# Presentation: 172082

## Mission Scanner Familiarization Course31 January 2006

## Course Scope

**Designed for members not previously qualified as Mission Scanners**
**Full Scanner Ground School is 8 Hr Course**
**This is an abbreviated Course => 5 hours**
**Members will receive credit for SQTR Tasks completed**
**Focus on Scanner Familiarization & Preparatory Training in SQTR**
**Advanced Training will be completed with Aircrew**
**It is the member’s responsibility to document and secure training **
**Sign-in CAPF 11 **
**Enter completed tasks into MIMS and ES files**
**Schedule SAREX participation **

## Course Agenda

- Evening 1, January 17 (1900-2130 Hrs)
- Introduction & Course Goals
- CAP Missions and Roles
- Scanner & Observer Duties
- Safe Operations
- Survival and Urgent Treatment
- Visual Search Scanning Techniques & Planning
**Evening 2, January 31 (1900-2130 Hrs)**
***1800-1900 Aircraft Familiarity & Flight Line Ops. (Optional)***
**Crew Resource Management**
**Weather Impact On CAP SAR**
**Air to Ground Communications**
**CAP’s Mission in Disaster Relief **
**Navigation & Position Determination (as time permits)**

## Review

## The Basics:Mission Check-In Procedures 

**Report To Mission Base**
**Sign-in/Sign-Out on CAPF 211**
**CAPF 101 presented and qualifications noted**
**Provide copy of CAPF 60 (Emergency Contact Info) **
**Uniform is inspected  (if incomplete, limited duties)**
**Assigned Mission Role and Supervisor **
**Air Crew/Flight Line**
**Ground Team**
**Mission Base Staff **
**Supervisor must be rated in ES Skill to “sign-off” on SQTRs (note CAPF 101)**

## Primary CAP Aircrew Roles

**Mission Pilot**
**Mission Observer**
**Mission Scanner**

## Emergency Egress

**Emergency Egress**

** **
** **

** **

## Emergency Egress

**Prior preparation is important.  Follow the checklist to prop open doors, tighten seat and shoulder belts, secure cargo, and turn off the electricity and fuel.**
**If doors jam, kick them open or kick out the windows.  May also exit through the baggage door.**
**Can’t move the front seats from the rear, so agree on who does what and in what sequence.**
**Discuss what to do if one or more of the crew is incapacitated.**

## Scanner’s SAR Role Is Very Important

**CAP often tasked with **_**most**_** difficult SAR jobs**
**Aircraft crashing in obvious areas are handled by local officials**
**ELT search at airports among “sea of targets”**
**CAP called for Visual Search – “Scanning”**
**CAP is not a “rapid deployment” force but rather a highly skilled SAR resource**
**SAR Sat. hits typically hours old **
**Terrain or weather often not conducive to easy “find”**
**CAP’s value is offering both air and ground search **
**Scanners play critical role in getting the team on the ground to the target**

## Sometimes Visual Search Is Easy

## Other Times It’s More Challenging

## Aircraft in Snow

## Crash Site in Fog

**Crash Site in Fog**

## Find the Person on the Ground 

**@ 1000 AGL**

## Scanning Technique

**Notes:**
5.3
Objective 5.3 – Demonstrate knowledge of fixation points and lines of scan; define scanning range.

## Effects of Vision & Motion

**Notes:**
5.3
Objective 5.3 – Demonstrate knowledge of fixation points and lines of scan; define scanning range.

## Putting It Together in the Aircraft

**Notes:**
5.3
Objective 5.3 – Demonstrate knowledge of fixation points and lines of scan; define scanning range.

## Direction of Flight

**Direction of Flight**

**Aircraft Ground Track**

**Scanning Range**

**1000’ AGL     ( 1/2 - 1 mile )**

**500’ AGL       (1/4 - 1/2 mile) **

**1**

**6**

**11**

**2**

**3**

**4**

**5**

**7**

**8**

**9**

**10**

**12**

**13**

**14**

**15**

**Scanning from the**** **_**LEFT REAR**_** ****WINDOW**

## A person is very difficult to spot from the air if they are not actively trying to be spotted
Lost children and people with diminished capacity can be especially difficult to spot from the air; often they will hide from searchers
Lost people often fight topography; children under five years frequently travel uphill
Important to know what color clothes they were wearing (not just the outer clothes) and their habits

**Lost children and people with diminished capacity can be especially difficult to spot from the air; often they **_**will hide**_** from searchers**
**Lost people often **_**fight topography**_**; children under five years frequently travel uphill**
**Important to know what **_**color clothes**_** they were wearing (not just the outer clothes) and their habits**

**Missing Person Search**

**Notes:**
9.5
Objective 9.9 – Discuss the limitations of an air search for a missing person.
Children tend to hide during the day and won’t come out when called, except at night.

## Search Patterns: Route

**Track of missing aircraft**

**1/2 S**

**1/2 S**

**Track of search aircraft**

**Notes:**
Used when aircraft missing without a trace - also used at night.
Rapid and reasonably thorough coverage near the expected track.

## Parallel Track

**Notes:**
Used for large and fairly level search areas.  Grid search uses this pattern.  Can be done East/West or North/South.

## Creeping Line

**s**

**s**

**s**

**s**

**s**

**Direction of Search**

**Notes:**
Used when fairly sure of the area.  Extended line of the intended airport runways.  Also specific sections of highways or victor airways.

Used when search area is long, narrow, fairly level and target is thought to be on either side of the expected track.

## Expanding Square (second pass rotated 45°)

**4S**

**S**

**3S**

**5S**

**4S**

**2S**

**3S**

**5S**

**Notes:**
Used when the approximate location of target is known.  Difficult to fly accurately without a GPS.  Use cardinal headings whenever possible.
Gradually will cover a larger and larger area.

## Sector

**Sector search is easier to fly**
**than expanding square**

**The pattern provides concentrated**
**coverage near the center of the area**

**This pattern is used when an **
**electronic search has led the**
**crew to a general area to find**
**the exact location visually**

**The pattern and headings**
**are planned in advance**

**S  max**

**S mean**

**Notes:**
Easier to fly than expanding square.  Provides excellent coverage over the central point.
Used when the position of the distress incident is known to be within close limits (i.e. there was a MAYDAY call with definite location).

## Contour search pattern

**This is a difficult and dangerous pattern to fly.**
**Requires special training such as the *****Mountain Flying***** course.**

**Notes:**
11.7
Objective 11.6 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a basic contour search.
Density altitude and aircraft performance limitations can cause you to get into a situation that you can’t get  out of.  Mountain Fury course.

