# Presentation: 569371

## After the Big Bang

- Prof. Lynn Cominsky
- Dept. of Physics and Astronomy
- Sonoma State University

## Golden Age of Cosmology

- How did the Universe begin?
- Standard Big Bang theory
- Hubble Expansion
- Inflation
- What is the fate of the Universe?
- Observations of CMBR
- Dark Matter
- Distances to Supernovae
- Today’s Cosmology
- Einstein and the Cosmological Constant
- Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe

## Big Bang Timeline

- We are here

## Big Bang?

## Standard Big Bang Cosmology

- Sometime in the distant past there was nothing – space and time did not exist
- Vacuum fluctuations created a singularity that was very hot and dense
- The Universe expanded from this singularity
- As it expanded, it cooled
- Photons became quarks
- Quarks became neutrons and protons
- Neutrons and protons made atoms
- Atoms clumped together to make stars and galaxies

## Standard Big Bang Cosmology

- Top three reasons to believe big bang cosmology
- Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
- Hubble Expansion
- Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

## Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

- Light elements (namely deuterium, helium, and lithium) were produced in the first few minutes of the Big Bang
- Elements heavier than 4He are produced in the stars and through supernovae
- However, enough helium and deuterium cannot be produced in stars to match what is observed because stars destroy deuterium in their cores
- So all the deuterium we see must have been made around three minutes after the big bang, when T~109 K
- BBN predicts that 25% of the matter in the Universe should be helium, and about 0.001% should be deterium, which is what we see

## Redshift and Doppler Shift

-  Redshift z is determined by comparing laboratory wavelength ******** to observed wavelength ****
-  If objects are moving away from observer, light will be redshifted
-  Velocity of object can be determined from z

## Doppler Shift

- Comparison of laboratory to blue-shifted object

- Comparison of laboratory to red-shifted object

## Cepheid variables and Nebulae

- In 1923, Edwin Hubble used new Mt. Wilson 100 inch telescope to observe Cepheid variables in the nearby “nebula” Andromeda.
- Cepheids vary periodically

- L =K P1.3

-  Distance to Cepheids can be calculated from their luminosity

## Standard Candles

- If you know the absolute brightness of an object, you can measure its apparent brightness and then calculate its distance
- Cepheids are
- standard candles
- So are some
- supernovae

- Fobs = Labs/4d2

## Hubble Expansion

- The Hubble constant
- Ho = 558 km s -1 Mpc -1
- is the slope of these graphs

- Compared to modern measurements, Hubble’s results were off by a factor of ~10!

## Hubble Law

- v = Ho d = cz where
- v = velocity from spectral line measurements
- d = distance to object
- Ho = Hubble constant in km s-1 Mpc -1
- z is the redshift

- Space between the galaxies expands while galaxies stay the same size

## Cosmic Microwave Background

- Discovered in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson who were working at Bell Labs
- Clinched the hot big bang theory

- Excess noise in horned antennae was not due to pigeon dung!

## Cosmic Background Explorer (1989-1993)

-  Differential Microwave Radiometer
-  PI George Smoot
-  Discovered fluctuations in the CMBR
- These fluctuations are predicted by inflationary BB cosmology and are the seeds of the structure we now see

## COBE data/DMR

-   These fluctuations have been called the “wrinkles on the face of God”

- 2006 Nobel prize in physics awarded to George Smoot!
- (Also John Mather for measuring temperature of CMBR precisely at 2.7 K with FIRAS on COBE.)

## CMB Fluctuations

- COBE measures the angular fluctuations on large scales, down to about **l**=16

**Notes:**
sCDM is standard Cold Dark Matter model with critical density. oCDM is an open universe with Cold Dark Matter model Lambda CDM is a model universe with Cold Dark Matter and enough cosmological constant to make space flat STRINGS is a model where large scale structure is seeded by GUT strings. 

## What is inflation?

- Inflation refers to a class of cosmological models in which the Universe exponentially increased in size by about 1043 between about 10-35 and 10-32 s after the Big Bang     (It has since expanded by another 1026)
- Inflation is a modification of standard Big Bang cosmology
- It was originated by Alan Guth in 1979 and since modified by Andreas Albrecht, Paul Steinhardt and Andre Linde (among others)

## Why believe in inflation?

- Inflation is a prediction of grand unified theories in particle physics that was applied to cosmology – it was not just invented to solve problems in cosmology
- It provides the solution to two long standing problems with standard Big Bang theory
- Horizon problem
- Flatness problem

## Horizon Problem

- The Universe looks the same everywhere in the sky that we look, yet there has not been enough time since the Big Bang for light to travel between two points on opposite horizons
- This remains true even if we extrapolate the traditional big bang expansion back to the very beginning
- So, how did the opposite horizons turn out the same (e.g., the CMBR temperature)?

