply of primary energy

**History of world supply of primary energy**

- Hydro+ means hydropower plus other renewables besides biomass

**Energy supply grew 20-fold between 1850 and 2000.  Fossil fuels supplied 80% of the world’s energy in 2000.**

## About 1/3 of primary energy supply is used to generate electricity

**Shares of nuclear, natural gas, & coal growing, those of oil & hydro shrinking.  USA gets 50% of its electricity from coal, China gets 80% from coal.**

## Particulate pollution in selected cities 

**Particulate pollution in selected cities**** **

**OECD Environmental data 1995; WRI China tables 1995; Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi. “Ambient Air Quality Status and Statistics, 1993 and 1994”; Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World, WHO/UNEP, 1992; EPA, AIRS database.**

## But indoor particulate pollution is much worse Indoor & outdoor exposure to total suspended particulate matter (TSP) worldwide, 1996

- 				Average TSP           Percent of world
- 		                          Concentration          population exposure
- 		                          (ug/m3)                    (% of person-hr-ug/m3)
- 		                          -------------------          -------------------------------
- 		                          indoor    outdoor      indoor    outdoor    		                          --------     ----------      ---------   -----------
-    		*Industrialized*
-                   urban             100           70              7             1
-                   rural                 80           40              2             0
-      	*Developing*
- 	             urban             250         280             25            9
- 	             rural               400           70             52            5
-       85% of global particulate exposure is from indoor air!

**Kirk R. Smith, pers. comm., 1999**

## Business-as-usual (BAU) forecasts to 2030

- 							  2004         2030
*Primary energy, exajoules*
- 		World				   500        750
- 		United States	   		   107	        150
- 		China				     73        140
*Electricity, trillion kWh*
- 		World		  		  16.5          30
- 		United States 			    4.0         6.0
- 		China 		    		    1.9         4.8

## Under continuation of BAU

- World use of primary energy reaches 2.5 times the 2000 level by 2050 and 4 times the 2000 level by 2100.
- World electricity generation reaches 3 times the 2000 level by 2050 and 5 times the 2000 level by 2100.

## The sustainability problem with the business-as-usual energy path is not that we’re running out of energy. 
It’s that we’re running out of cheap and easy liquid fuels and running out of environment.

- It’s that we’re running out of cheap and easy liquid fuels and running out of environment.

## The two hardest pieces of the problem are...

- Reducing the dangers of urban air pollution and overdependence on oil in the face of ongoing & projected growth in the number of cars in the world
- Providing the affordable energy needed to create & sustain prosperity without wrecking the global climate with carbon dioxide emitted by fossil-fuel burning
- ...and the second is the bigger challenge of the two.

## What climate is & what climate-change means

- Climate is the _pattern_ of weather, meaning averages,
- extremes, timing, spatial distribution of...
- hot & cold
- cloudy & clear
- humid & dry
- drizzles & downpours
- snowfall, snowpack, & snowmelt
- zephyrs, blizzards, tornadoes, & typhoons
- When climate changes, the _patterns_ change.
- 	Global average temperature is just an _index_ of the state of the global climate as expressed in these patterns.  Small changes in the index  big changes in the patterns.

## What climate change puts at risk

- Climate governs (so climate change affects)
- availability of water
- productivity of farms, forests, & fisheries
- prevalence of oppressive heat & humidity
- geography of disease
- damages from storms, floods, droughts, wildfires
- property losses from sea-level rise
- expenditures on engineered environments
- distribution & abundance of species

## The Earth is getting warmer.

**2005 was the hottest year on record;   the 13 hottest all occurred since 1990, 23 out of the 24 hottest since 1980.**

**J. Hansen et al., *****PNAS 103*****: 14288-293 (26 Sept 2006)**

**Green bars show 95% confidence intervals**

**The Earth **_**is**_** getting warmer.**

**°C**

## We know why. Current computer model with sensi-  tivity ~0.75oC per W/m2, using best estimates of natural & human influences (A) as input,  reproduces almost perfectly the last 125 years of observed temperatures (B).

***Source:***** Hansen et al., *****Science***** *****308*****, 1431, 2005.**

**We know why.**** **Current computer model with sensi-  tivity ~0.75oC per W/m2, using best estimates of natural & human influences (A) as input,  reproduces almost perfectly the last 125 years of observed temperatures (B).
- Other “fingerprints” of GHG influence on climate also match observations.

## Changes in climate are already causing harm     

**There’s a consistent 50-year upward trend in every region except Oceania.**

**Changes in climate are already causing harm****     **

- Major floods per decade, 1950-2000

## Harm is already occurring (continued)      

**The trend has been sharply upward everywhere.**

**Harm is already occurring **(continued)**      **

- Major wildfires by decade, 1950-2000

## Harm is already occurring (continued)

**Harm is already occurring **(continued)
- Total power released by tropical cyclones (green) has increased along with sea surface temperatures (blue).

