# Presentation: 818818

## The Wright Brothers,Flight Test andNASAA Centennial of Flight Story1903 - 2003

**Notes:**
As part of NASA’s celebration of the first hundred years of flight, I’d like to share with you a centennial of flight story called The Wright Brothers, Flight Test and NASA.

Now, neither the Wright Brothers nor NASA were the first to flight test. As you’ll get a glimpse of today, there is a link between the Wright Brothers and NASA and that link is through flight test.

## The Wright Brothers

- Orville and Wilbur
- Dayton, Ohio
- Wright Cycle Company
- Brain synchronicity
- Systematic in their experimental approach

**Notes:**
The brothers were both mechanical in more than a “fix it” kind of way. They enjoyed putting something together and making it work. They were also very methodical in how they approached solving problems. They were strong readers and good researchers.
Many biographers believe that one reason the Wright Brothers were the first to achieve powered, controlled flight in a heavier-than-air aircraft was because they were brothers and had a close relationship of their minds. They would bounce ideas off each other and spend countless hours thoroughly discussing a problem. They put forth countless possible solutions, and would take turns arguing each side. They performed experiments systematically, maintained close observations and kept very precise and careful records.Each experiment would lead to the next experiment. There was no trial and error. It was accomplished through carefully observed experimentation. Historians believe that the major differences between the brothers and other flight experimenters of their time were their similar ways of processing and their methodical approach. Which leads to the conclusion that “two heads are indeed better than one!”

## The Wright Brothers

- Read the research
- Talked with colleagues
- Determined problems to be solved
- Delineated a process for solving problems safely

**Notes:**
Before even attempting to build and fly a machine, they did a lot of reading and research. By the time the brothers started working on the problems surrounding controlled, powered flight, much work had already been accomplished, recorded and published. Early flight experimenters like Chanute, Langley, Cayley  and Lilienthal. One of the many problems the brothers faced was that some of the accepted scientific ideas of the time were not completely true or had not been properly researched. Since the science of flight was relatively new, and the technology of the time could not disprove some of the theories, much was accepted as it was first put forth. Regardless of the state of some of the accepted flight theories of the time period, the brothers persevered by following these steps (see slide above).
The process included performing flight tests at every juncture. Safety was very important to the brothers.

## The Wright Brothers

- Problems to be solved
- Balance during flight: a way to safely control the airplane’s motion
- An engine to move it through the air
- Wings needed to lift an airplane into the air

**Notes:**
The basic flight problems to be solved were these 3:
Balance during flight: a way to safely control the airplane’s motion
 Lilienthal had died flying because he used his body to balance his gliders whenever they were hit by turbulence. There had to be a better way. The motions around the 3 axes had to under complete control regardless of the wind.Yaw, pitch and roll had to be controlled with the aircraft’s body, not the pilot’s.
Wings needed to lift an airplane into the air
There had to be an optimal wing shape and camber. It was here that the brothers encountered airfoil experiment tables that were incorrect. They then had to solve a problem that they thought had already been solved.
An engine to move it through the air
The technology of the time did not have a small, lightweight, yet powerful engine. The brothers would have to develop one for their aircraft.

## The Wright Brothers

- Problem
- Balance during flight:  						a way to safely control the airplane’s motion

**Notes:**
To balance the wing lift, they decided to put in front of the wings a smaller, flat horizontal surface, which could be raised or lowered. They called it a “horizontal rudder.” It served the same purpose as our modern day rudders in that it would control the pressure of air moving along the wings, maintaining equilibrium from the front to the back of the aircraft. This feature kept the Wright Brothers’ aircraft from nosediving or spinning out of control.
To solve the problem of side-to-side equilibrium,they developed a process called “wingwarping” which initially mimicked the wing motion used by birds trying to control  their flight position when hit by a gust of wind. Birds will slightly twist the tip of their wings up or down to maintain their side-to-side balance. They attached a system of wires crisscrossing from the leading edge of one wing to the trailing edge of the other wing (so they would work in tandem). The pilot could control and balance the airplane during a wind gust by pulling on these interconnected wires.  

