# Presentation: 443842

## Civil Air Patrol - Arizona Wing

**Aerospace Education Program for Senior Members (AEPSM)**** **

**Sky Harbor Composite Squadron 301 AEO, 1LT Tom Lodge Revised June, 2002**

## Agenda 

**Part 1 - The Rich History of Air Power**
**Part 2 - Principles of Flight & Navigation**
**Part 3 - The Aerospace Community**
**Part 4 - Air Environment**
**Part 5 - Rockets**
**Part 6 - Space**
**Testing**

**Agenda **

## Introduction

**Self paced study based on text *****Aerospace:  The Journey of Flight***
**Open book, untimed exam correctable to 100%**
**Charles E. “Chuck” Yeager Aerospace Education Achievement Award**
**Approximately 8 hours, 3 evenings**

**Introduction**

## Part 1 The Rich History of Air Power

**Chap. 2-****	****Adolescence of Air Power: 1904-1919**
**Chap. 3-****	****The Golden Age:  1919-1939**
**Chap. 4-****	****Air Power Goes to War**
**Chap. 5-****	****Aviation: From the Cold War to Desert Storm**
**Chap. 6-****	****Advances in Aviation**

**Part 1 The Rich History of Air Power**

## 1 Introduction to Air Power

**Invented kite 100 BC, Gun Powder 900 AD, Rockets 1100 AD**
**Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Artist, Architect, Man of Science**
**First scientific experiments in field of aviation**
**160 pages of descriptions & sketches of flying machines**
**1st design of parachute and helicopter**
**Wrote about principles of CG, CP, Streamlining**
**Lighter-than-air:  Balloons**
**1783 Montgolfier brothers first balloon experiment with sheep, rooster, duck**
**Nov 21, 1783 - Pilatre de Rozier & Marquis d’Arlandes were first humans to fly lighter-than-air.  Flight lasted 25 minutes and 5 miles.**
**First balloon flight in US: Jan 9, 1793 in Philadelphia**
**1st US military use in Civil War-observation, aerial reporting**

**1 Introduction to Air Power**

## 1 Introduction to Air Power

**Paul Haenlein - 1st dirigible powered by an internal combustion engine**
**Ferdinand von Zeppelin - built and flew the world’s first rigid dirigible LZ-1.**

**1 Introduction to Air Power**

_**Wright Brothers**_
**First to achieve controlled, sustained, powered heavier than air flight.**
**Learned from previous pioneers an observing birds in flight**
**Utilized “wing-warping technique” for control**
**Utilized gas powered engine; built gliders**
**December 17, 1903-1st powered flt-120’ 12 seconds at Kitty Hawk, N.C.**
**Completed 3 flights that day, longest 852 feet, 59 seconds.**

## 2 Adolescence of Air Power: 1904-1919

**Poor press, No enthusiasm**
**No gov’t interest until T. Roosevelt**
**Contracted w/ Board of Ordnance & Fortifications to train 2 pilots**
**Demonstrations in France**
**Sept 17, 1908-Killed Lt. Thomas Selfridge, 1st death in powered aircraft**

_**Wright Brothers**_

_**Aviation Gains Recognition**_

_**Europe**_

**Frenchman Robert Esnault-Pelterie 1st aileron application and enclosed fuselage**
**Alberto Santos-Dumont-flew 1st powered airplane in Europe 1906.**
**Louis Bleriot-Built/flew 1st powered monoplane.**

**Vin Fiz Flyer - 1st aircraft to fly across US coast to coast, built by Wright Bros.**
**Harriet Quimby - 1st licensed female pilot in US.**
**Louis Breguet - 1st helicopter to lift man**
**World’s 1st regularly scheduled airline - St. Petersburg - Tampa Airboat, 1914**

## 2 Adolescence of Air Power: 1904-1919

_**World War I**_

_**Gen. Billy Mitchell**_

**Airplane not recognized as important at beginning WW1**
**Germans had dirigibles as bombers (filled w/ hydrogen)**
**Germans developed bombers**
**Fighters developed to shoot down bombers**
**Eddie Rickenbacker - American WW1 ace-16 kills in 5 months.  Only living American to receive Medal of Honor in WW1**
**US didn’t recognize aircraft as “game changer” - used English/French built aircraft**
**Lafayette Escadrille - American group of flyers serving the French**

**Recognized that the airplane is an offensive weapon**
**Air service should be separate service than Army**
**Air power can be effective against ground troops**

## 3 Golden Age 1919-1939

**US had built 15,000 airplanes during war**
**US front-line strength:  750 combat aircraft, 800 pilots**
**3 days after war ended, US gov’t cancelled $100M airplane contracts**
**175,000 workers laid off, production dropped 85%, military aviation cut 95%**
_**Barnstormers**_
**Ex-military pilots, flew to attract attention**
**Most people in US had not seen an airplane**
**1st licensed African-American pilot - Bessie Coleman**
_**Billy Mitchell and airpower**_
**Air power could strike industrial targets, attack troop supply routes, shorten war**
**Stressed importance of airpower in strategic warfare**
**Ostfriesland “unsinkable” battleship**
**Demolished by 200 lb. bombs**
**Navy recognized importance and within 8 months had first aircraft carrier**
**Organized 1st around the world flight with 4 Douglas World Cruisers - *****Boston, Chicago, Seattle, New Orleans***