## C.A.P.’s Missions Are Expanding

## QUESTIONS?

## Crew Resource Management(CRM)

**Notes:**
The Aircrew is a TEAM.  Each has a job to perform.  You must work together to be effective.

## Why CRM?

**Properly trained aircrew members can collectively perform complex tasks **_**better**_** and make more accurate decisions than the single best performer on the team.**
**An untrained team's overall performance can be significantly worse than the performance of its weakest single member.**
**We will cover CRM in more depth in the Observer course.**

**Notes:**
Discuss fundamentals of CRM.

## Situational Awareness

**Know what is going on around you at all times**
**Requires:**
**Good mental health**
**Good physical health**
**Attentiveness**
**Inquisitiveness**

## Task Saturation

**Too much information at one time**
**Too many tasks to accomplish in a given time**
**Most common with Observer**
**More likely when using new technology**
**Usually occurs when an individual is confronted with a new or unexpected situation.  Loses SA.**

## Assignment of Duties

** ****CAPR 60-3**
** ****Flight-related -- aircraft commander**
**PIC**
** ****Mission-related -- mission commander**
**Frequently the Observer**

## Crew Coordination

**Understand and execute your assignments**
**Review key briefing information on the way to Grid**
**If assignment requires photo recon, be sure you have all requested before departing**
**Communicate**
**Scanners should remind team of Ops. Normal and other Mission Base check-ins requested**
**Watch and point out other traffic**
**Question**
**Sterile Cockpit Rules only applies to non-mission related communication**

## Fighting Fatigue

**Change positions every 30 minutes if the size of the aircraft permits**
**Switch sides of the aircraft (rear seat)**
**Find a comfortable scanning position**
**Ensure aircraft windows are clean**
**Scan through open hatches when possible**
**Keep inside lighting low to reduce reflections**
**Only use binoculars to check sightings**
**Focus on close objects periodically**

**Notes:**
5.7
Objective 5.7 – Discuss tips on reducing fatigue while scanning.
If you need to rest your eyes occasionally, let the rest of the crew know you’re not scanning so they can compensate.
Switching seats (front to back) in a small aircraft is not easy and may not be possible.
Using binoculars to scan will limit your view and probably make you ill.
Even short rests are beneficial (e.g., during turns outside the grid).

## Summary

**Pay close attention to all briefings.**
**Understand the “big picture.”**
**Watch for task overload in yourself and other crewmembers.**
**67% of air transport accidents occur during 17% of the flight time - taxi, takeoff, departure, approach and landing.  Keep casual conversation and distractions to a minimum during these phases of flight.**
**Begin critical communications with instructions, then explain.**

## Summary

**Successful missions hinge on each and every crewmember**
**Learn how to use the procedures and tools available to you, and use them correctly**
**Never stop learning**
**Don’t be afraid to ask questions**
**Never criticize someone for asking questions**
**Anyone can call “Time Out,” “Abort,” or “This is Stupid”**
**Practice, practice, practice!**

## Weather & High Altitude Impact 

## The most important aspect of weather is its impact on flight conditions
Safety is paramount
Details in the observer course
Effects on Search
Prevailing visibility
Search visibility
Search patterns and altitudes

**Safety is paramount**
**Details in the observer course**
**Effects on Search**
**Prevailing visibility**
**Search visibility**
**Search patterns and altitudes**

**Weather**

**Notes:**
6.4
Objective 6.8 – Discuss how reduced visibility affects search operations, and precautions for flight during reduced visibility conditions.
A high percentage of general aviation accidents have weather as a primary or contributing factor. When a small aircraft is down, CAP may be called on to search in less than ideal weather conditions.
Safety is paramount! Weather will determine whether it's safe to fly search missions or not.
Navigation - weather will have an impact on the ability to reach the search area, perform an effective search and return to base.
Effect on search - Weather will help determine the starting point for a search (areas of thunderstorms, frontal activity, icing, etc.). Visibility has a direct bearing on ability to successfully fly mission. Poor visibility will impede aircrew ability to locate target.
Patterns - Weather has an impact on the type of search pattern flown. If low clouds exist in the search area, electronic searches may not be very effective.  Keep in mind the weather in the search area as well as at the recovery base.  Don't allow yourself to become trapped by the weather.  Search visibility may be much worse than overall prevailing visibility reported by weather stations

## Reduced Visibility

**Fog**
**Haze**
**Snow**
**White out**
**Blowing dust**
**Affected by sun angle and direction**

**Notes:**
Fog is comprised of water droplets suspended in the air. Expect fog anytime the temperature and dew point are within  2F of each other in weather observations. Fog can severely reduce visibility and therefore constitute a serious hazard to aircraft.
Snow is another form of precipitation that presents unique problems. A whiteout is an optical phenomena that can occur with snow covered ground, and a low level cloud deck in certain low light conditions. As sunlight is diffused through the clouds, it reflects off the snow in various directions. The net result is the loss of any reference to horizon and lack of depth perception.

## Turbulence

**Can reduce scanning effectiveness**
**Increases fatigue**
**Interferes with scan**
**Plan flights around high terrain carefully**
**Wind on downwind side can be very strong**
**Clear ridges and peaks by 2000 feet**

**Notes:**
6.5
Objective 6.9 – Discuss how turbulence can affect search operations.

## Flight precautions

**Each member of the aircrew must be vigilant during all phases of flight**
**Assign each an area to watch**
**Characterize visibility in the search area to establish the proper scanning range**
**May be different than assumed**
**Visibility conditions or turbulence may increase fatigue**

## Altitude Effect: Dehydration

**The loss of water through the skin, lungs and kidneys never ceases**
**Loss increases as the humidity drops with increasing altitude**
**Symptoms are dryness of the tissues and resulting irritation of the eyes, nose and throat**
**Minimize intake of coffee, tea, cola or cocoa since they contain caffeine and other chemicals**
**Strategies**
**Drink plenty of fluids**
**Increase air flow (vents and windows)**
**If the search objective allows, reduce temperature by climbing to higher altitude**

**Notes:**
7.3
Objective 7.4 – Discuss the symptoms and dangers of dehydration, and strategies used to combat its effects.
Hypoxia can be insidious.  It can affect you without your being aware.
The percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant at about 21%, regardless of altitude.  Low atmospheric pressure at altitude prevents oxygen from being absorbed into the red blood cells at high altitude 
FAR’s require the pilot to breathe supplemental oxygen above 14,000.  
Flight at 12,500 is limited to 30 minutes.
Ear block usually occurs during descent.
Tell the pilot as soon as an ear or sinus block occurs.  It can be very painful and can cause permanent damage.
Can’t scan well while you are in pain.
Medications can affect your performance.

## Other Effects of Altitude

**Ear Block**
**Congestion around the Eustachian tube makes pressure equalization difficult**
**Can produce severe pain and a loss of hearing that can last from several hours to several days (can rupture eardrum)**
**Sinus Block**
**Sinus congestion makes pressure equalization difficult, particularly during descent**
**Can produce severe pain**
**Hypoxia**
**Normally not a concern for non-mountainous CAP operations (usually below 12,000 MSL)**
**Can have loss of night vision as low as 5,000 feet**
**Body has no built-in warning system against hypoxia**

**Notes:**
7.3.1 – 7.3.3
Objective 7.5 – Discuss the symptoms and dangers of ear block, sinus block and hypoxia, and strategies used to combat their effects.
Low atmospheric pressure at altitude prevents oxygen from being absorbed into the red blood cells at high altitude.
FARs require the pilot to breathe supplemental oxygen above 14,000; flight at 12,500 is limited to 30 minutes without supplemental oxygen.
Ear block usually occurs during descent.
Tell the pilot as soon as an ear or sinus block occurs.  It can be very painful and can cause permanent damage, and you can’t scan well while you are in pain.
Medications may affect your performance.