## The Wright Brothers

- Balance Solutions
- Horizontal rudder
- Wingwarping
- Hip cradle

**Notes:**
To balance the wing lift, they decided to put in front of the wings a smaller, flat horizontal surface, which could be raised or lowered. They called it a “horizontal rudder.” It served the same purpose as our modern day rudders in that it would control the pressure of air moving along the wings, maintaining equilibrium from the front to the back of the aircraft. This feature kept the Wright Brothers’ aircraft from nosediving or spinning out of control.

To solve the problem of side-to-side equilibrium,they developed a process called “wingwarping” which initially mimicked the wing motion used by birds trying to control  their flight position when hit by a gust of wind. Birds will slightly twist the tip of their wings up or down to maintain their side-to-side balance. They attached a system of wires crisscrossing from the leading edge of one wing to the trailing edge of the other wing (so they would work in tandem). The pilot could control and balance the airplane during a wind gust by pulling on these interconnected wires.  

## The Wright Brothers

- Problem
- An engine to move it through the air
- Lightweight
- Minimal vibration
- Powerful enough to turn the propellers

**Notes:**
Because there was no small, lightweight, yet powerful engine to provide the thrust needed for their aircraft,they hired a mechanic to build an engine to their specifications, Charlie Taylor. He built an engine while the brothers concentrated on reworking their aircraft to accommodate the engine’s placement.Balance had to be maintained.The engine and its propellers’ added weight would need to be considered in the aircraft’s final design.
Very little data was available during these early experimental years. The Wright Brothers had to gather and analyze their own data. A scientific formula was needed to compile data to design an effective propeller for thrust. They were breaking new ground with these mathematical calculations. They would not waste time with trial and error, they would solve the problem mathematically.

## The Wright Brothers

- Engine Solutions
- Small, powerful, gas engine
- Powered 2 propellers

**Notes:**
The propellers which would be turned by the engine were there to provide the thrust needed for the aircraft’s forward movement. The only research on propellers that existed was about boat propellers. The brothers had to come up with their own mathematical calculations to determine the optimum size and shape of the propellers. They decided on 2 rear mounted pusher-propellers and had one rotate clockwise and the other rotate counter-clockwise to maintain the aircraft’s stability.
Engine: 180 lbs., 4 cylinder, 12 horsepower, water-cooled engine, started by spark from dry battery, fed gas from small tank, placed opposite side of aircraft from pilot for balance.
Propellers: airfoil shape, 8.5 feet-wide, spruce, rear mounted, connected to engine by strong, bicycle-type chains through steel shafts, oppositional rotation for stability. (Note: If they rotated in the same way they would tend to turn the airplane in the direction they were rotating.

## The Wright Brothers

- Problem
- Wings needed to lift airplane into the air
- Determine the length-to-width ratio
- Proper amount of camber
- Most efficient angle of attack
- The center of pressure

**Notes:**
Their first wing testing machine was made from a bicycle wheel placed horizontally across another bicycle. Airfoil shapes were placed on the horizontal wheel. The bike was pedaled which rotated the wheel. This created a constant wind on the shapes being tested. This method gave inaccurate results, so they had to come up with another testing method. 

## The Wright Brothers

- Wing Solutions
- Throw out previous tables and theories
- Devise a better method of testing wings
- Use new test results to design a better wing

**Notes:**
They designed a tunnel apparatus that used a small engine to consistently turn a fan that blew air through the tunnel.They tested about 150 airfoil shapes made from steel sheets that were mounted on a scale that measured lift. A small glass window set within the top panel allowed them to view the wing models during the experiment.

This careful testing led them to design wings for their aircraft which were slimmer and longer than before (32’ x 5’). The wings had a smaller curve (hump) over the top. The high point of that curve was then set nearly one-third of the way back from the leading edge. The forward elevator also was changed based upon their wind tunnel research. It was smaller than before and was shaped like a small wing.

## Wright Brothers

- The Wright Brothers’ Results
- A set of highly accurate tables that predicted in advance the performance of an aircraft’s wings
- Changes in their aircraft design
- Biggest glider yet
- Longer wings
- Narrower wings
- Tail section

**Notes:**
A set of highly accurate tables that predicted in advance the performance of an aircraft’s wings
Changes in their aircraft design
Biggest glider yet
Longer wings
Narrower wings
Tail section 
Armed with their new knowledge from their own wind tunnel tests, the Brothers designed their biggest glider yet! Its wings were longer with a tip to tip measurement of 32 feet. The wings were narrower than before, too with a width of 5 feet. For the first time, the glider design had a tail with two 6 foot high vertical fins, designed to help stabilize the machine during turns. The entire glider weighed just under 120 pounds. 

