# Presentation: 947557

## Democratic Republic of São Tomé & Príncipe

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 964 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 160 000**

**The geographic isolation of São Tomé and**
**Príncipe has resulted in high levels of endemism,**
**notably among plants**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Degradation of Forest Ecosystems
- • Threats to Biodiversity

**Democratic Republic of São Tomé & Príncipe**

## Democratic Republic of São Tomé & Príncipe

**Urban Expansion: São Tomé Island**

**The population of São Tomé increased from a mere 8 431 in 1940 to 51 886 in 2001**

**The satellite image shows how settlements, especially along roads, have expanded inland from the city**

**Democratic Republic of São Tomé & Príncipe**

**Notes:**
Urban Expansion: São Tomé Island, São Tome and Príncipe
São Tomé is the capital city of the island that shares its name. Located in the island’s Agua Grande district, the
population of São Tomé increased from a mere 8 431 in 1940 to 51 886 in 2001.
The satellite image shows how settlements, especially along roads, have expanded inland from the city. While
much of the island still retained its natural vegetation in 2007, vegetation loss is obvious near the capital city and
surrounding settlements, where forests have been converted to croplands. Substantial oil reserves have recently
been discovered off the island of São Tomé, which will most likely fuel increased development.

## Republic of Senegal

**Republic of Senegal**

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 196 722 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 11 936 000**

**Senegal is one of the world’s most famous migratory**
**bird sanctuaries**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Urban Pollution
- • Deforestation
- • Coastal Wetlands and Fisheries Over-exploitation

**Number of threatened plant species in Senegal: 58**

## Republic of Senegal

**Urbanisation of Cap Vert Peninsula**

**Dakar experienced a**
**large rural-to-urban migration beginning in the 1960s**

**Dakar is concentrated at the southern tip of the peninsula in the aerial photo mosaic from 1942**

**The 2006/2007 image shows only a portion of the**
**greater Dakar area, which currently stretches another 14 km to the city of Rufisque (not shown)**

**Republic of Senegal**

**Notes:**
Urbanisation of Cap Vert Peninsula: Dakar, Senegal
Like many West African cities, Senegal’s capital city of Dakar has grown dramatically over the
past several decades. Growth is expected to continue. While birth rates have begun to decline,
natural growth still accounts for much of Dakar’s expansion. In addition, Dakar experienced a
large rural-to-urban migration beginning in the 1960s, when Senegal suffered from declining
precipitation and periods of extreme drought. By 2005, Senegal’s urban population exceeded its
rural population. By 2030, two-thirds of the country’s population is expected to be urban.
Roughly half of Senegal’s urban population lives in the greater Dakar metropolitan area. Urban population
growth has turned the Cap Vert Peninsula into a sprawling metropolis, where settlements reach ever-further inland
and onto the prime farmland that has historically supported the city. Pikine, initially begun as a resettlement of
urban slum dwellers 15 km east of Dakar, has grown to over one million people. Its location in the fertile Niayes
region displaced large areas of urban and peri-urban agriculture that once provided livelihoods for a substantial
portion of the population.
In the aerial photo mosaic from 1942, Dakar is concentrated at the southern tip of the peninsula, with only the
airport and a few scattered roads and settlements to the north. The 2006/2007 image shows only a portion of the
greater Dakar area, which currently stretches another 14 km to the city of Rufisque (not shown).

## Republic of Senegal

**Riverine Forest Degradation: Leboudou Doue**

**In the black and white image, the darker areas of the land enclosed by this great loop on the Senegal River show the extent of the riverine forest in 1966**

**The 2006 image shows very little of that forest remains**

**Republic of Senegal**

**Notes:**
Riverine Forest Degradation: Leboudou Doue, Senegal
In the black and white image, the darker areas of the land enclosed by this great loop on the
Senegal River show the extent of the riverine forest in 1966. The 2006 image shows very little of
that forest remains.
Similar deforestation has occurred in the fertile fl oodplains along hundreds of kilometres of
the Senegal River. Much of the forest was cleared by local people to make way for subsistence
agriculture. The most common riverine tree species, Acacia nilotica, is also the preferred source of wood for fuel and construction, and for charcoal production. Production of charcoal for sale as far away as Dakar
and Saint Louis has further increased the pressure on what remains of these woodlands. Acacia nilotica woodlands
that covered 39 000 hectares along the Senegal River in 1966 had been reduced to 9 000 hectares by 1992—a
reduction of 77 %.
These pressures were compounded by two developments in the late 1980s. In 1988, the Manantali Dam was
built upstream in Mali. The dam controls roughly half of the Senegal River’s discharge. While controlled releases
of water from the dam can recreate natural fl ooding, below-normal fl ood levels may be contributing to loss of
Acacia nilotica stands. The area’s population has also grown dramatically over the past several decades, including
the influx of some 120 000 Mauritanian refugees and Senegalese expatriates following an ethnic conflict in 1989.

## Republic of Seychelles

**Republic of Seychelles**

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 455 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 83 000**

**The smallest country in Africa made up of 115**
**islands in the Indian Ocean, Seychelles also has**
**the smallest population**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Severe Weather and Coastal Erosion
- • Loss of Mangrove Forests and Protection of
-   Coral Reefs

## Republic of Seychelles

**Land Reclamation: Mahe Island**

**In 1973 land was reclaimed to create a site for the Seychelles International Airport, and in 1986 for a new port facility**

**Two further phases of reclamation were completed in the early 2000s, parts of which can be seen in the 2007 image above (yellow arrows)**

**Republic of Seychelles**

**Notes:**
Land Reclamation: Mahe Island, Seychelles
The east coast of Seychelles’ Mahe Island has undergone major environmental change during the last 30
years, primarily due to land reclamation projects. In 1973, land was reclaimed to create a site for the Seychelles
International Airport, and in 1986, for a new port facility. Two further phases of reclamation were completed in
the early 2000s, parts of which can be seen in the 2007 image above (yellow arrows).
These reclamation projects have impacted both marine and coastal environments. Several new wetland areas
have been created, some of them colonized by mangroves, which provide valuable bird habitat and nursery areas
for marine species. However, sedimentation from reclamation projects has killed some of the coral along Mahe’s
eastern coast as well.