## Strategies

**Ear Block**
**Yawn, swallow, tense muscles in throat**
**Valsalva maneuver**
**Sinus Block**
**Don’t fly if you’re not well**
**Medication usually not effective and has side effects**
**Hypoxia**
**Avoid smoking, alcohol and depressants**
**Supplemental oxygen**

## QUESTIONS?

## Communications

## Scope of This Course

**Radio Operator Authorization (ROA) Course Recommended for All Scanners**
**ROA Card Required to use CAP radios (military freqs.)**
**This Course Will Not Cover Scanner SQTR task**
**O-2019 Demonstrate Proper Pronunciation**
**O-2020 Demonstrate Use of Pro and Code Words**
**O-2018 Operate Aircraft Communication Equipment**
**Task Sign-Off Via ROA Course or Work with Aircrew during SAREX**

## CAP Aircraft Callsigns

**FAA has authorized CAP to use “group” callsign “****CAP Flight****”**
**CAP Flight 4239 pronounced “****CAP Flight Forty-Two Thirty-Nine****”**
**Just like the airlines**
***Only***** use “Rescue” when priority handling is necessary on real mission**
**“****CAP Flight Forty-Two Thirty-Nine ****Rescue*****”***
*** *****For example if working mission during Wing Net or Exercise and other traffic is impeding communication**

**Notes:**
Emphasize! Important to sound professional to ATC

## CAP FM Radio

**Official business only!**
**Frequencies assigned to CAP by the Air Force**
**Other frequencies only used when authorized**
**Maintain communications discipline**
**Follow the communications plan**
**Report unauthorized use**

## Air-to-Air

**General aviation aircraft (including CAP)**
**122.75 and 122.85 MHz can be used for air-to-air communications**
**Also used by private airports that are not open to the general public**
**Multicom**
**122.90 or 123.1 MHz can be used for SAR**
**Other activities of a temporary, seasonal or emergency nature**
**Also used for by airports that don’t have a tower, FSS, or UNICOM ****(check sectional for airports nearby that use 122.90)**
**Follow the communications plan**
**Listen before transmitting**
**Maintain communications discipline**

## Numbers

**Numbers, Figures , and Time**
**Numeral    Spoken As     Numeral     Spoken As**
**	****0****	****	****Zero****	****7****	****Seven**
**	****1****	****	****Wun****	****8****	****Ate**
**	****2****	****	****Too****	****9****	****Niner**
**	****3****	****	****Tree****	****10****	****Wun Zero**
**	****4****	****	****Fo Wer****	****x00****	****Hun Dred**
**	****5****	****	****Fi Yiv****	****x000****	****Thow Zand**
**	****6****	****	****Six**

**Notes:**
4.1.4
Objective 4.3 – Describe how numbers are pronounced.

## Characters 

**Phonetic Alphabet**
**Letter****	****Word****	****Letter****	****Word****	****Letter****	****Word**
**	****A****	****Alpha****	****J****	****Juliet****	****S****	****Sierra**
**	****B****	****	****Bravo****	****K****	****Kilo****	****T****	****Tango**
**	****C****	****Charlie****	****L****	****Lima****	****U****	****Uniform**
**	****D****	****Delta****	****M****	****Mike****	****V****	****Victor**
**	****E****	****	****Echo****	****N****	****November****	****W****	****Whiskey**
**	****F****	****	****Foxtrot****	****O****	****Oscar****	****X****	****X-Ray**
**	****G****	****Golf****	****P****	****Papa****	****Y****	****Yankee**
**	****H****	****Hotel****	****Q****	****Quebec****	****Z****	****Zulu**
**	**** ****I****	****	****India****	****R****	****Romeo**

**Notes:**
4.1.4
Objective 4.4 – Describe how characters are pronounced (phonetic alphabet).

## Prowords

**All after, All before, Word after, Word before**
**Used to identify a part of a communication**
**Break, Correct, Correction**
**Used to identify a break in the flow of a transmission**
**Over, Out, Roger, Wilco**
**Used to pass control to another station **
**Say again, I say again**
**Used to request retransmission of a message**
**Wait, Wait out**
**Used to indicate a pause is expected**

**Notes:**
4.1.5
Objective 4.5 – Discuss the use of “prowords,” particularly: affirmative and negative; figures; out and over; read back and say again; and roger versus wilco.

## Prowords

**Affirmative – “Yes”**
**Permission granted or “that is correct”**
**Negative – “No”**
**Permission **_**not**_** granted or “that is **_**not**_** correct”**
**Figures**
**Numerals or numbers follow**
**Out**
**End of transmission to you (**_**no**_** answer required **_**nor**_** expected) **
**Over**
**End of transmission to you (response is expected, go ahead)**
**Read back**
**Repeat my message back to me (“Read back is as follows”)**

## Prowords

**Roger**
**I have received and understood all of your last transmission**
**Don’t use to answer a question requiring a ‘yes’ or ‘no’**
**Say Again**
**Repeat all of your last transmission**
**Wilco**
**I have received your transmission, understand it, and will comply**
**Don’t use “Roger” and “Wilco” together (Roger included in Wilco)**

## Code Words

**CAP frequencies are not secure**
**Anyone can (and does) listen (e.g., media, ham operators)**
**Sometimes mission staff issues code words for:**
**Sighting made**
**Condition of occupants**
**Location of sighting**

**Notes:**
4.1.6
Objective 4.6 – Discuss the use of code words.

## Body Signals

**Lie flat hands over head**
**NEED MEDICAL ASSISTANCE**

**Both arms pointing in the**
**direction of landing while**
**squatting**
**LAND IN THIS DIRECTION**

**Wave cloth vertically**
**AFFIRMATIVE — YES**

**Wave cloth horizontally**
**NEGATIVE — NO**

## Body Signals

**Wave one arm**
**over head**
**ALL OK**
**DO NOT WAIT**

**One arm horizontal**
**CAN PROCEED**
**SHORTLY  WAIT**
**IF PRACTICAL**

**Both arms horizontal**
**NEED MECHANIC**
**HELP or PARTS**
**LONG DELAY**

## Body Signals

**Wave Both arms**
**across face**
**DO NOT ATTEMPT**
**TO LAND**

**Cup hands over**
**Ears  **
**OUR RECEIVER**
**IS WORKING**

**Both arms held**
**over head**
**PICK UP**
**PLANE IS**
**ABANDONED**

## Emergency Distress

## Aircraft Motion Signals

**YES**

**NO**

**Message received and understood**

**Notes:**
Also, to direct the ground team in a certain direction fly over the team on the appropriate heading and race the engine.

## Air-to-Ground Coordination Techniques2LT William Hale

**Notes:**
4.2.6
Objective 4.10 – Discuss air-to-ground coordination techniques.

## Introduction

**The importance of air-to-ground coordination in CAP missions cannot be overstated.**
**The purpose of this block is to teach appropriate techniques and avoid common air-to-ground coordination pitfalls.**

**Notes:**
This also takes much practice.

## Why Air-To-Ground Coordination?

**Air-to-Ground Coordination is a core competency:**
**It is the best way to keep CAP in the SAR business!**
**CAP is the nation’s premier air-to-ground coordination SAR organization: in fact, we are the only nationwide organization that practices it!**
**CAP must continue to specialize in this area to eliminate duplication of resources with other organizations.**
**CAP capitalizes upon this strength during interagency (ICS) operations for the mutual benefit of all.**

## Staging

**If aircraft are the primary search resource, ground units should be placed on standby at the same time, or preferably dispatched to advance positions.**
**Sudden weather changes may force suspension of the air search.  If ground units aren’t staged, considerable time may be lost.**
**Should the aircrew make a sighting and ground units aren’t immediately available, valuable time is lost.**
**If ground units are the primary search resource but aircrews may be needed, the air units should be alerted at the beginning of the search.**
**Time is needed to locate aircraft and aircrews, brief them, plan and preflight, launch, and fly to the scene.**

## The Briefing

**Often, aircrews will ignore the importance of the ground team and will not brief with the team prior to launch.  Although this is not always possible, the opportunity to establish ground rules can be the difference between success and failure on an actual mission.**

## The Briefing

**Air and ground teams should agree on...**
**Communication frequencies**
**A rendezvous location and time window**
**Pre-coordinated signals**
**Lost communications procedures**
**The type of support the aircraft can provide the ground team**

