# Presentation: 792660

## Particle DetectorsTools of High Energy and Nuclear PhysicsDetection of Individual Elementary ParticlesHoward FenkerJefferson LabJune 3, 2008

**Notes:**
This is an overview talk which is intended to provide a introduction to the building blocks of particle detectors. It covers the fundamental interactions of energetic particles with matter and the ways we exploit those interactions in order to sense that a particle passed. While you will not be prepared to build particle detectors based on what you learn here, you will at least know what questions to ask about detectors you are given to use, and what you should think about if you do build a detector. At the very least, you may leave with some additional words in your vocabulary.

## Screen Alignment Slide

## Outline of Talk

**Interactions of Particles with Matter**
***Atomic / Molecular Excitation***
***Ionization***
***Collective Effects ***
***Radiation Damage to Detectors***
*** ******Detectors Effects on the Particle ***
**Using the Interactions:Particle Detectors**
***Detectors that sense Charge***
**Aside: Avalanche Multiplication**
***Ionization Chambers***
**Aside: Tracking**

***Detectors that sense Light***
***Photomultipliers  to detect Cerenkov  Photons***
***Scintillators****** ***
***Detectors sensitive to the ***_***Amount***_*** of  light or charge - Calorimeters***
***A Little Deeper...***
***Using second order effects***
***Particle Identification***
**Systems of Detectors **
***Halls A,B,C  Base  Equipment***

**Notes:**
In order to detect something, you must interact with it. You see images on the screen because the light scattered from it enters your eyes and causes a chemical change in your retina. 

So, to build a particle detector, we need to understand how particles interact with the ordinary matter that makes up our detector.

We will start with a discussion of the interactions of particles with matter that are relevant to particle detectors. These generally involve the production of either light (as individual photons) or electric charge (electrons and ions). Then I will describe some ways that we make useful electric currents out of that tiny bit of light or charge, and how we get useful information from it – describing typical detectors along the way. 

We will take a look at how a more detailed understanding of the particle-matter interaction can allow us to get even more information about the particle that initiatedit.

Finally we’ll take a look at how one might put together several of the components discussed in the talk to make a system of particle detectors that are useful for nuclear physics experiments.

To detect the particle(s) before or after a nuclear event, we must arrange for them to interact with the materials within our detector such that we can sense that interaction. An electronic signal is something that we can feed to a computer, so we usually build detectors that convert that initial interaction into an electric current.

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Photoemission

**Excitation** (followed by de-excitation)
- Atomic electron is promoted to higher energy state by energy provided by particle. When it falls back to ground state, energy may be released as a photon.

- Photoemission

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Ionization

**Interactions of Particles with Matter - **_**Ionization**_

**Ionization**
- Atomic electron is knocked free from the atom.
- The remaining atom now has charge as well (it is an ion).
- The atom may also be left in an excited state and emit a photon.
- If you are a Solid State Physicist, the ionized atom is a “hole”.

- Charged
- Particle

- Free Electron

- Electric Field

- Ion

- Ionization

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Collective Effects

- The electric field of a particle may have a long-range interaction with material as it passes through a continuous medium.

**Cerenkov Effect**:
- Turns ON when particle speed is greater than light speed in the medium:   v = c  >  c/n

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Collective Effects

- The electric field of a particle may have a long-range interaction with material as it passes through a continuous medium.

**Cerenkov Effect**:
- Turns ON when particle speed is greater than light speed in the medium:   v = c  >  c/n

**Light is emitted** at the angle
- 	 = cos-1 (1/n)
- Photon energy ~ few eV
- 	(UV to visible)

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Collective Effects

**Transition Radiation**:
- The sudden change in electric field as an ultrarelativistic charged particle passes from one medium to another results in ~keV photons.
- Ultrarelativistic:  >~ 1000
- 	  = (1- 2)-1/2  = E/m
**Light is emitted** at the angle
- 	 ~  1/

| 6 | GeV/c |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | electron | pion | proton |
| mass | 0.000511 | 0.139 | 0.939 |
| beta | 0.999999996 | 0.999731761 | 0.987974331 |
| gamma | 11741.7 | 43.2 | 6.5 |

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Radiation Damage

- Particles can have lasting effects on the detector materials.
- Nuclear Collision
- Particle undergoes interaction directly with atomic nucleus.
- May transmute the element (radiation damage).
- May lead to secondary particles which themselves are detectable.
- Lattice Dislocation
- Crystalline structure of a material may be disrupted.
- Chemical Change
- Photographic Film or Emulsion

- While these effects can be exploited as a type of particle detection, they may also cause permanent damage to detector components resulting in a detector which stops working. This is sometimes referred to as “aging”.