## Republic of Sierra Leone

**Republic of Sierra Leone**

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 71 740 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 5 679 000**

**Sierra Leone had the second highest population growth rate in Africa between 2000 and 2005—4.2% per year**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Deforestation
- • Land Degradation
- • Overfishing

**90% of the diamonds exported from Sierra Leone are extracted by small scale artisanal miners **

## Republic of Sierra Leone

**Rutile Mining: Moyamba District**

**The Moyamba District, which borders the Atlantic Ocean in the west and Bonthe to the south - is the most active rutile mining area in the country**

**By 2003 mining activities had replaced large portions of**
**forest with water-filled pits**

**Republic of Sierra Leone**

**In the 1974 image one small mining operation is visible (centre) - much of the Moyamba District still covered with forests**

**Notes:**
Rutile Mining: Moyamba District, Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone is mineral rich; titanium minerals such as rutile and ilmenite are its principle
mineral exports. Before war erupted in 1991, mining represented 90 % of Sierra Leone’s
registered exports and roughly 20 % of its GDP—rutile accounted for well over half of that.
The Moyamba District, which borders the Atlantic Ocean in the west and Bonthe to the south,
is the most active rutile mining area in the country. Although mining companies left during the
war, they returned when the war ended in 2002.
Rutile is mined by creating large artificial lakes which are then dredged, leaving behind large water-filled
pits up to 600 m long. In Sierra Leone, these activities have left vast areas of land deforested and degraded. It is
estimated that between 80 000 and 120 000 hectares of land have been mined out in different parts of the country
with minimal efforts at restoration.
In the 1974 image, one small mining operation is visible (centre); however, much of the Moyamba District
was still covered with relatively intact forests at that time. By 2003, mining activities had replaced large portions of
forest with water-filled pits. These mining sites have extremely poor health and sanitary conditions; the pits teem
with mosquitoes and bacteria that are linked to a high incidence of malaria, cholera, and diarrhoea.

## Republic of Sierra Leone

**Western Area Forest Reserve: Freetown**

**Intense population growth began in Freetown in the 1970s**

**By 2003, the border of the Reserve had been breached in many places (2003 image) with urban populations encroaching from several directions**

**Republic of Sierra Leone**

**By the mid-1980s the growing city had expanded into the buffer zone and much closer to Reserve borders (1986 image)**

**Notes:**
Western Area Forest Reserve: Freetown, Sierra Leone
Freetown, Sierra Leone’s capital city, shares a peninsula with the Western Area Forest Reserve—a
small remnant of the Guinean Forests that historically stretched from Guinea to Cameroon. The
century-old reserve covers a chain of forested hills that are home to approximately 300 species of
birds and a small population of chimpanzees.
Intense population growth began in Freetown in the 1970s. However, a buffer of forested land
remained between the Reserve and the edge of the city. By the mid-1980s, however, the growing city had expanded into the buffer zone and much closer to Reserve borders (1986 image). Between 1991 and 2002,
as many as one million people fl ed to Freetown as a result of war in Sierra Leone. Many of these refugees moved
into the hills of the Reserve, where they relied on its resources to survive. Deforestation and land degradation
of these valuable protected lands was the result. By 2003, the border of the Reserve had been breached in many
places (2003 image), with urban populations encroaching from several directions.
The Reserve is now recognized as vital, not only to the biodiversity and natural systems it supports, but to
the people of Freetown as well. The forest is crucial for recharging of Freetown’s reservoirs, which are already
struggling to meet the city’s water needs.

## Somali Republic

**Somali Republic**

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 637 657 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 8 496 000**

**Northern Somalia is the world’s largest source of myrrh and other incense**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Threats to Biodiversity
- • Desertification, Overgrazing, and Deforestation
- • Water Scarcity and Drought

**At 3 330km Somalia has the longest coastline **
**in Africa**

## Somali Republic

**El Niño Flooding: Juba River**

**Late in the fall of 2006 the Horn of Africa received heavy rains generally believed to have been the consequence of an El Niño weather pattern**

**September 2006 and December 2006 images show a portion of the Juba River before and after the rains respectively**

**Flooded areas appear as dark-green to black. Small portions of these images are shown in greater detail**

**Somali Republic**

**A**

**B**

**Notes:**
El Niño Flooding: Juba River, Somalia
Late in the fall of 2006, the Horn of Africa received heavy rains generally believed to have been
the consequence of an El Niño weather pattern over the Pacific Ocean. By late November and
early December, flooding had displaced roughly half a million people, destroyed crops and
villages, and caused outbreaks of disease. The severity of the floods made relief efforts extremely
difficult. By December these floods were the worst Somalia had seen in ten years. In March
2007, predictions of above-normal spring rains in the upper reaches of the Juba River watershed
threatened more flooding.
On the left page, September 2006 and December 2006 images show a portion of the Juba River before and
after the rains came, respectively. Flooded areas appear as dark-green to black. Small portions of these images
(yellow rectangles) are shown above in greater detail.
In spite of profound negative impacts of the flooding in the Juba River region, two consecutive seasons of
heavy precipitation may have benefited cereal grain production and improved pastoral conditions in the region,
substantially reducing the need for humanitarian assistance.