## The Briefing

**Air and ground teams should use the same maps:**
**Sectionals are not detailed enough for ground search, but are necessary when ground units work with aircraft.**
**Medium-scale maps, such as U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Geological Survey intermediate scale (1:100,000), and local maps are the most versatile for air/ground coordination.**
**Topographic maps are difficult for aircrews to use but are needed when low-level and contour searches are flown.**

## The Basic Plan

**The aircrew locates the search objective.**
**The aircrew then must bring the ground team to the objective to complete the mission.**
**There are several ways to accomplish this.**
**A combination of techniques is also effective.**

## GPS Coordination

**An aircrew can mark the target using GPS (or LORAN) equipment.**
**The crew can then radio the Lat/Long coordinates to the ground team.**
**Even if the ground team is not GPS-equipped, they can mark the coordinates on a map and navigate to them.**

## Getting It Together

**It is often difficult to get the aircrew and ground team within positive visual contact of one another.**
**A common rendezvous point may be used**
**e.g., “Bill’s Gas Station at the corner of I-15 & Hwy 66”**
**Ground team can also radio their current GPS coordinates to the aircrew, and the aircrew then navigates to the GT.**
**Aircrews must know what the ground team members are wearing (high visibility).**
**Orange panel or ID on top of vehicle helps.**

## Wreck With CAP On-Scene

**Notes:**
Your second most likely place to find a Bonanza.  JOKE!  I love Bonanzas.
An aircraft like this is likely to have survivors-and they’ve likely already gone home and left the ELT operating!  (I’ve seen this twice)

## What Did You See on the Last Slide?

**There were ****four**** people in the previous slide**
**Did you see them all?**
**Two individuals are wearing orange vests**
**Two aren’t**
**Conclusion:**
**Ground Team Members need to wear highly visible vests!**
**Aircrews can’t help Ground Teams very well if they can’t see them!**

## Who Does What?

**Once positive visual contact is established, one of the most challenging tasks is to maintain sight of the ground team.**
**Distinctive vehicle markings of the roof of the vehicle aid in this task (e.g., panel or ID).**
**The scanner is usually the best choice to keep sight of the ground team.**

## QUESTIONS?

## Leading the Team by Radio

**The most common method of coordination is also the easiest:**
**Example:**
**Aircraft leads GT to site (*****i.e.*****, aircraft to ground team: “CAPPER 112, CAPFLIGHT 4239; turn left at the next dirt road”).**
**Transmit the lat/longs from the GPS unit: *****i.e.*****, aircraft to ground team: “CAPPER 112, CAPFLIGHT 4239, the target is at coordinates N 45o 23.72’, W 106o 47.32’, the ground team then may self-navigate to the target or may also continue to be led by the aircrew.**

## Common Pitfalls

**Problem: The aircraft is working from a aeronautical chart and the ground team is working from a road map.**
**Solution:  The aircrew and ground team can have two copies of identical road atlases which will provide a common set references.  Crews can also photocopy each other’s maps.  This communications failure (which occurs *****before***** either crew leaves mission base) can be the first link an a chain of errors.**

## Common Pitfalls

**Problem:  The aircraft flies much faster than the vehicle, which only averages around 45 miles per hour on the highway.**
**Solution:  The aircraft can fly a daisy chain or creeping line over the aircraft to increase its over ground distance, allowing it to stay with the vehicle.**

## Common Pitfalls

**Problem:  The ground team was supposed to establish contact at 1000 local time and it is now 1001 L.  The aircraft leaves station and the ground team arrives at 1010 L with no support.**
**Solution:  Brief a rendezvous window, plus or minus 15 minutes, to compensate for any unexpected delays encountered by the ground team.  **

## Common Pitfalls

**The problem of the aircraft leaving a rendezvous point before the ground team arrives is a frequent occurrence on CAP missions.  Remember, time seems to pass very slowly while waiting for a ground team, so it is easy to become impatient and depart station too early.**

## Common Pitfalls

**Problem:  The handheld radio being used by the ground team goes dead because the battery has not been fully charged.**
**Solution:  The ground team can stop their vehicle to indicate communications failure (or use a prearranged signal) and monitor 121.5 or 122.775 on their L-per.  The aircraft then has one-way communication on the selected frequency.  You can also use another radio capable of Air-Band receive, or an Air-Band (VHF-AM) transceiver.**
**Remember, the signal may be hard to receive from within the vehicle, especially at long distances.**

## Common Pitfalls

**Problem:  If the GT radio fails, how can we use ground-to-air signals at night?**
**Solution:  Pre-brief simple signals like:**
**stopping means lost comm**
**blinking headlights indicate the message has been received**
**flashers indicate the message has *****not***** been received**

## Common Pitfalls

**A common misconception of ground teams is that a circling aircraft has the ground team in sight 100% of the time.**
**In wooded areas the aircraft can see the ground team for only a few seconds during each orbit.  It is important that the ground team realizes the aircraft’s limitations.**

## Common Pitfalls

**As an aircrew you may have have to impose radio discipline on another station during an operation.  Often, multiple stations will be transmitting but fail to hear each other because they are not line-of-sight.  The ground team will not know they are being ‘stepped on.’ **
**Be direct and ensure everyone makes short, concise radio transmissions while avoiding stepping on each other.**

## Common Pitfalls

**As an aircrew you may have have to impose radio discipline on the ground stations during an operation, especially if you are in busy airspace. For those aircraft without the new Audio Panel (which lets the observer or scanner talk on the FM radio while isolating the pilot), be direct and ensure everyone understands the situation and keeps their transmissions short and concise.**

## QUESTIONS?

## Air-to-Ground Coordination Signals

**Air-to-ground coordination is an art that should be practiced regularly, both during daylight and at night.**
**There are a number of standard air-to-ground visual signals we will cover in the following slides.**
**Air and ground teams can also use non-standard signals if the mission requires, as long as they are pre-briefed.**

## Ground-to-Air Signals
Size equals visibility
Natural materials (contrast is important)
Body signals
Paulin signals
Air-to-Ground Signals
Aircraft motion
Circling and heading
Racing the engine
Message drop

**Size equals visibility**
**Natural materials (contrast is important)**
**Body signals**
**Paulin signals**
**Air-to-Ground Signals**
**Aircraft motion**
**Circling and heading**
**Racing the engine**
**Message drop**

**Ground Team Coordination**

**Think BIG!**

## General Air-to-Ground Coordination Points to Consider

**Remember that the ground team may not have your perspective.  Allow plenty of room for your maneuvers or you may confuse the ground team.  Do not rush your signals.  **
**Consider dropping flaps to reduce your groundspeed and overtake on the ground team. **

## KEEPING UP WITH THE GROUND TEAM

**AIRCRAFT ACTION: Aircraft approaches the vehicle from the rear and turns in a normal manner right (or left) to re-approach the vehicle from the rear.  Circle back as necessary using oval patterns and flying over the team from behind, indicating that they should continue.  This process may be referred to as a “Daisy Chain.”  Daisy Chain over the ground team as long as necessary.**
**DESIRED TEAM ACTION: Continue driving in indicated direction along this road.**

## Loss of Radio Communications

**These signals are designed to be used if two-way radio communication cannot be established**
**They may also be used as a standard to be followed in addition to two-way radio communication**
**This adds to the clarity of coordination**
**This practice also enables you and the ground team to keep proficiency in these signals**

**Notes:**
4.2.5
Objective 4.9 – Identify air-to-ground signals.

## TURNING THE GROUND TEAM AROUND

**AIRCRAFT ACTION :Aircraft approaches the vehicle from the rear and then turns sharply right (or left) in front of the vehicle while in motion.  Circle back as necessary flying against the team’s direction of travel, then take up the ‘keeping up’ procedure outlined above.**
**DESIRED TEAM ACTION: Turn vehicle around.**

