# Presentation: 248941

## Emergency Management: The American Experience1900-2005 Claire B. Rubin, Editor

**Claire B. Rubin & Associates, Arlington VA**
**www.clairerubin.com**
**Public Entity Risk Institute**
**www.riskinstitute.org**

## 
If we do not   	understand 			history, 

We are
	destined to 			repeat it.

- If we do not   	understand 			history,
- We are
- 	destined to 			repeat it.

**Notes:**
The Disaster and Terrorism Time Lines provided basis for this work (show examples)

I was approached by Gerry Hoetmer the Executive Director of the Public Entity Risk Institute or PERI with the idea for this book.

The book took over three years to complete. Two  years into its development, Hurricanes Katrina/Rita and Wilma occurred. Got extension to include them. 

Also underway is a Century Time Line chart.

## Why This Book? 

- History of emergency management--in the US is:
- Complex
- Often tragic
- Always fascinating!
- The U.S. has always experienced disasters, but has not always had a public sector capability in emergency management.

**Notes:**
EM is a relatively new field, area of study.  Gradually Evolving, most recently to function effectively in the new HS environment

EM is one essential component of HS, which also includes efforts to
	Secure and protect our land, air, and sea borders;  
	Counter terrorism; and
	Protect our critical infrastructure as well as cyber-space.

EM has become more prominent in the past five years due to two major disaster events that shook this nation:
9/11--Largest terrorist event;
Hurricane Katrina—Largest natural disaster

EM is complex; often filled with great loss and tragedy;  and fascinating.  [e.g.,History Channel]  

## Why 105 Years? 

- A “century look” would have been tidier, but
- 	we covered 1900-2005.
- First five years of the 21st Century were highly dramatic in terms of disasters:
- 9/11: worst terrorism event in the U.S.
- Hurricane Katrina/Rita/Wilma: largest impact and most costly natural disasters to date.

**Notes:**
Many of  the 20th century events have become part of U.S. cultural history —the San Francisco earthquake, the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, and more recently Hurricane Andrew.

In 21th Century, I expect that 9/11 and Hurricane Katrina will be major milestones 

Past 5 years has seen an intense focus on EM within the public and private sectors as demonstrated by:
Investigations (IGs, GAO, Congressional oversight, news media), 
Studies (foundations and commissions), and,
The general public has called for changes in the way our nation deals with emergencies and disasters.

## What Questions Does the Book Address?

- Why did the federal government get involved in emergency management?
- Why and how has the role of the federal government changed?
- What role should the federal government have in major disasters and catastrophes?

**Notes:**
Three underlying  research questions:

Why did the federal government get involved in emergency management? 

Why and how has that role changed? 

What role should the federal government have in major and catastrophic disasters in the U.S?

## Research Approach 

- Convened Expert Advisory Committee:
- Helped guide the process
- Participated in two focus group sessions
- Carried out full review of draft
- Selected the author(s) for each chapter based on their extensive disaster research experience.
- Identified major “focusing” disaster events.
- Emphasized response and recovery processes.
- Identified changes in law, policies, response systems, and organizations.

**Notes:**
We convened an Advisory Committee drawn from:
Academia,
Local, state, federal EM departments,
Professional Associations, and 
Non-profit organizations.
We assembled a research and writing staff of nine authors with extensive disaster research experience.  The authors were drawn from both government and academia.
We use the major disaster events of the past 105 years to focus our analysis: 
Researchers and authors reviewed the literature and conducted interviews with emergency managers, and people who lived through many of these events. 
Each author was responsible for a “time band” or span of history.   
We analyzed EM within the context of Public Administration, i.e., the evolving roles, responsibilities, and actions of government agencies—primarily at the federal level.  We did not focus on private sector, non-profits, or voluntary agencies.
We focused primarily on the response and recovery aspects of the major focusing disasters.  
Those aspects included the organizations, mechanisms, and outcomes. 

## Scope of the Study  

- Focuses on response and recovery experiences and organizations.
- Highlights gradual public sector involvement.
- Disasters are discussed through case studies to illuminate:
- Changes in public policies and public administration
- Organizations formed in response to disasters
- Implications of changes made over time, for emergency management today, and in the future.