## Republic of South Africa 

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 1 221 037 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 47 594 000**

**The South African Fynbos, with 8 500 species of vascular plants, is one of the six botanical kingdoms of the world and has a richer flora than any other comparable sized area in Africa**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Water Availability and Quality
- • Land Degradation
- • Threats to Biodiversity

**Surface area of Lake St Lucia in South Africa — the largest marine lake in Africa is 368 km****2**

**Republic of South Africa **

## Republic of South Africa 

**Indigenous Forests: Amatole Mistbelt**

**South Africa’s Amatole Mistbelt Forests are part of the southernmost areas of Afromontane forest in Africa**

**Comparison of these 1972 and 2001 images shows some new areas of tree cover (yellow arrows) - these are primarily plantation forests of pine and eucalyptus, which threaten to alter the hydrology and reduce the biodiversity of these ecosystems**

**Republic of South Africa **

**Notes:**
Indigenous Forests: Amatole Mistbelt, South Africa
While forests are not believed to have ever covered a large part of South Africa, logging, clearing
for agriculture, and forest plantations have much reduced their original extent. Indigenous
forests now cover only 0.33 % of South Africa’s land area.
South Africa’s Amatole Mistbelt Forests are part of the southernmost areas of Afromontane
forest in Africa. They contain some small remaining patches of indigenous forest. These forests
fall within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot and are home to variety of
unique plant and animal species, including several endemic species such as the endangered giant golden mole (Chrysospalax trevelyani). They are also important resources for local people who rely on them
for wood and non-wood products. Some of the characteristic tree species are yellowwood (Podocarpus falcatus), (see
photo), red currant (Rhus chirindensis), and black ironwood (Olea capensis).
South Africa’s Department of Water Affairs and Forestry defi ned the areas of Isidenge and Pirie as
“irreplaceable” patches of indigenous forest. While nearly half of the forests in the Amatole Mistbelt Forests are
under state management, less than 1.5 % are under strict protection. Comparison of these 1972 and 2001
images shows some new areas of tree cover, (yellow arrows); however, these are primarily plantation forests of pine
and eucalyptus, which threaten to alter the hydrology and reduce the biodiversity of these ecosystems.

## Republic of South Africa 

**Natural Area Loss in Cape Floristic Region**

**The 1978 image shows large and relatively intact areas of native fynbos vegetation**

**The 2007 image shows how roads, urban development, and agriculture have overtaken much of the area**

**Republic of South Africa **

**Fynbos covers half of the surface area and accounts for 80% of the plant varieties of the Cape Floristic Region**

**Notes:**
Natural Area Loss: Cape Floristic Region, South Africa
The Cape Floristic Region is a Mediterranean-type ecosystem unique to the southwest tip
of Africa. It has the greatest concentration of plant species in the world outside of tropical
ecosystems, with 6 210 of its 9 000 species occurring nowhere else in the world. Although the
region is relatively small, its plant biodiversity is the richest per unit area on Earth, prompting its
designation as a biodiversity hotspot.
The characteristic and most widespread type of vegetation in the Cape Floristic Region is
fynbos, an Afrikaans word that translates as “fi ne bush.” Covering some 46 000 km2, fynbos is a shrubland comprising hard-leafed, evergreen, fi re-adapted shrubs. Fynbos covers half of the surface area and
accounts for 80 % of the plant varieties of the Cape Floristic Region.
The 1978 image shows large, relatively intact areas of native fynbos vegetation. Over subsequent decades,
however, large tracts of fynbos have been cleared for agriculture or lost to urban expansion around Cape Town.
The 2007 image shows how roads, urban development, and agriculture have overtaken much of the area.
Fynbos areas are also threatened by invasive alien species, particularly wattle and acacia species from Australia,
as well as pine plantations. Many fynbos species have gone extinct, and more than 1 000 are endangered. Their
conservation is a priority, and reserves have been established in many areas.

## Republic of Sudan 

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 2 505 813 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 36 992 000**

**Sudan is the largest country on the African continent; likewise, its Sudd Wetland—one of the largest tropical wetlands in the world—is Africa’s largest**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Soil Erosion and Land Degradation
- • Poaching and the Ivory Trade
- • Forests and Fisheries

**Forest cover lost between 1990 and 2005 was at 11.6%**

**Republic of Sudan **

## Republic of Sudan 

**Tree Loss in the Foothills of Jebel Marra**

**The Jebel Marra Massif is a region of high, jagged peaks and fertile valleys in western Sudan**

**The 1972 image shows substantial tree cover across much of the lower left half of the image**

**Republic of Sudan **

**The 2006 image shows the degree to which vegetation has been reduced, particularly in the less hilly areas and away from croplands concentrated along the watercourses**

**Notes:**
Tree Loss in the Foothills: Jebel Marra, Sudan
The Jebel Marra Massif is a region of high, jagged peaks and fertile valleys in western Sudan.
The southern foothills of the Jebel Marra receive an average of 600 to 800 mm of precipitation
annually, just above the minimum needed to support rain-fed agriculture. Crops include
sorghum, millet, groundnuts, and cowpeas that are raised along watercourses and adjacent
areas. Pastoralists seasonally graze their cattle on the natural vegetation in the region; the
number of grazing herds has increased in recent decades as droughts have made water and
pasture scarce further north.
Population growth , especially in the latter half of the 20th century, coupled with an infl ux of refugees from
drought and confl ict in Northern Darfur have put increasing pressure on this fragile ecosystem. Human activities
have greatly altered the natural open-savannah woodlands.
The 1972 image shows substantial tree cover across much of the lower left half of the image. The 2006 image
shows the degree to which vegetation has been reduced, particularly in the less hilly areas and away from croplands
concentrated along the watercourses. The loss of trees and shrubs in this fragile environment is leading to land
degradation and reduced capacity to support the area’s ever-increasing population.

