# Presentation: 080703

##  CAP Mission AircrewObserver Course Rev. 0 (Mar04)

** ****CAP Mission Aircrew****Observer Course**** ****Rev. 0 (Mar04)**

## Introduction

**Administrative Items**

**Notes:**
Introduce Instructors - length of time in CAP, aviation experience 
Have class introduce themselves - length of time in CAP, aviation experience 
Administrative Items
Test is open book, passing score 80%

## Mission Observer Requirements

**Trainee**
**Qualified General Emergency Services (GES)**
**Qualified as Mission Scanner**
**At least 18 years of age (minimum; should be mature)**
**101T-MO familiarization and preparatory training**
**Commanders authorization**
**Qualification**
**101T-MO requirements**
**Complete Basic Communications User Training and Task L-001**
**Exercise participation (two separate missions)**
**Unit certification and recommendation**

**Notes:**
 From 101T-MO

## CAPR 60-series Review

**CAPR 60-series Review**

## Primary Responsibility during searches: Visual Search
Report for briefings
Assist in planning – may be mission commander
Check necessary equipment aboard (checklists)
Assist in avoiding obstacles during taxiing
Assist in setting up and operating radios
Assist in setting up and operating nav equipment
Maintain situational awareness
Assist in monitoring fuel status

**Report for briefings**
**Assist in planning – may be mission commander**
**Check necessary equipment aboard (checklists)**
**Assist in avoiding obstacles during taxiing**
**Assist in setting up and operating radios**
**Assist in setting up and operating nav equipment**
**Maintain situational awareness**
**Assist in monitoring fuel status**

**Observer Duties & Responsibilities**

**Notes:**
1.2
Objective 1.2 – Demonstrate knowledge of mission observer duties and responsibilities
This slide shows the added responsibilities of the observer, for comparison.  May be skipped if Scanner is being taught as a stand-alone course.

## Observer Duties & Responsibilities(continued)

**Assist enforcing the sterile cockpit rules**
**Assist pilot during searches, particularly ELT**
**Keep mission base/high bird appraised of status**
**Coordinate scanner assignments, schedule breaks, monitor crew for fatigue & dehydration**
**Maintain observer’s log**
**Report for debriefing**
**Assist with ****all**** post-mission paperwork **
**Keep track of assigned equipment and supplies**

**Notes:**
1.1
Objective 1.2 – Demonstrate knowledge of mission observer duties and responsibilities

## Observers Log

**Provides a record of**
**	****the flight**
**Preflight calculations**
**Record of observations**
**Basis for debriefing**
**Used to complete CAPF 104**
**Information is forwarded to mission staff to guide mission management**
**Good logs can be combined from several sorties to give the mission staff a better picture of how the search is going**

**Notes:**
There are many forms of log sheets.  Ask others what they use.  A log can record check points, headings, distance, speed, ETE, ETA, ATA, fuel, time, observations, conditions.
Can be purchased from the CAP Supply Depot (Scanner/Observer Log)

## Forms

**CAPF 100**
**CAPF 101**
**CAPF 101Ts**
**CAPF 104**
**CAPF 108**

## CAPF 104Mission Briefing/Debriefing(Front)

**Notes:**
Covered in detail in Chapter 13, Step Through a Typical  Mission

## CAPF 104(Reverse)

**Notes:**
Covered in detail in Chapter 13, Step Through a Typical Mission

## FAA Flight Plan

**FAA Form 7233-1**

**CPF 4239**

**N99545, CAP Flight**

**Notes:**
CAPR 60-1 2-1.g requires this be filed for any cross-country flight over 50 NM except where CAPF 104 or CAPF 84 flight plan forms are used.
Filed with FAA to record your intended flight and will start a search if you don’t arrive/return.
Observer may need to fill this out for some non-mission sorties.
BE SURE TO CLOSE YOUR FLIGHT PLAN WITH FAA.

## Flight Plans and Forms Summary

**Forms are important!**
**Complete, accurate and legible**
**Label attachments**
*** ******You*****  implement the CAP mission**
**Know the source regulations**
**CAPR 60-1 (flying operations)**
**CAPR 60-3**
**CAPR 60-4**
**MOUs**

**Notes:**
The job’s not done until the paperwork is complete.

## Records for your Aircrew File(Optional but Recommended)

**Current CAP Membership card**
**Current CAP 101 card**
**Current CPR, Basic Care, Bloodborne Pathogens cards**
**CAP Communications certificate (CAPF 76, if held)**
**Award of Aeronautical Rating (CAPF 2a)**
**Emergency Notification Data (CAPF 60)**
**Total Scanner/Observer hours (photocopy from your  logbook)**

**Notes:**
Highly recommended

## Remember to check the credentials of non-CAP passengers (center)

## Communications (Chapter 4)

## Throughout these slides, each objective is followed by:
The mission specialty rating to which the objective applies (S = Scanner; O = Observer; P = Pilot)
The section in the Aircrew Reference Text where the answer to the objective may be found

**The mission specialty rating to which the objective applies (S = Scanner; O = Observer; P = Pilot)**
**The section in the *****Aircrew Reference Text***** where the answer to the objective may be found**

**Objectives**

## Describe how to use the Audio Panel and FM radio. {O & P; 4.1.2 & 4.1.3}
Describe how to recognize a stuck mike, and corrective actions. {O; 4.1.5}
Discuss CAP FM radio reports {O & P; 4.1.6}
List the minimum required reports
Discuss in-flight services {O; 4.3}
Flight Service Station (FSS) purpose and how to contact
ATIS information and how to obtain it
AWOS/ASOS information and how to obtain it
The importance of PIREP’s

**Describe how to recognize a stuck mike, and corrective actions. {O; 4.1.5}**
**Discuss CAP FM radio reports {O & P; 4.1.6}**
**List the minimum required reports**
**Discuss in-flight services {O; 4.3}**
**Flight Service Station (FSS) purpose and how to contact**
**ATIS information and how to obtain it**
**AWOS/ASOS information and how to obtain it**
**The importance of PIREP’s**

**Objectives**

## Using the Audio Panel

**On/Off, Volume control**
**Mic Selector switch and receiver switches**
**Split mode**
**Swap mode**
**Intercom mode**

**Notes:**
4.1.2 (Aircrew Reference Text section)
Objective 4.2 – Describe how to use the Audio Panel and FM Radio.
Cover basic operations.

## Audio Panel

**Transmitter combinations**

**Intercom**
**modes**

## Using the FM Radio

**Main and Guard (squelch is automatic)**
**Normal settings:**
**MN**
**G1**
**HI**
**4 or 6 to scroll through frequencies**
**5 Scan (if enabled)**
**2 (increase brightness) and 8 (decrease brightness)**

**Notes:**
4.1.3
Objective 4.2 – Describe how to use the Audio Panel and FM Radio.
Programmed by comm officers only.  Cover normal switch positions.  Frequencies assigned at briefing.

## Using the FM Radio

**Volume controls (Guard is receive only)**
**Main usually set to ‘004’ (Air-to-Ground – 149.5375 MHz)**
**Normally G1 (Air-to-Ground) [G2 is Primary – 148.15 MHz]**
**If base wants to call you, you will hear them no matter what (Main) frequency you’re on**
**Just take MN/GD switch to GD, answer, then back to MN**

**Notes:**
4.1.2 (Aircrew Reference Text section)
Objective 4.2 – Describe how to use the Audio Panel and FM Radio.
Cover basic operations.

## Stuck Mike

**Can block transmissions**
**Indications:**
**The ‘****T****’ symbol remains illuminated**
**The transmit (TX) LED on the PMA7000M-S is on continuously**
**You don’t receive a reply to your transmission**
**Difference in radio background noise**
**Try re-keying the microphone or turning the radio off and then back on**

**Notes:**
4.1.7
Objective 4.7 – Describe how to recognize a stuck mike, and corrective actions.

## FM Radio Reports

**Radio check (initial flight of the day)**
***Minimum***** required reports:**
**Take-off time (wheels up)**
**Time entering search area**
**Time exiting search area**
**Landing time (wheels down)**
**Operations normal (Ops Normal) reports**
**Defined during briefing, usually every one-half hour**

**Notes:**
4.1.8
Objective 4.8 – Discuss CAP FM radio reports, and list the minimum required reports.

## COMMUNICATIONS

**The radio is the primary link to the ATC system**
**The most important part of pilot-controller communications is understanding**
**Brevity is important**
**Professionalism is important; it enhances safety and brings you better service**

## TECHNIQUE

**Check for proper frequency**
**Check volume**
**Mentally compose message before transmitting**
***Listen before transmitting***
**Key mike, pause briefly before talking**

**Notes:**
This takes practice, practice, practice!

## MESSAGE FORMAT

** ****Who*****Who you are calling*****Who you are**
** ****Where*****Your location**
** ****What*****Your request**

## CAP Aircraft Callsigns

**CAP has the FAA authorized callsign “****CAP Flight****”**
**FAA callsigns are stated in ‘group’ form**
**CPF 4239 is stated as “****CAP Flight  **_**Forty-Two**_** **_**Thirty-Nine**_**”**
**AIM 4-2-4.a.5 and FAA 7110.65**

**Notes:**
4.1.1
Objective 4.1.d – Pronouncing the CAP callsign (group format).
Emphasize! Important to sound professional to ATC

## CAP AIRCRAFT CALLSIGNS

** ****CAP aircraft should only use the word “****Rescue****” in their callsign when priority handling is critical**
**“****CAP Flight Forty-Two Thirty-Nine ****Rescue****” **
** ****DO NOT abuse this!**

## In-Flight Services - FSS

**Flight Service Stations (FSS) provide weather information before and after takeoff**
**Some FSS provide transcribed weather briefings**
**FSS can provide assistance to a  pilot who has temporarily misplaced himself (i.e., he’s lost)**
**FSS having voice services on VOR or NDB broadcast at 15 minutes after the hour**
**Weather reports and advisories**
**Pilot and radar reports**
**Alerts and Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)**

**Notes:**
4.3
Objective 4.11 – Discuss in-flight services: FSS purpose and how to contact; ATIS information and how to obtain it; AWOS/ASOS information and how to obtain it; the importance of PIREPS.

## In-Flight Services - ATIS

**Broadcast continuously (taped)**
**Actual weather information, updated ****hourly**** or when special conditions warrant**
**Frequency found on sectional or in A/FD**

**Notes:**
ATIS can be up to one hour old; if windy, visibility is low, etc. ask Tower for current conditions.

## In-Flight Services -  AWOS

**Automated Weather Observation System**
**On sectional by airport name**
**Transmitted UHF or on navaid**
**Real time information includes:**
**Location and time**
**Wind speed, direction and gusts**
**Temperature and dew point**
**Altimeter setting**
**Density altitude when it exceeds field elevation by 1000’**
**Can go to **_**[www.anyAWOS.com](http://www.anyawos.com/)**__** or call 800-any-awos**_

## In-Flight Services -  ASOS

**Automated Surface Observing System**
**On sectional by airport name**
**Transmitted VHF or on navaid; also telephone**
**Real time information may include:**
**Location and time**
**Wind speed, direction and gusts**
**Visibility and cloud height**
**Temperature and dew point**
**Altimeter setting**
**Density altitude when it exceeds field elevation by 1000’**

## In-Flight Services – PIREP’s

**Pilot Weather Reports**
**Very useful to other pilots**
**Information should include:**
**Type of aircraft (Cessna 172)**
**Location (usually in relation to a VOR)**
**Cloud bases, tops and layers**
**Flight visibility**
**Precipitation**
**Visibility restrictions (e.g., smoke, haze and dust)**
**Temperature and wind**

## QUESTIONS?

## Weather(Chapter 6)

**Notes:**

VMC = Visual Meteorological Conditions
VFR = Visual Flight Rules
IMC = Instrument Meteorological Conditions
IFR = Instrument Flight Rules

## Discuss how convection currents affect aircraft glide path. {O; 6.1.3}
Discuss wind patterns around high- and low-pressure areas. {O; 6.1.5}
Define “freezing level” and “lapse rate”	        {O; 6.2.1}
Discuss airframe icing and its affect on aircraft performance. {O; 6.2.2}
Discuss carburetor icing and its affect on aircraft performance. {O; 6.2.3}

**Discuss wind patterns around high- and low-pressure areas. {O; 6.1.5}**
**Define “freezing level” and “lapse rate”****	****        {O; 6.2.1}**
**Discuss airframe icing and its affect on aircraft performance. {O; 6.2.2}**
**Discuss carburetor icing and its affect on aircraft performance. {O; 6.2.3}**

**Objectives**

## Discuss the characteristics of cold, unstable air masses and warm, stable air masses. {O; 6.3}
Concerning reduced visibility conditions, state the minimums for: {O; 6.4}
VFR visibility
Cloud bases when they cover one-half the sky
How far aircraft must remain below cloud cover
Discuss the dangers of windshear. {O; 6.6}
Describe the ‘stages’ of a typical thunderstorm and discuss the dangers of flying too close.      {O; 6.7}

**Concerning reduced visibility conditions, state the minimums for: {O; 6.4}**
**VFR visibility**
**Cloud bases when they cover one-half the sky**
**How far aircraft must remain below cloud cover**
**Discuss the dangers of windshear. {O; 6.6}**
**Describe the ‘stages’ of a typical thunderstorm and discuss the dangers of flying too close.      {O; 6.7}**

**Objectives (con’t)**

## The most important aspect of weather is its impact on flight conditions
Safety is paramount
Navigation — Visual verses Instruments
Effects on Search
Prevailing visibility
Search visibility
Search patterns and altitudes
Information — National Weather Service, Flight Service Stations, Flight Watch, PIREP’s

**Safety is **_**paramount**_
**Navigation — Visual verses Instruments**
**Effects on Search**
**Prevailing visibility**
**Search visibility**
**Search patterns and altitudes**
**Information — National Weather Service, Flight Service Stations, Flight Watch, PIREP’s**

**Weather**

## Weather — Circulation

**Notes:**
Air circulation is caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface. The earth receives more heat at the equator than at the poles. Heated air rises from the equator and moves towards the poles. Colder, denser air at the poles moves towards the equator, establishing a constant circulation that might consist of two circular paths. This theoretical pattern is modified by many forces, a very important one being the rotation of the earth. This slide shows how air would circulate if the earth did not rotate.

## Weather — Circulation

**The earth rotates**
**Air moving north is pulled toward the east**
**This builds a high pressure belt about 30 degrees latitude**
**The northerly air flow cools and starts southward**
**These large circulations are responsible for mixing the air and most weather**

**Notes:**
In the Northern Hemisphere, the earth's rotation, or Coriolis Force, causes the air to deflect to the right. As heated air rises from the equator and moves north towards the pole, it deflects to the east, and by the time it has traveled a third of the way to the pole, it is no longer moving northward, but eastward. This causes the air to accumulate in a belt at about 30 north latitude, creating an area of high pressure. A portion of the air aloft continues northward, being cooled en route and finally settles down near the pole and begins a return trip to the equator. Further complications in the general circulation of the air are brought about by the irregular distribution of oceans and continents, the daily variation in temperature and many other factors. These large circulations are responsible for mixing the air and most of our weather.
The southwest region is at approximately 30 degrees, so this area can experience extremely dangerous weather

## Circulation Around a High

**Notes:**
6.1.5
Objective 6.2 – Discuss wind patterns around high- and low-pressure areas.
Pressure is the force exerted per unit area on a surface by the weight of air above it.  Aircraft take advantage of known wind patterns to minimize flight times.
Circulation patterns are reversed in the southern hemisphere.