## Types of Disaster Events Studied 

- Natural
- Floods, earthquakes, pandemic, hurricanes, storms, and the dust bowl
- Man-Made/Accidental
- Urban fires, explosions, hazardous materials releases, oil spills
- Man-Made/Deliberate
- Sabotage, terrorism.

**Notes:**
The disaster focusing events we studied fell into three categories:

Natural Disasters:  Often referred to as “acts of God—or Mother Nature.”  
	Earthquake/Fires: San Francisco Earthquake/1906
Floods: Great Mississippi Flood of 1927; Midwest Floods of 1994
Earthquakes: San Francisco EQ of 1906; Long Beach EQ of 1933
Pandemic Flu
           	Hurricanes: Galveston Hurricane of 1900; 
           	Storms: 
           	Dust Bowl of 1930s.

Man-Made/Accidental Disasters:

Explosions: Texas City Explosion of 1947
Oil Spills: Exxon Valdez in 198?

Man-Made/Deliberate (Terrorism and Sabotage): 
Bombings: WTC in 1993
Oklahoma City in 1995; 

## Characteristics of Focusing Events 

- Large Magnitude
- Unique Threat Agent
- High Visibility
- Unusual Location
- High Impact
- Surprise
- Received a Presidential Disaster Declaration (or eligible for one)

**Notes:**
Large Magnitude – impact -- including loss of lives, damage to property, disruption of essential services (utilities, roadways, ), social and economic distruptions. 
   -  Natural disasters likely to affect a broader area than is true of industrial/ technological disasters or terrorist events. 
   -  Hurricanes of  2005 affected an area of 90,000 sq. miles in the Gulf Coast region.

Unique Threat Agent. Common materials, such as the bomb that destroyed the Murrah Federal Building in 1995, and the use of commercial aircraft to launch the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

High Visibility.  An obvious example of high visibility is the 9/11 targeting of the Pentagon, in Arlington, Virginia, just across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C., and the World Trade Center, in the heart of New York City’s financial district.

Unusual Location. Some locations are less prepared for high-impact events, with a greater likelihood of poorly managed, ad hoc response and recovery. Tropical Storm Agnes in 1972, for example, was a focusing natural disaster in large part because a hurricane caused historic flooding in Pennsylvania, a land-locked state.

High Impact. If the duration and impacts of the event are widespread and damaging to physical, economic, environmental, social, and political structures, the disaster is more likely to become a focusing event. Hurricane Katrina is an example of a high impact event, particularly for the city of New Orleans.

Surprise. Surprise was a major factor for the 2001 World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks, in which terrorists used commercial airliners as weapons of mass destruction. 

Received a Presidential Disaster Declaration (or likely to be eligible for one).  This process is used as a measure of the magnitude and impacts of a disaster event, relying on the federal government’s threshold for determining which events warrant federal assistance.  The Presidential Disaster Declaration was provided to many disasters under the old Federal Response Plan

## Consequences of Focusing Events 

- A few of the focusing events led to ***gradual*** changes at the national level including an increasing involvement by the federal government.
- More typically, polices, legislation, programs, systems, and organizations have been developed quickly ***in reaction*** to one or more focusing events.

**Notes:**
ESSENCE OF THE BOOK

ANALYZE THE CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EVENTS AND OUTCOMES.

## Findings and Observations 

***During 19******th****** and Early 20******th****** Centuries:***
- Natural disasters viewed as “acts of God.”
- Response and recovery was done by the victims, helped by family, community, church, and sometimes local civic organizations.
- Government only marginally involved. No expectation of federal disaster assistance, to individuals and families, or for public infrastructure.
- Disasters were dealt with locally, mostly. But, several large-scale events raised awareness of extensive, long-lasting devastation to victims, communities.

**Notes:**
Effect of disasters were mostly local.
Smaller populations, hence smaller towns and settlements

Throughout most of human history, natural disasters viewed as “acts of God.”  
Focus was on survival during an event.