## Republic of Sudan

**Flooding and the Jonglei Canal: Sudd Swamp**

**During the dry season (February 2005 image) the**
**wetlands contract to approximately 8 300 km****2**** of permanent swamp**

**During the wet season**
**(July/August 2005 image) the Sudd floods expanding to cover 80 000 km****2**

**Republic of Sudan**

**The Sudd is a vast wetland ecosystem in southern Sudan where the Nile River meanders for nearly 645 km through the landscape**

**The Jonglei Canal project (yellow arrow) begun in 1978**

**Notes:**
Flooding and the Jonglei Canal: Sudd Swamp, Sudan
The Sudd is a vast wetland ecosystem in southern Sudan where the Nile River meanders for
nearly 645 km through the landscape. During the dry season (February 2005 image), the
wetlands contract to approximately 8 300 km2 of permanent swamp. During the wet season
(July/August 2005 image), the Sudd fl oods, expanding to cover 80 000 km2. This annual pattern
of water rising and receding shapes the entire ecosystem and is crucial to the survival of the
wetlands’ plants and animals and to the nomadic lifestyle of the Nuer, Dinka, and Shilluk people
who live in the region.
The Jonglei Canal project (yellow arrow), begun in 1978, was designed to speed the movement of Nile water
around the Sudd wetlands, reducing evaporation and making more water available downstream. Despite the
possible downstream benefi ts, the proposed 360-km canal could have a devastating effect on the wetlands of the
Sudd. Recent studies also show that the project could impact the regions’s climate, groundwater recharging, and
water quality as well.
Construction of the canal stopped in 1983 because of armed confl icts in the area during the second Sudanese
civil war. This confl ict has now ended and plans to resume the canal’s construction are being evaluated. Efforts to
preserve the wetlands received a major boost in 2006 when the Sudd was added to the Ramsar List of Wetlands of
International Importance.

## • Population Encroachment and Land Degradation

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 17 364 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 1 029 000**

**Swaziland has 1 400 km****2**** of forest plantations which cover 8.1% of the country’s total land area**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Population Encroachment and Land Degradation
- • Irrigation and Soil Degradation
- • Threats to Biodiversity and Invasive Alien Species

**96% of water resources is used for farming in Swaziland**

** ****Kingdom of Swaziland **

##  Kingdom of Swaziland 

**Sugar Cane Farming: Lubombo Province**

**Sugar cane plantations are found primarily in northeastern Swaziland**

**Sugar cane industry’s water requirements are met by several dams that have been constructed along major rivers**

**These satellite images from 1979 and 2006 show the dams and how the area devoted to sugar cane plantations has increased over time**

** ****Kingdom of Swaziland **

**Notes:**
Sugar Cane Farming: Lubombo Province, Swaziland
Sugar cane production has become Swaziland’s biggest industry as large-scale producers have
been joined by hundreds of small-scale farmers. Much of this growth can be attributed to
government promotion of sugar cane farming. While this growth has come at the expense of
natural flora and fauna, it has brought significant benefits for the eastern province of Lubombo.
Sugar cane plantations are found primarily in northeastern Swaziland where temperatures
are optimal. However, this region is also characterized by erratic rainfall with periods of drought;
precipitation provides only 25 % of the water sugar cane crops need. To meet the sugar cane industry’s remaining water requirements, several dams have been constructed along major rivers, including
the Sand River and Mnjoli Dams. These satellite images, from 1979 and 2006, show the dams and how the area
devoted to sugar cane plantations has increased over time.
Sugar cane exports bring in roughly US$1 500 million annually to Swaziland. Lubombo Province, in particular,
relies heavily on income from sugar cane as well as social services that the industry provides, including medical
care, education, housing, and access to clean water. Yet fl uctuating sugar prices have prompted the Swazi
government to promote the production of other crops. Such a transition, however, is far easier for small-scale
farmers than for large-scale producers with extensive plantations.

##  United Republic of Tanzania

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 945 087 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 39 025 000**

**With large numbers of zebra and gazelle and millions of wildebeest, Serengeti National Park is unequalled for its natural beauty and scientific value**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Water Pollution and Aquatic Ecosystems
- • Land Degradation and Deforestation
- • Threats to Biodiversity and Ecosystems

**Uhuru Point in Mount Kilimanjaro is Africa’s highest point at 5 895 metres**

** ****United Republic of Tanzania**

##  United Republic of Tanzania

**Invasive Plants in Lake Jipe**

**The bright green areas at the waters edge in the 1975 and 2005 images show these invasive plants covering parts of Lake Jipe**

**Coverage in 2005 is notably more extensive - especially at the northern end of the lake - greyish patch there is evidence that the lake is actually drying up**