## Circulation Around a Low

**Notes:**
Imagine the wind pattern in your area as one of these pressure systems approach, pass over, and pass on.

## Upward Convection Currents

**Terrain which heats up creates updrafts**
**Updrafts tend to keep you from descending**
**Normally where there are updrafts there are also downdrafts**

**ROCKY TERRAIN      PLOUGHED GROUND    PAVED ROAD**

- NORMAL GLIDE PATH

- EFFECT OF CONVECTION CURRENTS

**Notes:**
6.1.3
Objective 6.1 – Discuss how convection currents affect aircraft glide path.
Caused by the heating and cooling of different surfaces. Rocky terrain, plowed fields, pavement, and barren areas radiate a great deal of heat and cause upward convection currents. Convection currents explain the bumpiness sometimes encountered at low altitudes. Pilots can invariably find smoother air above the cloud layer.

## Downward Convection Currents

**Terrain which remains cool up creates downdrafts**
**Downdrafts cause you to descend**

**Notes:**
Water and vegetation (planted fields, golf courses) tend to absorb and retain heat, causing downward convection currents.

Terrain which remains cool up creates downdrafts  ?  Should “up” be removed ?

## As altitude increases the temperature decreases at a fairly uniform rate of 3.6 degrees F per 1000 feet; this is known as lapse rate
Use this on hot days to determine how high you should climb to get to a comfortable temperature

At some altitude the air temperature reaches the freezing temperature of water; the freezing level

**Use this on hot days to determine how high you should climb to get to a comfortable temperature**
**At some altitude the air temperature reaches the freezing temperature of water; the *****freezing level***

**Terms**

**Notes:**
6.2.1
Objective 6.3 – Define lapse rate and freezing level.

## Icing

**Frost**
**Snow**
**Icing**
**Airframe**
**   ****(lift & weight)**
**Carburetor**

- Lift

- Thrust

- Decreases

- W

- eight

- Increases

- Decreases

- Drag

- Increases

**Notes:**
6.2.2 & 6.2.3
Objective 6.4 – Discuss airframe icing and its affects on aircraft performance.
Objective 6.5 -  Discuss carburetor icing and its affects on aircraft performance.
Ice is a major problem in aviation. It is difficult to forecast because under seemingly identical situations the icing intensity on the aircraft can vary considerably. Experiments have shown that as little as one half-inch of ice accumulation on the leading edge of some airfoils in use today can reduce their lift by about 50%.
There are two requirements for ice to form: 1) the aircraft must be flying through visible water in the form of rain or cloud droplet, 2) when the liquid water droplets strike, their temperature, or the temperature of the airfoil surface must be at or below 32
Types of ice - Clear ice (glaze), is a transparent coating of ice which has a glassy appearance and looks similar to ice that forms on trees and other surfaces after a freezing rain has fallen.  Rime ice is a white or milky, opaque, granular deposit which forms on aircraft surfaces. The net result of either type of ice is increased weight and drag and decreased lift and thrust.  Carburetor ice can form in clear air, in the areas of low pressure inside a carburetor. In the summer this can occur at altitudes below 10,000 ft. while flying in air which is above 32 F. 
Good Operating Practices  Plan flights to avoid area of icing or minimize time in these areas.  Caution should be exercised when flying through rain or wet snow with temperature levels at flight levels near freezing.  Maintain 4,000 to 5,000ft clearance above the crest of ridges or mountains if flying into clouds at freezing temperatures.  Watch for ice when flying through cumulus clouds with the temperature level near freezing.  When ice forms on the aircraft, avoid maneuvers that will increase the wing loading.  Remember that fuel consumption will increase due to increased drag and additional power required. Consult the latest forecasts for expected icing conditions.
FAR’s state there should be no frost, ice or snow on the aircraft prior to flight
Lapse rate is 2 degrees Celsius or 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit.
Significant weight added: 1/4” = 150 lbs., 1⁄2” = 300 lbs., 1” = 600 lbs.

## Causes of Frontal Activity

**DRY AIR**

**COLD POLAR AIR**

**TROPICAL MOIST AIR**

**Notes:**
Large, high pressure systems frequently stagnate over large areas of land or water with relatively uniform surface conditions. They take on the characteristics of these source regions, cold polar air, moisture of the oceans, heat of the tropics and dryness of continents. If the air is colder than the surface, it will be warmed from below, causing convection currents, which rise and take with them dust, smoke and other atmospheric pollutants, improving visibility at the surface. These air masses are 'unstable'. If the air is warmer than the surface, there is no tendency for convection currents to form, trapping dust, and other pollutants near the surface, resulting in poor visibility. These air masses are considered 'stable'.
Boundaries between air masses are called “frontal zones” or “fronts” where the mixing air generates active weather conditions.

## Warm Front

**Notes:**
6.3
Objective 6.6 – Discuss the characteristics of cold, unstable cold air masses and warm, stable air masses.
Warm air slides up over colder air. As the warm, moist air advances over the colder air ahead of it, it is lifted and cooled causing the formation of stratus clouds. As the lifting process continues, rain and drizzle develop. These conditions extend for hundreds of miles ahead of the front. Warm fronts are generally slow moving, 10-25 mph. Flying towards the front, lowering ceilings and visibility would be encountered. If flying west, the ceiling will decrease and rain will intensify.
Nimbo = rain
Status = layer
Alto = high
Cirro = ice

## Cold Front

**Notes:**
Cold air plows underneath the warmer air ahead of it.  As it advances, the warm moist air rises quickly, producing cloud types that depend on the stability of the air. With a fast moving cold front, friction retards the front near the ground, causing a steep frontal surface. The results in a narrower band of weather concentrated along the forward edge of the front. If the warm air is stable, an overcast sky may occur for some distance ahead of the front, accompanied by general rain. If the air is conditionally unstable, scattered thunderstorms and showers may form in the warm air. Behind the fast moving cold front there is usually rapid clearing , with gusty and turbulent surface winds and colder temperatures.
Cumulo = towering
Flying across a cold front with thunderstorms is often possible at very high altitudes because the pilot can see them.  At lower altitudes, the thunderstorm may be embedded in other clouds.

## Occluded Front

**Notes:**
Occluded Front occurs when an air mass is caught between two colder air masses. The warmer air is forced aloft to higher and higher levels until if finally spreads out and loses its identity. As far as the pilot is concerned, the weather encountered with an occlusion is a combination of warm front and cold front conditions. Initially, warm front conditions prevail, with lowering ceilings, visibility and precipitation, followed almost immediately by cold front conditions with squalls, turbulence and thunderstorms.

## Reduced Visibility

**Under *****almost all***** circumstances, VFR daytime flight requires:**
**At least three miles visibility**
**When clouds cover more than one-half the sky, cloud bases must be no lower than 1,000 ft. AGL**
**Search aircraft must usually remain at least 500 ft. below the cloud deck**
**There are exceptions: ask your PIC**

**Notes:**
6.4
Objective 6.7 – Concerning reduced visibility conditions, state the minimums for: visibility, under visual flight rules; cloud bases when clouds cover over one-half the sky; how far aircraft must remain below cloud cover.

## Reduced Visibility

**Fog**
**Haze**
**Snow**
**White out**
**Blowing dust**
**Affected by sun angle and direction**
**Aircrew must increase vigilance during these conditions**

**Notes:**
Fog is comprised of water droplets suspended in the air. Expect fog anytime the temperature and dew point are within 2F of each other in weather observations. Fog can severely reduce visibility and therefore constitute a serious hazard to aircraft.
Snow is another form of precipitation that presents unique problems. A whiteout is an optical phenomena that can occur with snow covered ground, and a low level cloud deck in certain low light conditions. As sunlight is diffused through the clouds, it reflects off the snow in various directions. The net result is the loss of any reference to horizon and lack of depth perception.

## Turbulence

**Planning flight around high terrain requires special care**
**Wind currents on the downwind side can be very strong**
**Ridges and peaks should be cleared by at least 2000 feet**

- Wind

- Flight Path

- 2000 ft.

## Wind Shear

**Thunderstorms**
**Fronts - wind shear may advance as far as 15 nm**
**Air flow around obstacles**

- Windward

**Notes:**
Thunderstorms - any storm accompanied by thunder and lightning. They commonly form along cold fronts. Require warm, moist air that is lifted. Thunderstorms are rarely larger than 10 miles in diameter.  Should stay at least 20 miles away from a thunderstorm.
Windshear can precede the actual storm up to 15 miles.
Downdraft from thunderstorm strikes the ground and moves outward in a radius.  These may be visible as dust rings or arcs in dry areas.
Wind shear appears to a given location as a sharp, distinct change in wind speed and or direction.

## Wind Shear

**Two potentially hazardous situations, dangerous mainly during landing:**
**Tailwind turns calm or to a headwind**
**Headwind turns calm or to a tailwind**
**Pilot must adjust quickly**

**Notes:**
6.6
Objective 6.10 – Discuss the dangers of windshear.

## Weather — Thunderstorms 

**Cumulus Stage**

**Mature Stage**

**Dissipating Stage**

**Notes:**
6.7
Objective 6.11 – Describe the stages of a typical thunderstorm and discuss the dangers of flying too close.
Cumulus stage - Characterized by strong updrafts, and cumulus to cumulonimbus cloud formation
Mature Stage - Characterized by falling precipitation and mixture of updrafts and downdrafts.
Dissipating Stage - Downdrafts dominate, without supply of moisture, cloud evaporates, cloud develops characteristic anvil shape
Downwind hazards include clear air hail and turbulence.

## Radio Services

**Flight Service Station (FSS)**
**Flight Watch (122.0)**
**Automatic Terminal Information Service(ATIS)**
**Transcribed weather broadcasts (TWEB)**
**Scheduled weather broadcasts**
**Fifteen minutes after the hour**
**Alerts, hourly weather, Advisory, Pilot Reports, Radar**
**Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP)**

**Notes:**
TWEB - Continuous broadcast over VOR and NDB frequencies
In the case of severe weather, if a pirep is made, it is broadcast within 150 miles of the affected area.

## QUESTIONS?

## High Altitude and Terrain Considerations(Chapter 7)

## Concerning atmospheric pressure: {O; 7.1}
State the pressure at sea level, and describe how to compensate for ‘other-than-sea level pressures’ when setting the altimeter
Discuss the three factors that affect the density of an air mass.
Define density altitude
State the phases of flight affected by a decrease in atmospheric pressure, and how aircraft performance is affected. {O; 7.2}

**State the pressure at sea level, and describe how to compensate for ‘other-than-sea level pressures’ when setting the altimeter**
**Discuss the three factors that affect the density of an air mass.**
**Define density altitude**
**State the phases of flight affected by a decrease in atmospheric pressure, and how aircraft performance is affected. ****{O; 7.2}**

**Objectives**

## Discuss strategies to compensate for high DA during searches. {O; 7.2.1}
Discuss mountainous terrain precautions and strategies. {O; 7.4}

**Discuss mountainous terrain precautions and strategies. {O; 7.4}**

**Objectives**

## A barometer is used to register changes in pressure; measured in inches of mercury
Standard sea-level pressure and temperature:
29.92 inches of mercury
59 degrees F (15 degrees C)
A change of 1000 feet in elevation makes a change of about one inch
To correct for local elevation, set altimeter to latest reading (ATIS/AWOS/ASOS/FSS) or enter field elevation

**Standard sea-level pressure and temperature:**
**29.92 inches of mercury**
**59 degrees F (15 degrees C)**
**A change of 1000 feet in elevation makes a change of about one inch**
**To correct for local elevation, set altimeter to latest reading (ATIS/AWOS/ASOS/FSS) or enter field elevation**

**Atmospheric Pressure**

**Notes:**
7.1
Objective 7.1 – Demonstrate knowledge of atmospheric pressure: state the pressure at sea level, and describe how to compensate for ‘other-than-sea-level pressures’ when setting the altimeter.

## Three factors:
Pressure
Temperature
Humidity
Altitude and pressure combined to determine pressure altitude
Add non-standard temperature to get density altitude
Pilots calculate (next slides) or can get on ASOS

**Pressure**
**Temperature**
**Humidity**
**Altitude and pressure combined to determine *****pressure altitude***
**Add non-standard temperature to get ****density altitude**
**Pilots calculate (next slides) or can get on ASOS**

**Density Altitude**

**Notes:**
7.1
Objective 7.1 – Discuss the three factors that affect the density of an air mass; Define density altitude, and compute density altitude for a given situation using a chart and a flight calculator.

## Density Altitude

**Notes:**
7.1
Objective 7.1 – Compute density altitude for a given situation using a chart

## Flight Computer

**Circular slide rule**
**Density altitude**
**Nautical to statute miles**
**True airspeed**
**Other stuff**

**Notes:**
7.1
Objective 7.1 – Compute density altitude for a given situation using a flight computer

## Density altitude and aircraft weight have a tremendous effect on aircraft performance
Both must be accurately calculated, especially for mountain flying missions

**Both must be accurately calculated, especially for mountain flying missions**

**Aircraft Performance**

**Notes:**
7.2
Objective 7.2 – State the phases of flight affected by a decrease in atmospheric pressure, and how aircraft performance is

## As altitude increases pressure decreases; this decrease can have a pronounced effect on flight:
Engine (hp) and prop are less efficient
Take off distance, climb rate, and landing distance effected
Take off distance almost doubles with a 5000 foot elevation increase
Rate of climb slows with higher elevation
Landing distance increases with higher elevation
Higher Humidity, Heat or Height result in reduced aircraft performance

**E****ngine (hp) and prop are less efficient**
**Take off distance, climb rate, and landing distance effected**
**Take off distance almost doubles with a 5000 foot elevation increase**
**Rate of climb slows with higher elevation**
**Landing distance increases with higher elevation**
***Higher Humidity, Heat or Height***** result in reduced aircraft performance**

**Pressure vs. Performance**

## Reduced Performance

## Don’t fly at high elevation during the hottest part of the day
Carefully calculate DA and weight
Reduce load:
Less fuel
Crew of three instead of four
Less baggage
Remember “High to Low, Look out Below” (update altimeter setting hourly)
If you fly in the mountains, take the Mountain Fury Course

***Carefully***** calculate DA and weight**
**Reduce load:**
**Less fuel**
**Crew of three instead of four**
**Less baggage**
**Remember “High to Low, Look out Below” ****(update altimeter setting hourly)**
**If you fly in the mountains, take the *****Mountain Fury***** Course**

**Strategies**

**Notes:**
7.2.1
Objective 7.3 – Discuss strategies to compensate for high DA during searches.
Briefly discuss “High to Low, Look out Below”

## Flight Near Mountainous Terrain

**Crews must be constantly careful that the search never takes them over terrain that rises faster than the airplane can climb.  Narrow valleys or canyons that have rising floors must be avoided, unless the aircraft can be flown from the end of higher elevation to the lower end, or the pilot is *****certain *****that the aircraft can climb faster than the terrain rises.  Careful chart study by the crew prior to flight will help identify this dangerous terrain. **
**If you fly in the mountains, take the *****Mountain Fury***** Course**

**Notes:**
7.4
Objective 7.6 – Discuss mountainous terrain precautions and strategies.
Approach ridges at a 45 degree angle.  Cross at least 2,000 ft. above.