**3 Golden Age 1919-1939**

## 3 Golden Age 1919-1939

**Pulitzer Trophy - 29 mile closed course**
**Bendix Trophy Race - West coast to Cleveland, OH - 1931**
_**Air Mail**_
**First service by US Post Office May 15, 1918 between Washington DC and New York City.**
**May 20, 1926 - Air Commerce Act, first attempt to regulate commercial aviation**
**President Roosevelt signed Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 creating Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA) - one independent agency to regulate law and safety**
_**1st non-stop Atlantic crossing**_
**July 1919-John Alcock and Arthur Brown**
**St. Johns Newfoundland to Ireland 16 hrs, 1880 miles.**
_**1st solo non-stop Atlantic crossing**_
**May 20, 1927 - Charles Lindbergh in the Spirit of St. Louis, built by Ryan**

**3 Golden Age 1919-1939**

## 4 Air Power Goes to War

**Germany had terrible losses in WWI from trench warfare**
**Blitzkrieg - “lightning war” combination of army and air forces**
**Germany focused on small/medium sized aircraft to support Blitzkrieg tactics**
**Allies (US, England, France) had cut back aircraft production - weakened air power**

_**New Type of War**_

_**Germany Advances**_

_**Battle of Britain August 1940**_

**Luftwaffe focused on gaining control of air over Britain**
**Germany did not have long range bombers**
**Britain focused on defensive warfare with fighters**
**Britain used radar**
**Britain won by having the right aircraft for battle**

**1940 - Italy & Germany declared war on Great Britain**
**Italy & Germany attacked western Africa**
**Axis invaded Greece, Russia**
**Russia used heavy defenses including woman pilots for combat sorties.**
**Germany forces spread too thin on 3 fronts**

## 4 Air Power Goes to War

**Centralize control of air forces**
**Gain air superiority - attack airfields, aircraft**
**Interdiction - cripple enemy supplies**
**Close ground support - bomb enemy troops**
**Hitler defeated in North Africa**

_**Lessons in North Africa**_

_**US Enters WWII**_

**December 7, 1941 - Japanese attack Pear Harbor, Hawaii.  Purpose was to cripple the US naval fleet. **
**Allied strategy - **
**Defensive to offensive**
**Recapture territory occupied by Germany & Japan**
**Force both Germany & Japan to unconditional surrender **
**European campaign had priority over Pacific**
**Focus on strategic bombing**

## 4 Air Power Goes to War

**US declared war on Germany/Axis 12/11/41**
**8th Air Force formed in 1/42, 8/42 1st bombing mission**
**US strategy-precision daytime bombing**
**RAF strategy-Night blanket operations**
**6/6/44 - Normandy invasion**
**5/7/45 - Germany surrenders**

**Japan rapidly advancing throughout the pacific**
**1942 -Battle of Coral Sea & Midway-entirely by airpower, no surface ship engagement**
**Established strategy for subsequent naval battles**
**Stopped advance of Japan**
**4/42 Doolittle Raid on Tokyo**
**8/6/45 Atomic bombing of Hiroshima - B-29**
**8/9/45 Atomic bombing of Nagasaki**
**9/2/45 Japan surrenders**

**Airplane became prominent weapon of war**
**Aircraft carrier became primary naval weapon**
**20 Million killed, 4 million civilians**
**Warfare-no one wins or loses**
**Sensible solution is to prevent war rather than fight one.**

_**Pacific**_

_**Lessons Learned**_

_**Europe**_

## 5 Aviation:  From the Cold War to Desert Storm

**Postwar years (after WWII) were called “Cold War”.**
**Soviet Union tried to spread communism, US tried to stop it.**
**Antagonistic relationship, not a “hot” war.**
**Cold War shaped many developments in aviation.**
**7/26/47 - National Security Act - USAF was formed.**
**Primary mission - deterrence with atomic bombs by Strategic Air Command**

_**Political Climate**_

_**Korean War**_

**6/25/50 North Korea invaded S. Korea-ended 7/53**
**1st Priority to stop advance of N. Korean Army**
**1st all jet battle-F-80 shot down MIG-15**
**Lessons learned:  atomic arsenal not enough to prevent war, multiple levels of conflict**

