# Presentation: 941835

## Guidelines for Infection Control in Dental Health-Care Settings—2003

**CDC. *****MMWR***** 2003;52(No. RR-17)**
**http://www.cdc.gov/oralhealth/**
**infectioncontrol/guidelines/index.htm**

## This slide set “Guidelines for Infection Control in Dental Health-Care Settings-Core” and accompanying speaker notes provide an overview of many of the basic principles of infection control that form the basis for the CDC Guidelines for Infection Control in Dental Health-Care Settings — 2003. 

- This slide set can be used for education and training of infection control coordinators, educators, consultants, and dental staff (initial and periodic training) at all levels of education.

**Notes:**
Additional slides for each section of the document will be developed and may be used in conjunction with the core slides. This presentation and  supplemental slides may be broken into separate sections, depending on the trainees’ level of experience and knowledge, previous training, level of interest in specific topics, and the amount of time available. 

## Infection Control in Dental  Health-Care Settings: An Overview

- Guidelines for Infection Control in Dental Health-Care Settings—2003.  *MMWR 2003*; Vol. 52, No. RR-17.

**Background**
**Personnel Health Elements**
**Bloodborne Pathogens**
**Hand Hygiene**
**Personal Protective Equipment**
**Latex Hypersensitivity/Contact Dermatitis**
**Sterilization and Disinfection**
**Environmental Infection Control**
**Dental Unit Waterlines**
**Special Considerations**
**Program Evaluation**

**Notes:**
The information in this slide set provides some of the available scientific rationale for performing infection control practices for which recommendations are made. These practices are broken into the broad categories listed on this slide.

## CDC Recommendations

**Improve effectiveness and impact of public health interventions**
**Inform clinicians, public health practitioners, and the public**
**Developed by advisory committees, ad hoc groups, and CDC staff**
**Based on a range of rationale, from systematic reviews to expert opinions**

**Notes:**
CDC develops a broad range of guidelines which are intended to improve the effectiveness and impact of public health interventions and inform key audiences, most often clinicians, public health practitioners, and the public.
Guidelines can be developed by formal advisory committees, ad hoc work groups, and CDC staff. Development processes can vary, depending on topic, available scientific data, urgency, resources, etc. and are based on a range of rationale, depending on the availability of scientific evidence.
This Guideline identifies infection control practices that CDC recommends for all settings where dental treatment is provided. Although CDC recommendations are not regulatory, some practices are mandated by federal, state, or local regulations. These are identified in the Recommendations Section of the CDC Guideline.

## Background

## Why Is Infection Control Important in Dentistry?

- Both patients and dental health care personnel  (DHCP) can be exposed to pathogens
- Contact with blood, oral and respiratory secretions, and contaminated equipment occurs
- Proper procedures can prevent transmission of infections among patients and DHCP

**Notes:**
During the provision of dental treatment, both patients and dental health care personnel (DHCP) can be exposed to pathogens through contact with blood, oral and respiratory secretions, and contaminated equipment.
Following recommended infection control procedures can prevent transmission of infectious organisms among patients and dental health care personnel.

## Modes of Transmission

- Direct contact with blood or body fluids
- Indirect contact with a contaminated instrument or surface
- Contact of mucosa of the eyes, nose, or mouth with droplets or spatter
- Inhalation of airborne microorganisms

**Notes:**
Dental patients and DHCP may be exposed to a variety of disease-causing microorganisms that are present in the mouth and respiratory tract. These organisms may be transmitted in dental settings through several routes, including:
Intact or non-intact skin in direct contact with blood, oral fluids, or other potentially infectious patient materials.
Indirect contact with a contaminated object (e.g., instruments, operatory equipment, or environmental surfaces).
Contact of mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, or mouth with droplets (e.g., spatter) containing microorganisms generated (e.g., coughing, sneezing, talking) from an infected person and propelled a short distance.
Inhalation of airborne microorganisms that can remain suspended in the air for long periods of time.

## Chain of Infection

**Pathogen**

**Source**

**Mode**

**Entry**

**Susceptible**** ****Host**

**Notes:**
Infection through any of these routes requires that all of the following conditions be present: 
An adequate number of pathogens, or disease-causing organisms, to cause disease.
A reservoir or source that allows the pathogen to survive and multiply (e.g., blood).
A mode of transmission from the source to the host.
An entrance through which the pathogen may enter the host.
A susceptible host (i.e., one who is not immune). 
The occurrence of all these events is considered the “chain” of infection. Effective infection control strategies prevent disease transmission by interrupting one or more links in the chain of infection.