## TURN

**AIRCRAFT ACTION: Aircraft approaches the vehicle from the rear and then turns sharply right (or left) in front of the vehicle while in motion.  Circle back as necessary using oval patterns and flying over the team from behind, indicating that they should continue.**
**DESIRED TEAM ACTION: Turn vehicle to right (or left) at the same spot the aircraft did and then continue in that direction until further signals are received.**

## STOP or DISMOUNT

**STOP**
**AIRCRAFT ACTION :Aircraft approaches the vehicle low and head-on while the vehicle is moving**
**DESIRED TEAM ACTION: STOP the vehicle and await further instructions**
**DISMOUNT**
**AIRCRAFT ACTION: Aircraft makes two (or more) passes in same direction over a stopped ground team**
**DESIRED TEAM ACTION: DISMOUNT (get out of) the vehicle, then follow the aircraft and obey further signals (proceed on foot)**

## OBJECTIVE IS HERE

**AIRCRAFT ACTION : Aircraft circles one geographic place.**
**DESIRED TEAM ACTION: Proceed to the location where the low wing of the aircraft is pointing; that is the location of the target.**

## QUESTIONS?

## CAP Disaster Relief MissionsMajor Bob Finton 

## Natural and man-made
Examples of CAP services:
Air and ground SAR services
Air and ground visual and/or video imaging
Flood boundary determination
Air and ground transportation
Courier flights
Radio communications support

**Examples of CAP services:**
**Air and ground SAR services**
**Air and ground visual and/or video imaging**
**Flood boundary determination**
**Air and ground transportation**
**Courier flights**
**Radio communications support**

**Disaster Assessment**

## Effects of extreme weather
Physical landscape may be so altered as to make maps obsolete or make navigation difficult
Damage or destruction of area infrastructure
Effects of biological, chemical or radiological terrorism (or accidental release)

**Physical landscape may be so altered as to make maps obsolete or make navigation difficult**
**Damage or destruction of area infrastructure**
**Effects of biological, chemical or radiological terrorism (or accidental release)**

**How Disasters Can Effect CAP Operations**

**Notes:**
9.4.1
Objective 9.5 – Discuss how a disaster can effect CAP operations.

## Flying damage assessment sorties is not much different from our SAR search patterns
The big difference is what you look for
Should be asking questions such as:
What is the geographical extent and severity of the damage?
Is the damage spreading?  If so, how far and how fast?
How has access/egress been affected?
What are the primary and secondary hazards?
Is the disaster threatening critical structures or areas?
Have utilities been affected or are they threatened?
Can you see alternatives to problems?

**The big difference is *****what you look for***
**Should be asking questions such as:**
**What is the geographical extent and severity of the damage?**
**Is the damage spreading?  If so, how far and how fast?**
**How has access/egress been affected?**
**What are the primary and secondary hazards?**
**Is the disaster threatening critical structures or areas?**
**Have utilities been affected or are they threatened?**
**Can you see alternatives to problems?**

**Assessment**

**Notes:**
9.4.5
Objective 9.6 – Discuss the types of questions you must always be asking yourself during damage assessment missions.

## Some specific things to be looking for are:
Breaks in pavement, railways, bridges, dams, levees, pipelines, runways and structures
Roads/streets blocked by water, debris or landslide
Downed power lines
Ruptured water lines
Motorists in distress or major accidents
Alternate routes for emergency vehicles or evacuation
Distress signals from survivors

**Breaks in pavement, railways, bridges, dams, levees, pipelines, runways and structures**
**Roads/streets blocked by water, debris or landslide**
**Downed power lines**
**Ruptured water lines**
**Motorists in distress or major accidents**
**Alternate routes for emergency vehicles or evacuation**
**Distress signals from survivors**

**Assessment**

**Notes:**
9.4.5
Objective 9.7 – List typical things you are looking for during a damage assessment mission.

## At each site, besides sketching or highlighting the extent of the damage and identifying access and egress routes, you should record:
Latitude and longitude
Description
Type and extent of damage
Photo number, or time reference for videotape
Status and trends

**Latitude and longitude**
**Description**
**Type and extent of damage**
**Photo number, or time reference for videotape**
**Status and trends**

**Assessment**

**Notes:**
9.4.5
Objective 9.8 – List the information you should obtain when over a damage assessment mission.

## Aerial survey of WTC

**Notes:**
Several of these pictures were taken by a MAS graduate.

## Aerial survey of WTC

## Aerial survey of WTC

## Aerial survey of WTC

## Aerial survey of WTC

## Aerial survey of WTC

## Aerial survey of WTC

## Flooding over levee

## Seeping behind levee

## Flooded approach

## Bridge damage

## Tornado

## Tornado

## Tornado leaves slabs

## Close-up of tornado damage

## Wide image of train wreck

**Chemical spill (hazmat)**

## Close image of train wreck

## Close image of train wreck

## Infrared image of train wreck

## Plume from train wreck

## QUESTIONS?

## Mission Scanner Familiarization Course31 January 2006

## Navigation and Position DeterminationCaptain Roy Villers

## Navigation Terms

**Course - planned or actual path of the aircraft over the ground**
**True course**
**Magnetic course**
**Heading - direction the aircraft is pointing**
**Ground track – actual path of the aircraft over the ground**
**Nautical mile (nm) - measurement used in air navigation**
**Knots (kts) - nautical miles per hour**

**Notes:**
8.1
Objective 8.1 – Define the following navigation terms: course, heading and ground track; nautical mile and knot; latitude and longitude.
Nautical mile: 6076 feet
Statute mile:  5280 feet
difference:       796 feet

To convert nautical miles to statute miles, multiply nautical miles by 1.15. Sameo for knots to mph (going 100 knots = 115 mph)

## Locating a Position

**Use a system of imaginary lines**
**Some run north and south (latitude)**
**Others run east and west (longitude)**
**Where they cross defines a point on the earth**
***By convention*****, latitude is stated first**

**Notes:**
Points are defined as x degrees of latitude and y degrees of longitude.

## Latitude

**Lines of latitude run east and west**
**Latitude starts with 0°at the equator**
**Latitude increases to 90°north at the North Pole and 90°south at the South Pole**
**Great Circle and Lesser Circles**

- North Latitudes

- South Latitudes

- Equator

**Notes:**
The Equator is a Great Circle and all other lines of latitude are lesser circles.

## Longitude

**Longitude has to start someplace**
**So 0° is in Greenwich England**
**East and west longitude increase as you move away from the Prime Meridian**

**East Longitude**

**West Longitude**

**Prime Meridian**

**Notes:**
The Prime Meridian is a Great Circle and all other lines of longitude are lesser circles.

## Longitude

**Greenwich (Prime) Meridian is zero degrees longitude on one side of the earth**** **
**East and west longitude increase until they meet at 180° on the other side of the earth**
**All line of longitude are great circles (same length)**

**Notes:**
8.2.3
Objective 8.2 – Given a map or sectional: identify an object given its latitude and longitude; given a position determine its latitude and longitude.