## Flight Near Mountainous Terrain

**Notes:**
7.4
Objective 7.6 – Discuss mountainous terrain precautions and strategies.
Approach ridges at a 45 degree angle.  Cross at least 2,000 ft. above.

## Flight Near Mountainous Terrain

**Notes:**
Enter terrain from above and always have an escape route in mind.

## Flight Near Mountainous Terrain

**Notes:**
Take the Mountain Fury course.

## QUESTIONS?

## Navigation and Position Determination(Chapter 8)

## Discuss considerations for operating near controlled airports, and identify them on a sectional. {O; 8.4}
Discuss the following special use airspaces, and identify them on a sectional:
Prohibited and Restricted Areas {O; 8.4.1}
Military operating areas and training routes {O; 8.4.2}
Discuss the use and limitations of the following:
ADF {O; 8.1}
VOR {O; 8.2}
DME {O; 8.3}
GPS {O; 8.5}

**Discuss the following special use airspaces, and identify them on a sectional:**
**Prohibited and Restricted Areas**** {O; 8.4.1}**
**Military operating areas and training routes**** {O; 8.4.2}**
**Discuss the use and limitations of the following:**
**ADF**** {O; 8.1}**
**VOR**** {O; 8.2}**
**DME**** {O; 8.3}**
**GPS**** {O; 8.5}**

**Objectives**

## Given a sectional chart, a plotter, and two airports:         {O; 8.8.1}
Plot the course
Identify check points along the route
Calculate how long it should take to get from one airport to the other, flying at 100 kts with no wind
Given Attachment E of the U.S. National SAR Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime SAR Manual, grid a sectional. {O & P; 8.10.1 and Attachment 1}
Given coordinates and a sectional, use the Standardized Latitude and Longitude Gird System to draw a search grid. {O & P; 8.11}

**Plot the course**
**Identify check points along the route**
**Calculate how long it should take to get from one airport to the other, flying at 100 kts with no wind**
**Given Attachment E of the *****U.S. National SAR Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime SAR Manual*****, grid a sectional. {O & P; 8.10.1 and Attachment 1}**
**Given coordinates and a sectional, use the Standardized Latitude and Longitude Gird System to draw a search grid. {O & P; 8.11}**

**Objectives (Con’t)**

## BAK North

**Notes:**
8.4
Objective 8.3 – Discuss considerations for operating near controlled airports, and identify them on a sectional.

## BAK South

**Notes:**
8.4.1 & 8.4.2
Objective 8.4 – Discuss the following SUA, and identify them on a sectional: prohibited and restricted areas; military operating areas and training routes.
Local airports, restricted area and military training routes.
Obstructions/towers: Top number is the MSL altitude where you will hit the obstruction, the bottom number is how far you’ll fall.

## Electronic Aids to Navigation

**Automatic direction finder (ADF)**
**Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)**
**Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)**
**Long Range Navigation (LORAN)**
**Global Positioning System (GPS)**

**Notes:**
8.5
Objective 8.5 – Discuss the uses and limitations of the following navaids: ADF, VOR, DME and GPS.
These systems help you determine and keep track of your position – situational awareness is everyone’s job.

## ADF

**A****utomatic ****D****irection ****F****inding**
**Oldest system**
**Fair accuracy**
**Low cost**
**Homing only**

**Needle always points**
**toward the station**

**Aircraft**
**headed**
**North**

**Notes:**
Basically a homing station.  Indicates direction of the station being received relative to the heading of the aircraft.
ADF is a receiver in the aircraft which picks up the NDB (non-directional beacon) signal located on the ground.

## Using ADF to determine position

**A****utomatic ****D****irection ****F****inding**
**    ****ADF**
**Oldest system**
**Fair accuracy**
**Low cost**
**Homing only**

**Notes:**
If you just follow the signal it will get you there (though not necessarily in a straight line)

## VOR

**V****ery High Frequency ****O****mnidirectional ****R****anging**
**    ****VOR**
**Very common**
**Most air routes defined by VORs**
**Good Accuracy**

**VOR provides heading and**
**course deviation indication**

**Radial**

**Notes:**
VOR is a ground transmitter that  provides 360 radials aligned to magnetic north.  Does not provide distance.   
Victor airways are built around VOR’s.
Without GPS pilots will often fly from VOR to VOR.
When tracing the route of a missing aircraft, search airplane may initially fly the same route as the missing plane.

## VOR

## VOR

## Using the VOR to determine position

**Turn the OBS knob until the needle centers with a FROM flag**
**Read the bearing from the station directly at the top**
**Plot the bearing on the chart**

**Notes:**

Radials are always given as FROM a VOR (intercept the 270 degree radial).

## Keeping Track of Position

## DME

**D****istance ****M****easuring ****E****quipment**
**TACAN or VORTAC**
**Very Accurate when flying directly towards**

**Slant range**

**Ground Range**

**Notes:**
DME  determines range to a station. Distance is read in nautical miles.
Only accurate when flying directly towards and within about 20 nm.
Due to slant range error, readout is not accurate at close range.  Rule of thumb is that DME reading is significantly different from the ground range when it reads fewer miles than the altitude of the aircraft in thousands of feet.  In other words, at 8,000 feet, DME ground range will be very different from the slant range below 8 miles.
DME can be co-located with a VOR. (VOR/DME -- VORTAC)
TACAN - is a combination of DME and azimuth (azimuth used by military).
VORTAC -VOR and TACAN that is co-located (civilians use the VOR for azimuth and the DME portion of the TACAN.  

## DME

## LORAN

**L****ow Frequency ****O****mnidirectional ****R****adio        ****A****ided ****N****avigation**
**Accurate**
**Aircraft & Ships**
**Susceptible to precipitation; western coverage spotty**

**Notes:**
1/4 mile accuracy.
Time/distance calculation among one Master and at least 2 slave stations are used to determine position.
Low frequency wavelength gives long range reception
LORAN may not be used much longer because of GPS; plans are to keep in the foreseeable future.

## GPS

**G****lobal ****P****ositioning ****S****ystem**
**24 Satellites**
**GPS receiver**
**Very accurate**

**Notes:**
Polar orbits.
Built by the Department of Defense.
Uses at least 3 satellites at a time.

## Position Determination

**Sectional or Map**
**Work from larger to smaller**
**Work from a known location to present location**
**Watch the scale on maps**
**Remain suspicious if all points don’t seem to line up right**
**Use groups of 3 characteristics to verify position**

**Notes:**
8.8.1
Objective 8.10 – Given a sectional chart, a plotter, and two airports: plot the course; identify check points along the route; calculate how long it should take to get from one airport to the other, flying at 100 knots and no wind.
Pilotage is using primarily VISUAL REFERENCES or landmarks along with some computations of time, speed, heading, and wind.
Dead Reckoning is navigation using ONLY time, heading, wind and airspeed.  No visual references are used.

## Sectional Aeronautical Charts

**1 to 500,000**
**Medium to slow speed aircraft**
**Types of Information: Legend, Aeronautical, Topographical**

**Notes:**
8.10.1
Objective 8.13 – Given Attachment E of the U.S. National SAR Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime SAR Manual, grid a sectional.
Expired gridded charts may be used only for reference or training purposes (gridding).  Label them “For Training Purposes Only”

## Standardized Lat/Long Grid System

**This system does not require special numbering**
**Lat-long of lower right corner defines the grid (latitude first)**
**Letters are used to define sub-grids**

**103-00 W**

**103-00 W**

**102-00 W**

**102-00 W**

**36-00 N**

**37-00 N**

**A**

**B**

**C**

**B**

**C**

**D**

**36/102 AA**

**36-30 N**

**102-45 W**

**102-30 W**

**A**

**B**

**C**

**D**

**36/102 ADB**

**Notes:**
8.11
Objective 8.14 – Given coordinates and a sectional, use the Standardized Lat/Long Grid System to draw a search grid.
This is another type of grid system that uses the Lat/Long to define the grid number.  Otherwise, it is very similar to the CAP grid system.
Location given is the southeast corner.

## Know Your Chart Symbols

## QUESTIONS?

## Search Planning and Coverage(Chapter 9)

## In basic terms, discuss how search planners determine the Maximum Area of Probability and then the Probability Area. {O; 9.2.1 & 9.2.2}
Given a POD table, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various search altitudes and speeds over the three major types of terrain.    {O; 9.2.3}
Discuss the importance of proper execution of search patterns. {O; 9.2.4}

**Given a POD table, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various search altitudes and speeds over the three major types of terrain.    {O; 9.2.3}**
**Discuss the importance of proper execution of search patterns. {O; 9.2.4}**

**Objectives**

## Optional – Review POD example {9.3}

**Objectives**

## Narrowing the Search

**Search Involves**
**Estimating the position of the wreck or survivors**
**Determining the area to be searched**
**Selecting the search techniques to be used**
**Maximum Possibility Area**
**Circle around the ****Last Known Position**** (LKP)**
**The radius is equal to the endurance of the aircraft**
**Correct for wind**
**Probability Area**
**Where is the aircraft likely to be**

**Notes:**
9.2.1 & 9.2.2
Objective 9.2 – In basic terms, discuss how search planners determine the maximum area of possibility and then the probability area.
These issues are usually handled by the Incident Commander and the Planning staff.
You need to be familiar so you can understand where you sortie fits into the mission and what information is important in your debriefing report.

## Search Factors

**Factors which effect detection**
**Weather; terrain; lighting conditions**
**Sweep Width (W)**
**Track Spacing (S)**
**Coverage Factor (C)**
**Probability of Detection (P)**
**Determine factors for search area coverage**
**Type and number of aircraft available**
**Search visibility**
**Probability Of Detection (POD)**

**Notes:**
CAPR60-3 defines the process in great detail.
Sweep width = mathematically expressed measure of detection capability - see table in 55-1 A4-4
Track spacing = distance between adjacent search tracks - should never exceed a distance equal to twice the search visibility
Search visibility = distance at which an object can be recognized on the ground - always less than the meteorological visibility 
Coverage factor = W/S
Search altitudes – 1,000 - 2,000 ft. for aircraft crash over open terrain in good weather; 500 – 1,000 ft. for missing person; 4,000 ft. to start ELT search.

## Determining the Maximum Possibility Area

**LKP**

**Corrected for wind**

**Wind vector**

**No wind endurance**

**Maximum possibility area**

**Flight level winds:   330/20**
**Aircraft Speed:     100 Kts**
**Endurance:           2 Hours**

**200 NM**

**40NM**

**Notes:**
Take the radius of the endurance of the aircraft (possible range from last known position, LKP), and offset it by the current wind velocity times the endurance.

## Probability Area

**Where was the last point where radar had the aircraft identified?**
**Is there an ELT?**
**Was there a flight plan (even if not on file with the FAA)?**
**Dead reckoning from LKP and heading**
**Reports of sightings**
**Other aircraft**
**People living along the intended route of flight**

**Notes:**
Usually based on interviews with family and friends.  Habits are important.
Not necessarily a written flight plan.  It could be a report of what the pilot planned to do or would usually do.
Many pilots follow interstates, roads, and railroads.
Weather effects.

## Narrowing the Probability Area

**Flight plan**
**Weather information**
**National Track Analysis Program data**
**Airports along the intended flight track**
**Aircraft performance**
**Pilots flying habits**
**Radar coverage as a limiting factor**
**Nature of terrain along the flight track**
**Position reports — fuel stops, etc.**
**Most likely within 5 miles of intended track**

**Notes:**
Interviews and phone calls.

## Search Priorities

**Areas of bad weather**
**Low clouds and poor visibility**
**Areas where weather was not as forecast**
**High terrain**
**Areas not covered by radar**
**Reports of low flying aircraft**
**Survival factors**
**Radio contacts or MAYDAY calls**

**Notes:**
The IC will assess the conditions and facts to determine the priorities for search.

## Probability of Detection (POD)

**POD expressed as a “percent” search object was detected**
**Four interrelated factors used to calculate:**
**Track Spacing**
**Search Visibility**
**Search Altitude**
**Type of Terrain**
**Cumulative POD calculated using a chart**
**“****Effectiveness” must also be considered**

**Notes:**
9.2.4
Objective 9.4 – Discuss the importance of proper execution of search patterns.
Crew, training, fatigue also contribute to the POD.

## POD Table (back of 104)

**Notes:**
9.2.3
Objective 9.3 – Given a POD table, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various search altitudes and speeds over the three major types of terrain.
Visibility, altitude and track spacing all directly affect your ability to spot the target (POD).

## POD Chart - detail

## Cumulative POD Chart

**	****5-10%****	****15**
**	****11-20%****	****20****	****25**
**	****21-30%****	****30****	****35****	****45**
**	****31-40%****	****40****	****45****	****50****	****60**
**	****41-50%****	****50****	****55****	****60****	****65****	****70**
**	****51-60%****	****60****	****65****	****65****	****70****	****75****	****80**
**	****61-70%****	****70****	****70****	****75****	****80****	****80****	****85****	****90**
**	****71-80%****	****80****	****80****	****80****	****85****	****85****	****90****	****90****	****95**
**	****80+%****	****85****	****85****	****90****	****90****	****90****	****95****	****95****	****95****	****95+**
**	****	****5-10%****	****11-20%****	****21-30%****	****31-40%****	****41-50%****	****51-60%****	****61-70%****	****71-80%****	****80+%**

**POD For This Search**

**Previous**
**POD**

**Notes:**
The cumulative POD increases with each repeated search of an area.

## QUESTIONS?

## Electronic Search Patterns(Chapter 10)

## Discuss the various types of ELTs. {O; 10.1.1}
Describe how an ELT can be detected. {O; 10.2}
Describe how the aircraft DF works in both the Alarm and DF modes. {O; 10.3.1}
Discuss using the DF during a typical ELT search {O; 10.3.2}
Response during initial phase, including signal fade
Response when getting close
Response as you pass over the beacon

**Describe how an ELT can be detected. {O; 10.2}**
**Describe how the aircraft DF works in both the Alarm and DF modes. {O; 10.3.1}**
**Discuss using the DF during a typical ELT search {O; 10.3.2}**
**Response during initial phase, including signal fade**
**Response when getting close**
**Response as you pass over the beacon**

**Objectives**

## Describe the following ELT search methods:	            {O; 10.4 – 10.7}
Homing
Wing null
Aural
Signal
Discuss signal reflection and interference.	         {O; 10.9}
Describe how to silence an ELT and the legal issues involved. {O; 10.10}

**Homing**
**Wing null**
**Aural**
**Signal**
**Discuss signal reflection and interference.****	****         {O; 10.9}**
**Describe how to silence an ELT and the legal issues involved. {O; 10.10}**

**Objectives**

## Emergency Locator Transmitter Direction Finding for Aircrews: use of  equipment commonly found in CAP aircraft

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Objective: The Elusive ELT

**Automatic radio beacon (100 milliwatts)**
**Roughly equal to that of a regular flashlight**
**Can be heard on a line-of-sight basis.**
**Remember that the ELT may be attached to an aircraft or vessel in distress!**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Activated by g-force (when armed)
Some can be activated by the pilot in the cockpit
Three frequencies:
121.5 MHz (VHF emergency)
243 MHz (UHF emergency – military guard)
406.025 MHz (third generation advanced ELT/EPIRB/PLB)
General types:
General aviation aircraft
Military (“beepers” or “beacons”)
Marine EPIRB
Test station (training practice beacon)
Advanced (406)

**Some can be activated by the pilot in the cockpit**
**Three frequencies:**
**121.5 MHz (VHF emergency)**
**243 MHz (UHF emergency – military guard)**
**406.025 MHz (third generation advanced ELT/EPIRB/PLB)**
**General types:**
**General aviation aircraft**
**Military (“beepers” or “beacons”)**
**Marine EPIRB**
**Test station (training practice beacon)**
**Advanced (406)**

**The ELT**

**Notes:**
10.1.1
Objective 10.1 – Discuss the various types of ELTs.

## ELT Antenna

## Most aircraft have ELTs installed

**But they don’t always survive a crash**

**Notes:**
Less than one-third of all crashes have a survivable (operable) ELT.

## Most aircraft have ELTs installed

**But they don’t always survive a crash**

**Notes:**
Less than one-third of all crashes have a survivable (operable) ELT.

## Most common type is the URT-33/C
Personnel ejecting/parachuting will have a 243 MHz beacon
Some downed pilots may be able to communicate via two-way radio on 243 MHz using a PRC-90 or later military survival radio
Beacon mode transmits like an ELT on 243 MHz

**Personnel ejecting/parachuting will have a 243 MHz beacon**
**Some downed pilots may be able to communicate via two-way radio on 243 MHz using a PRC-90 or later military survival radio**
**Beacon mode transmits like an ELT on 243 MHz**

**Military beacons**

**Notes:**
Most often, left locked in the aircraft.  You search for the signal while the pilot is asleep in a local motel.
Don’t be hesitant to call the Air Force; they take alarming beacons seriously and will send someone out to silence it.