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Effect on the Particle

- For a particle to be detected it must interact with our apparatus.
- ACTION = REACTION
- The properties of the particle may be different after we have detected it.
- Lower Energy
- Different Momentum (direction)
- Completely Stopped
*In fact, one method of determining a particle’s energy is simply to measure how far it goes before stopping.*

## Interactions of Particles with Matter - Summary

- When particles pass through matter they usually produce either free electric charges (ionization) or light (photoemission).
- How can we use this?
- Most “particle” detectors actually detect the _light _or the _charge _that a particle leaves behind.
- In all cases we finally need an electronic signal to record.

## Particle Detectors...aside: Avalanche Multiplication

- We need devices that are sensitive to only a few electron charges:
- 		( An Ampere is 6.2x1018 electrons/second! )
- 	we need to *amplify* this charge.
- By giving the charges a *push*, we can make them move fast enough so that they *ionize* other atoms when they collide. After this has happened several times we have a sizeable free charge that can be sensed by an electronic circuit.

## Particle Detectors...aside: Avalanche Multiplication

- A few free electrons

- LOTS of electrons!

*wire*

- Electric Force

**Particle Detectors...*****aside: Avalanche Multiplication***

- Avalanche Gain
- Electric Field accelerates electrons, giving them enough energy to cause another ionization. Then those electrons do it again...
- In the end we have enough electrons to provide a large electric current... detectable by sensitive electronics.

- DAQ

## Particle Detectors...aside: Avalanche Multiplication

- Secondary Emission
- Energetic electrons striking some surfaces can liberate MORE electrons. Those, in turn, can be accelerated onto another surface ... and so on.
- Photoelectric Effect
- A photon usually liberates a single electron: a ***photoelectron***.

## Particle Detectors...Gas Filled Wire Chamber

- Let’s use Ionization and Avalanche Multiplication to build a detector...
- Make a Box.
- Fill it with some gas: noble gases are more likely to ionize than others. Use Argon.
- Insert conducting surfaces to make an intense electric field: The field at the surface of a small wire gets extremely high, so use tiny wires.
- Attach electronics and apply high voltage.
- We’re done!!

## Particle Detectors...A Single-wire Gas Chamber

**Particle Detectors...*****A Single-wire Gas Chamber***

## Particle Detectors...Multi-Wire Gas Chamber

- Multiwire Chamber:
- WHICH WIRE WAS NEAREST TO THE TRACK?

## Particle Detectors...aside: tracking

*“**Why does he want all those wires??”*

- If we make several measurements of track position along the length of the track, we can figure out the whole trajectory.

- It would be even nicer to know what part of each “wire” was struck...

## Particle Detectors......better position information.

**Particle Detectors...*****...better position information.***

- Readout Options for Improved Resolution
- And for flexible design
- Charge Division
- Time Division
- Charge Interpolation
- Wire Position gives “x”
- Measurement along length
- of wire gives “y”.

- It would be nicer still if we knew the distance between the particle and the struck wire...

- Compare Time of Arrival
- Compare Pulse Height

- 2D Readout by determining
- 1: x from seeing which wire was struck;
- 2: y: position along the wire either from
-            -comparing charges arriving at the ends of the wire, or
-            -comparing time of arrival of the pulses at the two ends.

## Particle Detectors......higher resolution tracking.

**Drift Chambers...**
**HOW **_**FAR**_** TO THE NEAREST WIRE?**

- start

- stop

- drift time

- 2. Electrons drift from track to wire

- 1. Particle ionizes gas.

- 3. We measure
- how long they
- drift and get x.

## Particle Detectors: TPC......3D position information.

*Cathode*

*Anode*
*(gain)*

*Readout*
*electrodes*

- Time Projection Chamber (TPC):  Drift through a _Volume_
- Just a box of gas with
- Electric  Field  and
- Readout Electrodes
- Readout  elements only on one surface.
- Ionization Electrons  drift  to Surface for
- Amplification
- Charge Collection
- Readout Electrode  Position gives  (x,y)
- Time of Arrival gives (z).

*Particle*
*track*

## Particle Detectors: TPC......3D position information.

- “BoNuS” Radial TPC

## Particle Detectors...Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM)

**Particle Detectors...*****Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM)***

- Gas *Ionization* and *Avalanche Multiplication* again, but...
- ... a different way to get an intense electric field,
- ... without dealing with fragile tiny wires.