**As much of 75% of the Lake Jipe is infested by invasive aquatic plants**

** ****United Republic of Tanzania**

**Notes:**
Invasive Plants: Lake Jipe, United Republic of Tanzania
Lake Jipe, along United Republic of Tanzania’s border with Kenya, is an important source of the
Pangani River. As much of 75 % of the lake is infested by invasive aquatic plants, particularly
cattails (Typha domingensis) and papyrus, or bulrush (Cyperus papyrus).
The bright green areas at the waters edge in the 1975 and 2005 images show these invasive plants
covering parts of Lake Jipe. Coverage in 2005 is notably more extensive, especially at the northern
end of the lake. The greyish patch there is evidence that the lake is actually drying up. Research indicates
that if current conditions continue, the lake may dry up completely within the next ten years.
The situation in Lake Jipe is the result of a vicious cycle. Drought reduces water levels in the lake, creating
conditions in which the invasive plants fl ourish. The plants, in turn, encourage siltation and help draw down water
levels even further.
The Pangani River Basin provides water for hydroelectric power plants at Nyumba ya Mungu and Pangani Falls,
which provide at least 20 % of United Republic of Tanzania’s electricity. Increasingly low water levels in Lake
Jipe and elsewhere have the potential to reduce power production. Low water levels have already affected the local
fi shing industry, forcing fi shermen to move south to the Nyumba ya Mungu Dam. Projected water scarcity may also
impact wildlife in Kenya’s Tsavo National Park.

##  United Republic of Tanzania

**Mount Kilimanjaro**

**The upper limit of the forest zone has descended significantly, as nearly 15% of Kilimanjaro’s forest cover has been destroyed by fire since 1976 (1976 image shows the upper limit of the *****Erica excelsa *****forest is shown in yellow box)**

**By 2000 the upper limit had moved noticeably down slope**

**Glaciers on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro have decreased in area by 80% since the early 20th century**

** ****United Republic of Tanzania**

**Notes:**
Mount Kilimanjaro: United Republic of Tanzania
Glaciers on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro have decreased in area by 80 % since the
early 20th century. While glacial retreat globally has been linked with rising air temperatures,
there is evidence that the decline of Kilimanjaro’s glaciers (see inset, above right), along with
changes in the boundaries of vegetation zones on the mountain, may be due in large part to a
more local trend of decreasing precipitation that began in the 1880s.
It has also been found that water from the melting of Mount Kilimanjaro’s glaciers provide little, if any,
water to lower elevation streams, as most ice is lost through sublimation; water from the small amount of melting
evaporates very quickly. A greater impact on the mountain’s hydrology may result from increased burning under
the drier conditions since 1880. The upper limit of the forest zone has descended signifi cantly, as nearly 15
% of Kilimanjaro’s forest cover has been destroyed by fi re since 1976. In the 1976 image above, the upper
limit of the Erica excelsa forest is shown in yellow. By 2000 the upper limit had moved noticeably downslope (red
line) as a result of frequent fi res. Changes in the hydrological and ecological functioning of Kilimanjaro impact a
growing population living on and around the mountain.

## Togolese Republic

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 56 785 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 6 306 000**

**Nearly half of Togo’s land is considered arable, making it one of only two countries in Africa with more than 40% of its land suitable for farming**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Land Degradation and Deforestation
- • Threats to Aquatic Ecosystems
- • Threats to Biodiversity

**3.5 million metric tonnes of phosphate are produced in Togo annually making it the fifth-largest producerin the world**

**Togolese Republic**

## Togolese Republic

**Nangbéto Hydroelectric Dam**

**As demand for electricity grew the decision was made in the 1980s to proceed with the**
**Nangbéto Hydroelectric Dam**

**Satellite images from 1986 and 2001 show the region before and after the dam’s**
**construction**

**Construction of the dam, creation of the reservoir, and installation of transmission lines resulted in the**
**loss of nearly 150 km****2**** of savannahs and gallery-forests that provided habitat for rare local fauna**

**Togolese Republic**

**Notes:**
Nangbéto Hydroelectric Dam: Togolese Republic
A feasibility study in the 1960s identifi ed the Nangbéto region as the best location for
hydroelectric power development in Togo. The site—160 km upstream from the coast—is
the only place where a dam of suffi cient volume to regulate the fl ow of the Mono River was
possible. As demand for electricity grew, the decision was made in the 1980s to proceed with the
Nangbéto Hydroelectric Dam.
Satellite images from 1986 and 2001 show the region before and after the dam’s
construction. The completed dam created a reservoir with a surface area of approximately 180 km2 and a volume of 1 465 million m3. In addition to generating electricity for domestic and commercial use, the
dam also provides water for agricultural irrigation and is a source of commercial fi shing and tourism. However,
these benefi ts have been offset by environmental costs.
Construction of the dam, creation of the reservoir, and installation of transmission lines resulted in the
loss of nearly 150 km2 of savannahs and gallery-forests that provided habitat for rare local fauna. The reservoir
submerged 1 285 households and 5 500 hectares of agricultural land. Loss of the natural vegetation in the region
has altered the climate enough to have had a negative impact on nearly 350 hectares of banana plantations.
The creation of the reservoir has also increased the population of two species of aquatic snails that serve as
intermediate hosts of the parasite that causes the disease bilharzia.