## Standard Precautions

- Apply to _all_ patients
- Integrate and expand Universal Precautions to include organisms spread by blood and also
- Body fluids, secretions, and excretions except sweat, whether or not they contain blood
- Non-intact (broken) skin
- Mucous membranes

**Notes:**
Previous CDC recommendations on infection control for dentistry (1986, 1993) focused on the use of Universal Precautions to prevent transmission of bloodborne pathogens.  Universal Precautions were based on the concept that all blood and certain body fluids should be treated as infectious because it is impossible to know who may be carrying a bloodborne virus. Thus, Universal Precautions should apply to all patients. 
The relevance of Universal Precautions applied to other potentially infectious materials was recognized, and in 1996, CDC replaced Universal Precautions with Standard Precautions. Standard Precautions integrate and expand Universal Precautions to include organisms spread by:
Blood.
All body fluids, secretions, and excretions except sweat, regardless of whether they contain blood.
Non-intact skin.
Mucous membranes.
Saliva has always been considered a potentially infectious material in dental infection control; thus, no operational difference exists in clinical dental practice between Universal Precautions and Standard Precautions.

## Elements of Standard Precautions

- Handwashing
- Use of gloves, masks, eye protection,     and gowns
- Patient care equipment
- Environmental surfaces
- Injury prevention

**Notes:**
Standard Precautions include:
Handwashing.
The use of personal protective equipment, such as gloves, masks, eye protection, and gowns, that are intended to prevent the exposure of skin and mucous membranes to blood and other potentially infectious materials.
Proper cleaning and decontamination of patient care equipment.
Cleaning and disinfection of environmental surfaces.
Injury prevention through engineering controls or safer work practices.

Note:  OSHA retains the use of the term “Universal Precautions” because they are concerned primarily with transmission of bloodborne pathogens.

## Personnel Health Elements

## Personnel Health Elements of an Infection Control Program

- Education and training
- Immunizations
- Exposure prevention and postexposure management
- Medical condition management and work-related illnesses and restrictions
- Health record maintenance

**Notes:**
Each dental office should have a written plan for an infection control program that includes elements to protect personnel.  These elements include:
 Education programs for staff members.
 Immunization plan for vaccine preventable diseases.
 Exposure prevention and postexposure management, with follow-up of staff exposed to infectious organisms or potentially harmful materials.
 Medical condition management and work-related illnesses and restrictions.
 Maintenance of health records in accordance with all applicable state and federal laws.

## Bloodborne Pathogens

## Preventing Transmission of Bloodborne Pathogens

- Are transmissible in health care settings
- Can produce chronic infection
- Are often carried by persons unaware of their infection

- Bloodborne viruses such as hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

**Notes:**
Bloodborne viruses such as hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are of concern to dental health care personnel (DHCP).  These viruses:
  Can be transmitted to patients and health care personnel (HCP) in health care settings.
  Can produce chronic infection.
  Are often carried by persons unaware of their infection.

## Potential Routes of Transmission of Bloodborne Pathogens

**Patient**

**DHCP**

**DHCP**

**Patient**

**Patient**

**Patient**

**Notes:**
Theoretically, transmission of bloodborne pathogens may occur from patient to DHCP, from DHCP to patient, and from patient to patient. 
Because DHCP frequently are exposed to blood and blood-contaminated saliva during dental procedures, they are at greater risk of infection by a bloodborne pathogen than are patients. 

## Factors Influencing Occupational Risk of Bloodborne Virus Infection

- Frequency of infection among patients
- Risk of transmission after a blood exposure (i.e., type of virus)
- Type and frequency of blood contact

**Notes:**
The risk of infection with a bloodborne virus is largely determined by:
Its prevalence, or frequency, in the patient population.
The risk of transmission after an exposure to blood (risk varies by type of virus).
The type and frequency of blood contacts.  If health care personnel are frequently exposed to blood, especially if they are working with sharp objects such as needles, their risk of exposure to a bloodborne virus would be higher than if they rarely come into contact with blood. 