- Source:  Kerry Emanuel, MIT, _[http://wind.mit.edu/~emanuel/anthro2.htm](http://wind.mit.edu/~emanuel/anthro2.htm)__.   SST anomaly (deg C) with arbitrary vertical offset.  PDI scaled by constant._

**                                                                                                ****Kerry  Emanuel, MIT, 2006**

## Harm is already occurring (continued):The East Asia monsoon is weakening

**Qi Ye, Tsinghua University, May 2006**

**The change is as predicted by Chinese climate modelers.  It has produced increased flooding in the South of China and increased drought in the North.**

**Harm is already occurring **(continued):The East Asia monsoon is weakening

**Notes:**
We used two indices to indicate the strength of the Monsoon, wind speed and the number of windy days. When plotting the them against time, we got this consistent, linear declination trend from the year of 1969 and the year of 2000 when we had good quality of data from instrument record.

## Harm is already occurring (concluded)

**Harm is already occurring **(concluded)
**WHO estimates climate change already causing ≥150,000 premature deaths/yr in 2000**

## Where we’re headed:  IPCC 2007 scenarios

- Colored numbers below curves are nos. of climate models used for each scenario.  Bands denote 1 standard deviation from the mean in these ensembles.
- T reached in 2100 on middle trajectory was last seen on Earth in the Eocene (25-35 million years ago) when sea level was 20-30 m higher.

**IPCC 2007**

## Where we’re headed:  Agriculture in the tropics 

**Easterling and Apps, 2005**

**Crop yields in tropics start dropping at ∆T ≥ 1-1.5°C**

**Where we’re headed:  Agriculture in the tropics **

## Where we’re headed:  droughts

**Drought projections for IPCC‘s A1B scenario**

**Where we’re headed:  droughts**

## Where we’re headed:  Heat waves                                    Extreme heat waves in Europe, already 2X more frequent because of global warming, will be “normal” in mid-range scenario by 2050

**Where we’re headed:  Heat waves****    ****                                Extreme heat waves in Europe, already 2X more frequent because of global warming, will be “normal” in mid-range scenario by 2050**

**Black lines are observed temps, smoothed & unsmoothed;  red, blue, & green lines are Hadley Centre simulations w natural & anthropogenic forcing;  yellow is natural only.**
**Asterisk and inset show 2003 heat wave that killed 35,000.**

**Stott et al., *****Nature 432*****: 610-613 (2004)**

## Where we’re headed

- +7 m

- +12 m

- +70 m

**GIS = Greenland Ice Sheet**
**WAIS = West Antarctic Ice Sheet**
**EAIS = East Antarctic Ice Sheet**

**Where we’re headed**
- Melting the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets would raise sea level up to 70 meters.
- This would probably take 1000s of years, but rates of 2-5 m per century are possible.

**Dr. Richard Alley, 2005**

## Faced with this challenge...

- Society has three options:
- _Mitigation_, which means measures to reduce the pace & magnitude of the changes in global climate being caused by human activities.
- 	Examples of mitigation include reducing emissions of GHG, enhancing “sinks” for these gases, and “geoengineering” to counteract the warming effects of GHG.
- _Adaptation_, which means measures to reduce the adverse impacts on human well-being resulting from the changes in climate that do occur.
- 	Examples of adaptation include changing agricultural practices, strengthening defenses against climate-related disease, and building more dams and dikes.
- _Suffering_ the adverse impacts that are not avoided by either mitigation or adaptation.

## Facing the challenge (continued)

- Mitigation and adaptation are _both_ essential.
- Human-caused climate change is already occurring.
- Adaptation efforts are already taking place and must be expanded.
- But adaptation becomes costlier and less effective as the magnitude of climate changes grows.
- The greater the amount of mitigation that can be achieved at affordable cost, the smaller the burdens placed on adaptation and the smaller the suffering.

## Mitigation options

- CERTAINLY
- Reduce emissions of greenhouse gases & soot from the energy sector
- Reduce deforestation; increase reforestation & afforestation
- Modify agricultural practices to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases & build up soil carbon
- CONCEIVABLY
- “Geo-engineering” to create cooling effects offsetting greenhouse heating
- “Scrub” greenhouse gases from the atmosphere technologically