## 5 Aviation:  From the Cold War to Desert Storm

_**Research &  Development**_

**Bell X-1 1st plane to exceed Mach 1**
**10/14/47 Chuck Yeager**

**Douglas D558-II**
**1st plane to exceed Mach 2**
**11/20/53 Scott Crossfield**

**Douglas X-3**
**High speed flight materials & aerodynamics testing**
**Never exceeded speed of sound**

**Northrop X-4**
**Tailless research**
**Led to XB-35, YB-49 and B-2 stealth bomber**

**Bell X-2**
**Swept wing research**
**1st plane to exceed Mach 3**
**9/27/56 Milburn Apt**

**Bell X-5**
**Variable geometry wing research**
**Led to F-111, F-14, B-1**

**The X-Planes:  X-1 to X-45**
**Jay Miller**

## 5 Aviation:  From the Cold War to Desert Storm

_**Vietnam Conflict**_

**Americas Longest War - 25 years**
**Phase I-1950-1954-Aid and advisors for French**
**Phase II 1954-1964-French defeated, troops sent to train S. Vietnamese **
**Phase III-1964-1969-US Naval ships attacked.  8/64 Tonkin Gulf Resolution- empowered Johnson “take all necessary measures to repel armed attack against forces of US an prevent further aggression.”**
**Operation Rolling Thunder:  1965-1968**
**3 year bombing campaign to force N. Vietnam to surrender.  Limited targets**
**Operation Linebacker I & II**
**President Nixon’s method to get N. Vietnam to negotiate.  Linebacker II was the only true strategic bombing campaign of Vietnam War**
**Phase IV-1969-1975-Nixon withdrew troops, Saigon captured by N. Vietnamese in 1975.**

## 6 Advances In Aeronautics

_**Aeronautical Research**_

**X-15 joint USAF, Navy, NASA program to build aircraft to fly 4500 mph at 250k feet.**
**XB-70-Mach 3 high altitude supersonic bomber prototype to replace B-52**
**Composite materials-Strong, lightweight, non-metallic**
**Oblique wing-Pivoting wing-optimum lift under different circumstances**
**Winglets-Reduce vorticies off wingtips reducing drag**
**Canards-Horizontal surfaces forward of main wing**
**Supercirtical wing-Delay point at which air reaches supersonic speeds, delaying increased drag.**
**Forward-swept wing: X-29**

_**Military Advancements**_

**U-2: High altitude reconnaissance**
**SR-71: Mach 3+ high altitude reconnaissance**
**B-1B:  Low altitude, high speed strategic bomber**
**F-117 Nighthawk:  1st stealth fighter-bomber **
**B-2:  Stealth bomber**

## 6 Advances In Aeronautics

**6 Advances In Aeronautics**

**1st commercial jet Boeing 707, 1957**
**Douglas’ answer to 707, the DC-8**
**Defined global air travel through the 1960’s**

**Short/medium range: 727, DC-9, 737**
**737 most produced jetliner in history**

## 6 Advances In Aeronautics

_**Civil Aviation-The Wide body’s**_

**6 Advances In Aeronautics**

**1st wide-body and largest commercial aircraft in service - Boeing 747, 1968**
**Douglas entered with DC-10 trijet**
**Lockheed entered with L-1011 trijet**
**Airbus enters with A-300 twinjet**

**First supersonic transport:  Concorde**
**The advanced twins:  757, 767**
**DC-9 grows into MD-80**
**Airbus enters the narrow body market with A320**

## 6 Advances In Aeronautics

**6 Advances In Aeronautics**

**Boeing MD-11, 777, 737-700 series**
**Airbus A330, A340**

_**Civil Aviation-The Future....**_

**Boeing Sonic Cruiser**
**Airbus A380**

## Part 2 Principles of Flight & Navigation

**Chap. 7-****	****Basic Aeronautics & Aerodynamics**
**Chap. 8-****	****Aircraft in Motion**
**Chap. 9-****	****Flight Navigation**

## 7 Basic Aeronautics & Aerodynamics

_**4 Forces of Flight**_

_**Daniel Bernoulli**_

_**Lift & Angle of Attack**_

_**Airfoil Design**_

**7 Basic Aeronautics & Aerodynamics**

**Dutch physicist, 1738**
**Discovered relationship between the pressure and speed of fluid in motion**
**Bernoulli’s Principle:  “As the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure decreases”**

## 8 Aircraft in Motion

**8 Aircraft in Motion**

_**Lateral Axis**_

_**Longitudinal Axis**_

_**Vertical Axis**_

## 8 Aircraft in Motion

**8 Aircraft in Motion**

_**Reciprocating**_
**Fuel converted to energy in cylinder**

_**Turbine**_
**Turbojet**
**Turbofan**
**Turboprop**
**Turboshaft**

## 8 Aircraft in Motion

**8 Aircraft in Motion**

_**Performance**_** - How aircraft responds to our commands**
_**Control **_**- Current state of aircraft devices**