- --V

- ~400v
- 0.002”

- GEM

- http://gdd.web.cern.ch/GDD/

- To computer

## Ionization Chambers:    Dense Material =>  Lots of Charge.  Typically no Amplification

**Particle Detectors...*****Ionization Detectors***

- Noble Liquid
- Liquid  Argon Calorimeter

- Semiconductor
- Silicon
- Diamond

*Strips*
*Pixels*
*Drift*

## Particle Detectors...Using the Light

- Enough of Ionization!
- What about Detectors that use the produced light?

## Particle Detectors...Using the Light

- Get a light-tight box.
- Fill it with something transparent that has the index of refraction you need...
- ...and some optical system to collect any light...
- ...then look for Cerenkov Light.

- Let’s build a Cerenkov Counter.

## Particle Detectors...Cerenkov Counter

- If v/c > 1/n, there will be light.
- If not, there won’t.

- Wait a minute!

**What’s that photodetector!?**

## Particle Detectors...aside: Photomultiplier Tube

**Particle Detectors...****aside: *****Photomultiplier Tube***

- We saw the **Photo-electron Multiplier Tube (PMT)** earlier.

- They are commercially produced and very sensitive.
- One photon -->  up to 108 electrons!
- Fast! ...down to ~ few x 10-9 seconds.

## Photocathode +  Secondary Emission Multiplication
Multichannel PhotoMultiplier Tubes (MCPMT)
Microchannel Plates (MCP)
Solid-State (Silicon) Devices
Photodiodes (no gain)
Avalanche  Photo-Diodes  (APD) 
Solid-State  Photomultiplier (SSPM)
Visible Light Photon Counter (VLPC)
Hybrids: Photocathode + Electron Acceleration + Silicon

- Multichannel PhotoMultiplier Tubes (MCPMT)
- Microchannel Plates (MCP)
- Solid-State (Silicon) Devices
- Photodiodes (no gain)
- Avalanche  Photo-Diodes  (APD)
- Solid-State  Photomultiplier (SSPM)
- Visible Light Photon Counter (VLPC)
- Hybrids: Photocathode + Electron Acceleration + Silicon

**Particle Detectors...****aside: *****Other Photodetectors***

## Particle Detectors...Scintillators

- Materials that are good at emitting light when traversed by energetic particles are called **SCINTILLATORS**.
- Many materials radiate light, but most also absorb that light so that it never gets out.

**Scintillation Counters** are probably the most widely used detectors in Nuclear and High Energy Physics.

## Particle Detectors...Scintillator uses

- Scintillation Counter Uses
- Timing and Triggering
- Paddles or Sheets
- Tracking
- Paddles or Strips
- Fibers
- Calorimetry & Particle ID
- Each one consists of a piece of scintillating material optically coupled to a light-sensitive transducer.

## Particle Detectors...Scintillator Hodoscope

## Particle Detectors...Scintillation Calorimeter

- Scintillation Counter Uses
- Energy Measurement - stop the particle
- Large Blocks or
- Large Volumes of Liquid
- If we **STOP** the particle in a scintillator, then the **AMOUNT** of light detected provides a measure of the total **ENERGY** that the particle had. This detector is a **CALORIMETER**.
*Lead  Glass** is often used as a calorimeter – its  light is created by the Cerenkov  Effect, not scintillation.*

## Particle Detectors...Charge-Collection Calorimeter

- Materials other than scintillators can serve as calorimeters.
- Example: Liquid Argon
- In a **Liquid Argon Calorimeter** we collect the electron/ion charge that is released by the stopping particle.

## Particle Detectors...

- That’s it! Those are (most of) the Detector Tools!
- Wire Chambers  (gas ionization chambers)
- Single Wire
- Multi-Wire
- Drift, TPC, etc.
- Solid  State Detectors
- Cerenkov Counters
- Scintillators
- Calorimeters

## Particle Detectors...... more subtle details.

- What about measuring energy when the particle doesn’t completely stop?
- If we have a “thin” detector, the amount of energy lost by a particle as it passes all the way through is related to its speed...

## Particle Detectors:Energy Loss

- Energy Loss
- Heavy Charged Particles lose energy primarily through ionization and atomic excitation as they pass through matter.
- Described by the **Bethe-Bloch** formula:
- where , , relate to particle speed, z is the particle’s charge..
- The other factors describe the medium (Z/A, I), or are physical constants.

## Particle Detectors:Energy Loss

- Energy Loss
- Heavy Charged Particles lose energy primarily through ionization and atomic excitation as they pass through matter.
- Described by the **Bethe-Bloch** formula:
- where , , relate to particle speed, z is the particle’s charge..
- The other factors describe the medium (Z/A, I), or are physical constants.