Note on the tail section: After some more flight testing, the Brothers discovered that a redesign of the tail was needed. They removed the 2 vertical fins and replaced them with a movable single-vaned tail 5 feet high. The tail was connected to the wingwarping wires. This allowed its movement to be coordinated with the warping of the wings. The pilot in the hip cradle could twist the wings and turn the tail at the same time.The movable tail rudder proved to be a great success and gave the pilot excellent control of the airplane’s movement.

## Flight Test

- What is Flight Test?

**Notes:**
What is Flight Test?
Definition:
A method of testing an aircraft or a part of an aircraft to ensure that it performs safely and efficiently as to per its design specifications. This is accomplished by following a specific set of flight movements under various flight conditions while making careful observations and gathering data is various forms.

Flight Test is an integral part of the aircraft design process

It is used in conjunction with Computational Fluid Dynamics, Flight Simulation and Wind Tunnels to ensure that an aircraft or a part of an aircraft performs as to its specifications.

## Flight Test

- Early Flight Test Pilots
- Tower Jumpers
- Oliver of Malmesbury
- Giovanni Dante
- Marquis de Bocqueville

**Notes:**
Tower Jumpers are mentioned frequently throughout history and in various cultures. One of the earliest written records of a tower jumper is from the eleventh century. Oliver of Malmesbury attached large wings to his body and jumped off a wall. He broke both his legs.

Giovanni Dante of Italy in 1490 attempted to use large wings attached to his body to glide down from a tall tower. Alas, instead of gliding, he fell straight down to the ground and badly injured himself.

It was 1742, when the Marquis de Bocqueville of Paris was injured when he attempted to fly across the River Seine. He jumped off a high building on the bank of the river and instead of falling into the river, he fell onto a barge below.

It was at this time that the phrase “Look before you leap.” was changed to “Flight Test your model before you try to fly.”

## Flight Test

- Flight Test Pilots who were Contemporaries of the Wright Brothers

- Cayley
- Otto Lilienthal
- Octave Chanute and					 his young test pilots

**Notes:**
Cayley
In 1853, George Cayley made the first successful flight test of a winged glider that carried a person. He discovered that the glider achieved greater lift by curving the wing.

Lilienthal
Otto Lilienthal made over 2,000 glider flights. His test flights provided many future flight testers with a large body of aeronautical information concerning mid-air equilibrium (or how to keep a glider stable during flight and turbulent air. He controlled his glider by shifting his weight much like the hang glider pilots do today. Before he could figure out a different way to control a glider, he died in 1896 in a flight test mishap.

Chanute
Octave Chanute was actually a designer of gliders who studied flight and compiled date into a book. He served as the observer while many daring, young male pilots made the test flights in Chanute’s gliders. Chanute wrote the definitive book for that time (1894) entitled Progress in Flying Machines. The Wright Brothers read this book as part of their research.

## Flight Test

- Flight Test Pilots who were Contemporaries of the Wright Brothers
- Lawrence Hargrave
- Percy Pilcher
- Professor John

**Notes:**
Hargrave
Lawrence Hargrave of Australia performed flight tests using kites. His box kite design was developed in 1893 not as a toy, but to test his theories on wing shape. 

Percy Pilcher
Pilcher was a Scottish inventor who was thought by many historians to be just ahead of the Wright Brothers in the quest for flight. He designed, experimented and flight tested his own gliders. His glider work was similar to Lilienthal in that he used his body weight to keep the glider stable during flight. He too was killed in 1899  in a glider mishap similar to Lilienthal.

John Montgomery
This Professor was doing work in Santa Clara,, California, was the West Coast’s premier aviation experimenter. He was still experimenting with gliders when he was killed in a gliding accident in  19__???