## Sectional Aeronautical Charts

**1 to 500,000**
**Medium to slow speed aircraft**
**Types of Information: Legend, Aeronautical, Topographical**

**Notes:**
Read the legend--it is the most important part of the chart.  Show where to find when the chart becomes obsolete.
Know the scale (1:500,000)
Point out contour intervals and how old the topographic data is.
Cultural or man-made features like cities.
Explain the significance of the expiration date of the chart - use current charts for navigation.
Expired gridded charts may be used only for reference or training purposes.  Label them “For Training Purposes Only”

## Legend

**Notes:**
8.6
Objective 8.7 – Given a sectional chart, discuss the information found in the Legend.
Top half of the legend
Cover the various airport symbols and the airport data information.
Cover the radio aids to navigation and communication boxes.
Airport traffic service and airspace information

## Legend

**Notes:**
Back of the legend
Class B, Class C, TSRA and selected approach control frequencies (shown)
Special Use Airspace (shown)
MOA information (shown)
Control Tower frequencies (not shown)

## SectionalAirportsAirspaceNavaidsMEFs

**Notes:**
8.6
Objective 8.6 – Given a sectional chart, locate and discuss the following: physical features such as topographical details; towns and cities; highways and roads; towers (determine height in MSL and AGL; airways and radio aids to navigation; airports and airport data.
Objective 8.8 – Given a sectional chart, locate Maximum Elevation Figures and state their meaning.

## SectionalRestricted Area Military Training Routes

**Notes:**
Point out local airports, restricted area, and military training routes

## MOA

**Notes:**
Discuss flight planning for and operating in a MOA.  Emphasize that military pilots aren’t listening to you and aren’t looking for you, and they’re moving fast.

## Position Determination

**Sectional or Map**
**Work from larger to smaller**
**Work from a known location to present location**
**Watch the scale on maps**
**Remain suspicious if all points don’t seem to line up right**
**Use groups of 3 characteristics to verify position**

**Notes:**
8.8
Objective 8.9 – Given a sectional chart, a plotter, and two points on the chart: determine the heading; determine the distance between the points (nautical and statute miles).
Pilotage is using primarily VISUAL REFERENCES or landmarks along with some computations of time, speed, heading, and wind.
Dead Reckoning is navigation using ONLY time, heading, wind and airspeed.  No visual references are used.

## Tracking & Recording Position

**Maintain positional awareness from takeoff to landing**
**Finger on the map method using visual landmarks**
**Ask the pilot or observer to determine position using GPS and/or VOR/DME**
**Once you locate a downed aircraft or determines the location of a breech in the levy, you must be able to pinpoint the location on the sectional and report that position to others.  Since the details on the sectional chart are often not detailed enough to be useful to ground units, you have to transfer that information to a map (e.g., road or topographical).**
**Knowing the aircraft's position at all times is essential if an in-flight emergency should occur.  Equipment malfunctions, an electrical fire, or a medical emergency can necessitate landing at the nearest airport: if you don't know where you are, how can you find the nearest airfield?**** **

**Notes:**
8.9
Objective 8.11 – Given data from navaids, track the current position of an aircraft and determine the position of a ground feature (sectional and map). 

## Obstacles and Other Dangers

**Obstacles and Other Dangers**

**TALL TOWERS**

**Notes:**
The alternating red and white sections do not indicate height!

## Obstacles and Other Dangers

**Obstacles and Other Dangers**

**POWER LINES**

## Obstacles and Other Dangers

**Obstacles and Other Dangers**

**LOW-FLYING, HEAVY AIRCRAFT**

## CAP Standard Grid System

**Overlays standard sectional maps**
**Subdivides the map into distinct working areas**
**Each grid is ****1/4°**** (15 minutes) of latitude by ****1/4°**** of longitude and is assigned a number**
**Grids are further divided into sub-grids labeled ****A****, ****B****, ****C****, and ****D**
**Each sectional has a standard for assigning grid numbers — for areas of overlap the grid number of the ****most westerly**** chart is used**

**Notes:**
Only a couple of charts in the US have overlaps.  Where charts overlap, the grids on all charts will be assigned the number and identifier of the primary chart (the most westerly chart will be designated as the primary chart).  Overlapping chart grids will use the identifier of the primary chart (e.g. MKC for Kansas City) and the grid number.

## CAP Standard Grid System

**Each grid on the sectional is assigned a number**
**In this example, the grid depicted is numbered ****159**
**Grids are subdivided into smaller sections**
**Letters are used to define sub-grids**

**102-15 W**

**102-15 W**

**102-00 W**

**102-00 W**

**36-00 N**

**36-15 N**

**A**

**B**

**C**

**B**

**C**

**D**

**159 AA**

**36-07.5 N**

**102-11.25 W**

**102-07.5 W**

**A**

**B**

**C**

**D**

**159 ADB**

**Notes:**
8.10.1
Objective 8.12 – State the size of a full and a one-quarter standardized grid.
The first full 15-minute quadrangle in the northwest corner of the chart is numbered “One” and numbered in sequence from west to east.  Continue in this manner until reaching the southeast corner of the gridded area which serves as the last full 15 minute quadrangle.

## Standardized Latitude & Longitude Grid System

**C****an be used on any kind of chart that has lines of lat/long**
**1° blocks identified by the intersection of whole numbers of lat/long, such as 36-00N and 102-00W**** **
**Points are designated with the latitude first (36 /102) and they identify the area north and west of the intersection of these two lines**
**Grids can be subdivided into smaller sections**
**Letters are used to define sub-grids**

**Notes:**
Alternate system to CAP Grid System.

## Marking Grid Charts

**You can use a new sectional — normally not updated unless it gets worn out**
**Use a Hi-Lighter (not pink) to mark grid boundaries on the chart using a long ruler**
**Mark grid identification in black ink for easy visibility**
**You should always keep a current sectional with you even if you have a sectional which is marked with grids**

**Notes:**
You can make a master grid chart and then mark up your current navigation chart with selected grids as needed.
Red or pink marks on your charts will not be visible at night when the red light is the only light on.  Use a green flashlight to see most colors.

## Aircraft and Flight Line Familiarity

## Aircraft Pre-flight

**Aircraft Pre-flight**

**WALK AROUND**
**WINGS**
**FUSELAGE**
**PROPELLER**
**CONTROLS**
**LIGHTS**
**TIRES**
**OIL**
**FUEL**
**COWLING**
**TIE DOWNS**
**CHOCKS**

**Notes:**
2.4
Objective 2.6 – State the purpose of the pre-flight inspection, and discuss the items checked during the pre-flight inspection.  Stress checking the fuel (full, to the tabs, or other; include how to measure less-than-full tanks) and not throwing sumped fuel onto the ramp (environmental procedure).
Never omit.

Pilot is responsible for proper preflight inspection.  However, you are in the aircraft, too.  Follow the checklist.
Observer/scanner may be asked to help.
Some control surfaces should not be moved by hand.  If you are not familiar with the preflight of a specific aircraft, don’t touch anything.

## Aircraft Refueling Procedures

**Notes:**
Aviation fuels are color coded; 100LL is blue.
Fuel sumps are lowest part of the fuel tanks, and samples are taken here to check for water.  Water appears clear at the bottom of a fuel sample tube.
Don’t throw sampled fuel onto the ground; put in an approved container.
Loose fuel caps are a critical pre-flight item.
General aviation fuel gauges are not extremely accurate.  Fuel levels should be visually confirmed during preflight inspection and verified against the fuel slip.  Collapsed fuel bladders may only be identified by the fuel slip check.

Safety Note:  Insure aircraft is properly grounded using grounding strap to minimize static discharge. Both fuel source and aircraft should be grounded.  

## Flightline hand signals

**Outward motion with thumbs**
**PULL CHOCKS**

**Inward motion with thumbs**
**INSERT CHOCKS**

**Circle with hand**
**START ENGINE**

**Hands out making a pulling motion**
**COME AHEAD**

**Notes:**
2.5
Objective 2.7 – Discuss basic safety around the aircraft, including flightline hand signals.
Back up the pilot.  If you see someone giving these signals and the pilot doesn’t see them, say something!  [More signals in MART Chapter 2 and the Flight Guide.] 