## Particle Detectors:Energy Loss

- Energy Loss

## Particle Detectors:Energy Loss

**Particle Detectors:****Energy Loss**

- Energy Loss-
- Here is the same curve plotted vs. momentum for different particles.

- If we know we are looking at a pion, we can get some measure of its total energy by seeing how much energy it loses in a “thin” detector.
- OR: we might determine whether a particle is a pion, electron, kaon, or proton if we know the momentum already.

## Particle Detectors:Energy Loss

- Energy Loss-
- Here is the same curve plotted with some representative imprecision.

- Measurements  of energy loss are limited both by detector resolution and by the fundamental statistical nature of the energy loss process...

## Particle Detectors:Energy Loss

**Particle Detectors:****Energy Loss**

- ... as energy loss may be skewed towards higher values by low-probability hard-scatters, leading to the *Landau Tail. *
- Thus EMEAN > EMOST PROBABLE

- EMOST PROBABLE

- EMEAN

- Landau Tail

*Energy Loss*

*P(E)dE*

## Particle Detectors:Energy Loss

- Of course, if the detector  works by measuring lost energy, the  energy of the particle has been reduced as a result of passing through the detector.

## Particle Detectors:Multiple Coulomb Scattering

**Particle Detectors:****Multiple Coulomb Scattering**

- Detectors scatter particles even without energy loss...
- MCS theory is a statistical description of the scattering angle arising from many small interactions with atomic electrons.
- MCS alters the direction of the particle.
- Most important at low energy.
-   is particle speed, z is its charge, X0 is the material’s Radiation Length.

## Particle Detectors:Particle Identification

- We saw a Cerenkov Counter that signaled when a particle was *fast*.
- Since the speed is a function of both mass and momentum, if we know the momentum can we determine the mass?

## Particle Detectors:Particle Identification

**YES!**  Cerenkov and Transition Radiation Detectors are Used primarily for Particle Identification
- At fixed momentum, Heavy particles radiate less than Light particles.
- Further: angular distribution of radiation varies with particle speed.

- Cerenkov Counters – sensitive to 

- TRD Counters – sensitive to 

- = (1- 2)-1/2
-   = E/m

-  = v/c
-    = p/E

- Momentum  (GeV/c)

## Particle Detectors:Particle Identification

- Threshold Cerenkov Counter. # Photons vs. Momentum.

## Particle Detectors:Particle Identification

- Cerenkov Counter. Light  Emission Angle vs. Particle Momentum.

## Particle Detectors:Particle Identification

- Lucite Cerenkov Counter: use Critical Angle for Total Internal Reflection to differentiate Cerenkov Angles.

## Particle Detectors:Particle Identification

**Particle Detectors:****Particle Identification**

- The most straightforward way to measure particle speed is to *time* it:
**A Time-of-Flight (TOF) Counter**

- Knowing the separation of the scintillators and measuring the difference in arrival time of the signals gives us the particle speed.

## Particle Detectors:aside: magnetic spectrometer

- Just as light of different colors is bent
- differently by a prism...

- Nature lets us measure the
- Momentum of a charged
- particle by seeing how much
- its path is deflected by
- a magnet.

## Putting it all Together:A Detector System

- _Hall-A: HRS__L__ / HRS__R_
- _Hall-B: CLAS_
- _Hall-C: HMS, SOS_
**Scintillators** for Triggering and Timing
**Magnetic Field** for Momentum Measurement
- Drift Chambers for **Tracking**
- Particle Identification by
- Gas/Liquid/Lucite/Aerogel **Cerenkov Counters**
**Time-of-Flight**
- Lead-Glass  or Scintillator  **Calorimetry**

- The Base  Equipment  in all Three Halls is composed of optimized arrangements of the same fundamental detector **technologies**...

## Putting it all Together:A Detector System

- Putting it all Together:A Detector System

- B

## Putting it all Together:A Detector System

## Putting it all Together:A Detector System

- Putting it all Together:A Detector System

## Particle Detectors-Summary

- Detect Particles by Letting them Interact with Matter within the Detectors.
- Choose appropriate detector components, with awareness of the effects the detectors have on the particles.
- Design a System of Detectors to provide the measurements we need.

## Particle Detectors-Suggested Reading

- The Particle Detector BriefBook: physics.web.cern.ch/Physics/ParticleDetector/BriefBook
- _Particle Detectors _by Claus Grupen, Cambridge University Press (Jlab Library)
- _Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments_ by W.R. Leo, Springer-Verlag 1994 (JLab Library)
- RCA or Phillips or Hamamatsu Handbook for Photomultiplier Tubes
- Slides from This Lecture: http://www.jlab.org/~hcf/detectors