## Republic of Tunisia

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 163 610 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 10 210 000**

**Tunisia’s Cape Blanc (Ra’s al Abyad) is the northernmost tip of Africa**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Land Degradation and Desertification
- • Water Scarcity
- • Air and Water Pollution

**Over 66% of Tunisia is subject to wind**
**erosion with annual transport of sand in a few**
**areas estimated at 50 – 200 metric tonnes per hectare**

**Republic of Tunisia**

## Republic of Tunisia

**Changes in Lake Ichkeul**

**Ichkeul National Park includes Lake Ichkeul and surrounding wetlands that form an important wintering and breeding area for migratory birds**

**Lake Ichkeul is fed by seven small rivers but is considered a lagoon because of its connection with the sea via Lake Bizerte (1987 image)**

**Under favorable rainfall**
**conditions the disappearing *****Potamogeton pectinatus *****started to recover in 2003 reaching 70 km****2**** in 2006 (2005 and 2007 images)**

**Republic of Tunisia**

**Notes:**
Changes in Lake Ichkeul: Tunisia
Ichkeul National Park includes Lake Ichkeul and surrounding wetlands that form an important
wintering and breeding area for migratory birds. It has been designated as a UNESCO Biosphere
Reserve and a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance. Lake Ichkeul is fed by seven small
rivers but is considered a lagoon because of its connection with the sea via Lake Bizerte (1987
image). During the wet season, Ichkeul fi lls with fresh water from these rivers. During the dry
season, the lake’s water level falls, allowing an influx of saltwater from Lake Bizerte. These alternating conditions create an ideal environment for Potamogeton pectinatus (yellow arrows)—a pondweed and
principal food source of migratory birds and waterfowl.
Construction of three dams along rivers that feed Lake Ichkeul modifi ed this fragile ecosystem by decreasing
freshwater infl ow and increasing salinity during the dry seasons of 1977, 2001, and 2002. Two periods of drought
(1993-1995 and 2001-2002) aggravated this trend, leading to a total disappearance of Potamogeton pectinatus from
1994 to 2002. In 2002, a mere 10 000 migratory birds came to Lake Ichkeul, the lowest numbers ever recorded.
The Tunisian government responded by increasing water releases from the dams. Helped by favorable rainfall
conditions, the Potamogeton pectinatus started to recover in 2003, reaching 70 km2 in 2006 (2005 and 2007 images).
Concurrently, migratory birds began returning. In 2004/2005 their numbers had climbed to 30 000.

## Republic of Tunisia

**Habitat Regeneration: Sidi Toui National Park**

**In 1993, Sidi Toui National Park was established within the bounds of which natural vegetation began to return**

**The 1987 image shows the barren condition of the region**
**before the park was created**

**In the 2006 image the outline of the park - which is protected from the effects of grazing cattle - contrasts markedly with the surrounding landscape**

**Republic of Tunisia**

**Notes:**
Habitat Regeneration: Sidi Toui National Park, Tunisia
The semi-arid Sahelian grassland and scrub of southern Tunisia has been profoundly altered by
human activities during the last century. Located on the northern fringe of the Sahara Desert, this
ecosystem is susceptible to erosion and desertifi cation brought on by droughts, overgrazing, and
agriculture. In 1993, Sidi Toui National Park was established. Within the bounds of this protected
area, natural vegetation began to return. The 1987 image shows the barren condition of the region
before the park was created. In the 2006, image the outline of the park, which is protected from the effects of grazing cattle, contrasts markedly with the surrounding landscape. Protection substantially increased
the vegetation density and species diversity, particularly of the grasses.
The Scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) and fi ve other species of gazelles and antelope native to this area had
been brought to near extinction by lack of habitat and overhunting throughout the 20th century. Classifi ed as critically
endangered in 1996, a small population of Scimitar-horned oryx was introduced into Sidi Toui Park in 1999.
If the population inside the park thrives, it may enable future reintroductions of Scimitar-horned oryx elsewhere,
Sidi Toui also provides habitat for several native species of antelope, as well as a variety of birds species.

## Republic of Uganda

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 241 038 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 29 857 000**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Land Degradation and Deforestation
- • Habitat Degradation and Threats to Biodiversity
- • Water Availability and Pollution

**13% of Uganda is covered by wetlands**

**Republic of Uganda**

**Uganda is home to over half of the World’s 720 remaining Mountain Gorilla’s***** ******(Gorilla beringei beringei) - m*****ost of them live in Uganda’s Bwindi Impenetrable National Park**

## Republic of Uganda

**Glacial Recession: Rwenzori Mountains**

**A comparison of satellite images from 1987 and 2005 shows a decrease in the extent of glaciers on Speke, Stanley, and Baker peaks**

**The glaciers declined by 50% between 1987 and 2003**

**A century ago the glaciers of the Rwenzori Mountains covered nearly 6.5 km****2**

**Republic of Uganda**

**If the glaciers continue to**
**recede as they have since 1906 - researchers estimate they will be gone in the next 20 years**

**Notes:**
Glacial Recession: Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda
A comparison of satellite images from 1987 and 2005 shows a decrease in the extent of glaciers
on Speke, Stanley, and Baker peaks in the Rwenzori Mountains, which lie on the equator between
Uganda and Democratic Republic of the Congo, and are a major source of water for the lower
plains like Kasese. Seasonal changes in snow and ice cover prevent simple visual analysis from
conclusively measuring the decline of these glaciers. However, scientific findings from studies in 2003 and 2006 show that the glaciers at the tops of the Rwenzori Mountains are rapidly receding. The glaciers
declined by 50 % between 1987 and 2003.
This glacial recession is generally attributed to increased air temperature and decreased snow accumulation
during the 20th century. It has recently been suggested that decreasing cloud cover during that same time period
has contributed to a higher rate of sublimation (vaporisation of ice without melting) of these glaciers as well.
A century ago the glaciers of the Rwenzori Mountains covered nearly 6.5 km2. If the glaciers continue to
recede, as they have since 1906, researchers estimate they will be gone in the next 20 years.