## Personal Locator Beacon (PLB) or Personal Emergency Transmitter (PET):
Intended for hikers and other remote wilderness travelers
Use a 406 MHz transmitter and a 121.5 MHz homing signal (at only 25 milliwatts)
Many are also equipped with a built-in GPS receiver that provides lat/long coordinates
Each PLB must be registered
[See discussion of Advanced ELTs]

**Intended for hikers and other remote wilderness travelers**
**Use a 406 MHz transmitter and a 121.5 MHz homing signal (at only 25 milliwatts)**
**Many are also equipped with a built-in GPS receiver that provides lat/long coordinates**
**Each PLB must be registered**
**[See discussion of Advanced ELTs]**

**Personal beacons**

## Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon
Similar to an ELT, an EPIRB is used on ships and boats
Mandatory on certain commercial vessels
Some activate automatically and others are manually activated

**Similar to an ELT, an EPIRB is used on ships and boats**
**Mandatory on certain commercial vessels**
**Some activate automatically and others are manually activated**

**Marine EPIRB**

**Notes:**
Contact the marina operator.

## Designed to operate with SARSAT/COSPAS
406.025 MHz beacons have data burst encoding that identifies each (registered) individual beacon
Also produces a 121.5 MHz homing signal and may transmit GPS coordinates
Sends a coded signal that can be used to obtain the owner's name, address and type of aircraft, so AFRCC can call the number to see if the aircraft is really missing (70% resolved)
Since geostationary satellites process the signal it will be heard more quickly and allow a much faster response (~ 6 hours).  If the unit has a GPS receiver, it can transmit lat/long coordinates to further speed the search.  The signal can also penetrate dense cover (e.g., trees).
Still very expensive (~ three times as much as a 121.5 MHz ELT)

**406.025 MHz beacons have data burst encoding that identifies each (registered) individual beacon**
**Also produces a 121.5 MHz homing signal and may transmit GPS coordinates**
**Sends a coded signal that can be used to obtain the owner's name, address and type of aircraft, so AFRCC can call the number to see if the aircraft is really missing (70% resolved)**
**Since geostationary satellites process the signal it will be heard more quickly and allow a much faster response (~ 6 hours).  If the unit has a GPS receiver, it can transmit lat/long coordinates to further speed the search.  The signal can also penetrate dense cover (e.g., trees).**
**Still very expensive (~ three times as much as a 121.5 MHz ELT)**

**Advanced ELTs**

**Notes:**
Still cost upwards of $1700, so don’t expect large-scale upgrades anytime soon.

## Training Practice Beacons
Includes ones used by CAP
All should be converted from 121.6 to 121.775 MHz by now (if it isn’t, don’t use it)
During practice searches, avoid calling the practice beacon an ‘ELT’ when communicating over the radio
May cause confusion
Always use the term ‘Practice Beacon’

**Includes ones used by CAP**
**All should be converted from 121.6 to 121.775 MHz by now (if it isn’t, don’t use it)**
**During practice searches, avoid calling the practice beacon an ‘ELT’ when communicating over the radio**
**May cause confusion**
**Always use the term ‘****Practice Beacon****’**

**Practice Beacon**

**Notes:**
Its called a “Practice Beacon,” not an ELT.

## Can test the aircraft’s ELT within the first five minutes after each hour
Only allowed up to three sweeps

When was the last time you tested the ELT in your aircraft?
Do you regularly monitor 121.5 MHz after you land?
Ensure your ELT didn’t activate
This isn’t considered a test, by the way, but you can try this excuse if you like

**Only allowed up to three sweeps**
**When was the last time you tested the ELT in your aircraft?**
**Do you regularly monitor 121.5 MHz after you land?**
**Ensure your ELT didn’t activate**
**This isn’t considered a test, by the way, but you can try this excuse if you like**

**Testing an Aircraft ELT**

## Excessively hard landings (Welcome aboard, Ensign!)
Inadvertent change of switch position
During removal/installation
Malfunction
Non-ELT source on 121.5 MHz (computers, broadcast stations, even pizza ovens!)
Monsieur Murphy

**Inadvertent change of switch position**
**During removal/installation**
**Malfunction**
**Non-ELT source on 121.5 MHz (computers, broadcast stations, even pizza ovens!)**
**Monsieur Murphy**

**Inadvertent Activation**

**Notes:**
Check after landing.  It’s very embarrassing to search for an ELT signal and find it in a CAP aircraft!

## Approximately 97% of received ELT signals are false alarms
For 121.5 MHz ELTs abut 1 in 1000 are actual emergencies
	(2 in 100 composite alerts)
For 406 MHz ELTs abut 1 in 10 are actual emergencies
What’s the big deal?
SARSAT can only monitor 10 ELTs at once
Easy to overload the system
They block emergency communications on 121.5 and 243 MHz (guarded by towers, ARTCC, and the military)

**For 121.5 MHz ELTs abut 1 in 1000 are actual emergencies**
**	****(2 in 100 composite alerts)**
**For 406 MHz ELTs abut 1 in 10 are actual emergencies**
**What’s the big deal?**
**SARSAT can only monitor 10 ELTs at once**
**Easy to overload the system**
**They block emergency communications on 121.5 and 243 MHz (guarded by towers, ARTCC, and the military)**

**False Alarms**

## Slide 128

## QUESTIONS?

## Detection Timeline

## For a regular 121.5 MHz beacon:
Said to be a 12-16 nautical mile radius (~ 452 square nm)
Actually an oval shape with a 50% probability of being 15 nm wide and 7 nm high
System is more accurate North to South (latitude)
Average six-hour detection/alert
For a 406 MHz beacon it’s a 1-3 nm radius (~ 12.4 square nm) with 45 – 60 minute detection/alert
For a 406 MHz beacon with GPS it’s a 0.05 nm radius (within 100 yards) with an average five-minute detection/alert

**Said to be a 12-16 nautical mile radius (~ 452 square nm)**
**Actually an oval shape with a 50% probability of being 15 nm wide and 7 nm high**
**System is more accurate North to South (latitude)**
**Average six-hour detection/alert**
**For a 406 MHz beacon it’s a 1-3 nm radius (~ 12.4 square nm) with 45 – 60 minute detection/alert**
**For a 406 MHz beacon with GPS it’s a 0.05 nm radius (within 100 yards) with an average five-minute detection/alert**

**Accuracy of SARSAT/COSPAS**

## AS AN EMERGENCY!
Its not possible to know whether an ELT signal is a distress signal or a false alarm
Although the statistics are against it, you must act as though it is a distress call

If you take advantage of them, every ELT mission allow you to keep your skills sharp!

**Its not possible to know whether an ELT signal is a distress signal or a false alarm**
**Although the statistics are against it, you must act as though it is a distress call**
**If you take advantage of them, every ELT mission allow you to keep your skills sharp!**

**OK, So How Should I Treat an ELT Mission?**

## Route or parallel track to pick up the signal
If no SARSAT hits or definitive LKP:
4,000 to 10,000 AGL
Large track spacing (start at 60 nm, then do halves)
Once signal is located, DF the signal

**If no SARSAT hits or definitive LKP:**
**4,000 to 10,000 AGL**
**Large track spacing (start at 60 nm, then do halves)**
**Once signal is located, DF the signal**

**Locating the ELT Signal**

**Notes:**
10.2
Objective 10.2 – Describe how an ELT can be detected.

## Direction Finder (DF)

**A direction finder compares signal strengths from two antenna patterns to let the user know:**
**When you are “centered” on a signal**
**headed directly towards OR away from from the signal source**
**Which direction to turn when not centered**
**Similar to an ADF needle, but only points left or right, hence the term “left-right homing”**

**Notes:**
10.3.1
Objective 10.3 – Describe how the aircraft DF works in both the Alarm and DF modes.

## L-Tronics DF

**Normal: Alarm toggle in ‘up’ position**
**DF: toggle is ‘down’**

## DF Antenna

**These are mounted on the bottom, but may be on top**

## Step 1: Acquire the Signal

**To hear the signal you can use your L-Tronics receiver or one of your comm radios**
**To acquire with a comm radio, turn the squelch OFF ****(pull out the volume knob out or flip the appropriate switch)**
**The static you hear may be annoying, but it will allow you to hear the signal at the earliest possible time**
**Allows for a weak or distant signal to be heard**
**Proceed at a reasonable altitude to the SARSAT composite hit, or to the point designated by your incident commander**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Beginning The Search: Altitude Selection

**Beginning The Search: Altitude Selection**

**Higher altitudes allow for reception of the ELT signal at greater distances**
**ELTs transmit on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz, both of which limit reception to “line of sight”**
**Terrain will block ELT signals**
**HIGHER is therefore usually BETTER to acquire a signal**
**Medium altitude is generally better for *****searching *****(after signal heard)**
**3,000 to 5,000 AGL**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Altitude Selection

- <footer>

**Altitude Selection**

## Step 2: Track (DF) the Signal

**There are many different ways to DF an ELT signal:**
**Left-Right DF Homing (L-Tronics DF)**
**Wing Shadow Method**
**Aural Search**
**Metered Search**
**Combinations of the above techniques**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

**Notes:**
10.4 – 10.7
Objective 10.5 – Describe the following ELT search methods: homing, wing null (shadowing), aural search and signal search.

## Wing Shadowing

**By flying the airplane in a circle, at some point the wing will block the ELT signal to the receiver antenna**
**This causes an audible decrease in volume, called a “null”**
**Almost any VHF-AM aircraft communications radio may be used with this method**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Wing Shadowing: Antennas

**To properly use the Wing Shadowing method, you MUST know where the antenna for the radio you are using is installed & located on the aircraft**
**Communications radio antennas are usually, but not always, located above the wings**
**Can be above the fuselage, in the tail, etc.**
**L-Tronics Aircraft DF antennas may be above or below the aircraft**
_**Below**_** the aircraft is the preferred installation**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Communications Antennas Above the Wing

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## DF Antennas Below the Wing

- Antennas Belowthe Wing

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## QUESTIONS?

## How To DF by Wing Shadowing

**Fly a constant bank angle 360° turn**
**the audio will “null,”**
**or get significantly quieter,**
**when your wing blocks the ****antenna’s reception of the**** ELT signal**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

**Notes:**
10.5 – 10.7
Objective 10.5 – D

## Wing Shadowing:Signal BlockingFor Antennas Above the Wings

**NULL**

**NULL**

**NULL**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Wing Shadowing:Antennas Above the Wing

**Turn in a circle until you hear the null (significant decrease in volume)**
**The ELT is 90o to your LEFT**
**SUBTRACT 90o from your ****heading **

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Wing Shadowing: Signal BlockingFor Antennas Below the Wings

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Wing Shadowing:Antennas Below the Wing

**Turn in a circle until you hear the null (significant decrease in volume)**
**The ELT is 90o to your RIGHT: ADD 90o to your heading**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Aural (Hearing) Search Method

**This is based on the assumption that the area of equal beacon signal strength is circular: do NOT adjust volume during this search; you will need it to determine equal levels of signal**
**Begin by plotting your position as soon as you receive the ELT signal**
**Fly that course for a short distance, then turn 90o left or right and proceed until the signal fades**
**Turn around (180o) and mark where the signal fades on the other side of the circle**
**Plot chord lines similar to that of the diagram**
**Bisect the chord lines at a perpendicular**
**Plot a course to the location where the perpendicular lines intersect: this should be the location of the target!**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Aural Search

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Metered Search(Build & Fade) Method

**This search requires a signal strength meter (like that on the L-Tronics DF units-if the DF portion of the unit is inoperative you can still use this type of search as long as RECeive is OK.**
**Note your signal strength when beginning the search.**
**Fly a straight line until the signal gets lower, then increases to your original level.**
**Turn 180o and return to the lowest level of signal, then turn 90o left or right.**
**You should now be headed directly towards or away from the transmitter.**
**If the signal increases in strength, you are headed directly for the ELT.**
**If the signal decreases in strength, turn 180o**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Metered Search

**FADE**

**MAXIMUM**

**SIGNAL**

**MAXIMUM SIGNAL**
**THEN DROP**

**FIRST SIGNAL**

**1**

**2**

**4**

**5**

**6**

**ELT**

- 8.0

- 8.0

- 8.0

- 6.0

- 6.0

- 6.0

- 4.0

- 4.0

- 3.0

- 2.0

- 3.0

- 2.0

- 1.0

- 5.0

- 5.0

**Metered Search**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Left-Right DF Homing

**Most CAP corporate aircraft have L-Tronics LA-Series Left-Right Homing DF units**
**These units operate virtually the same, but there are two major varieties:**
**Single Meter Models**
**Dual Meter Models**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## L-Tronics DF Types

**Single Meter Model**** **
**Dual Meter Model**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Frequency Switch

**Selects frequency to be used**
**Use 121.5 MHz for actual ELTs/EPIRBs**
**243.0 MHz may also be used for all actual electronic searches**
**Use 121.775 MHz for training**
**Refer to owners manual for use of the “AUX” position**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Mode Switch

**Only Single-meter units have this switch**
**Dual-meter units use two displays, so both REC and DF operate continuously and simultaneously**
**REC is short for RECeive mode**
**REC makes the unit’s dial work as a strength meter**
**DF is short for Direction Find**
**DF gives left-right homing to the ELT/EPIRB signal**
**ALARM**** is for NON-MISSION flights only**
**Use only during normal flying to alert the presence of an ELT or EPIRB**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Volume & Sensitivity

**Volume controls the audio level to the speaker or headsets**
**Sensitivity controls the *****amount of signal***** that enters into the DF unit**
**It is critical that the proper amount of signal enters the DF: ****half-scale, or the middle, is an optimum starting place**
**As the signal gets stronger, reduce SENSITIVITY****, *****not***** volume**
**The DF will be unreliable as too much signal is received, so you must cut out part of it by reducing the sensitivity**
**More than three-quarters scale is too much**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## DF SETTINGS FOR SINGLE METER MODELS

**MISSIONS**
**Select 121.5 (or 121.775 for training missions)**
**Select DF Mode**
**Turn Sensitivity to Maximum (Full Clockwise)**
**Turn Volume to About Mid-Scale**
**DF Needle Will Move Slightly Left and Right**
**NON-MISSION FLIGHTS**
**Select 121.5**
**Select Alarm Mode**
**Turn Sensitivity To Maximum**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## DF SETTINGS FORDUAL METER MODELS

**MISSIONS**
**Select 121.5 (or 121.775 for training missions)**
**Ensure Alarm Toggle ****Off**
**Turn Sensitivity to Maximum (Full Clockwise)**
**Turn Volume to About Mid-Scale**
**DF Should Stay About Centered**
**Strength Meter Will Move Up-Scale to Right**
**NON-MISSION FLIGHTS**
**Select 121.5**
**Turn Alarm Toggle On**
**Turn Sensitivity To Maximum**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## PRE-FLIGHT FUNCTIONAL CHECK

**Just as you pre-flight the rest of the aircraft, you should preflight your DF when going on an ELT electronic search mission**
**These procedures are covered in the *****Mission Aircrew Reference Text*****.**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

**Notes:**
10.3.1, Normal Operations and Checks

## SIX STEPS

**Use these 6 steps for locating ELTs and EPIRBs with L-Tronics LA- series airborne DF equipment**
**Use the *****full***** procedure every time for the best results**
**RECeive**
**HALF**
**DF**
**TURN**
**CHECK**
**SHOOT**
**Each of these steps will be described in detail in the slides to follow**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

**Notes:**
10.3.2
Objective 10.4 – Discuss using the DF during a typical ELT search. Include how the DF should respond during the initial phase (including signal fade), when you are getting close, and when you pass over the beacon.