## Flight Test

- Wright Brothers as Flight Test Pilots
- Early tests used kite models
- Performed in Dayton, Ohio

**Notes:**
Early Flight Tests
Wright Brothers used kites to flight test changes in their models. They would not flight test a model with a human pilot until they had flight tested it safely using a model flown as a kite. 

They would incorporate changes in their kite models, and then fly the kite model, making careful observations and taking careful notes.

The Brothers performed their early kite flight tests near their bicycle shop in Dayton, Ohio.

## Flight Test

- Wright Brothers as Flight Test Pilots
- Birds helped flight test
- Gave idea for “wing-warping”
- Tested first on bi-winged kite

**Notes:**
After having difficulty with their model’s lateral equilibrium, Wilbur spent time making careful observations of how birds maintained a steady position when encountering a gust of wind. Wilbur  noted that a bird upon encountering a wind gust uses its wings in oppositional, tandem  movement to maintain its stability to hold its position.
Oppositional, tandem movement: The leading edge of the bird’s right wing turns slightly downward while the leading edge of the left wing rotates slightly upward.This happens minutely and quickly and at times repeatedly.
Wilbur mimicked this movement first with a long, thin cardboard box (innertube box). He then constructed a bi-wing kite and attached additional control wires to the leading and trailing edges. When the lite encountered a wind gust, Wilbur would manipulate the wing bending “warping” wires. He was able to successfully control the kite’s lateral equilibrium.

## Flight Test

- Wright Brothers as Flight Test Pilots
- Needed location for piloted flight tests
- Researched for best place
- US National Weather Service
- Outer Banks of North Carolina

**Notes:**
The Wright Brothers used the problem-solving approach to choose a flight test area.They did research to find out where the best place would be to perform their piloted flight tests.
Octave Chanute recommended they perform their piloted flight tests over sand hills with a body of water nearby. He also recommended  a place with a strong and steady wind. He suggested a spot on the Atlantic coast. He did his research on the sand dunes near the Great Lakes.
The Wright Brothers contacted the US National Weather Bureau and asked for the top spots that had strong, steady winds, soft landing area, no tall obstructions and sparsely populated.
The top 5 locations given that matched their crtieria were too populated. The number 6 spot on the list was Kitty Hawk, North Carolina located on the Outer Banks.
The Brothers contacted the Weather Service at Kitty Hawk to confirm the wind was steady with no tall trees or obstructions and plenty of sand to cushion rough landings.

## Flight Test

- Wright Brothers as Flight Test Pilots
- 1901 - 1902
- Tested gliders
- First flown pilotless (like kites)
- Then piloted

## Flight Test

- Wright Brothers as Flight Test Pilots
- 1903
- Flight testing power-driven aircraft
- Ran ground tests on engine first
- Made changes based upon ground tests
- Then successfully flight tested

## Flight Test

- Later Flight Test Pilots
- Hanna Reitsch
- Charles Lindberg

**Notes:**
Hanna Reitsch
Female German test pilot who flight tested many of the airplanes Germany was experimenting with  before and during World War II. She piloted German designed and made aircraft.
She has been considered one of Germany’s best test pilots.

Charles Lindberg
This famous aviator best known for his historic solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. 

## Flight Test

- Flight Test progresses

**Notes:**
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Through the diligent encouragement of the regents of the Smithsonian Institution and members of the National Academy of Sciences, the US Congress enacted funding to establish NACA. Its duties were to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical solution.

## Flight Test

- NACA
- National Advisory Committee   for Aeronautics

**Notes:**
Congress established NACA in 1915 to “supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical solutions. . . .” The act also provided for the construction of aeronautical research facilities. A lab site was established in  1917 near Hampton, Virginia. It was named Langley Field. The first Langley wind tunnel was patterned after one being used at the British National Physical Laboratory. In 1923 NACA finished building a new tunnel called the Variable Density Tunnel in which the air pressure inside could be varied. This tunnel gathered data on 78 related airfoil sections and tested all different types of aircraft being designed during that time. All this helped to establish NACA as a technically competent research organization.

## Flight Test

- NACA grows
- Wind tunnel complex built at Ames
- Tunnels get larger
- Airspeeds get faster
- Testing becomes   more specialized

**Notes:**
In 1940 NACA broke ground for a new aeronautics lab in California at Moffett Field (Ames). This facility was to continue testing new aircraft designs for the military. These aircraft were designed to fly at moderate speeds (about 250 mph). It was also set to perform high-speed aerodynamic research.