## No inflation

- At t=10-35 s, the Universe expands from about 1 cm to what we see today
- 1 cm is much larger than the horizon, which at that time was 3 x 10-25 cm

## With inflation

- Space expands from 3 x 10-25 cm to much bigger than the Universe we see today

## Flatness Problem

- Why does the Universe today appear to be near the critical dividing line between an open and closed Universe?

- Density of early Universe must be correct to 1 part in 1060 in order to achieve the balance that we see

## Flatness Problem

- Inflation flattens out spacetime the same way that blowing up a balloon flattens the surface
- Since the Universe is far bigger than we can see, the part of it that we can see looks flat

## Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (2001-present)

-  PI Charles Bennett (JHU)
-  Improves on COBE’s angular resolution  sharper pictures of CMBR fluctuations
-  Measures past
- l = 200

## Fluctuations and geometry

## Universe’s Baby Pictures

- Red is warmer

- Blue is cooler

- Credit: NASA/WMAP

## Compare to COBE

- The WMAP image brings the COBE picture into sharp focus.

- movie

## CMB vs. Inflation

- Inflation predicts a distinct size for the fluctuations in the CMB which arise from the original quantum fluctuations in the pre-inflation bubble
- WMAP measures these fluctuations and finds that the Universe is flat  inflation really happened!  (Size is about 1 degree.)
***Everything we see in the Universe started out as a quantum fluctuation*

## WMAP angular power spectrum

- 1o

## Dark Matter

- In 1930, Fritz Zwicky discovered that the galaxies in the Coma cluster were moving too fast to remain bound in the cluster

-  Something else that cannot be seen must be holding the galaxies in the cluster!

## Galaxy Rotation Curves

-  In 1970, Vera Rubin discovered that the gas and stars in the outer parts of galaxies were moving too fast
-  This implies that most of the mass in the galaxy is outside the region where we see the stars
-  Since we do not see light from this matter, it is called Dark Matter

## Hot gas in Galaxy Clusters

- Measure the mass of light emitting matter in galaxies in the cluster (stars)
-  Measure mass of hot gas - it is 3-5  times greater than the mass in stars
- Calculate the mass the cluster needs to hold in the hot gas - it is 5 - 10 times more than the mass of the gas plus the mass of the stars!

## Dark Matter Halo

- The rotating disks of the spiral galaxies that we see are not stable
- Dark matter halos provide enough gravitational force to hold the galaxies together
- The halos also maintain the rapid velocities of the outermost stars in the galaxies

## Old view: Density of the Universe         			              determines its destiny

- where
- M = matter density (including regular and dark matter)
- tot = density/critical density
- If tot = 1,Universe is flat, expansion coasts to a halt as Universe is critically balanced.
- If tot > 1, Universe is closed, collapses on itself.
- If tot < 1, Universe is open, expands forever.

- Old view: *Density of the Universe         **	**	**	**              determines its destiny*

## Hubble Expansion revisited

- We have already seen how the galaxies move away faster at further distances
- We measured the slope of the velocity of the galaxies vs. their distances  Hubble constant
- But is the Hubble constant really constant?
- In other words, has the expansion occurred at the same rate in the past as it is right now, and will the future expansion also be at this same rate?

## Measuring the Hubble Expansion

- If the expansion rate is constant, distance between 2 galaxies follows yellow dotted line back in time

-  If rate is speeding up, then the Universe is older than we think

## Distances to Supernovae 

- Type Ia supernovae are “standard candles”
- Occur in a binary system in which a white dwarf star accretes beyond the 1.4 Mo Chandrasekhar limit and collapses and explodes
- Decay time of light curve is correlated to absolute luminosity
- Luminosity comes from the radioactive decay of Cobalt and Nickel into Iron
- Some Type Ia supernovae are in galaxies with Cepheid variables
- Good to 20% as a distance measure

**Notes:**
The Pleiades contains over 3000 stars, is about 400 light years away, and only 13 light years across. Quite evident in the above photograph are the blue reflection nebulae that surround the bright cluster stars. Low mass, faint, brown dwarfs have recently been found in the Pleiades. 