## Republic of Uganda

**Secondary Forest Growth: Mabira Forest**

**A 1989 study estimated that 29% of Mabira Forest was lost between 1973 and 1988**

**In the 2001 image a large portion of the forest described in 1987 still shows the light green colours of young secondary growth (yellow arrows)**

**The 2006 image shows that this secondary forest still remains largely intact and is maturing**

**Republic of Uganda**

**Notes:**
Secondary Forest Growth: Mabira Forest, Uganda
Mabira Forest, located in one of the Uganda’s most densely populated districts, is the country’s
only protected area of medium-altitude, moist, semi-deciduous forest. The forest contains a
wealth of biodiversity, provides a variety of services to local inhabitants, and is important to the
area’s hydrology. The forest is under intense pressure from timber harvesting, charcoal production,
fuelwood collection, and agricultural encroachment.
A 1989 study estimated that 29 % of Mabira Forest was lost between 1973 and 1988.
The report also noted a signifi cant increase in ecological disturbance in the areas of forest that remained. In the 2001 image, a large portion of the forest described in 1987 still shows the light green colours
of young secondary growth (yellow arrows). The 2006 image shows that this secondary forest still remains largely
intact and is maturing.
The Ugandan government plans to give much of this portion of Mabira Forest to the Sugar Corporation of
Uganda (SCOUL) to expand its sugar plantations. This prospect sparked opposition protests in Kampala, 50 km
to the southwest. While the government argues that the need for economic development justifi es the loss of the
forest, many environmental groups have opposed the move, citing the value lost in biodiversity, ecosystem services,
timber production, eco-tourism, and carbon sequestration credits, which can be traded on the world market.

## Non-Self-Governing Territory of Western Sahara

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 266 000 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 356 000**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Land Use and Food Production
- • Water Resources
- • Marine Fisheries

**Western Sahara has the world’s longest belt conveyor**
**system, which is about 100 km**

**Non-Self-Governing Territory of Western Sahara**

**Western Sahara contains one of world’s richest phosphate deposits. Saharan phosphate is mineral rich and is of great importance for use as fertilizer**

## Non-Self-Governing Territory of Western Sahara

**Phosphate Mining: Bou Craa**

**Since 1974 the Bou Craa mining operation has been growing steadily**

**The conveyor belt is visible as a straight line from the upper left corner toward the centre of the 1987 and 2007 images**

**The conveyor belt is visible in the 2000 image running from the mine to the coast**

**Non-Self-Governing Territory of Western Sahara**

**Note the fringe of drifting sand spreading downward from the belt’s path (yellow arrows)**

**Notes:**
Phosphate Mining: Bou Craa, Western Sahara
The Bou Craa phosphate mine is located 100 km inland from the capital city of El Aaiun.
The Bou Craa area’s phosphate resources were discovered by the Spanish in 1947; phosphate
deposits are near the surface and are very pure. Phosphate mining, however, did not begin
until the 1960s. Since 1974, the Bou Craa mining operation has been growing steadily. In 2000,
the mine covered more than 1 225 hectares. In 2001, its output was approximately 1.5 million
metric tonnes of phosphate.
Morocco controls the area of Western Sahara where the mine is located and jointly operates the mine with
Spanish interests. While the mine amounts to only two or three % of Morocco’s phosphate production, the
reserves are valuable because of the uranium that can be extracted from them.
The phosphate-containing rock is transported from the Bou Craa mine to the port at El Aaiun via a
100-km-long conveyor belt, which can move 2 000 metric tonnes of rock per hour. The conveyor belt is visible as a
straight line from the upper left corner toward the centre of the 1987 and 2007 images above. Below these images
are two long, horizontal images, captured in 1972/1973 and 2000. The conveyor belt is visible in the 2000 image
running from the mine to the coast. Note the fringe of drifting sand spreading downward from the belt’s path
(yellow arrows).

## Republic of Zambia

**Republic of Zambia**

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 752 618 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 11 861 000**

**Kafue is Zambia’s oldest park and largest park, spreading over 22 400 km****2**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Copper Mining and Water and Air Pollution
- • Deforestation and Wildlife Depletion
- • Urbanisation

**45% of Zambia’s population live in urban areas**

## Republic of Zambia

**Natural and Managed Flooding: Kafue Flats**

**Republic of Zambia**

**The Kafue Flats floodplain provides important habitat for rare and endemic species**

**The 1970s image shows Kafue Flats in the dry season with water levels retreating**

**Itezhi-tezhi Dam was built a few years later to provide more storage capacity for electricity generation at the Kafue Gorge Dam**

**The 2007 image shows the Kafue Flats during wet season floods**

**Notes:**
Natural and Managed Flooding: Kafue Flats, Zambia
In southern Zambia, the Kafue River crosses a broad fl oodplain roughly 255 km long. Before the
Itezhi-tezhi Dam was built on the river in 1978, fl ooding beginning in December would cover
much of the plain well into the dry season. Although the dam was built to allow the release of
suffi cient water to cause seasonal fl ooding, this mimicking of the natural fl oods has in general not
been practised.
The Kafue Flats fl oodplain provides important habitat for rare and endemic species, including
the Kafue lechwe (antelope) and wattled crane, and supports local livelihoods, especially cattle-raising and fi shing. Limited seasonal fl ooding following the construction of the dam has been linked to a decline
in fi sh production and in the Kafue lechwe population. The number of lechwe fell from around 90 000 before
the dam was built to around 37 000 in 1998. In 2004, a partnership between World Wildlife Fund, the Zambian
Ministry of Energy and Water Development, and the Zambian Electricity Supply Company put new rules in place
for water releases from the dam to mimic natural fl ooding patterns more successfully.
The 1970s image shows Kafue Flats in the dry season, with water levels retreating. The Kafue Gorge Dam can be
seen in the lower right corner of the image (yellow arrow). Itezhi-tezhi Dam was built a few years later to provide
more storage capacity for electricity generation at the Kafue Gorge Dam. The 2007 image shows the Kafue Flats
during wet season fl oods, helped for the fi rst time by the release of adequate water from the Itezhi-tezhi Dam.