_**Instrument Types**_

_**Engine**_

_**Flight**_

_**Navigational**_

**Tachometer**
**Oil Press.**
**Oil Temp.**
**Manif. Press.**
**Carb. Temp.**
**Exhaust Gas Temp.**

**Airspeed Ind.**
**Altimeter**
**Turn/slip ind.**
**Vert. Speed. Ind.**
**Attitude Ind. (Artificial Horizon**

**Mag. Compass**
**Heading Ind.**
**VOR Ind.**

## 9 Flight Navigation

**9 Flight Navigation**

_**Sectional Charts**_
**Relief - Elevations**
**Hydrographic - Bodies of water**
**Cultural - Cities, towns**
**Airports - Civil & Military**
**Airspace & Airways - Navigation**

_**Basic Navigation Techniques**_
**Pilotage - Reference to visible landmarks**
**Dead Reckoning - Systematic consideration of all factors that could effect the flight**

**Greenwich, England**

## Part 3 The Aerospace Community

**Chap. 10-****	****The Airport**
**Chap. 11-****	****Air Carriers**
**Chap. 12-****	****General Aviation**
**Chap. 13-****	****Business & Commercial Aviation**
**Chap. 14-****	****Military Aircraft**
**Chap. 15-****	****Helicopters, STOL, VTOL, UAVs**
**Chap. 16-****	****Aerospace Organizations**
**Chap. 17-****	****Aerospace Careers & Training**

## 10 The Airport

_**Runway**_
**Most important part of an airport.**
**Can be made of grass, gravel, concrete, or asphalt.**
**Identified by number corresponding to compass direction**
**90 degrees “09”, opposite end 270 degrees “27”**
**White lights at edges and sometimes in middle at night, during day are dashed white line down middle**
**End of runway are red lights**
_**Control Tower**_
**Primary function to control runway**
**Controls movement of aircraft on ground**
**Most airports are uncontrolled (no control tower)**

## 11 Air Carriers

_**Major Air Carriers**_
**Regularly scheduled service (commercial airlines, cargo carriers, regional air carriers - All regulated by FAA**
_**Modern Airliners**_
**Boeing 707-1st commercial jet used in US.  Flew 1958, built until 1979**
**Douglas DC-8-Entered service 1 yr after 707, ended 1972**
**DC-9-Twin jet short/medium range competitor to 737.  MD-80/MD-90 are new versions.**** **
**Boeing 727-Most successful tri-jet**
**737-Twin engine, short/medium haul, most successful jetliner**
**Boeing 747-Largest commercial jet produced, 1st wide-body****,**** Series 400-heaviest commercial aircraft 892K lbs (Antonov An-225-1,322K lbs)**
**Douglas DC-10-2nd jumbo jet-3 engines, MD-11 next generation version**
**Lockheed L-1011-1st commercial aircraft since Electra.**
**Airbus A-300-1st commercial aircraft by Airbus**
**767-1980’s technology small wide-body**

## 11 Air Carriers

_**Major Airliners Continued**_
**757-Designed with 767, standard body, same fuselage diameter as 707, 727, 737, intended to replace 727 however created its own market.**
**A320 - Airbus entry into narrowbody market**
**MD-11 - 1990’s version of DC-10**
**777-1990’s technology twin-engine long range **
**A330/A340-1990’s technology medium/long range **
**A380-New double deck 600 passenger long range - service 2006**
**Boeing Sonic Cruiser - Near supersonic long range medium sized (767) twin engine transport.  Probable service 2008**
_**Air Cargo Carriers**_
**Only carry cargo, no passengers**
**Boeing 747F, DC-10, MD-11, A300, 757, 727, DC-8**

_**Regional Aircraft**_
**Metro III, Beech 99, ATR 72, Dash 8- all turboprops**
**Regional Jets**
**Bombardier CRJ, Embraer 145, Dornier 328, **

## 12 General Aviation

_**General Aviation**_** - All civil aviation other than flying by scheduled air carriers and government agencies**
_**Instructional Aviation**_
**Aircraft specifically use to teach someone to fly.  C-152, Piper Tomahawk, Beech Skipper**
_**Personal Aviation**_
**Use of aircraft other than business or commercial use, 24% all hours flown.  **
**Beech - Sundowner, Sierra, Bonanza**
**Cessna - largest builder of GA 179,500 - 172 Skyhawk, 182 Skylane, 185 Skywagon, 210 Centurion**

## 12 General Aviation

**Mooney - Mooney 201**
**Piper - Malibu, Cherokee, Cruiser, Arrow, Super Cub, Archer**
_**Sport Aviation**_
**Home builts, ballooning, soaring, antique aviation, racing, aerobatics, ultralight**
**First unrefueled nonstop flight around the world - December 14-23, 1986, Dick Rutan & Jeana Yeager**

## 13 Business & Commercial Aviation

_**Business Aviation**_** - Major areas of concern in aviation today: 1) Fuel efficiency; 2) Noise; 3) Cost effectiveness**

_**Executive Aircraft**_

**Multi-engine piston**

**Turboprops**

**Turbofans**

_**Business Aircraft**_

**Transportation (air taxis, charter), agricultural , aerial Advertising, aerial Photography, fire fighting, fish & wildlife, patrol, industrial uses**