Response and recovery was done by the victims.
Individuals and their communities have always had to deal with war, fires, and natural hazards, such as famine, plagues, drought, and earthquakes, responding as best they could with limited personal and communal resources.  

Typically, family patriarchs, such as the biblical Noah, and tribal leaders helped family members and neighbors cope with disasters. Such personal, family, and communal actions in the past comprise what is labeled “personal preparedness” today, and such efforts remain an important part of emergency management. 

As settlements grew, and societies became more complex, various organizational arrangements and people with specialized skills began to deal with emergencies and disasters.  

Government at all levels marginally involved—if at all.

Several large-scale events raised awareness of potential devastation to communities.
Great Chicago Fire of 1871.

Johnstown Flood of 1889.

## Findings and Observations 

***From 1900-1950:***
- In early 1900s, some major disasters affected large areas and sizeable urban populations: Galveston and San Francisco
- In first half of 1900s, limited attention given to developing local “formalized” government response systems.
**Exceptions:**
**Quake:** CA State and cities took steps regarding its earthquake threat;
**Floods:** Some major flood control projects in LA,MS OH; TVA (1933)
- Federal government only marginally involved, but
- It did charter the American National Red Cross (1905) to provide humanitarian assistance. (This was the one national organization that was in place for 100 years.)

**Notes:**
Dawn of 20th Century: 
Several large-scale disasters affecting large populations—demonstrated the vulnerability of communities located in disaster-prone areas.
1900 Galveston Hurricane.
1906 San Francisco Earthquake.
The scale of these two disasters resulted in recovery efforts unprecedented in the national experience.

   Some attention given to developing local “formalized” response  systems.

Earliest federal involvement was in major structural investments – dams, dykes, and levees.

Feds did not provide assistance to individuals or communities, as it true today.

Federal government marginally involved but did charter the Red Cross.
Red Cross was chartered initially in 1900 and re-chartered in 1905.

## Findings and Observations 

***From 1900-1950, continued:***
- Response to disasters viewed as a moral and ethical responsibility of neighbors, religious groups, and the civic community.
- Gradually, local and state governments became increasingly involved (re: health and safety of citizens).
- Federal government’s role was limited to **post-disaster** assistance. Only **supplemented local and state efforts.**
- Beginnings of scientific knowledge that could be applied to minimize effects. (Seismic safety, weather science)

**Notes:**
First Half of the 20th Century:

Response to disasters viewed as a moral and ethical responsibility of neighbors, religious groups, and the civic community—not necessarily government.

However, local and state governments became increasingly involved.

Beginnings of scientific knowledge that could be applied to minimize affects.

## Findings and Observations 

***From 1950-1999:***
- Sharp growth in scientific knowledge (technical, social, behavioral sciences).
- Federal government became more involved in response and recovery from major disasters.
- State/local governments and citizens rapidly increased their expectations of the federal role.
- EM began to be regarded as the “quintessential” public service at all levels of government by citizens. (Waugh, 2000)

**Notes:**
Second Half of the 20th Century:

Sharp rise in scientific (technical and social) knowledge.

Federal government became heavily involved in response and recovery.

State/local governments and citizens rapidly increased their expectations of the federal role.

EM now regarded as the “quintessential” public service at all levels of government.
	Example:  FL and LA to feds - “Send Everything”

## Findings and Observations 

***The 21******st****** Century:***
- In first five years, largest man-made and natural disasters in United States history—9/11 and Hurricane Katrina.
- Response and recovery for the two sets of events varied greatly. Attitudes about EM and emergency managers changed drastically.[+/-]
- Many expectations for assistance during both response and recovery were not met.
- Many issues are still unresolved. Nationally, both legislative and executive branches are still weighing changes

**Notes:**
The 21st Century:
Largest man-made and natural disasters in United States history.
9/11 unparalled terrorist event,
Hurricane Katrina—natural disaster affecting a geographic area the size of Great Britain. 
Response and recovery varied greatly between the two disasters.
9/11 Local responders struggled initially, but receive tremendous empathy, understanding, and support from the community.  National responders contributed without limit.

Hurricane Katrina local responders were MIA initially.  National responders were viewed as slow to engage.  To-date FEMA continues to receive the bulk of the blame. 