## Republic of Zambia

**Copper Mines: Copperbelt Province**

**Large-scale copper mining began in north-central Zambia’s Copperbelt Province during the**
**1930s**

**Large urban centres, open-pit mines, and areas of deforestation are already apparent in the 1972 image.**

**These urban areas continued their rapid growth resulting in the much larger areas of degraded and deforested**
**woodlands visible in the 2006 image**

**Republic of Zambia**

**Notes:**
Copper Mines: Copperbelt Province, Zambia
Large-scale copper mining began in north-central Zambia’s Copperbelt Province during the
1930s, attracting workers and turning this biologically rich savannah woodland into a heavily
populated area with several large cities. Until the 1960s, the mining industry used wood from
surrounding lands to generate power for the copper mines; this resulted in the clear-cutting of
approximately 127 000 hectares between 1947 and 1956 and selective harvesting of trees in an
area of similar size. The mining industry converted to hydroelectric power in the early 1960s, but
the growing population continued to rely on wood for fuel.
Copper mining began to decline in the 1970s when oil prices rose and copper prices dropped. By the 1990s,
the industry had collapsed, leaving large numbers of workers unemployed. Many of these unemployed miners
turned to small-scale agriculture and charcoal production to make a living, putting additional pressure on the
surrounding woodlands.
Large urban centres, open-pit mines, and areas of deforestation are already apparent in the 1972 image.
These urban areas continued their rapid growth, resulting in the much larger areas of degraded and deforested
woodlands visible in the 2006 image. Record copper prices in recent years have revived the area’s copper industry.
Copper accounted for an average of 67 % of Zambia’s annual total export receipts between 2002 and 2005.

## Republic of Zimbabwe

**Republic of Zimbabwe**

**Facts and Figures**

**Total Surface Area: 390 757 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 13 085 000**

**Zimbabwe’s population of the critically endangered**
**black rhinoceros has grown from 370 in 1993 to around**
**500 now**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Land Degradation and Deforestation
- • Water Access and Drought
- • Wildlife Poaching and the Black Rhinoceros

**45.3% of Zimbabwe is covered by forest**

## Republic of Zimbabwe

**Invasive Plants in Lake Chivero**

**One year after Lake Chivero was created in 1952 water hyacinth made its first appearance**

**By 1989 water hyacinth covered 20% of the lake’s surface (yellow arrows on 1989 image)**

**By 1997 it appeared that water hyacinth had been brought under control (2000 image yellow arrows)**

**By 2005 the invasive plants had returned again reportedly covering as much as 40% of the lake**

**Republic of Zimbabwe**

**Notes:**
Invasive Plants: Lake Chivero, Zimbabwe
In 1952, the Manyame River was dammed 40 km southwest of Harare, creating Lake Chivero.
The Lake was intended primarily as a water supply for Harare, but it is also a source of water for
irrigation and industry and serves as a local fi shery.
One year after Lake Chivero was created, water hyacinth, an invasive wetland plant, made
its fi rst appearance, as a result of the infl ux of nutrients from nearby agricultural lands and
municipal and industrial wastes from Harare. In 1955/1956, the fi rst serious water hyacinth
outbreak occurred and was successfully treated with chemical herbicides. The next outbreak in 1971/1972 covered approximately 25 % of the lake. Attempts to end a third outbreak in 1986 used
mechanical and chemical controls until public concern about the chemicals brought an end to their use. By 1989,
water hyacinth covered 20 % of the lake’s surface (1989 image, yellow arrows); by 1990, it covered 35 per
cent. Weevils that feed on water hyacinth were released as a biological control; mechanical and new chemical
controls continued. By 1997, it appeared that water hyacinth had been brought under control (2000 image, yellow
arrows). By 2005, however, the invasive plants had returned again, reportedly covering as much as 40 % of
the lake. In addition to water hyacinth, this most recent infestation includes massive amounts of another invasive
plant, spaghetti weed (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides).

## Republic of Zimbabwe

**Agriculture Changes: Mashonaland**

**These satellite images show the subdivision of several large commercial farms into smaller farms in a region of Mashonaland Central Province**

**In the August 2001 image, many large farm fields can be seen as large blocks of bright green**

**By August 2005 many of these same farms have been broken into smaller fields**
**(yellow arrows)**

**Republic of Zimbabwe**

**Notes:**
Agriculture Changes: Mashonaland, Zimbabwe
Located in Northern Zimbabwe, Mashonaland Central is a province with a growing population of
over one million people. It is in one of the most productive agricultural areas in the country, with
maize, a staple in Zimbabwe, as a major crop.
Four different land tenure systems exist in Zimbabwe: communal areas, resettlement
areas, large-scale commercial farms, and small-scale commercial farms. In the last decade, the
Government of Zimbabwe embarked on an ambitious land reform process that was aimed at
redistribution of land, particularly the large scale commercial farms, to previously landless citizens living in communal areas. This land redistribution effort has had the effect of subdividing previously large
commercial parcels into much smaller parcels predominated by subsistence agriculture. This subdivision, coupled
with adverse weather conditions, constrained capacities for input acquisition (seeds and fertilizers), and lack of
appropriate machinery, is blamed for a drop in food production in Zimbabwe.
The satellite images above show the subdivision of several large commercial farms into smaller farms in a
region of Mashonaland Central Province. In the August 2001 image, many large farm fi elds can be seen as large
blocks of bright green. By August 2005, many of these same farms have been broken into smaller fi elds
(yellow arrows).

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