## 14 Military Aircraft

**14 Military Aircraft**

_**Bombers**_** - Reach enemy’s homeland and destroy ability to wage war**
**Boeing B-52, B-1, Northrop Grumman B-2 Stealth Bomber**
_**Fighters**_** - Destroys other aircraft, small ground targets**
**Boeing F-15, F/A-18, Northrop Grumman F-14, Lockheed Martin A-10, F-22, F-35 (JSF), F-16, F-117**

_**Combat Aircraft**_

## 14 Military Aircraft

_**Reconnaissance & Observation**_** - Watch an enemy to keep track of what they are doing**
**Lockheed U-2, SR-71, Boeing E-3A AWACS, E-4B, E-8 J-STARS, Lockheed P-3C, S-3A, Northrop Grumman E-2C**
_**Transports & Tankers**_** - Unarmed to support combat aircraft & military assets**
**Lockheed C-5, C-141, C130, Boeing C-17, KC-135, KC-10, VC-25**

_**Noncombat Aircraft**_

## 14 Military Aircraft

_**US Air Force**_** **
**Raytheon T-6 Texan II, Cessna T-37 Tweet, Northrop T-38 Talon, Raytheon T-1 Jayhawk**
_**US Navy**_** **
**Raytheon T-34C Mentor, Boeing T-45 Goshawk, Raytheon T-44 Pegasus**

_**Training Aircraft**_

## 15 Helicopters, STOLs, VTOLs, UAVs

**15 Helicopters, STOLs, VTOLs, UAVs**

_**Attack**_
**Bell AH-1 Cobra (Army & Marines), Boeing AH-64 Apache (Army)**
_**Heavy-Lift **_
**Boeing CH-47 (Army), CH-46 (Navy, Marines), Sikorsky CH-53 (USAF, Navy, Marines), Bell/Boeing V-22 Osprey (Hybrid), Sikorsky H-3 - 1st nonstop flight across Atlantic Ocean 1967**
_**Utility**_
**Bell UH-1 Huey, Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk (Army, Navy, AF)**
_**Civilian **_
**Bell 206 Jetranger, Bell 222,  MD 500, Sikorksky S-76**
_**Foreign**_
**Aerospatiale Puma, Dauphin, Agusta 109, MBB 105**

_**Helicopters **_**- In use since end of WWII, very resourceful with limitations:  high maintenance costs, vibrations, high noise levels.  Turbine engines, composite materials advanced helicopter development**

## 15 Helicopters, STOLs, VTOLs, UAVs

_**Short-takeoff-and-landing (STOL) **_**- Defined as ability of an aircraft to clear a 50-foot obstacle within 1500 feet after takeoff and to stop within 1500 feet after passing over a 50-foot obstacle when landing.**
_**Vertical-takeoff-and-landing (VTOL)**_** - Significant design differences to achieve VTOL from STOL.  V-22 Osprey is propeller VTOL.  AV-8B Harrier only VTOL aircraft put to common use in multiple countries.  F-35 JSF Marines VTOL version to replace Harrier. **
_**Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs)**_** - Pilotless aircraft used for reconnaissance, electronic warfare, or combat operations.  Used during WWII, widely used in Vietnam.  Computer technology has renewed significant interest today.**

**RQ-1A Predator**

**RQ-5A Hunter**

**RQ-4A Global Hawk**

## 16 Aerospace Organizations

_**Federal Aviation Administration**_
**Air traffic regulation began with Air Commerce act of 1926. Bureau of Air Commerce formed within Dept. of Commerce**
**Civil Aeronautics Act 1938 -  Regulation placed under Civil Aeronautics Authority (established safety & economic policies), Administrator of Aviation (execute safety policies), and Air Safety Board (investigated accidents).**
**Federal Aviation Act 1958 - FAA formed**
**Air Traffic Control**
**Airway Facilities**
**Flight Standards**
**Research & Development**
**Aeronautical Center**
_**National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)**_
**5 member board appointed by President**
**Responsible for determining cause of any transportation accident.**
_**National Aeronautics & Space Administration**_
**Earth Science, Aero-Space Technology, Space Science, Human Exploration & Development of Space**

_**International Civil Aviation Organization (IACO)**_
**1947 - International organization dedicated to standardization of aviation functions.**
_**Civil Reserve Air fleet (CRAF)**_
**Commercial airliners which have been designated by DoD for use in time of emergency.**
_**Civil Air Patrol**_
**Emergency Services, Aerospace Education, Cadet Programs**
_**Aircraft Owners & Pilots Association (AOPA)**_
**Supports the views and rights of aircraft owners and pilots.**
_**Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)**_
**Formed to help builders safely construct and fly homebuilt aircraft.**
_**Industry Organizations**_
**Aerospace Industries Association (AIA)**
**General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA)**

## 17 Aerospace Careers & Training

_**Aptitudes and Aerospace Careers**_
**Special talents and natural abilities which a person possesses are called aptitudes.**
**Mechanical, verbal, scientific, manipulative, numerical, administrative, social, artistic.**