## Step 1: RECeive

**Once you have started to receive the ELT or EPIRB signal on the proper frequency**
**If you have a single-meter unit, turn the mode selector to RECeive and turn the volume to a comfortable level**
**If you have a dual meter unit, refer to the STRENGTH window (no need to change modes)**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## RECeive Mode/STRENGTH Window

**In receive mode or in the strength window, the unit measures signal strength**
**Needle to the left means low; to the right means high**
**Values are *****relative***** depending on the sensitivity you have selected**
**You may still be able to use the strength meter even if the DF is not functioning perfectly**
**It is possible to locate an ELT using only the Receive Mode**
**Utilize Aural Search/Metered Search methods to accomplish**
**If the unit isn’t completely operable, try wing shadowing using one of the aircraft’s communications radios and use the DF unit’s strength meter as a backup using the aural/metered methods**

## Step 2: HALF 

**Now that the unit is in RECeive mode and you have a good signal, turn the Sensitivity Knob to HALF SCALE**
**This is in the center of the window**
**If you are flying with a dual-meter unit, turn the Sensitivity Knob so the needle reads HALF SCALE in the STRENGTH window**
**A half-scale strength reading will prevent too much signal (over sense) from entering the unit and will provide you with a good starting point**
**It is also the optimum for the DF homing antennas**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Step 3: DF 

**For single-meter units, turn the mode selector knob to DF**
**In DF mode, you can think of the needle as always pointing **_D_**irect to the **_F_**lipping target.**
**For dual-meter models, simply refer to the DF window (no need to change modes)**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## DF Antenna

**The aircraft DF unit has a 2 or 3 “element” antenna**
**Commonly, we might call this two or three antennas**
**It just means there are two or three rods!**
**This antenna setup is directional**
**One element actually receives the signal**
**The other elements (rods) *****reflect***** the signal away from the first rod**

- Antenna Elements

## Antenna Reception Pattern

**When viewed from the bottom, an antenna setup like the one pictured on the previous slide produces a reception pattern like the one shown here**
**This pattern is called “carotid,” ****which means ****“heart-shaped”**
**The pattern is the same ****even if the antennas are ****mounted above the ****wing**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Direction Finding Mode/Window

**The DF mode rapidly alternates the receiving and reflecting antenna elements**
**It chooses one element as the receiver and the other two as the reflectors, then switches to the other set**
**This produces a carotid pattern each time ****the unit switches**
**one is shown in blue, the other in yellow**
**By comparing the two patterns, the unit ****will determine when they are equal**
**When they’re equal, the needle centers!**
- When the needle is centered, the target is either directly ahead or behind you!

## Step 4: TURN 

**Turn at least one FULL circle, noting where the DF needle centers**
**Under ideal conditions, the needle will center twice**
**When facing directly at the source of the signal**
**When facing 180o away from the target**
**You will solve this problem (called ambiguity) in the next step**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## DF CENTERS

- Alternating
- Antenna
- Patterns

- Alternating
- Antenna
- Patterns

**WHEN THE PATTERNS ****ARE EQUAL, THE DF NEEDLE CENTERS!**

- ELT (Possibility 1)

- ELT (Possibility 2)

## Step 5: CHECK

**Use **T**urn to **T**ell**
**Remembering that in DF mode the needle always points **_D_**irect to the **_F_**lipping target**
**When you have the needle centered, turn left or right**
**If you turn left and the needle goes left, the ELT is 180o from your present heading**
**If you turn left and the needle turns right, the ELT is dead ahead **

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## AMBIGUITY

- ELT (Possibility 1)

- ELT (Possibility 2)

**When Needle Centers**
**ELT is Directly ****Ahead or Behind**
**This situation is ****called “ambiguity”**
**To Solve ****ambiguity:**
**Use Turn to Tell**
**Make a turn left or right**
**The needle always points **_D_**irect to the **_F_**lipping Target (DF!)**

## DF NEEDLE

- ELT

**Compare the YELLOW (LEFT) ****and the ****BLUE (RIGHT) ****antenna patterns**
**In this case, the ****LEFT pattern is**** stronger than ****the ****RIGHT**
**In DF mode, the ****needle would then****point LEFT**
**The needle always points **_D_**irect to the **_F_**lipping Target!**

## SOLVING AMBIGUITY

**Actual ELT position****is unknown to user**
**Make a small turn ****left or right**
**As a teaching****reminder, “Use a****TURN to TELL”**

## SOLVING AMBIGUITY

**Actual ELT position****is unknown to user**
**Make a small turn ****left or right**
**As a teaching****reminder, “Use a****TURN to TELL”**
**Example:**
**TURN LEFT**
**needle goes left**

## SOLVING AMBIGUITY

- ELT (Possibility 2)

**Actual ELT position****is unknown to user**
**Make a small turn ****left or right**
**As a teaching****reminder, “Use a****TURN to TELL”**
**Example:**
**TURN LEFT**
**If needle goes left**
**ELT is to your left ****(behind you)**

- ELT (Possibility 2)

## SOLVING AMBIGUITY

**If you turn Left and the****needle moves Right**
**The ELT is in****Front of you!**

## SOLVING AMBIGUITY

- ELT (Possibility 1)

- ELT (Possibility 2)

**If you turn Left and the****needle moves Right**
**The ELT is in****Front of you!**
**Example:**
**Turn left**
**Needle goes ****right**

## SOLVING AMBIGUITY

- ELT (Possibility 1)

**Solution:**
**If you turn Left ****and the needle ****moves Right**
**The ELT is in****Front of you!**

## Step 6: SHOOT 

**Use your DG to determine a ****bearing to the target & follow it**
**You may need to fly through a ****zone of signal dropout**
**Be watchful for signs of signal passage**
**If you get signal passage, consider using the “pinpointing the target” techniques listed in this presentation**
**Frequently repeat the full six steps to ensure you are heading in the right direction and that you didn’t inadvertently over fly the ELT**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## How A DF Unit Works: Summary 

**Two Main Modes of Operation**
**RECeive**
**DF**
**RECeive Mode is a Strength Meter**
**Left is low, right is high**
**DF Mode Centers on Signal**
**Always points to the signal **
**Use a **_T_**urn to **_T_**ell when solving ambiguity**
**Aircraft and ground units work the same way**

## QUESTIONS?

## Reflections

**Reflections of an ELT signal work just like a flashlight off of a mirror**
**Any flat, hard, or wet object can cause signal reflections**
**Mountains, especially cliff faces**
**Hangars and other metal structures**
**Wet grass or snow**
**Large bodies of water or ice**
**Power lines can also have a large effect on a low-powered signal such as an ELT**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

**Notes:**
10.9
Objective 10.6 – Discuss signal reflection and interference.

## Beating Reflections

**Check your sensitivity at half-scale or lower**
**But ensure that its high enough to receive adequate signal**
**Reflections will generally be weaker than the most direct path to the target**
**Following reflections will generally take your closer to the target**
**If sensitivity is set to minimum, try DFing on a different frequency**
**For example, if you are trying to locate an actual ELT on 121.5 MHz, try locating it on 121.6 or 121.775 MHz when you get close**
**When all else fails, fly somewhere else to get a good DF bearing-or try that at the first sign of problems!**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Carrier-Only Signals

**You don’t always need to hear the ELT or EPIRB to find it**
**A carrier-only signal may be broadcasting with no audible sweep**
**This is especially true with low or old batteries, damaged ELTs, or spurious transmissions**
**You can identify a carrier-only signal by DEFLECTION**
**Good needle deflection generally indicates a signal that is strong enough to DF**
**Compare your deflection to another frequency**
**If you are using 121.5 MHz, try it on 121.775 MHz**
**If deflection is the same in both frequencies, you DON’T have a signal, just random noise**
**If deflection is different, keep at it!  You have the signal.**
**If a signal is *****only***** received on 243 MHz, it *****may***** be a malfunctioning antenna (e.g., an FAA tower).   If you DF to the location (particularly on or near an airport) and you keep ending up at an antenna, investigate.  Find out who owns the antenna and its purpose.  Inform the IC and let the controlling agency troubleshoot the problem.**** **

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Vertical Reflections & Signal Dropout

**The transmission pattern (similar to the reception pattern of the DF antennas, only for transmission) of an ELT is not a perfect circle or sphere**
**It has lobes, or, stronger and weaker points**
**This is accentuated when the ELT is transmitting from a location above the surrounding ground**
**When you get a good DF heading and the signal fades or drops out completely you may just be outside of one of the signal lobes**
**When you reacquire the signal, it should be stronger than when you lost it**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Signal Dropout 

**If you encounter a signal dropout, continue to fly on your last good DF heading**
**You should reacquire the signal in a few minutes**
**Actual time will depend upon your distance to the target**
**If you are unable to reacquire, return to where you last heard the signal and re-DF**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Signal Strength

**The *****rate of change***** in signal strength increases as you get closer to the transmitter, and RECeive mode or the STRENGTH window measures signal strength**
**This is due to Maxwell’s inverse square law:**
**When you double the distance from an object, the energy it you receive from it is 1/4 of what you originally received, or the inverse square: 1/(2****2****) = 1/4**
**After Scottish Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, 1831-1879**
**You will therefore need to turn down the sensitivity to keep the unit at half scale in the RECeive mode or STRENGTH window much more often as you get close to the source of the signal**
**This should let you know that you’re getting close**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Signal Strength Rate of Change

**********SENS      ********VOL**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Cone of Confusion

**Antennas receive best when the ****pole is perpendicular to the signal**
**When you approach the directly ****overhead position on an ELT, your ****DF will become unreliable**
**It may swing left and right**
**It may center regardless of your heading**
**You should practice to see what this ****“station passage” reading looks like**
**It is similar to crossing a VOR**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Reception in the “Cone of Silence”

**You may also get a significant drop in ELT signal since the antennas don’t receive well directly off of their tips**
**Although called a cone of silence, you will probably only see & hear a large decrease in signal instead of complete silence**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Pinpointing the ELT

**If you get a station passage indication, make an approximate 180 degree turn and DF back to the target**
**Repeat this process using different approach angles****each time, remembering that ****your path may be curved due ****to wind (like uncorrected ****NDB holding)**
**The point where station ****passage is received ****several times****should be the ****location of ****the target**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Pinpointing the ELT

**After you think you have the target located**
**make a low pass over the suspected location and visually scan**
**if signal strength decreases significantly or drops out, climb back and try again**
**this is not the target: sometimes false targets will appear due to reflections or other interference**
**If you hear the ELT at low altitude, you probably have the right place**
**a low pass down a runway might be a good idea if you suspect a particular airport**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

**Notes:**
Discuss signal offset method as another way to pinpoint the signal.

## QUESTIONS?

**Notes:**
NOTE: The newest CAP Direction Finder, the SAR-DF 517, is in very limited use and so is not covered here.  Information on this unit can be found at www.beckerusa.com.

## After Locating The ELT

**After location, coordinate with ground teams to bring them on-scene**
**Use radio communication and relay GPS coordinates**
**Pick up the ground team at a predetermined location and lead them to the target**
**Alternately, coordinate a pick up point on the radio**
**Practice your air-to-ground coordination skills often**
**try it both with and without radio communication**
**Air-to-ground is CAP’s best unique ES skill!**

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

## Many times the ELT is located at an airfield where it is easier for you to land and locate the ELT than it is to get a ground team to the scene
You can use a hand-held radio or hand-held DF unit
The most commonly used in CAP is the Little L-Per
You did remember to put one of these (with charged batteries) in the aircraft before you left, didn’t you?

**You can use a hand-held radio or hand-held DF unit**
**The most commonly used in CAP is the Little L-Per**
**You did remember to put one of these (with charged batteries) in the aircraft before you left, didn’t you?**

**DF upon Landing**

**Notes:**
Practice with the Ground/Urban DF teams.

## Six Steps
Receive
Half
DF
Center
Turn
Shoot

**Receive**
**Half**
**DF**
**Center**
**Turn**
**Shoot**

**Little L-Per**

**Notes:**
The “Tracker” (made in Finland) is much easier to use and more accurate. More expensive, though. Advertises in CAP News.

## You land at an airport with multiple hangars and each hangar is full of aircraft
This can make it difficult to find the ELT
Two methods can help:
Signal-offset
Using a hand-held radio without its antenna
If the suspect aircraft has an external DF antenna and you can’t get inside to turn the ELT off, try placing an aluminum foil ‘sleeve’ over the antenna to see if the signal strength decreases significantly

**This can make it difficult to find the ELT**
**Two methods can help:**
**Signal-offset**
**Using a hand-held radio without its antenna**
**If the suspect aircraft has an external DF antenna and you can’t get inside to turn the ELT off, try placing an aluminum foil ‘sleeve’ over the antenna to see if the signal strength decreases significantly**

**OK, which of these planes is it in?**

**Notes:**
Don’t forget to use your eyes. Some aircraft have remote indicating lights that flash (usually red) when the ELT is activated.
Look for obvious signs that someone has been working near the ELT.
Ask the FBO personnel if someone landed sometime before the first ELT report.