## Emissions from energy are 65% of the problem, above all CO2 from fossil-fuel combustion

- The emissions arise from a 4-fold product...
- 	C  =  P  x  GDP / P  x  E / GDP  x  C / E
- where C = carbon content of emitted CO**2 ** (kilograms),
- and the four contributing factors are
- 	P = population, persons
- 	GDP / P = economic activity per person, $/pers
- 	E / GDP = energy intensity of economic activity, GJ/$
- 	C / E = carbon intensity of energy supply, kg/GJ
- For example, in the year 2000, the world figures were...
-    6.1x10**9** pers x $7400/pers x 0.01 GJ/$ x 14 kgC/GJ
- 		= 6.4x10**12** kgC = 6.4 billion tonnes C

## Leverage on the four factors

- World population:  lower is better for many reasons
- GDP/person:  not a good lever, insofar as most people think higher is better
- Energy/GDP:  can be lowered by increasing efficiency in power plants, vehicles, buildings, industry
- CO2/energy:  can be lowered mainly by...
- substituting renewable (hydro, solar, wind, biomass, geothermal) and/or nuclear for fossil energy
- deploying advanced fossil-fuel technology that can capture & store CO2 rather than emitting it

## How hard must we pull the levers? Emission paths for stabilizing CO2 concentrations to limit T increase

**The path to avoid ∆T****avg**** >2°C (gold) requires much earlier, more drastic action than path to avoid >3°C (green).**

**BAU (>6°C)**

**(~3°C)**

**(~2°C)**

**How hard must we pull the levers?**** ****Emission paths for stabilizing CO****2**** concentrations to limit T increase**

## What needs to be done to get there?

- Accelerate “win-win” technical and policy measures
- Put a price on carbon emissions so marketplace can work to find cheapest reductions
- Pursue a new global framework for mitigation and adaptation in the post-Kyoto period
- Increase investments in energy-technology research, development, demonstration
- Expand international cooperation on deploying advanced energy technologies

## Increasing energy R&D should be the easiest part, but even that is not happening

**Increasing energy R&D should be the easiest part, but even that is not happening**

**US DOE energy RD&D spending, FY1978-2008**

**Courtesy Kelly Gallagher, Kennedy School of Gov’t, 2-13-07**

## Meanwhile, climate-change science is actually being cut!             Budget authority in constant FY2007$

**Kei Kozumi, AAAS, 2-07**

## Moving toward a                   nuclear-weapon-free world

## The legacy of Hiroshima

- August 6, 1945:  city of Hiroshima the victim of the 1st nuclear weapon used in conflict; half the city vanishes;  140,000 killed.
- August 9, 1945:  Nagasaki the victim of the 2nd;  75,000 killed.
- The two mushroom clouds punctuate the end of a world war unprecedented in scale, ferocity, destructiveness, but equally so in embrace of massive, systematic attacks on civilian populations as a legitimate, permissible means of waging war.
- The two nuclear bombings also provide underpinnings of post-war US security policy based on nuclear deterrence: nuclear weapons are usable tools of war;  if pushed too far, USA might use them again.

**Notes:**
...thereby punctuating, with mushroom-shaped exclamation points, the end of a world conflict notable not only for its immense scale and destruc­tiveness but also for the extent to which the major com­batants had come to regard massive attacks on civilian populations as a permissible means of waging war.  
	The nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, although they were hardly the first instances of wholesale devastation of cities in World War 2, did demonstrate a terrible new level of technological ef­ficien­cy in the implemen­tation of the "strategic bombing" approach to warfare which that conflict had spawned.  The two nuclear bombings also provided the underpin­nings of a post-war U.S. security policy based on nuclear deterrence -- that is, on the idea that the United States might well be willing to use against others the same awesome capacity for nuclear destruc­tion that it had used against Japan in August of 1945. 

## Slide 78

## Nuclear-weapon-state postures, proliferation, and the prospects for nuclear terrorism prospects are intertwined

- 	Maintaining the non-proliferation “bargain” requires that NWS take Article VI obligations seriously.

## 	
	Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control. 
				Non-Proliferation Treaty, Article VI, 1968

*	**Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.*
- 				Non-Proliferation Treaty, Article VI, 1968

## NWS postures, non-proliferation, & nuclear terrorism prospects are intertwined (continued)

- Evident intentions by NWS to
- retain large arsenals indefinitely,
- maintain high states of alert,
- reserve “right” to use nuclear weapons first & against non-NWS
- pursue development of new types of nuclear weapons for increased effectiveness or new purposes
- 	are all incompatible with the non-proliferation bargain and corrosive of the non-proliferation regime.