_**Academic Institutions**_
**Junior or community colleges - Associate degree**
**Technical/Vocational School - technical education courses**
**Four year college/University - BA, BS, MS, Phd**
**Air Force Schools**
**Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps. (ROTC)-Bachelors**
**Air Force Academy-Bachelors, Masters**
**Must be 17**
**US Citizen**
**Good moral character, physical condition, scholastic record**
**Unmarried and no dependent children**
**Demonstrated potential for leadership, desire to become a cadet**
**Community College of the Air Force - Associate Degrees**

## Part 4 Air Environment

**Chap. 18-****	****The Atmosphere**
**Chap. 19-****	****Weather Elements**
**Chap. 20-****	****Aviation Weather**

## 18 The Atmosphere

_**Atmospheric Regions**_
**Troposphere - Region where we live.  “Tropo” means change “sphere” means layer.  Temperature decreases with altitude, region where weather occurs. **
**Stratosphere - Stable weather region, temperature increases with altitude**
**Mesosphere - Temperature increase then decrease to -130F**
**Thermosphere - 50 miles to 300 miles, temperature increases**

_**Water in Atmosphere**_
**Evaporation - liquid molecules turn to gas or vapor state.**
**Humidity - amount of water in air**
**Relative Humidity - indicates amount of water vapor that can still enter air mass before being saturated**
**Dew Point Temperature - Temperature at or below which water vapor will be saturated and condense.**

_**Methods of Heat Transfer**_
**Conduction - Heating by direct contact**
**Convection - Heating by vertical motion of fluid (thermals)**
**Advection - Heating by horizontal motion of fluid (wind)**
**Radiation - Method of heating without changing temperature of medium in between (sun)**
**Insolation - Rate Earth’s surface is heated by solar radiation**

_**Pressure Gradient**_
**Pressure gradient - slope of high-pressure mountain**
**Isobars - lines of constant pressure**
**Jet Stream - “River” of high speed air moving from West to East at speeds up to 450MPH**

## 19 Weather Elements

_**Air Masses & Fronts**_
**Cold Front - Pushes warm air upward and can create thunderstorms**
**Warm Front - Warm air covers cold air, usually high, thin wispy clouds develop**
**Stationary Front - When air masses lose their “punch” and do not replace each other**
**Occluded Front - Warm air mass, lying between two cold masses is lifted by cold mass behind**

_**Clouds**_
**Cumulus - Piled up**
**Stratus - Layered**
**Cirrus - High, thin appearance**

**Low - 300-6500 ft, stratus, cumulus, stratocumulus, cumulonimbus, nimbostratus**
**Medium - “Alto” high but not highest, 6500 - 20000 ft**
**High - Cirrus - wispy **

**Polar - Cold**
**Tropical - Hot**
**Maritime - Humid**
**Continental - Dry **

## 20 Aviation Weather

_**Weather Hazards**_
**Visual Flt Rules (VFR) - Cloud ceiling > 3000 ft and visibility > 3 miles**
**Instrument Flt Rules (IFR) - Cloud ceiling >500 and <1000 ft and visibility >1 mile and <3miles**
**Clouds, rain, snow, fog, haze, smoke, blowing dust, sand, snow**
**Icing - Carburetor, glaze, rime, frost**

_**Severe Weather**_
**Thunderstorms**
**Cumulus stage - updraft of warm moist air**
**Mature stage - Rain, strong downdrafts**
**Dissipating stage - Downdrafts produce heating, drying, ceasing rain**
**Tornadoes**
**Funnel cloud that touches ground - violent energy in small area**
**Occur most often in N. America & Australia**
**Hurricane**
**Strong tropical cyclone that occur around world**
**Eye of hurricane is calm low pressure core**
**Hail**
**Frozen rain pellets that circulate in thunderstorm**

## Part 5 Rockets

**Chap. 21-****	****Rocket Fundamentals**
**Chap. 22-****	****Chemical Propulsion**
**Chap. 23-****	****Orbits & Trajectories**

## 21 Rocket Fundamentals

_**History of Rocketry**_
**Rocketry is based on the propelling of a vehicle by a reactive force.**
**Chinese developed rockets in 1220 and were first to use in war.**
**1405 - German engineer Konrad Kyeser von Eichstadt devised rocket propelled by gunpowder**
**1800 - Britain’s William Congreve developed flight-stabilizing guide sticks and built first viable launching pad.**
**William Hale (English) developed spin stabilization with angled exhaust tubes.**
**WW I - rockets used as signal flares and to carry messages, not used as primary weapon.**
**Dr. Robert H. Goddard - Developed and launched first liquid propelled rocket.  Recognized as the “Father of Modern Rocketry”.**
**Germany developed liquid rocket as weapon in WW II know as the V-2.**