## Signal-offset: reflected signals are generally weaker so by tuning your radio further away from the primary frequency you can isolate the signal:
Assume ELT transmitting on 121.5; set to 121.55 
As you home in set in 121.6 (you may even work up to 121.7)
As you get further away from 121.5 the area where the signal will break through the squelch becomes smaller and smaller (you can even turn up the squelch to get further isolation)

**Assume ELT transmitting on 121.5; set to 121.55 **
**As you home in set in 121.6 (you may even work up to 121.7)**
**As you get further away from 121.5 the area where the signal will break through the squelch becomes smaller and smaller (you can even turn up the squelch to get further isolation)**

**OK, which of these planes is it in?**

## Using a hand-held radio without its antenna:
Once you’ve narrowed the suspects down to one or two aircraft (usually side-by-side), remove the radio’s antenna and hold it next to one of the ELT antennas
Turn the volume down until you just hear the signal
Don’t key the radio’s transmitter with the antenna removed!
Move to the other aircraft’s ELT antenna
If the signal is stronger you probably have it; if weaker, its probably the other aircraft
May also put  an aluminum foil ‘sleeve’ over the antenna
Can also combine this with the signal-offset method

**Once you’ve narrowed the suspects down to one or two aircraft (usually side-by-side), remove the radio’s antenna and hold it next to one of the ELT antennas**
**Turn the volume down until you just hear the signal**
**Don’t key the radio’s transmitter with the antenna removed!**
**Move to the other aircraft’s ELT antenna**
**If the signal is stronger you probably have it; if weaker, its probably the other aircraft**
**May also put  an aluminum foil ‘sleeve’ over the antenna**
**Can also combine this with the signal-offset method**

**OK, which of these planes is it in?**

## ELTs are usually located in or near the rear of the aircraft. Also look for remote switches.
Single-engine Cessna: right side of the upper baggage area immediately aft of the baggage door
Multi-engine Cessna: left side of the fuselage just forward of the horizontal stabilizer. Accessed through a small push-plate on the side of the fuselage.
Single- and multi-engine Piper: in the aft fuselage. Accessed through a small access plate on the right side of the fuselage.
Single- and multi-engine Bonanza: in the aft fuselage. Accessed through a small access plate on the right side of the fuselage.
Large piston twins (e.g., King Air) and small jets: if installed its probably in the rear section.  No visible antenna.  May have a small round push-plate that lets you manipulate the ELT switch.

**Single-engine Cessna: right side of the upper baggage area immediately aft of the baggage door**
**Multi-engine Cessna: left side of the fuselage just forward of the horizontal stabilizer. Accessed through a small push-plate on the side of the fuselage.**
**Single- and multi-engine Piper: in the aft fuselage. Accessed through a small access plate on the right side of the fuselage.**
**Single- and multi-engine Bonanza: in the aft fuselage. Accessed through a small access plate on the right side of the fuselage.**
**Large piston twins (e.g., King Air) and small jets: if installed its probably in the rear section.  No visible antenna.  May have a small round push-plate that lets you manipulate the ELT switch.**

**OK, where is the thing?**

**Notes:**
Keep a record for future use.

## The preferred method is to have the owner (or someone designated by the owner) turn it off and disconnect the battery
Second best is to just turn it off
The owner may take the switch to ‘Off’ and then back to ‘Armed’
If this is done, stick around and monitor 121.5 to ensure it doesn’t go off again
If you can’t find the owner, you may have to build a foil ‘tent’ (refer to CAPP-2)

**Second best is to just turn it off**
**The owner may take the switch to ‘Off’ and then back to ‘Armed’**
**If this is done, stick around and monitor 121.5 to ensure it doesn’t go off again**
**If you can’t find the owner, you may have to build a foil ‘tent’ (refer to CAPP-2)**

**Silencing the ELT**

**Notes:**
10.10
Objective 10.7 – Describe how to silence an ELT and the legal issues involved.

## Silencing the ELT

**Foil Tent**
**1’ x 5’**
**Encloses antenna**
**Flaps at least 18” beyond antenna on fuselage**
**Securely taped (masking tape preferred)**

**Notes:**
Be very careful not to damage the antenna or the paint (assume the owner won’t find it for awhile)

## Ensure that the owner is notified that the ELT was disabled
If you can’t get a phone number, you can place a note on the aircraft (not the window)

**If you can’t get a phone number, you can place a note on the aircraft (not the window)**

**Silencing the ELT**

**Notes:**
Can make your own.

## Per CAPR 60-1 Chapter 1, CAP members will not enter private property and should not do anything that could cause harm or damage to the distress beacon or aircraft/boat
Entry to the ELT should be made by the owner or operator or law enforcement
A transmitting ELT is under the legal authority of the FCC, and federal law requires that it be deactivated ASAP (a crashed aircraft is under the authority of the NTSB)

**Entry to the ELT should be made by the owner or operator or law enforcement**
**A transmitting ELT is under the legal authority of the FCC, and federal law requires that it be deactivated ASAP (a crashed aircraft is under the authority of the NTSB)**

**Legal Issues**

**Notes:**
Don’t let all this legal stuff intimidate you; its your job to find it and silence it.

## CAP members do not have the authority to trespass onto private property, either to gain access to the aircraft or to enter the aircraft to gain access to the ELT
Besides the owner/operator, some owners give FBO personnel permission to enter their aircraft

**Besides the owner/operator, some owners give FBO personnel permission to enter their aircraft**

**Legal Issues**

## While entry upon private property may be justified if such an act is for the purpose of saving life, every effort should be made to obtain the controlling agency's and/or the property owner's consent
If you need entry onto private property in order to search for an ELT, law enforcement authorities such as local police, the county sheriff's office or game wardens may be contacted for assistance. 

**If you need entry onto private property in order to search for an ELT, law enforcement authorities such as local police, the county sheriff's office or game wardens may be contacted for assistance. **

**Legal Issues**

## Normally, local law enforcement officials are happy to assist you; if they are not familiar with CAP and your responsibilities, a simple explanation often suffices
If this doesn't work, try calling AFRCC and have them explain the situation

**If this doesn't work, try calling AFRCC and have them explain the situation**

**Legal Issues**

## The most important aspect is the manner in which you approach the matter
The local civil authorities are in charge, if they tell you go home, then phone the IC and/or AFRCC and close the mission

**The local civil authorities are in charge, if they tell you go home, then phone the IC and/or AFRCC and close the mission**

**Legal Issues**

**Notes:**
Friendliness, courtesy and respect go a long way.

## QUESTIONS?Good Hunting!

- ©2000 Scott E. Lanis

**Notes:**
Be sure to submit paperwork for “Find” and “Save” awards (CAPF 2a) for yourself and your crew.

## Visual Search Patterns and Procedures(Chapter 11)

## Plan and describe how to fly the following search patterns:
Route (track crawl) {O; 11.2}
Parallel track (sweep) {O; 11.3}
Creeping line {O; 11.4}
Point-based (expanding square and sector) {O; 11.5 & 11.6}
Discuss how to plan and fly a Contour search pattern {O; 11.7}

**Route (track crawl)**** {O; 11.2}**
**Parallel track (sweep)**** {O; 11.3}**
**Creeping line**** {O; 11.4}**
**Point-based (expanding square and sector)**** {O; 11.5 & 11.6}**
**Discuss how to plan and fly a C****ontour search pattern**** {O; 11.7}**

**Objectives**

## “Hey! Wait a minute. This is stupid.”
Do my headings, waypoints, lat/long coordinates, and distances look sensible
Perform:
After planning
When you start your pattern
Periodically thereafter

**Do my headings, waypoints, lat/long coordinates, and distances look *****sensible***
**Perform:**
**After planning**
**When you start your pattern**
**Periodically thereafter**

**The “Stupid Check”**

**Notes:**
Give examples.
You’ll be surprised how often this catches mistakes.

## The following examples and worksheets are covered to aid in pre-planning a search pattern
Designed for non-moving map GPS, but include all the information you need to set up the GX55
Advantages of pre-planning:
Sets the details of the sortie in your mind
Makes entering data (correctly) into your GPS easier
Allows pilot and observer to concentrate on their primary task by minimizing navaid setup time and reducing confusion

**Designed for non-moving map GPS, but include all the information you need to set up the GX55**
**Advantages of pre-planning:**
**Sets the details of the sortie in your mind**
**Makes entering data (correctly) into your GPS easier**
**Allows pilot and observer to concentrate on their primary task by minimizing navaid setup time and reducing confusion**

**Examples**

**Notes:**
Examples taken from the St. Louis sectional, south of Indianapolis.

## One minute latitude = 1.0018 nm
Fly one minute north or south, cover one nautical mile        (a 1-nm leg width)
One minute longitude = anywhere from 0.6572 to 0.9152 nm in the continental U.S.
Means you’ll have to fly anywhere from 1.1 – 1.4 minutes of longitude (east or west) to cover one nautical mile
Not hard to do, but for training we will use one minute = one mile, even though we’ll be flying less than 1-nm leg widths
To get the relationship in your area, go to http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~cvm/latlongdist.php

**Fly one minute north or south, cover one nautical mile        (a 1-nm leg width)**
**One minute longitude = anywhere from 0.6572 to 0.9152 nm in the continental U.S.**
**Means you’ll have to fly anywhere from 1.1 – 1.4 minutes of longitude (east or west) to cover one nautical mile**
**Not hard to do,**** but for training**** ****we will use**** ****one minute = one mile****, even though we’ll be flying less than 1-nm leg widths**
**To get the relationship in your area, go to http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~cvm/latlongdist.php**

**Latitude, Longitude and Distance (and the GPS)**

**Notes:**
For use with non-moving map (GX55) GPS.

## Route search pattern

**Track of missing aircraft**

**1/2 S**

**1/2 S**

**Track of search aircraft**

**Notes:**
Used when aircraft missing without a trace - also used at night.
Rapid and reasonably thorough coverage near the expected track.

## Assume we’re searching for an aircraft along Highway 46, between Columbus and Greensburg:
Draw the route on the worksheet
Include significant turns in the highway and other identifiers such as towns, airports and major intersections
Search two miles either side of the highway

**Draw the route on the worksheet**
**Include significant turns in the highway and other identifiers such as towns, airports and major intersections**
**Search two miles either side of the highway**

**Route search example**

**Notes:**
Cover and move to next slide.

## Route search worksheet example

**Notes:**
11.2
Objective 11.1 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a route search.
Explain all information on the worksheet and ask questions to make sure the students understand completely.
GX55: “Parallel Track Offset" function allows you to create a parallel course that is offset to the left or right from your current flight plan by up to 20 nm.

## Parallel Track search pattern

**Notes:**
Used for large and fairly level search areas.  Grid search uses this pattern.  Can be done East/West or North/South.

## Assume we’re searching STL #104-D for a missing aircraft:
Quarter-grid, 7.5'  x 7.5'
Enter the northeast corner
One nm track spacing
North/South legs
No aircraft assigned to adjacent grids

**Quarter-grid, 7.5'  x 7.5'**
**Enter the northeast corner**
**One nm track spacing**
**North/South legs**
**No aircraft assigned to adjacent grids**

**Grid search example**

**Notes:**
Cover and move to next slide.

##  GX55 Data

** **_**GX55 Data**_
** ****Type Grid & Sectional: ****US , STL**
** ****Pattern: ****Parallel Line**
** ****Grid: ****104D2**
** ****Spacing: ****1 nm**
** ****Direction of Travel: ****N/S**

**Notes:**
11.3
Objective 11.2 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a parallel (grid) search.
Explain all information on the worksheet and ask questions to make sure the students understand completely.
GX55: Type of Grid and Sectional (US grid, STL); Type of pattern (Parallel Line); Grid (104D2, where '2' indicates entering the northeast corner of D quadrant *); Spacing (1 nm); Direction of Travel (N/S)
The GX55 identifies the corners of quadrants by numbers: 1 = enter the NW corner; 2 = NE corner; 3 = SE corner; and 4 = SW corner.  In our example you would enter "104D2.“
Note: If you wish, record this data separately (e.g., a list or table) to make it even easier to enter into the GX55.  The example, above, and the other examples that follow are listed in the sequence that you enter them into the GX55.

## Creeping Line search pattern

**s**

**s**

**s**

**s**

**s**

**Direction of Search**

**Notes:**
Used when fairly sure of the area.  Extended line of the intended airport runways.  Also specific sections of highways or victor airways.

Used when search area is long, narrow, fairly level and target is thought to be on either side of the expected track.

## Assume we’re searching for an aircraft along Highway 31:
Draw the route on the worksheet
Start at the intersection of Hwy 31/9 (southeast of Columbus)
Stop at the intersection of Hwy 31/50 (east of Seymour)
Search three miles either side of Hwy 31
1-nm track spacing

**Draw the route on the worksheet**
**Start at the intersection of Hwy 31/9 (southeast of Columbus)**
**Stop at the intersection of Hwy 31/50 (east of Seymour)**
**Search three miles either side of Hwy 31**
**1-nm track spacing**

**Creeping Line search example**

**Notes:**
Cover and move to next slide.

## Creeping Line search worksheet example

**Notes:**
11.4
Objective 11.3 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a creeping line search.
Explain all information on the worksheet and ask questions to make sure the students understand completely.

## Assume we’re searching for an aircraft along the extended runway centerline of BMG runway 06:
Draw the route on the worksheet
Search 10 nm beyond the end of runway 06 (southwest)
Search three miles either side of the extended centerline
1-nm track spacing

**Draw the route on the worksheet**
**Search 10 nm beyond the end of runway 06 (southwest)**
**Search three miles either side of the extended centerline**
**1-nm track spacing**

**Creeping Line search example****(CDI method)**

**Notes:**
Cover and move to next slide.

##  GX55 Data

**(CDI)**

** **_**GX55 Data**_
** ****Type Grid & Sectional: ****US , STL**
** ****Pattern: ****Creeping Line**
** ****Starting Waypoint: ****BMG**
** ****Spacing: ****1 nm**
** ****Direction of Travel: ****060o **
** ****Leg Length: ****3 nm**
** ****Start Side: ****Right**

**Notes:**
11.4
Objective 11.3 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a creeping line search.
Explain all information on the worksheet and ask questions to make sure the students understand completely.
GX55: Type of Grid and Sectional (US grid, STL); Type of pattern (Creeping Line); Starting Waypoint (the airport, BMG); Spacing (1 nm); Direction of Travel (the runway heading, 060o); Leg Length (3 nm *); Start Side (Right)
* 9.9 nm is the longest leg length you can select on the GX55.

## Expanding Square search pattern (second pass rotated 45°)

**4S**

**S**

**3S**

**5S**

**4S**

**2S**

**3S**

**5S**

**Notes:**
Used when the approximate location of target is known.  Difficult to fly accurately without a GPS.  Use cardinal headings whenever possible to reduce confusion during turns.
Gradually will cover a larger and larger area.