## Flightline hand signals

**Motion forward, pointing left**
**TURN LEFT**

**Thumb up**
**ALL CLEAR - O.K.**

**Downward motion with palms**
**SLOW DOWN**

**Motion forward, pointing right**
**TURN RIGHT**

## Flightline hand signals

**Hands crossed above head**
**STOP**

**Slash throat with finger**
**CUT ENGINE**

**Crossing hands over head**
**EMERGENCY STOP**

## Aircraft Familiarization

**Why do I need to know this stuff anyway?**
**Structure**
**Instrumentation**
**Weight & Balance**
**Pre-flight inspection**
**Safety**
**Ground operations**
**Wake turbulence**
**Flightline signals**

**Notes:**
So you know when to feel comfortable and when to panic.
So you can be helpful and safe on the ground and in the air.

## The Airplane

**CAP typically uses C172 and C182.**

**Notes:**
Cessna 172 (180 hp), Cessna 182 (230 hp) – 3- and 4-place utility aircraft.
Aircraft may be equipped with HF and VHF radios, direction finding equipment, GPS, ILS and VOR/DME.
Aircraft-specific equipment should be listed in the aircraft publications under Special Equipment List (SEL).
Propeller (pilot’s fan), engine/cowling, wing, fuselage/empennage, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, landing gear, windows, fuel tanks, etc.  Control surfaces on next slides.
Pilot controls: Yolk, rudder pedals, brakes, throttle, etc.
Three Axes:  Longitudinal (roll - ailerons), Lateral (pitch - elevator), Vertical (yaw - rudder)

## Basic components

**Notes:**
2.1
Objective 2.1 – Demonstrate a basic knowledge of the aircraft structure: ailerons, elevator, rudder, trim tabs, fuel selector

## Ailerons provide roll control

**Notes:**
Ailerons are on the trailing edge of wing near the tip, outboard of the flaps.
As yoke is turned right, the right aileron moves up and the left aileron moves down.  The right wing drops and the left wing rises.
As yoke is turned left, the right aileron moves down and the left aileron moves up.  The right wing rises and the left wing drops.
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. **
Flaps are on the trailing edge of the wing near the root.
Flaps increase the lift and drag.

## Elevators provide pitch control

**Notes:**
Elevator provides pitch control by creating lift to raise or lower the tail around the center of gravity, not by building up force and pushing the tail up or down.  It becomes an increasingly cambered airfoil as control inputs are increased.
As yoke is pushed forward, elevator goes down, lift is increased and the tail rises.
As yoke is pulled back, elevator goes up, lift is decreased and the tail drops.
Elevator provides pitch about the lateral axis. **

## The rudder controls yaw

**Notes:**
Creates lift just like the elevator, but to one side or the other pulling the tail around the center of gravity, not pushing it.
Rudder controls yaw about the vertical axis.
Tops of the rudder pedals are the brakes.

## Trim tabs neutralize control pressures

**Notes:**
The trim tab moves in the opposite direction of the control surface and holds it in position.  This neutralizes the force required to control the aircraft (i.e. lessens the workload on the pilot’s muscles).  Therefore, a plane may be trimmed wings level, in a turn, in a climb, or in a dive.
C172 may not have rudder trim that is adjustable from the cockpit.

## Typical Instrument Panel

**Notes:**
Overview.

## Magnetic Compass

**Primary**
**Doesn’t require any power**
**Used to set HI (DG)**
**Installation problems**
**Bank angles and speed changes can cause a compass to show the wrong heading**

**Notes:**
2.2.1 & 2.2.2
Objective 2.2 – Discuss the relationship between the magnetic compass and heading indicator.
Points to magnetic north.  Do not store metallic items (e.g., a kneeboard or flashlight) on the glare shield near the compass.
Placard (not shown) shows corrections for installation/instrument effects.

## Heading Indicator

**Vacuum gyro (Directional gyro)**
**Stable indications**
**Quick response to turns**
**Electrical or vacuum-driven**
**Will drift, requires periodic re-alignment**

**Notes:**
2.2.1 & 2.2.2
Objective 2.2 – Discuss the relationship between the magnetic compass and heading indicator.
Gyro precesses; needs to be aligned periodically with the magnetic compass (particularly after steep turns).

## Altimeter

**Static pressure**
**Usually set to show pressure altitude above Mean Sea Level (MSL)**
**Accurate altitude is dependent on the altimeter setting.**

**Notes:**
2.2.3 – 2.2.11
Objective 2.3 – Demonstrate a basic knowledge of the altimeter, airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, GPS, nav/comm radios, audio panel, and transponder.
Connected to the Static Port.  Senses the differential between outside static air pressure and pressure in sealed aneroid inside instrument case.
Longest hand indicates hundreds of feet, second hand indicated thousands of feet, shortest hand indicates ten thousands of feet
QNH - most commonly used - altimeter shows altitude above mean sea level - Amarillo International Airport is at 3640 feet above sea level.
You must set the current local pressure reading in the window to get accurate MSL indications.

AGL must be calculated by subtracting known terrain elevation from altimeter reading.

## Turn Coordinator

**Electric**
**Really two instruments**
**Miniature aircraft shows turn rate only - does **_**not**_** show bank angle**
**Inclinometer shows quality of turn - Coordinated, slip, skid**

**Notes:**
A standard rate turn is 3 degrees per second.  At 100 mph, approximately 15 degrees of bank will produce a standard rate turn.
If aircraft is not in coordinated flight, the ball will not be centered.  The correction is to “step on the ball.”
A skid is to much rudder for the aileron input, and will be indicated by the ball displaced to the outside of the turn.
Conversely, a slip is not enough rudder for the aileron input, and will be indicated by the ball displaced to the inside of the turn.

## Attitude Indicator

**Vacuum gyro**
**Highly reliable & useful**
**Provides a horizon reference**
**Hash marks indicate bank angle**
**Climb/descent marks**

**Notes:**
Artificial Horizon.  Indicates pitch and roll.
Keep the blue over the brown.
Dot is the propeller, two horizontal bars are the wings.
Hash marks indicate bank angles.

## Static & Ram pressure
Knots (and/or MPH)
Colored markings show ranges
Shows aircraft speed through the air

**Knots (and/or MPH)**
**Colored markings show ranges**
**Shows aircraft speed through the air**

**Airspeed Indicator**

**Notes:**
Depends on both Static Port AND Pitot Tube. Most aircraft have an alternate static switch.
“Knot” is a nautical mile per hour.  Nautical miles are 15% greater than statute miles. (6008 ft vs. 5280 ft)
White arc is flap extension speed.
Green arc is normal operating speed.
Yellow arc is caution area - smooth air only.
Red line shows “never exceed” speed (Vne).

## Vertical Speed Indicator

**Static pressure rate of change**
**Climb or descent rate**
**Has a lag due to design**
**Use with altimeter**

**Notes:**
Depends on Static Port.
Shows rate of climb or descent in feet per minute.

## Tachometer

**RPM**
**Markings — green arc**
**Indicates power**

**Notes:**
During run up, used for magneto and carburetor heat checks.  Tach indication decreases.
Used to set power settings and to lean the engine at cruise.

## Other Instruments

**Gauges**
**Fuel (accurate at empty)**
**Manifold pressure**
**Fuel flow**
**Oil Temperature and Pressure**
**Vacuum and Generator**
**Exhaust Gas Temperature**
**Instruments vary from aircraft to aircraft**

**Notes:**
Other instruments include Oil Pressure, Fuel Flow, Ammeter, Vacuum, Pressure, Temperature, EGT.

## Nav/Comm

**Primary and Standby Frequencies (flip-flop)**

**Communications**

**Navigation**

**Notes:**
Aviation radios and navigational instruments (VOR).  VHF (AM) for short-range communications; military also uses UHF (AM).