## Average Risk of Bloodborne Virus Transmission after Needlestick

| Source | Risk |
| --- | --- |
| HBV |  |
| HBsAg+ and HBeAg+ | 22.0%-31.0% clinical hepatitis; 37%-62% serological evidence of HBV infection |
| HBsAg+ and HBeAg- | 1.0%-6.0% clinical hepatitis;  23%-37% serological evidence of HBV infection |
| HCV | 1.8% (0%-7% range) |
| HIV | 0.3% (0.2%-0.5% range) |

**Notes:**
This slide shows the average risk of transmission after a single needlestick from an infected patient by type of bloodborne virus. As shown here, risk varies greatly by type of virus. 
For instance, the risk of HBV transmission after a percutaneous exposure (e.g., needlestick) to HBV-infected blood varies from 1%– 62%, depending on the hepatitis B e-antigen (HBeAg) status of the source patient. If the source patient’s blood is positive for HBeAg (a marker of increased infectivity), the risk of transmission can be as high as 62%. If the patient’s blood is hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positive but HBeAg negative, the risk varies from 1%– 37%.
The average risk of HCV transmission after a percutaneous exposure to HCV-infected blood is 1.8%. 
The average risk of HIV infection after a percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood is 0.3%. To put this in perspective, 1 in 3 needlesticks from an HBeAg+ source patient would result in infection compared to only 1 in 300 needlesticks from an HIV-infected patient. 

## Concentration of HBV in Body Fluids

-          High		          Moderate	       Low/Not Detectable
-          Blood		           Semen		       Urine
-        Serum		       Vaginal Fluid	        	       Feces
-  Wound exudates	  	Saliva		       	       Sweat
- 								       Tears
- 							              Breast Milk

**Notes:**
As mentioned earlier, one factor to consider in assessing the risk of infection is the type of body substances to which DHCP are exposed. This slide shows the concentration of HBV in various body fluids. On the left, in red, are the fluids with the highest concentration of virus. 
Moving from the left to the right side, the concentration decreases. Blood, for instance, has a higher virus concentration than urine or sweat. Saliva alone, without blood, has a moderate concentration of virus.

## Estimated Incidence of HBV Infections Among HCP and General Population, United States, 1985-1999

**Health**** ****Care**** ****Personnel**

**General  U.S.**** ****Population**

**Notes:**
In the early to mid-1980s, health care personnel (HCP) had a much higher incidence (i.e., the number of new infections each year) of HBV infection than the general population.  By the early 1990s, however, the incidence among health care personnel had dropped below that found in the general population.  This decrease likely is the result of increased use of Universal Precautions and the hepatitis vaccine.

## HBV Infection Among U.S. Dentists

**Source: Cleveland et al., JADA 1996;127:1385-90. **
**              ****Personal communication ADA, Chakwan Siew, PhD, 2005.**

**Percent**

**HBV Infection Among U.S. Dentists**

**Year**

**Notes:**
Among U.S. dentists, evidence of past HBV infection decreased from prevaccine levels of 14% in 1972 to ~9% in 1989.  Since then, levels have remained relatively unchanged. This is because the prevalence (proportion) of HBV infection among all dentists should gradually decrease as older dentists (who are more likely to be infected and unvaccinated than younger dentists) retire.

## Hepatitis B Vaccine

- Vaccinate all DHCP who are at risk of exposure to blood
- Provide access to qualified health care professionals for administration and       follow-up testing
- Test for anti-HBs 1 to 2 months after          3rd dose

**Notes:**
Both Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) regulations and CDC recommendations state that hepatitis B vaccine should be made available to all DHCP who are exposed to blood or other potentially infectious materials.
Employers should provide easy access to a qualified health care professional who can administer the vaccine and provide appropriate follow-up testing. 
Post-vaccination testing for antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBs) response is indicated for DHCP who have blood or patient contact and are at ongoing risk for injuries with sharp instruments or needlesticks. Post-vaccination testing should be completed one to two months after the 3rd vaccine dose. Knowledge of antibody response should guide appropriate postexposure prophylaxis. 