## 	Nuclear weapons are held by a handful of states which insist that these weapons provide unique security benefits, and yet reserve uniquely to themselves the right to own them. This situation is highly discriminatory and thus unstable; it cannot be sustained. The possession of nuclear weapons by any state is a constant stimulus to other states to acquire them.
	Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons, August 1995 	 

*	**Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons, August 1995* *	** *

## NWS postures, non-proliferation, & nuclear terrorism prospects are intertwined (continued)

- Constraints on numbers & dispersion of nuclear weapons (strategic & nonstrategic) are essential
- not just to reduce probability & consequences of accidental, erroneous, or unauthorized use
- but also to reduce chances of weapons coming into hands of proliferant states and terrorists
- Proliferation itself expands opportunities (as well as incentives) for further proliferation and for terrorist acquisition of nuclear weapons
- by putting nuclear weapons & nuclear-explosive materials into additional hands
- and in contexts where there is little experience with protecting them.

## Necessity of aiming for zero 

- Ultimately, prohibition is the only alternative to proliferation
- If possession does not tend toward zero, in the long run it will tend toward universality and the chances of use will tend toward unity.
- Prohibition is not only a practical but a legal and moral necessity.

## 	
	There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.
   Unanimous Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice, July 1996

*	**There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.*
-    Unanimous Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice, July 1996

## 	The committee has concluded that the potential benefits of a global prohibition of nuclear weapons are so attractive relative to the attendant risks that increased attention is now warranted to studying and fostering the conditions that would have to be met to make prohibition desirable and feasible.
	Committee on International Security and Arms Control, US National Academy of Sciences, June 1997 	 

*	**Committee on International Security and Arms Control, US National Academy of Sciences, June 1997* *	** *

## Feasibility of zero 

- Prohibition does _not_ require “un-inventing” nuclear weapons
- We’ve productively prohibited murder, slavery, and chemical & biological weapons without imagining that these were being un-invented.
- Nor is verification an insurmountable obstacle
- Verification (including “societal verification”) can be better than most suppose.
- Dangers from cheating are likely less than dangers to be expected if nuclear weapons are _not_ prohibited.

## The Feasibility of Zero (continued)

- There would be challenges & risks in a world of zero.
- But they would be far smaller than the dangers of a world in which nuclear weapons are permitted and thus, inevitably, widespread.

## Aiming for zero:  build-down following build-up

- Natural Resources Defense Council

-           the build-up took 40 years         

- Why should the build-down take longer?
- (Zero by 2025 or sooner?)

**Aiming for zero:  build-down following build-up**

## 
	We endorse setting the goal of a world free of nuclear weapons and working energetically on the actions required to achieve that goal...
				George Schultz, Henry Kissinger, 			William Perry, and Sam Nunn,
				Wall Street Journal, 1-06-07	 

- 	*We endorse setting the goal of a world free of nuclear weapons and working energetically on the actions required to achieve that goal...*
*	**	**	**	*George Schultz,* *Henry Kissinger, 			William Perry, and Sam Nunn,
- 				*Wall Street Journal*, 1-06-07

## What more is needed to address the challenges discussed here?

- A stronger focus by scientists and technologists on the largest threats to the human condition.
- Greater emphasis on analyses of threats and remedies by teams that are interdisciplinary, intersectoral, and international.
- Undergraduate education and graduate training better matched to these tasks.
- More attention to interactions among threats and to remedies that address multiple threats at once.
- Larger and more coordinated investments in advances in science and technology that meet key needs at lower cost with smaller adverse side effects.
- Clearer and more compelling arguments to policy-makers about the threats and the remedies.
- Increased public S&T literacy.

## What is the AAAS doing?

**What is the AAAS doing?**

**AAAS Programs**

## AAAS Centers

- Center for Advancing Science and Engineering Capacity
- Center for Careers in Science and Technology
- Center for Curriculum Materials in Science
- Center for Public Engagement with Science and Technology
- Center for Science, Technology, and Congress
- Center for Science, Technology, and Security Policy
- Center for Science, Innovation, and Sustainability

## The Association’s journal, SCIENCE, is the place to go for cutting-edge insights about the science-society interface. 

- The Association’s journal, SCIENCE, is the place to go for cutting-edge insights about the science-society interface.

## What can individual scientists and technologists do?

- Read more and think more about fields and problems outside your normal area of specialization.
- Improve your communication skills for conveying the relevant essence of your understandings to members of the public and to policy makers.
- Seek out avenues for doing so.
- “Tithe” ten percent of your professional time and effort to working to increase the benefits of S&T for the human condition and decrease the liabilities.

## For more about the work of the AAAS, please see
	http://www.aaas.org

For more about work on these issues at Harvard University, please see
	http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/?program=STPP

For more about work on these issues at the Woods Hole Research Center, please see
	http://www.whrc.org

- 	_[http://www.aaas.org](http://www.aaas.org/)_
- For more about work on these issues at Harvard University, please see
- 	_[http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/?program=STPP](http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/?program=STPP)_
- For more about work on these issues at the Woods Hole Research Center, please see
- 	_[http://](http://www.whrc.org/)__[www.whrc.org](http://www.whrc.org/)_