## Comm Antennas

**Normally mounted on top**
**One for each radio**

## Nav Antennas

**“****Cat whisker” style**
**One for each nav**
**May be dual blade (Bonanza)**

**Notes:**
Oldest type is the “towel bar.”

## Static “wicks”

**Mitigate buildup of static electricity**
**   ****(interferes with comm)**
**Wings, elevators, vertical stabilizer**
**Take care when walking around**

**Notes:**
Also look for continuity of the associated grounding straps during the walk around.

## Other Antennas

**Loop**
**(directional)**
**ADF**

**Marker**
**Beacon**

## GPS

**Apollo GX55**
**ARNAV Star 5000**

**Notes:**
The Apollo is replacing the ARNAV Star 5000, and has a moving map.

## GPS Antenna

**Line of sight, so mounted at the very top**
**Comm antennas can interfere with the weak signals, so they are tested for interference**

**GPS**

## Audio Panel

**Notes:**
Check this carefully, and don’t push buttons or move the switch without the PIC knowing.

## Transponder

**Notes:**
Same comments as for the audio panel.  When you reposition the numbers, do not pass thru the “7xxx” series.

## UHF Antenna

**Blade type (may be spike)**
**Transponder & DME**
**[If mounted up front, may interfere with DF]**

## Navigation Instruments

**VOR**

**ADF**

**VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR-DME, VORTAC)**
**Indicates direction to/from ground transmitter relative to magnetic North**
**Automatic Direction Finder (NDB)**
**Direction toward ground transmitter relative to airplane nose**

## Radio Communications

## Radio Communications

**There are many radios in aircraft**
**ALL have similar features, tuning, volume, squelch**
**Learn how to operate the radio you will be using**
**Keep radio transmissions brief and clear**
**Use “Code words” **
**Use “Prowords”**
**Figures**
**Time**
**Phonetic Alphabet**

**Notes:**
Code words are used to prevent unauthorized individuals from obtaining information (news media, etc.)  Example “Blackjack” means recall (return to base).  Refer to block in front of CAPF 104. Not used very often.

## Using the Aircraft Radio

**On/off/ volume, squelch, flip-flop**
**50 kHz (pull for 25 kHz) increments**
**Listen before transmitting**
**Transmit symbol (T)**
**Push-to-talk (PTT) switch**
**Microphone**

**Notes:**
4.1.1
Objective 4.1 – Demonstrate knowledge of how to use the aircraft radio: frequency increments, and number of digits displayed; importance of listening before transmitting; basic message format (i.e., who, where, and what); pronouncing the CAP Flight callsign (group format).
Listen before you transmit!

## CAP FM Radio

**Official business only!**
**Frequencies assigned to CAP by the Air Force**
**Other frequencies only used when authorized**
**Maintain communications discipline**
**Follow the communications plan**
**Report unauthorized use**

## Air-to-Air

**General aviation aircraft (including CAP)**
**122.75 and 122.85 MHz can be used for air-to-air communications**
**Also used by private airports that are not open to the general public**
**Multicom**
**122.90 or 123.1 MHz can be used for SAR**
**Other activities of a temporary, seasonal or emergency nature**
**Also used for by airports that don’t have a tower, FSS, or UNICOM ****(check sectional for airports nearby that use 122.90)**
**Follow the communications plan**
**Listen before transmitting**
**Maintain communications discipline**

## Numbers

**Numbers, Figures , and Time**
**Numeral    Spoken As     Numeral     Spoken As**
**	****0****	****	****Zero****	****7****	****Seven**
**	****1****	****	****Wun****	****8****	****Ate**
**	****2****	****	****Too****	****9****	****Niner**
**	****3****	****	****Tree****	****10****	****Wun Zero**
**	****4****	****	****Fo Wer****	****x00****	****Hun Dred**
**	****5****	****	****Fi Yiv****	****x000****	****Thow Zand**
**	****6****	****	****Six**

**Notes:**
4.1.4
Objective 4.3 – Describe how numbers are pronounced.

## Characters 

**Phonetic Alphabet**
**Letter****	****Word****	****Letter****	****Word****	****Letter****	****Word**
**	****A****	****Alpha****	****J****	****Juliet****	****S****	****Sierra**
**	****B****	****	****Bravo****	****K****	****Kilo****	****T****	****Tango**
**	****C****	****Charlie****	****L****	****Lima****	****U****	****Uniform**
**	****D****	****Delta****	****M****	****Mike****	****V****	****Victor**
**	****E****	****	****Echo****	****N****	****November****	****W****	****Whiskey**
**	****F****	****	****Foxtrot****	****O****	****Oscar****	****X****	****X-Ray**
**	****G****	****Golf****	****P****	****Papa****	****Y****	****Yankee**
**	****H****	****Hotel****	****Q****	****Quebec****	****Z****	****Zulu**
**	**** ****I****	****	****India****	****R****	****Romeo**

**Notes:**
4.1.4
Objective 4.4 – Describe how characters are pronounced (phonetic alphabet).

## Prowords

**All after, All before, Word after, Word before**
**Used to identify a part of a communication**
**Break, Correct, Correction**
**Used to identify a break in the flow of a transmission**
**Over, Out, Roger, Wilco**
**Used to pass control to another station **
**Say again, I say again**
**Used to request retransmission of a message**
**Wait, Wait out**
**Used to indicate a pause is expected**

**Notes:**
4.1.5
Objective 4.5 – Discuss the use of “prowords,” particularly: affirmative and negative; figures; out and over; read back and say again; and roger versus wilco.

## Prowords

**Affirmative – “Yes”**
**Permission granted or “that is correct”**
**Negative – “No”**
**Permission **_**not**_** granted or “that is **_**not**_** correct”**
**Figures**
**Numerals or numbers follow**
**Out**
**End of transmission to you (**_**no**_** answer required **_**nor**_** expected) **
**Over**
**End of transmission to you (response is expected, go ahead)**
**Read back**
**Repeat my message back to me (“Read back is as follows”)**

## Prowords

**Red Cap**
**Precedence Red Cap**
**Roger**
**I have received and understood all of your last transmission**
**Don’t use to answer a question requiring a ‘yes’ or ‘no’**
**Say Again**
**Repeat all of your last transmission**
**Wilco**
**I have received your transmission, understand it, and will comply**
**Don’t use “Roger” and “Wilco” together (Roger included in Wilco)**

## Code Words

**CAP frequencies are not secure**
**Anyone can (and does) listen (e.g., media, ham operators)**
**Sometimes mission staff issues code words for:**
**Sighting made**
**Condition of occupants**
**Location of sighting**

**Notes:**
4.1.6
Objective 4.6 – Discuss the use of code words.

## Tower Light-Gun Signals

**On the Ground****	****In Flight**
**Cleared for take-off****	****Cleared to land**
**Cleared to taxi****	****Return  for landing**
**(followed by s steady green at proper time)**
**Stop****	****Give way to other aircraft**
**Taxi clear of landing area****	****Airport unsafe-Don’t land**
**Return to starting point**
**on airport**
**General Warning - Exercise **
**extreme caution**

**Notes:**
4.2.1 – 4.2.4
Objective 4.9 – Identify light gun, body, Paulin, and emergency distress signals.
Keep copies of all of these signals in the aircraft (unless you have a photographic memory).

## Paulin Signals