## Transmission of HBV from Infected DHCP to Patients

- Nine clusters of transmission from dentists and oral surgeons to patients, 1970–1987
- Eight dentists tested for HBeAg were positive
- Lack of documented transmissions since 1987 may reflect increased use of gloves and vaccine
- One case of patient-to-patient transmission, 2003

**Notes:**
Since the early 1970s, nine clusters involving more than 300 cases of HBV transmission from infected DHCP to patients have been reported.
 Eight (8) providers tested for hepatitis B e-antigen were positive. 
Since 1987, however, no cases of DHCP-to-patient transmission of HBV have been reported, probably the result of increased use of Universal or Standard Precautions and increased use of the hepatitis B vaccine.
In 2003, the first and only case of patient-to-patient transmission of HBV in a dental office was reported. A later investigation of office procedures indicated that proper infection control precautions were being followed and the exact mechanism of transmission could not be identified.

## Occupational Risk of HCV Transmission among HCP

- Inefficiently transmitted by occupational exposures
- Three reports of transmission from blood splash to the eye
- Report of simultaneous transmission of HIV and HCV after non-intact skin exposure

**Notes:**
HCV appears not to be efficiently transmitted through occupational exposures. Transmission of HCV generally has been associated with hollow-bore needles and not other sharp instruments.  
Although studies have not documented transmission associated with mucous membrane or non-intact skin exposure, at least two cases of transmission of HCV from a blood splash to the conjunctiva of the eye have been reported. 
In 2003, there was a report of simultaneous transmission of HIV and HCV from a nursing home patient to a health care worker. This transmission is thought to have occurred through a non-intact skin exposure. The investigation concluded that consistent use of barrier precautions might have prevented this transmission.

## HCV Infection in Dental Health Care Settings

- Prevalence of HCV infection among dentists similar to that of general population (~ 1%-2%)
- No reports of HCV transmission from infected DHCP to patients or from patient  to patient
- Risk of HCV transmission appears very low

**Notes:**
Currently, there is little information from which to estimate the occupational risk of HCV infection in dentistry.  However, most studies suggest that the prevalence (frequency) of HCV infection among dentists, surgeons, and hospital-based HCP is ~1%–2%, similar to that among the general population. 
There have been no reports of an HCV transmission from an infected DHCP to a patient or of patient-to-patient transmission of HCV in a dental health care setting.
Based on this information, the risk of HCV transmission in dentistry appears very low.

## Transmission of HIV from Infected Dentists to Patients

- Only one documented case of HIV transmission from an infected dentist to  patients
- No transmissions documented in the investigation of 63 HIV-infected HCP (including 33 dentists or dental students)

**Notes:**
To date, transmission of HIV from infected HCP to patients has been documented in only one practice. Investigation of the patients of a Florida dentist with AIDS strongly suggested that HIV was transmitted during dental care to 6 of approximately 1,100 patients tested.
Additional evidence supporting the very small risk of HIV transmission to patients comes from investigations conducted in the early 1990s of patients of other HIV-infected HCP.  Test results of more than 22,000 patients of 63 HIV-infected HCP, including 33 dentists or dental students, failed to identify any additional cases of transmission. 

## Health Care Workers with Documented and Possible Occupationally Acquired HIV/AIDS 

**   **

***CDC Database as of December 2002***

- * 3 dentists, 1 oral surgeon, 2 dental assistants

**Notes:**
As of December 2002, there were no DHCP among the 57 U.S. HCP with documented HIV transmission following a specific exposure to a known HIV-infected source. 
CDC also has received reports of 139 other HCP considered to have possible occupational HIV transmission; of these, only 6 were DHCP.  For each of the 139 persons, no other risk for infection could be identified during follow-up investigation.  

* Each of the 6 DHCP reported a history of occupational percutaneous or mucous membrane exposure to blood or body fluids in the dental setting, but HIV transmission could not be linked to a specific exposure. 

## Risk Factors for HIV Transmission after Percutaneous Exposure to HIV-Infected Blood CDC Case-Control Study 

- Deep injury
- Visible blood on device
- Needle placed in artery or vein
- Terminal illness in source patient
- Source: Cardo, et al., *N England J Medicine *1997;337:1485-90.

**Notes:**
Several factors affect the risk of HIV transmission after an occupational exposure. 
In a study of health care personnel who had percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood, an increased risk for HIV infection was associated with exposure to a relatively large quantity of blood as indicated by deep injury, visible blood on the device, or a procedure involving a needle placed in an artery or vein. 
The risk was also increased if the exposure was to blood from patients with terminal illness, possibly reflecting the higher titer of HIV in late-stage AIDS. 