## Flight Test

- Muroc

**Early flight tests **
- Chalmers Goodlin
**Chuck Yeager**

**Notes:**
September 30, 1946, five NACA engineers, headed by Walt Williams, arrived at Muroc Army Airfield in California (now Edwards AFB) from Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, VA, to prepare for X-1 supersonic research flights in joint NACA-Army Air Forces program. This was the first NACA presence established at the Mojave Desert site.

On Dec. 9, 1946 , the first successful rocket-powered flight of the X-1 (then designated XS-1), was flown by Bell pilot Chalmers Goodlin. 

On Aug. 20, 1947, the aircraft D-558-1 established the world speed record of 640.7 miles per hour. 

On October 14, 1947, with USAF Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager as pilot, the X-1-1 flew faster than the speed of sound for what is generally accepted as the first supersonic flight by a piloted aircraft.

In 1949, Muroc was renamed Edwards Air Force Base, in memory of Captain Glen W. Edwards, an Air Force test pilot who had been killed in the crash of a YB-49 Flying Wing. That same year, the name of the NACA facility was changed to the NACA High Speed Flight Research Station (HSFRS), underscoring the emphasis of the work the group was conducting.

## NASA

**Notes:**
On October 1, 1958, the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics was transferred over to the new National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The official start of NASA was the beginning of a rich history of unique scientific and technological achievements in human space flight, aeronautics, space science, and space applications. 

Building on its NACA roots, NASA has continued to conduct many types of cutting-edge aeronautics research on aerodynamics, wind shear, and other important topics using flight testing, computer simulations and wind tunnel testing. 

## NASA

- Ames Research Center

**Early Flight Test**
**Wind Tunnels**
**Kuiper**
**XV-15**
**Present testing**
**Rotorcraft**
**Computer simulations**

**Notes:**
1941 - XB-28 model tested in wind tunnel.
1943 - Construction proceeds on the 40-by 80-foot wind tunnel.
1963 - An early reentry vehicle concept, the M2F2, tested for low speed landing in the 40x80 wind tunnel. 
1975 - First flight of Kuiper C-141 Airborne Observatory infrared astronomy platform.
1977 - The XV-15 tilt-rotor-the efficiency of a fixed-wing, turboprop aircraft with the vertical flight capability of a helicopter-achieves high speed forward flight with vertical takeoff and landing. 
Currently, NASA Ames is active in rotorcraft flight research and using computer simulations in aerodynamic testing.

## NASA

- Dryden Flight Research Center

**Early Flight Test**
**Scott Crossfield**
**X-15**
**Lunar Landing Research  Vehicle**
**Present testing**
**ERAST**
**Hyper-X**

**Notes:**
Since the pioneering days after World War II, when a small, intensely dedicated band of pilots, engineers, and technicians dared to challenge the "sound barrier" in the X-1, Dryden has been on the leading edge in aeronautics and,more recently, in space technology. The newest, the fastest, the highest - all have made their debut in the vast,clear desert skies over Dryden.

Nov. 20, 1953 - Scott Crossfield, in rocket-powered D-558-2 Skyrocket, was the first pilot to fly twice the speed of sound.
Oct. 24, 1968 - Last X-15 flight, 199th mission, piloted by NASA's Bill Dana. The world's first hypersonic aircraft was the most successful research aircraft to date. 
Oct. 30, 1964 - Joe Walker was the pilot on the first flight of the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV), known as the "Flying Bedstead." The LLRV was used to simulate techniques of landing a spacecraft on the moon's surface.

Currently, NASA Dryden is active in the ERAST project, which is a suite of aircraft and experiments to revolutionize the world of aviation.  Dryden is also testing the Hyper-X, which will prove to be the fastest air-breathing aircraft ever.

## NASA

- Flight Test in the Future

**Notes:**
The world of flight test has evolved dramatically in the last one hundred years.  From the genius, vision and persistence of two bicycle manufacturers from Ohio to the engineers and researchers of today, the future of aeronautics flight testing promises many exciting and revolutionary ideas and technologies that will benefit mankind for generations to come.