## 21 Rocket Fundamentals

_**Fundamental Physics**_

_**Gravitation-**_**Force of attraction between all matter within the universe**
_**Gravity**_**- Gravitation force with a body or mass on or near the Earth (Galileo)**
_**Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation**_**:**
_**Newton’s Three Law’s of Motion:**_
**1) Inertia**
**2) F=ma**
**3) Action=Reaction**

**Momentum = m x V**
**Acceleration = rate of change of velocity**

_**Rocket Systems**_

_**Airframe-**_**Structure**
_**Propulsion**_
**Engines - Liquid Propellant**
**Motors- Solid Propellant**
_**Guidance Systems**_** - “Brain”, inertial platform, star tracking**
_**Control Systems**_** - “Steering”, thrust vector control, reaction control**

_***Specific Impulse (Isp)***_*** = lbs of thrust delivered by consuming 1 lb of propellant in 1 second***

## 22 Chemical Propulsion

_**Oxidizers & Reducers**_
**Oxidation - combination of oxygen with another substance.  Time it takes for this process determines if substance rusts, corrodes, burns, or explodes**
**Combustion - Rapid oxidation**
**Oxidizer - Chemical element of Oxygen used to facilitate oxidation**
**Reducers - Fuel used to combine with Oxygen to produce combustion.**
**Propellant - Common reference to both oxidizer and fuel**
**Bipropellant - Propellant with separate storage of oxidizer and fuel.**
**Monopropellant - Oxidizer and fuel stored in same container.**

_**Solid Motors-**_**Oxidizer and fuel are mixed together in solid state**
**Storable**
**No thrust control**
**Cannot stop or throttle**

_**Liquid Propellant**_
**Hard to store/handle**
**Can stop or throttle**

## 23 Orbits & Trajectories

_**Orbit **_**- Path described by one body in its revolution about another body.**

**Circular Orbit - Constant altitude above Earth’s surface**
**Elliptical Orbit - Not circular**
**Equatorial - West to East over Equator**
**Geostationary Orbit - Equatorial orbit of period of 24 hours**
**Polar Orbit - Crosses North and South poles**
**Sunsynchronous Orbit - Constant exposure to sunlight**
**Sounding Rocket - Straight up trajectory, never reaches orbit**

**Apogee**

**Perigee**

**Focal A**

**Focal B**

**Earth**

**Satellite**

## 23 Orbits & Trajectories

_**Velocity Requirements**_
**Burnout - Moment a rocket engine ceases to produce thrust.**
**Satellite in circular Earth orbit - 17,856 MPH**
**Minimum velocity to Moon - 24,409 MPH**
**Escape velocity of Earth - 25,560 MPH**
**Escape velocity of Solar System - 36,000 MPH**

_**Launch Vehicles**_
**Rocket - Power plant used to propel a payload.**
**Missile - Rocket propelled vehicle used to deliver a weapon.**
**Launch Vehicle - Rocket propelled vehicle use to deliver payload other than a weapon.**
**Expendable - Vehicles used only once and do not return to Earth.**
**Reusable - Space Shuttle is only reusable launch vehicle.**

## Part 6 Space

**Chap. 24-****	****Space Environment**
**Chap. 25-****	****Our Solar System**
**Chap. 26-****	****Unmanned Space Exploration**
**Chap. 27- ****	****Manned Spacecraft**

## 24 Space Environment

_**Space**_
**Definition - Altitude of 50 miles and beyond Earth’s surface.**
**Cislunar Space - Space between Earth & Moon.**
**Interplanetary Space - Center of Sun to outermost planet, Pluto.**
**Interstellar Space - Distance between solar systems.**

_**Sun**_
**Strongest gravitational force in the solar system.**
**864,000 Miles in diameter, surface is plasma, fusion process**
**Photosphere - Thin shell that gives light.**
**Chromosphere - Sphere of Color.**
**Corona - “Crown” outermost part of sun’s atmosphere**

_**Environmental Effects on Space Operations**_
**Communications - Magnetic storms, ionosphere, solar flares**
**Radiation, Electrostatic charging, vacuum**
**Weightlessness - Damaging physical effects on Human body.  Astronauts use NASA’s “Vomit Comet” to train for weightlessness or free fall.**

## 25 Our Solar System

_**Mercury**_
**Closest planet to Sun; 36 million miles**
**Temperature ranges from -350F to 750F**

_**Venus**_
**Second planet from Sun; 67 million miles**
**Nearest to Earth in size and distance**
**Only planet to rotate about its axis in a clockwise (east to west) direction**
**Hottest planet of 900F, 240 days to complete one rotation**

_**Mars**_
**Fourth planet, the Red Planet, slightly longer than 1 Earth day**
**Highest mountain in solar system:  400 miles wide 17 miles high**
**Pathfinder mission landed 1997.  Small rover called Sojourner analyzed rocks and soil.**

_**Jupiter**_
**Fifth planet, largest in solar system**
**Gas giant, hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia**
**11 times larger than Earth**
**Rotates every 10 hours**