## Assume we’re searching for a missing ultra-light:
Draw the route on the worksheet
Center is a 483 AGL tower approximately 8 nm west of Seymour
Use cardinal headings, starting to the north

**Draw the route on the worksheet**
**Center is a 483 AGL tower approximately 8 nm west of Seymour**
**Use cardinal headings, starting to the north**

**Expanding Square search example**

**Notes:**
Cover and move to next slide.

##  GX55 Data

** **_**GX55 Data**_
** ****Type Grid & Sectional: ****US , STL**
** ****Pattern: ****Expanding Square**
** ****Starting Waypoint: ****N 38o 59 ́ W 86o 10 ́ **
** ****Spacing: ****1 nm**
** ****Direction of Travel: ****000o **

**Notes:**
11.5
Objective 11.4 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a point-based (expanding square) search.
Explain all information on the worksheet and ask questions to make sure the students understand completely.
GX55: Type of Grid and Sectional (US grid, STL); Type of pattern (Expanding Square); Starting Waypoint (483 ́ AGL tower approximately eight nm west of Seymour, N 38o 59 ́ W 86o 10 ́); Spacing (1 nm); Direction of Travel (due north, 000o)

## Sector search pattern

**Sector search is easier to fly**
**than expanding square**

**The pattern provides concentrated**
**coverage near the center of the area**

**This pattern is used when an **
**electronic search has led the**
**crew to a general area to find**
**the exact location visually**

**The pattern and headings**
**are planned in advance**

**S  max**

**S mean**

**Notes:**
11.6
Objective 11.4 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a point-based (sector) search.
Provides excellent coverage over the central point and provides the opportunity to view the suspected area from many angles (terrain and lighting problems are minimized).
Used when the position of the distress incident is known to be within close limits (i.e. there was a MAYDAY call with definite location).

## Contour search pattern

**This is a difficult and dangerous pattern to fly.**
**Requires special training such as the *****Mountain Flying***** course.**

**Notes:**
11.7
Objective 11.5 – Demonstrate knowledge of planning and flying a basic contour search.
Density altitude and aircraft performance limitations can cause you to get into a situation that you can’t get  out of.  Mountain Fury course.

## QUESTIONS?

## Step Through a Typical Mission

**(Chapter 13)**

## Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission: {P; 13.1}
Personal and aircraft items
CAPF 71
State the  flight time and crew duty limitations (per the current CAPR 60-1)
State the three unique entries made by a CAP pilot on a FAA Flight Plan and where they go on the flight plan
“IMSAFE” and flight release
Preflight & loading
Departure
Discuss the approach and your actions upon arrival at mission base, including the general briefing. {P; 13.2 & 13.4}

**Personal and aircraft items**
**CAPF 71**
**State the  flight time and crew duty limitations (per the current CAPR 60-1)**
**State the three unique entries made by a CAP pilot on a FAA Flight Plan and where they go on the flight plan**
**“****IMSAFE” and flight release**
**Preflight & loading**
**Departure**
**Discuss the approach and your actions upon arrival at mission base, including the general briefing. {P; 13.2 & 13.4}**

**Objectives**

## Discuss the six steps of ORM and the four principles involved. {P; 13.3}
Discuss the aircrew briefing. {P; 13.5}
Describe the information contained in and how to fill out the front of the CAPF 104. {P; 13.6}
Discuss the items checked and actions taken before leaving on a sortie: {P; 13.7}
Release and preparation
Preflight and Departure
State when the ‘sterile cockpit’ rules starts and ends
Discuss duties during the sortie, including: {P; 13.8}
Preparations prior to entering the search area
Required radio reports
State when the ‘sterile cockpit’ rules starts and ends

**Discuss the aircrew briefing. {P; 13.5}**
**Describe the information contained in and how to fill out the front of the CAPF 104. {P; 13.6}**
**Discuss the items checked and actions taken before leaving on a sortie: {P; 13.7}**
**Release and preparation**
**Preflight and Departure**
**State when the ‘sterile cockpit’ rules starts and ends**
**Discuss duties during the sortie, including: {P; 13.8}**
**Preparations prior to entering the search area**
**Required radio reports**
**State when the ‘sterile cockpit’ rules starts and ends**

**Objectives**

## Discuss your actions upon arrival back at mission base. {P; 13.9}
Describe the information contained in and how to fill out the back of the CAPF 104. {P; 13.10}
Discuss the aircrew debriefing. {P; 13.11}
Discuss your actions upon arrival back home, including: {P; 13.12}
What to do with the aircraft
What to do if you observe signs of post-traumatic stress
When the mission is officially over for you and your crew

**Describe the information contained in and how to fill out the back of the CAPF 104. {P; 13.10}**
**Discuss the aircrew debriefing. {P; 13.11}**
**Discuss your actions upon arrival back home, including: {P; 13.12}**
**What to do with the aircraft**
**What to do if you observe signs of post-traumatic stress**
**When the mission is officially over for you and your crew**

**Objectives**

## What’s the Rush?

**Why do we go to so much trouble to train mission aircrew members and encourage members to spend the time it takes to stay proficient?**
***Time is such a critical factor***** in missing person or aircraft crash searches**
**Treat every minute after you been alerted as critical to the survival chances of the victims**

## Survival Rates

**Of the 29% who survive a crash, 60% will be injured:**
**81% will die if not located within 24 hours**
**94% will die if not located within 48 hours**
**Of those 40% uninjured in the crash:**
**50% will die if not located within 72 hours**
**Survival chances diminish rapidly after 72 hours**

**Notes:**
All percentages are approximate; all times are average times (i.e., 50% are faster and 50% slower).

## Response Times

**Average time from the aircraft being reported missing to AFRCC notification:**
**15.6 hours if no flight plan was filed**
**3.9 hours if a VFR flight plan was filed**
**1.1 hours if an IFR flight plan was filed**
**Average time from the aircraft being reported missing (LKP) to CAP locating and recovering:**
**62.6 hours if no flight plan was filed**
**18.2 hours if a VFR flight plan was filed**
**11.5 hours if an IFR flight plan was filed**

**Notes:**
All percentages are approximate; all times are average times (i.e., 50% are faster and 50% slower).

## What’s the Rush?

**What do these statistics tell us?**
**We must take each mission seriously!**
**Strive to do everything better, smarter and faster!**
**Training, practice and pre-planning help us accomplish these goals**
**Also tells us, as pilots, to *****always***** file a flight plan**

## Leaving Home Base

**Proper uniforms per CAPM 39-1**
**Required credentials**
**Current charts for the entire trip (gridded, if you have them)**
**Personal supplies and money**
**Equipment such as cell phone and flashlights (including spare batteries)**
**Charts and maps**

**NOTE: Mission Pilots may skip the portions that**
**were covered in Chapter 12, Phases of Flight**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission: personal and aircraft items; CAPF 71; state the crew duty limitations (per the current CAPF 60-1); state the three unique entries made by a CAP pilot on an FAA Flight Plan and where they go on the plan; flight release; preflight and departure.

## Leaving Home Base

**Check the Weight and balance, CO monitor & Fire Extinguisher status, fuel reserve and management plan, Discrepancy Log**
**Tie-downs, chocks, Pitot cover and engine plugs**
**Equipment such as fuel tester, survival kit, binoculars, sick sacks, and cleaning supplies**

**Notes:**
Note: If you cancel, remember to cancel any hotel and automobile reservations.

## Leaving Home Base

**Obtain briefing and file FAA Flight Plan**
**Complete “Inbound” 104 and get released by FRO**

**Notes:**
File an FAA flight plan whenever possible, even when under a CAPF 104 or 84; use flight following.

## Leaving Home Base“IMSAFE”

**I***llness*
**M***edication*
**S***tress*
**A***lcohol*
**F***atigue*
**E***motion*

## FROChecklist(60-1)

**Notes:**
CAPR 60-1 Attachment 8

## Pre-flight begins even before you even get to the aircraft

## Preflight

**Check the aircraft:  Pre-flight (e.g., CAPF 71, *****CAP Aircraft Inspection Checklist*****)**
**Check the date and starting Tach & Hobbs times to ensure you won't exceed*****:***
**mid-cycle oil change (40-60 hours, not to exceed four months)**
**100-hour/Annual**
**24-month Transponder inspection, Pitot-Static system inspection, Altimeter calibration, & ELT inspection/Battery replacement date**
**30-day VOR check for IFR flight**
**Check the AD compliance list**
** ****Fill in the CAP flight log**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission.

## Preflight

**Check the Discrepancy Log; ensure ****no discrepancy makes the aircraft unsafe for flight or reduces your ability to accomplish the mission**
**Verify any outstanding discrepancies during your aircraft preflight.  If new discrepancies are discovered, log them and ensure the aircraft is still airworthy and mission ready**
**During loading, ensure that all supplies and equipment correspond to what you used in your Weight & Balance**
**Windshield and windows are clean, and that the chocks, tie-downs, and Pitot tube covers/engine plugs are stowed**
**Check and test special equipment**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission.

## Preflight

**Check parking area for obstacles, arrange for marshaller or  wing-walker**
**The mission pilot will perform the passenger briefing and review the emergency egress procedure.  The pilot should also brief the crew on the fuel management plan and assumptions, and assign responsibility for inquiring about fuel status once an hour.**
**The pilot will review the taxi plan and taxiway diagram, and assign crew responsibilities for taxi**
**Once everyone is settled in, organize the cockpit and review the "Engine Fire on Start" procedure**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission.

## Departure

**Always use the checklists; use the challenge/response method**
**Seat belts and shoulder harness (always <1000 AGL)**
**Collision avoidance!  ****An increasing number of taxi mishaps are the number one trend in CAP.  Investigations reveal that pilots are: straying from designated taxi routes, not allowing adequate clearance, not considering the tail and wings during turns, taxiing too fast for conditions, taxiing with obscured visibility, distracted by cockpit duties, and not using other crewmembers to ensure clearance.**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission.

## Departure

**CAPR 60-1 taxi rules*****:***
**Taxi no faster than a slow walk when within 10 feet of obstacles**
**Maintain at least 50' behind light single-engine aircraft, 100' behind small multi-engine and jet aircraft, and 500' behind heavies and taxiing helicopters**
**Go over the crew assignments for takeoff and departure and make sure each crewmember knows in which direction they should be looking during each.**
***Remind the crew that midair collisions are most likely to occur in daylight VFR conditions within five miles of an airport at or below 3,000’ AGL*****!  This means that most midair collisions occur in or near the traffic pattern.  Since the pilot has only one set of eyes, this (and aircraft design) leaves several 'blind spots' that the observer and scanner must cover -- particularly between your 4 and 8 o'clock positions.**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission.

## Departure

**Be sure and include the DF unit's Alarm light self-test in your scan during startup.  The light should blink for several seconds; if it doesn't your unit may be inoperative.**
**Ensure that the DF, Audio Panel and FM radio are set up properly.  If possible, perform an FM radio check.  Select your initial VOR radial(s) and GPS setting (e.g., destination or flight plan).**
**Obtain ATIS and Clearance (read back all clearances and hold-short instructions).  Then verify the crosswind limitation.  Set up the navigational instruments (e.g., VOR radials and GPS destination, entry points and waypoints)**
**Once you begin taxiing, check your brakes**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission.

## Departure

***Sterile cockpit rules are now in effect***
**Keep the checklist close at hand, open to Emergency Procedures**
**Check for landing aircraft before taking the active**
**At takeoff, start the Observer Log with the time and Hobbs for "Wheels Up“**
**The FAA's "operation lights on" encourages pilots to keep aircraft lights on when operating within 10 miles of an airport, or wherever flocks of birds may be expected**
**While departing the airport environs practice collision avoidance and maintain the sterile cockpit until well clear of traffic and obstacles.  The pilot should use shallow S-turns and lift a wing before turns to check for traffic.  The crew must keep each other appraised of conflicting aircraft and obstacles**

**Notes:**
13.1
Objective 13.1 – Discuss the items you should check before leaving on a mission.

## Arrival at Mission Base

**Obtain ATIS (or AWOS) as soon as possible.  May be able to contact mission base on FM radio.**
**Review taxi plan/airport taxi diagram and make crew assignments for approach, landing and taxi**
**Make sure each crewmember knows in which direction they should be looking during each.  *****Remind the crew that midair collisions are most likely to occur in daylight VFR conditions within five miles of an airport at or below 3,000’ AGL*****!  This means that most midair collisions occur in the traffic pattern, with over half occurring on final approach**
***Sterile cockpit rules are now in effect***

**Notes:**
13.2 & 13.4
Objective 13.2 – Discuss the approach and landing, and your actions upon arrival at mission base, including the general briefing.

## Return to Base – Basic Pattern

**Notes:**
Cover the standard pattern, including how to over fly, enter and depart.  Discuss radio calls to use and when.
Discuss danger of high-wing and low-wing aircraft entering/departing at the same time.

## Arrival at Mission Base

**Practice collision avoidance by turning the aircraft exterior lights on when within 10 miles of the airport.  The pilot should use shallow S-turns and lift a wing before turns to check for traffic.  Read back all clearances and hold-short instructions**
**Defer after-landing checks until clear**
**Log and report "Wheels Down"**** **
**Watch for Marshallers and follow their directions, signal Ignition Switch OFF (hold keys out the window) so they can chock**

**Notes:**
13.2 & 13.4
Objective 13.2 – Discuss the approach and landing, and your actions upon arrival at mission base, including the general briefing.

## Arrival at Mission Base(with style)

## Arrival at Mission Base

**Secure the aircraft****:**
**Avionics/Control lock, Master Switch OFF**
**Tie-downs, chocks, Pitot tube cover and engine plugs**
**Close windows, Fuel Selector Switch in 'Right' or 'Left,' and Parking Brake OFF; remove personal items and special equipment; lock the doors and baggage compartment.**
**Oil & fuel, clean windows and leading edges**
**Close FAA flight plan, call FRO**
**Check aircrew and aircraft into the mission**
**Complete “Inbound” 104**
**Get sortie assignment**
**Determine food and lodging**

**Notes:**
13.2 & 13.4
Objective 13.2 – Discuss the approach and landing, and your actions upon arrival at mission base, including the general briefing.

## General Briefing

**Mission objective and status**
**Safety and hazards**
**Mission base procedures**
**Weather**
**Frequencies**
**Code words**

**Notes:**
Ask questions during the briefing.

## Operational Risk Management

**Accomplish the mission with the least possible risk.**
**More than common sense, more than just a safety program.**
**Educated (informed) risk versus taking a gamble.**
**Part of the CAP culture.**

**Notes:**
13.3
Objective 13.3 – Discuss the six steps of ORM and the four principles involved.

## ORM – Six Steps

**Identify the hazards**
**Assess the risks**
**Analyze risk control measures**
**Make control decisions**
**Implement risk controls**
**Supervise and review**

**Notes:**
Discuss the six steps of ORM..

## ORM Principles

**Accept no ****unnecessary**** risks.**
**Make risk decisions at the appropriate level.**
**Accept risk when the benefits outweigh the costs.**
**Integrate ORM into CAP practices, procedures, and planning at all levels.**

**Notes:**
Discuss the four principles of ORM.

## ORM and the Aircrew

**Acknowledge risks in order to deal with them.**
**Each crewmember is responsible to look for risks.**
**Don’t ignore risks; if you can’t eliminate or reduce the risk, tell someone.**
**PIC has ultimate authority and responsibility to deal with risks during the sortie.**
**PIC has the ****responsibility to inform**** his or her crew of the risks involved, and to listen to and address their concerns.**

**Notes:**
Discuss how ORM applies to the aircrew.

## Aircrew Briefing

**Sortie Objectives**
**Weather**
**Altitudes**
**Duties**

**Notes:**
13.5
Objective 13.4 – Discuss the aircrew briefing.
Understanding all of the conditions of the flight will better prepare you to do your job.
Prior to each flight the pilot-in-command will brief the crew and passengers.  This briefing will include essential information regarding the flight, such as route, weather, altitudes, and duties, and specific information concerning  the aircraft, such as survival equipment, emergency exits and in-flight emergency procedures.  Pay attention.  
Know what your looking for, where you’ll be going, what to expect, what you’ll be doing.
When you have an emergency it’s too late to discuss what you’re going to do.
If you don’t understand something ask.

