# Presentation: 047902

## Search Pilot
Qualification Course

Civil Air Patrol
Auxiliary of the United States Air Force

- Qualification Course
- Civil Air Patrol
- Auxiliary of the United States Air Force

## Block Two

- Mountain Weather

## Slopes

- Most U.S. mountain ranges are oriented north-south, while the prevailing winds are from the west.  This causes wind to rise over the ranges then descend on the other side.
- On these ranges, the west side is the “*upslope*” or “*windward”* side, while the east side is the *“downslope”* or *“leeward”* side.

## Wind

- Upwind slopes and updrafts tend to be relatively stable and smooth
- Downwind slopes and downdrafts tend to be more random and turbulent
- Wind channels and accelerates through valleys and mountain passes, also causing turbulence

- Visualize moving air as you would flowing water, passing over and around obstacles.  Learn to predict updrafts, downdrafts, and turbulence based upon the predictable movement of air in relation to peaks, valleys, passes, and other obstructions.

## Slide 5

## Wind Acceleration

- Wind will often accelerate when passing over or through mountains.
- Especially in the presence of an inversion layer, rising air will be “squeezed” between the mountain ridges and the overlying air mass, causing a venturi effect which can double the wind velocity.
- For this reason, steady-state winds aloft in excess of thirty knots can preclude mountain flying.

## A similar effect occurs when wind flows through a mountain pass or valley

## Diurnal Wind Flow

- Convection causes wind to flow up valleys in the morning *(Valley Breeze),* then flow down valleys in the afternoon and evenings *(Mountain Breeze).*

## Turbulence

- Turbulence in the mountains is usually the result of airflow over, around, or between obstructions
- Severity is often proportional to wind velocity
- Location is usually predictable
- But there are many exceptions to this rule
- Usually strongest on leeward side
- Depends on the steepness of the downslope

## Slide 10

## Standing Wave

- When airflow over mountainous terrain meets certain criteria, a “Standing Wave” may result.  In such cases, moving air is forced up by terrain and “bounced” off the overlying airmass, after which it descends to bounce off the flat ground and then continues in this manner, sometimes for hundreds of miles.
- Because the air is accelerated over the mountains and because strong rotor clouds and turbulence often form below this moving airmass on the downwind side of the mountains, extreme caution is indicated when flying in the presence of a standing wave.
- Meteorologists are able to forecast standing waves with a high degree of accuracy, so be sure to ask for this information during your weather briefing.

## Mountain Wave

- Mountain wave
- Concord, California

## Slide 13

## Mountain Wave

- Standing wave
- East of Mt. Mitchell

## Clouds

- Formed from moisture present in the airmass
- Useful in visualizing wind and weather patterns
- Lenticular clouds unique to the mountain environment
- Smooth, lens-shaped clouds above peaks and ridges
- Indicate strong winds flowing up and through that area
- Cap clouds form at the top of peaks and ridgelines
- Appear as stationary, but actually reflect strong winds
- Rotor clouds form downwind of a ridgeline
- Indicate strong, violent winds moving in a rotary motion

## Slide 16

## Slide 17

## Lenticulars & Rotors

- Lenticular clouds at sunset with rotor turbulence evident

- Standing wave cap cloud over Mt. Shasta, California

## Cloud Ceilings

- Ceilings are reported above ground level; in the mountains, this usually means above the _valley floor_
- Surrounding terrain often extends into the ceiling
- Valley floors sometimes rise into the ceiling
- All aircraft forced to fly in valleys and through passes
- VOR signals may be lost or become unreliable
- Radio communication will be degraded
- Increased potential for mid-air collision
- CAP minimum ceiling for VFR flight is 1,000 feet
- A higher ceiling may be appropriate for mountain flying

## Ground Fog

- Typical ground fog with an inversion layer aloft

## Ground Fog

- Typical ground fog during the morning hours in a valley

## Visibility

- Reduced visibility is dangerous in the mountains
- Obstructions can appear quite quickly
- Power lines, towers, rock outcroppings, other aircraft
- Situational awareness can be lost
- Inadvertent IMC can be encountered
- Use caution when flying near rain and show showers
- Tend to move and appear in previously-clear areas
- Creates visual illusion of excess altitude
- CAP minimum for VFR flight is three miles
- Greater visibility appropriate in unfamiliar terrain

## Airmass Stability

- Stable air tends to rise over obstructions then return to its original level in a fairly orderly manner.  Stable air is less likely to result in convective activity and the associated turbulence.
- Unstable air has a higher adiabatic lapse (temperature drop) rate when displaced, and therefore tends to continue rising.  Expect greater convective activity and turbulence from a moving unstable air mass, especially if it is relatively moist.

## Thunderstorm

- Heavy rainstorm
- Note the outflow area

## Frontal Thunderstorms

- Adequately forecast
- Lines break up when encountering mountains
- Rarely encounter imbedded thunderstorms
- Diminish due to interruption of moist air inflow
- Squall lines do not normally occur near mountains
- Necessary downflow of cool air is interrupted
- Still dangerous when present
- Consider canceling flight in these conditions

## Orographic Thunderstorms

- Formed when air is forced up by terrain
- Requires moist, unstable air to form
- Usually isolated or scattered
- Can build rapidly
- Can occur at any time when conditions are present

## Convective Thunderstorms

- Result from rising unstable air
- Usually forced upward by solar ground heating
- Formative stage in mid-morning
- Billowing cumulous clouds
- Light to moderate turbulence beneath bases
- Rapid development by early afternoon
- Towering and thickening cumulous clouds
- Increasing turbulence
- Mature thunderstorms are dangerous!
- Severe turbulence, hail, lightning, downdrafts
- Remain well clear... at least 10 miles

## Downburst

- Beginning of a downburst thunder- storm cell, south of Asheville, NC

## Downburst

- Downburst thunderstorm cell
- Asheville, NC

## Downburst

- Trees downed by a severe downburst

## Weather Forecasts

- Not as accurate as in the flatlands
- Fewer reporting stations
- More localized weather phenomena
- Pilot reports often best source of valid information
- As a general rule, weather best during the morning
- Weather can change quickly in the mountains
- Always have a good escape plan