Many expectations were not met.
Many 9/ll victims want full redress from Islam perpetrators.
Hurricane Katrina
Governor Blanco “Send everything you have.”
Many victims want full payouts from the federal govt. (If property owner, you are expected to have insurance.)

Many issues are still unresolved. 
How, or even should, we rebuild.
Who is entitled to what assistance.
How can we “fix-it” for the future.

## Observation: 	Evolving Role of Government 

***The 20******th****** Century:***
*	****Government at all levels had a marginal role in EM***
- Response and recovery was conducted by disaster victims, their neighbors, religious groups, and civic communities.
- Little or no emphasis on mitigation, prevention, or preparedness.
***The 21******st****** Century:***
*	****Government at all levels is heavily involved***
- Response, recovery, mitigation, and preparedness are incorporated into “Comprehensive Emergency Management” and EM becomes a quintessential government service.
- Increasing but limited emphasis on mitigation and prevention.

**Notes:**
1900:  Government at all levels had a marginal role in emergency management for either natural or man-made disasters.

2000: Government at all levels became heavily involved.

Response, recovery, and preparedness are folded into “Emergency Management” 

EM becomes a quintessential government service. 

There is increasing, but limited emphasis on mitigation and prevention.

## Observation: 	Evolving Role of Government 

- “A funny thing happened on the
- Way to the disaster---emergency
- and disaster response became an
- inherently federal responsibility.”
- 	*George Foresman, former Undersecretary for Preparedness; DHS; *
*	**May 21, 2007; Heritage Foundation seminar*.

## Emergency Management: The American Experience1900-2005 Claire B. Rubin, Editor

**Claire B. Rubin & Associates, Arlington VA**
**www.clairerubin.com**
**Public Entity Risk Institute**
**www.riskinstitute.org**

## Table of Contents 

- Introduction to a Century of Disaster Response and Emergency Management: From Galveston to New Orleans
- 2.  Focusing Events in the Early Twentieth Century
- 3.  The Expanding Role of the Federal Government: 1927-1950
- 4.  The Formative Years: 1950-1978
- 5.  Federal Emergency Management Comes of Age: 1979-2001
- Emergency Management Restructured: Intended and Unintended  Outcomes of Actions taken Since 9/11
- 2005 Events and Outcomes: Hurricane Katrina and Beyond
- From a Painful Past to an Uncertain Future

**Notes:**
The TOC shows the chronological approach taken in the book.

It also sets the stage for using major and catastrophic disaster events as the focusing events for
future changes.

## Unique Aspects of This Book 

- Uses primary material including rare and obscure sources rather than synthesizing secondary sources.
- Provides extensive bibliography of these sources.
- Developed by experienced disaster researchers and subject matter experts.
- Is “analytic” in nature and neutral in presentation.
- One-of-a-kind—no other book addresses a century+
- 	of emergency management.
- Final Chapter looks at emergency management within a “Public Administration” context.

## Emergency Management and the Classic Pinball Machine

**The path of federal EM response has been like that of the ball in a classic pinball machine**.

- Sometimes the ball goes straight ahead and      reaches its desired destination with little or no interference.
- More often the ball bounces from side to side as it ricochets from post to post.
- Sometimes it hits a big obstacle and comes right back to the starting place.
***In all cases, the player spends lots of ***
***time and money trying to get a***
***clear shot to the winning outcome!***

**Notes:**
BIT OF HUMOR HERE – EM HAS BEEN A  MIXTURE OF LUCK AND SKILL ....

Federal officials providing response assistance are well-intentioned, but the messy realities of the disaster scene often bring out the weaknesses of the plans and systems.

Small obstacles would include difficulties in finding and quickly establishing locations for providing disaster assistance. (Need power, computers, trained employees);

These can be overcome with time and are not usually insurmountable.

Big obstacles include:
-- finding local government is not functional; 
-- local governments pre-existing animosity with state government gets worse not better post-disaster;
-- both local and state governments are not “ready, willing, and able” to assume the roles and functions expected under the current EM systems.

## Additional Slides

## Additional Slides