## CAPF 104Front- Flight Plan- Briefing form

**Notes:**
13.6
Objective 13.5 – Describe the information contained in and how to fill out the front of the CAPF 104. [Go over each block.]  Stress “Route of Flight” and “Estimated Time Enroute” versus “Fuel Onboard.”

## QUESTIONS?

## Preparing to Leave on a Sortie

**Check in with briefing officer**
**Check in with air operations**
**Present 104 to flight line supervisor**
**Pilot pre-flights aircraft**
**Observer checks mission equipment and supplies**
**Review flight time and duty limitations**
**Final restroom visit**

**Notes:**
13.7
Objective 13.6 – Discuss the items checked and actions taken before leaving on a sortie: release and preparation; preflight and departure; state when the “sterile cockpit” begins and ends.

## Preparing to Leave on a Sortie

**Pilot’s briefing:**
**Seat belts and shoulder harness, no smoking**
**Seat belts & shoulder harness, emergency egress procedure**
**Fuel management plan and assumptions**
**Taxi plan/diagram, crew assignments**
**Startup and Taxi emergency procedures**
**When sterile cockpit rules are in effect**
**When more than one flight is accomplished by the same crew during the day, subsequent briefings are not required to be so detailed but must, at a minimum, highlight differences and changes from the original briefing**

**Notes:**
13.7
Objective 13.6 – Discuss the items checked and actions taken before leaving on a sortie: release and preparation; preflight and departure; state when the “sterile cockpit” begins and ends.

## Preparing to Leave on a Sortie

**If this is the first sortie of the day the observer will perform an FM radio check with mission base; you may also perform a DF functional check if this is an ELT search.  Other special equipment should also be tested before the first sortie.**** **
**Enter sortie settings into the GPS (destination or flight plan, entry points and waypoints)**

**Notes:**
13.7
Objective 13.6 – Discuss the items checked and actions taken before leaving on a sortie: release and preparation; preflight and departure; state when the “sterile cockpit” begins and ends.

## Taxi Mishaps

**Becoming a bigger problem each year (#1 trend in CAP)**
**Pilots are:**
**straying from designated taxi routes**
**not allowing adequate clearance and not considering the tail and wings during turns**
**taxiing too fast for conditions and taxiing with obscured visibility**
**distracted by cockpit duties**
**not using other crewmembers to ensure clearance**** **
**Strategies:**
**Thorough planning and preparation eliminates distractions**
**Crew assignments for taxi**
**Treat taxiing with the seriousness it deserves**
**Sterile cockpit rules**

## Taxi and Departure

***The sterile cockpit rules begin at this time***
**Startup, taxi and departure were covered earlier**
**If there are flight line Marshallers, they will expect you to turn on your rotating beacon and signal the impending engine start before starting the engine.  You are also expected to signal (e.g., turn on your pulse light or flash your taxi/landing light) before beginning to taxi.**
**Observer begins Observer Log with time and Hobbs, reports “Wheels Up”**
**Takeoff, climb and departure were covered earlier**
**Once clear of the airport/controlled airspace environs the crew settles into the transit phase**

**Notes:**
13.7
Objective 13.6 – Discuss the items checked and actions taken before leaving on a sortie: release and preparation; preflight and departure; state when the “sterile cockpit” begins and ends.

## During the Sortie

**Depending on circumstances (e.g., the airspace is still congested or multiple obstacles are present) the sterile cockpit rules are normally suspended at this time.  *****The aircrew maintains situational awareness at all times during the flight***
**Double-check navigational settings that will be used in the search area, review search area terrain and obstacles, review methods to reduce crew fatigue during the search or to combat high altitude effects.**
**Update in-flight weather, file PIREPs, periodically check navigational equipment against each other to detect abnormalities or failures**** **

**Notes:**
13.8
Objective 13.7 – Discuss duties during the sortie, including: preparations prior to entering the search area; required radio reports; state when the “sterile cockpit” rules begin and end.

## During the Sortie

**The pilot should stabilize the aircraft at the assigned search heading, altitude and airspeed at least two miles before you enter the search area, and turn sufficient aircraft exterior lights on to maximize visibility (so others can "see and avoid")**** **
**Observer logs and reports “Entering the Search Area,” ****primary duty is now Scanner**
**Periodic “Ops Normal” reports, Observer asks about fuel status and altimeter setting at least hourly**
**Scanner and observer logs, sketches**

**Notes:**
13.8
Objective 13.7 – Discuss duties during the sortie, including: preparations prior to entering the search area; required radio reports; state when the “sterile cockpit” rules begin and end.

## During the Sortie

**During the actual search or assessment, the aircrew must be ****completely honest**** with each other concerning their own condition and other factors affecting search effectiveness.  If you missed something, or think you saw something, say so.  If you have a question, ask.**
**If target spotted notify mission base *****immediately*****; begin recovery *****ASAP***
**Mission commander monitors for fatigue, ensures crew drinks enough fluids, schedules breaks**

**Notes:**
13.8
Objective 13.7 – Discuss duties during the sortie, including: preparations prior to entering the search area; required radio reports; state when the “sterile cockpit” rules begin and end.

## Return to Base

**When the aircraft completes its mission and leaves the search area, the observer notes the time and the Hobbs reading and reports "Leaving the Search Area“**
**Double-check heading and altitude with what was assigned for transit to the next search area or return to base.**
**Reorganize the cockpit in preparation for approach and landing.**
**Approach, landing and arrival were covered earlier**

**Notes:**
13.9
Objective 13.8 – Discuss your actions upon arrival back at mission base.

## Return to Base

**Check back in and take a break**
**Drawings or markings made on charts or maps should be transferred onto the CAPF 104 or attached to it**
**Make sure everything is clear and legible**
***The two most common entries overlooked***** when completing the CAP flight plan (front side of the CAPF 104) are "*****ATD*****" (actual time of departure) and "*****Actual LDG Time*****."**

**Notes:**
13.9
Objective 13.8 – Discuss your actions upon arrival back at mission base.

## CAPF 104Reverse

**Notes:**
13.10
Objective 13.9 – Describe the information contained in and how to fill out the back of the CAPF 104. [Go over each block.]

## Debriefing

**Note both ****Positive**** and ****Negative**** results**
**Use the reverse of CAPF 104**
**Used to determine how effective the search was:**
**Weather — ****shadows, visibility, snow cover**
**Terrain — ****open, flat, mountainous, rough**
**Ground Cover — ****barren, forest, scrub, sparse, dense**
**Other information — ****hazards, changes from plan**
**Used to calculate the “****probability of detection****” that is used for subsequent search planning**

**Notes:**
13.11
Objective 13.10 – Discuss the aircrew debriefing.
What you don’t see may be just as important as what you do see.
Be sure to report any possible targets spotted that were identified as other things, refrigerators, scrap metal, etc.  This will help others who search the same area if they know you’ve already identified the object.

## Debriefing

**Complete the reverse side of the CAPF 104**
**Discuss items on the 104**
**Assemble attachments**
**Report to debriefer**
**Be ****TOTALLY HONEST**** during the debriefing**

## Debriefing

**Crew comments about effectiveness**
**Crew remarks of SAR effectiveness**
**Times (and Hobbs readings)**
**Sketches and attachments**
**Be ****TOTALLY HONEST**** during the debriefing**

## End of the Mission

**Turn in equipment and supplies**
**Settle fuel, food and lodging bills**
**Plan the trip home**
**Fill out “Outbound” CAPF 104**
**Check weather and file FAA Flight Plan**
**Check out with mission staff, obtain flight release**

## The Trip Home

**Maintain crew discipline and continue to use mission procedures and checklists**
**SAR personnel can experience post-traumatic stress, so look for signs (refer to CAPR 60-5)**
**Once on the ground, secure the aircraft and ready it for its next mission**
**Close FAA Flight Plan**
**Complete the “Outbound” 104**
**Ensure ability to complete CAPF 108**
**Once everyone is at home****, call mission base with Hobbs from the ‘Outbound’ 104**

**Notes:**
13.12
Objective 13.11 – Discuss your actions upon arrival back home, including: what to do with the aircraft; what to do if you observe signs of post-traumatic stress; when the mission is officially over for you and your crew.

## Local Drills and Exercises

**Easy**
**Inexpensive**
**Very efficient**
**Very worthwhile**
**Fun**

**Notes:**
13.13
Conducting Local Exercises

## QUESTIONS?

## Crew Resource Management(Chapter 14)

**Notes:**
The Aircrew is a TEAM. Each has a job to perform. You must work together to be effective.

## Discuss failures and error chain. {O; 14.2}
Discuss situational awareness. {O; 14.3}
Discuss how to regain SA once lost. {14.4}
Describe barriers to communications.      {O; 14.5}
Define/discuss task saturation. {O; 14.6}
Discuss assignments and coordination of duties. {O; 14.8}

**Discuss situational awareness. {O; 14.3}**
**Discuss how to regain SA once lost. {14.4}**
**Describe barriers to communications.      {O; 14.5}**
**Define/discuss task saturation. {O; 14.6}**
**Discuss assignments and coordination of duties. {O; 14.8}**

**Objectives**

## Why CRM?

**Properly trained aircrew members can collectively perform complex tasks better and make more accurate decisions than the single best performer on the team**
**An untrained team's overall performance can be significantly worse than the performance of its weakest single member**
**We will cover behavior and attitudes of teamwork and communication among team members**

## Why CRM?

_**CAP**_**	****	****	**_**1996**_**	**_**1997**_**	**_**1998**_**	**_**1999**_**	**_**2000**_**	**
**Aircraft accidents****	****9****	****5****	****6****	****3****	****1****	**
**Per 100,000 hours****	****7.79****	****4.16****	****4.76****	****2.34****	****0.94****	**
**A/C flight incidents****	****28****	****27****	****19****	****12****	****16****	**
**A/C ground incidents****	****7****	****8****	****3****	****6****	****8****	**
**Fatalities****	****	****	****7****	****2****	****3****	****2****	****0****	**

## Why CRM?

_**MISHAP**_**	****	**_**1998**_**	****	**_**1999**_**	****	**_**2000**_**	**
**Taxi****	****	****	****9****	****	****4****	****	****9****	**
**Ground****	****	****4****	****	****6****	****	****3****	**
**Landing****	****	****8****	****	****8****	****	****10****	**
**Other****	****	****4****	****	****3****	****	****2**

## Failures

**Parts and equipment****.**
- Mechanical failures
**People.**
- Human failures

**Notes:**
14.2
Objective 14.1 – Discuss failures and the error chain.

## The Error Chain

**A series of event links that, when considered together, cause a mishap**
**Should **_**any**_** **_**one**_** of the links be “****broken****,” then the mishap probably will not occur**
**It is up to each crewmember to ****recognize**** a link and break the error chain**

**Notes:**
14.2
Objective 14.1 – Discuss failures and the error chain.

## Situational Awareness (SA)

**Know what is going on around you at all times**
**Requires:**
**Good mental health**
**Good physical health**
**Attentiveness**
**Inquisitiveness**

**Notes:**
14.3
Objective 14.2 – Discuss situational awareness.

## Loss of SA

-  **Strength of an Idea**
** ****Hidden agenda**
** ****Complacency**
** ****Accommodation**
** ****Sudden Loss of Judgement**

## Symptoms of Loss of SA

** ****Fixation**
** ****Ambiguity**
** ****Complacency**
** ****Euphoria**
** ****Confusion**
** ****Distraction**
** ****Overload**

## Hazardous Attitudes

**Anti-authority**
** ****Impulsiveness**
** ****Invulnerability**
** ****Macho**
** ****Resignation**
** ****Get There It-us**

## Regaining SA

**  ****Reduce workload: ****Suspend the mission.**
** ****Reduce threats:**
**Get away from the ground and other obstacles (e.g., climb to a safe altitude).**** **
**Establish a stable flight profile where you can safely analyze the situation.**** **
** ****Remember: ****“Aviate, Navigate, Communicate”**

**Notes:**
14.4
Objective 14.3 - Discuss how to regain SA once lost.

## How do we get it back?

**  ****Trust your gut feelings**
** “****Time Out,” “Abort,” or “This is Stupid.”**
**Pilot establishes aircraft in a safe and stable configuration, and then discuss the problem**
** ****Sterile Cockpit**
**Limit talk to the minimum necessary for safety.**
**Taxi, takeoff, departure, low-level flying, approach, landing**

**Notes:**
14.4
Objective 14.3 - Discuss how to regain SA once lost.

## QUESTIONS?

## Barriers to Communication

** ****Hearing**
**The biological function of receiving sounds, converting them to electrical impulses, and having the brain interpret them**
** ****Listening**
**Correctly identifying what the sender has sent in their message**

**Notes:**
14.5
Objective 14.4 – Discuss barriers to communication.

## Barriers to Communication

** ****Distracters**
**Physical/Mental:  Noise, static, simultaneous transmissions; fatigue and stress**
**Wording:  Incomplete or ambiguous message, too complex or uses unfamiliar terminology**
**Personal:  Boring, lack of rapport or lack of credibility**

## Task Saturation

** ****Too much information at one time**
** ****Too many tasks to accomplish in a given time**
** ****Usually occurs when an individual is   confronted with a new or unexpected situation and loses SA**

**Notes:**
14.6
Objective 14.5 – Define and discuss task saturation.

## Task Saturation

** ****Keep your workload to an acceptable level**
** ****If you feel overwhelmed, **_**tell**_** the others before becoming saturated and losing you situational awareness**
** ****Watch your team members for signs of saturation**

## Identification of Resources

** ****External and internal**
** ****Identify your resources, know where to find them, and how to use them to accomplish the mission**

## Assignment of Duties

** ****CAPR 60-3**
** ****Flight-related -- aircraft commander**
** ****Mission-related -- mission commander**

**Notes:**
14.8
Objective 14.6 – Discuss assignments and coordination of duties.

## Crew Coordination

** ****Understand and execute your assignments**
** ****Communicate**
** ****Question**

## Summary

**Pay close attention to all briefings**
**Understand the “big picture”**
**Watch for task overload in yourself and other crewmembers**
**67% of air transport accidents occur during 17% of the flight time - taxi, takeoff, departure, approach and landing.  Keep casual conversation and distractions to a minimum during these phases of flight.**
**Begin critical communications with instructions, then explain**

## Summary

**Successful missions hinge on each and every crewmember**
**Learn how to use the procedures and tools available to you, and use them correctly**
**Never stop learning**
**Don’t be afraid to ask questions**
**Never criticize someone for asking questions**
**Anyone can call “****Time Out****,” “****Abort****,” or “****This is Stupid****”**
**Remember that the Mission Pilot must make the final decision based on the crew’s input.**

## Questions?

## Review and Test

**Review and Test**

**Notes:**
Review material as appropriate and administer test.