## Supernovae as Standard Candles

- Here is a typical supernova lightcurve and its spectrum
- Compare two distances to see if expansion rate has changed

- Measure shape of curve and peak distance

- Measure redshift  distance

## Supernovae and Cosmology

- Analyze lightcurves vs. redshifts for many Type 1a supernovae at redshifts z <2
- Observations of over 100 SN (over 7 years) by Perlmutter et al. and Schmidt et al. have showed that they are dimmer than would be expected if the Universe was expanding at a constant rate or slowing down (as was previously thought)
- This means that some unknown “dark energy” is causing the Universe to fly apart at ever-increasing speeds.

## Cosmological Parameters revisited

- The strong first peak at l** **=200 confirms inflationary expansion – clumps are right size for flat Universe
- Recall that inflation also explains the apparent flatness of the Universe
- Flatness means that****TOT= 1.0
- So, in the old view, we live in a critically balanced Universe  asymptotic expansion
- However, to quote Rocky Kolb:

- "Geometry is not destiny"

## Einstein and the Cosmological Constant

- When Einstein first formulated his equations of General Relativity, he believed in a static Universe (or steady state Universe)
- Since the equations seemed to predict an unstable universe that would either expand or contract, he “fixed” his equations by inserting a “Cosmological Constant” called 
- When Hubble later found that the Universe was expanding, Einstein called the creation of the Cosmological Constant his “greatest blunder”

## Einstein and Dark Energy

- However, now we see that there is indeed a cosmological constant term – Einstein was not wrong!
- The Dark Energy implied by the non-zero value of ****pushes the Universe apart even faster than the Hubble expansion
- The dark energy density/critical density = ********
- There are many theories for Dark Energy: vacuum fluctuations, extra dimensions, etc.

## New view: Density of the Universe

- where
- M = matter density (including regular and dark matter)
- **** = cosmological constant or dark energy density
- tot = density/critical density

- Perlmutter et al.
- 40 supernovae

- SN data

- U R here

## Today’s Cosmology

****= 1.0 from CMB measurements. We live in a flat Universe.
****<0.3 from extensive observations at various wavelengths. Includes dark matter as well as normal matter and light.
****~ 0.7 from Type 1a SN observations. Many different theories for “dark energy.” Universe accelerates and is open, even though it is flat.
- Hubble constant = 70 km/sec/Mpc from HST observations. Age of Universe is around 13.7 billion years (WMAP).

## Slide 46

## Resources

-  Inflationary Universe by Alan Guth (Perseus)
-   A Short History of the Universe by Joseph Silk (Scientific American Library)
-   Before the Beginning by Martin Rees (Perseus)
-  Inflation for Beginners (John Gribbin) http://www.biols.susx.ac.uk/Home/John_Gribbin/cosmo.htm
-   Ned Wright’s Cosmology Tutorial http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmolog.htm
-  James Schombert Lectures http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/21st_century_science/lectures/lec24.html

## Resources

- Bell Labs Cosmology Archives
- http://www.bell-labs.com/project/feature/archives/cosmology/
- Big Bang Cosmology Primer http://cosmology.berkeley.edu/Education/IUP/Big_Bang_Primer.html
- Martin White’s Cosmology Pages http://astron.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/darkmatter/bbn.html
-  Cosmic Background Explorer http://space.gsfc.nasa.gov/astro/cobe/cobe_home.html

## Web Resources

-   Ned Wright’s CMBR pages _[ ](http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/CMB-DT.eps)__[http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/CMB-DT.html](http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/CMB-DT.html)_
- Ned Wright’s Cosmology Tutorial http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmolog.htm
- WMAP mission http://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov
- SNAP mission http://snap.lbl.gov/

## Web Resources

- Brian Schmidt’s Supernova Pages _[http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~brian/PUBLIC/public.html](http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~brian/PUBLIC/public.html)_
- Hubble Space Telescope sees Distant Supernova http://oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/pr/2001/09/pr.html
- WMAP Teacher’s Guide by Lindsay Clark http://www.astro.princeton.edu/~clark/teachersguide.html
- George Smoot’s group pages http://aether.lbl.gov/
- Universe Adventure: http://universeadventure.org/