## 25 Our Solar System

_**Saturn**_
**2nd largest planet and sixth from Sun**
**Rotates every 10 hours**

_**Uranus**_
**3rd largest planet in solar system**
**Rotates on side every 18 hours.**
**2 billion miles from Sun, -340F on surface**

_**Neptune**_
**Outermost of gas planets, 4th largest in solar system**
**Rotates every 19 hours**
**Most windy planet, up to 1500 MPH**

_**Pluto**_
**About size of Mars**
**Rotates every 6.4 Earth days**
**Ranges from 2.9 to 4.6 billion miles from Sun**

## 25 Our Solar System

_**The Asteroids**_
**Rocky and metallic objects orbiting the Sun too small to be planets**
**Over 15,000 asteroids have been found**

_**Comets**_
**Small irregular shaped body with nucleus made of water, ice, rock, and frozen gas**
**Identified by a coma (diffuse material surrounding nucleus) with a long trailing tail**
**Highly elliptical orbit around the Sun**

_**Meteoroids**_
**Bits and clumps of matter that orbit the Sun and cross cislunar space**
**Meteor - meteoroid that enters Earth’s atmosphere**
**Meteorite - meteor that collides with Earth’s surface**
**Most meteorites are size of basketball or smaller**

## 26 Unmanned Exploration

_**The Space Race Begins**_
**Former German scientists worked with V-2 rocket derivatives to explore rocket research for US and Russia.**
**Soviet Union launched first successful artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 on Oct. 4, 1957**
**Explorer I - US first satellite launched Jan 31, 1958.**
**October 1, 1958 - National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) developed.**

_**Space Treaties**_
**1967 Outer Space Treaty - Approved in UN General Assembly states that space is providence of all mankind and space exploration should benefit all countries.**
**AMB Treaty - 1972, Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems - agreement not to develop systems to defend against ballistic missiles.**
**Commercial Space Launch Act (CSLA) - Single regulatory agency for commercial space in US.**

## 26 Unmanned Exploration

_**Satellites - Unmanned Spacecraft**_
**Communications Satellites - relay and amplify signals**
**Echo 1, Telstar, INTELSAT, TDRSS, Milstar**
**Navigation Satellites - Send positional data to specific receivers**
**Transit, NAVSTAR (GPS)**
**Observation Satellites - Look at Earth and relay information.**
**Weather (Tiros 1960), multi-spectrum imaging, reconnaissance**
**Scientific Satellites - Orbit for sole purpose of gaining information**
**Explorers - first of series to orbit Earth **
**Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO)**
**Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO)**
**Hubble Space Telescope**
**Probes**
**Rangers - first probes to investigate the Moon**
**Surveyors - landed on Moon’s surface**

## 26 Unmanned Exploration

**Probes**
**Mariners - flyby of Venus,  Mercury, and Mars**
**Pioneers - Outer planet probes, first look at Jupiter and Saturn**
**Vikings - Two probes that landed on Mars**
**Voyagers - explored Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune**
**Mars Pathfinder - 1997 landing of rover Sojourner**
**Galileo - Inserted probe into Jupiter**
**Cassini - To reach Saturn in 2004**

## 27 Manned Space Explorations

_**Project Mercury - First American Manned Space Program**_
**Determine if man can survive in space and effects on human body.**
**Original Seven:  Carpenter, Cooper, Glenn, Grissom, Schirra, Shepard, Slayton**
**1961-1963: 6 flights**
**May 5, 1961 - First American in space, Alan Shepard, suborbital flight**
**February 20, 1962 - First American to Orbit Earth, John Glenn**

_**Project Gemini**_
**Improve techniques needed for lunar mission:  2 people in space, rendezvous, and docking with another spacecraft, walk in space.**
**June 3, 1965 - Ed White first American to walk in space.**
**1965-1966: 10 flights**

## 27 Manned Space Explorations

_**Project Apollo - The Moon Missions**_
**1968-1972:  11 missions, 6 landed on Moon**
**Apollo 8 - December 24, 1968 - First Moon orbit**
**Apollo 11 - July 20, 1969 - First Moon landing.  Neil Armstrong & Edwin Aldrin**

_**Project Skylab - Our First Space Station**_
**1973-1974:  3 Missions, longest mission 84 days**

_**Space Shuttle**_
**April 12, 1981 - first flight with John Young & Bob Crippen, Columbia**
**Vehicles built:  Enterprise (atmospheric test vehicle), Columbia, Challenger (lost Jan 28, 1986), Discovery, Atlantis, Endeavour**
**June 18, 1983 - first American woman in space**

## 27 Manned Space Explorations

_**Soviet Manned Space Program**_
**April 12, 1961 - First human enter space and orbit Earth - Yuri Gagarin**
**June 1963 - First woman in space - Valentina Tereshkova**
**March 1965 - First human to walk in space - Alexei Leonov**
**July 1975 - Apollo-Soyuz Test Project - docking in space**
**Mir - 1986-2001**