## Characteristics of Percutaneous Injuries Among DHCP

- Reported frequency among general dentists has declined
- Caused by burs, syringe needles, other sharps
- Occur outside the patient’s mouth
- Involve small amounts of blood
- Among oral surgeons, occur more frequently during fracture reductions and procedures involving wire

**Notes:**
Available information indicates that percutaneous injuries among dentists declined from an average rate of 11 injuries per year in 1987 to <3 injuries per year in 1993.
In general, most injuries among general dentists were caused by burs, followed by syringe needles and other sharp instruments.  Injuries most often occur while the dentist’s hands are outside the patient’s mouth. Most injuries involve small, rather than large, amounts of blood. 
The frequency of percutaneous injuries among oral surgeons is similar to that reported among U.S. dentists.  Injuries among oral surgeons may occur more frequently during procedures using surgical wire, such as during fracture reductions. 

## Exposure Prevention Strategies

- Engineering controls
- Work practice controls
- Administrative controls

**Notes:**
Primary methods used to prevent occupational exposures to blood in health care settings include Standard Precautions, engineering controls, work practice controls, and administrative controls. Engineering controls that eliminate or isolate the hazard are the primary strategies for protecting DHCP and patients.
Where engineering controls are not available or appropriate, work practice controls that result in safer behavior and personal protective equipment (PPE) can prevent exposure.
Administrative controls are policies and procedures that reduce the risk of exposure to certain diseases, such as TB.

## Engineering Controls

- Isolate or remove the hazard
- Examples:
- Sharps container
- Medical devices with injury protection features (e.g., self-sheathing needles)

**Notes:**
Engineering controls reduce exposure either by removing, eliminating, or isolating the hazard from the worker.  These controls are frequently technology based and often incorporate safer designs of instruments and devices. 
Examples include the following:
Sharps containers.
Medical devices with injury protection features, such as self-sheathing needles and scalpels.

## Work Practice Controls

-  Change the manner of performing tasks
-  Examples include:
- Using instruments instead of fingers to retract or palpate tissue
- One-handed needle recapping

**Notes:**
Work practice controls are behavior based and are intended to reduce the risk of blood exposure by changing the manner in which a task is performed. 
Examples include the following:
Using instruments instead of fingers to retract or palpate tissue during suturing and administration of anesthesia.
One-handed needle recapping.
Not passing an unsheathed needle to another DHCP.

## Administrative Controls	

- Policies, procedures, and enforcement measures
- Placement in the hierarchy varies by the problem being addressed
- Placed before engineering controls for airborne precautions (e.g., TB)

**Notes:**
Administrative controls include policies, procedures, and enforcement measures to prevent exposure to disease-causing organisms.
The placement of administrative controls in the hierarchy of control measures varies by the problem or disease being addressed.
For example, for airborne organisms such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, these controls rank before engineering controls. In this example, the early identification and referral of dental patients suspected of having TB is the most important prevention strategy.

## Post-exposure Management Program

- Clear policies and procedures
- Education of dental health care personnel (DHCP)
- Rapid access to
- Clinical care
- Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP)
- Testing of source patients/HCP

**Notes:**
Despite our best efforts, blood exposures will likely continue to occur. Post-exposure management remains an important component of a complete program to prevent infection following exposure to blood. Elements of an effective post-exposure management program include:
Policies and procedures that clearly state how to manage exposures.
Education of dental health care personnel in prevention strategies (including evaluation of safety devices), principles of post-exposure management, the importance of prompt reporting, and PEP efficacy and toxicity.
Resources for rapid access to clinical care, post-exposure prophylaxis, as well as testing of both source patients and exposed health care personnel (preferably with a rapid HIV test). 

[Comments:  Except for institutional settings, coordination with off-site infection control or occupational health services likely will be necessary. A health care professional who is qualified to manage, counsel, and provide medical follow-up should be selected before staff are placed at risk.  Ensure that this person is familiar with the dental application of risk assessment and management.]

## Wound management
Exposure reporting
Assessment of infection risk
Type and severity of exposure
Bloodborne status of source person
Susceptibility of exposed person

- Exposure reporting
- Assessment of infection risk
- Type and severity of exposure
- Bloodborne status of source person
- Susceptibility of exposed person

**Post-exposure Management**

**Notes:**
The key elements of post-exposure management include wound management and exposure reporting.  
The evaluating health care professional should assess the risk of infection by examining the type and severity of exposure, the bloodborne status of the source person, and the susceptibility (immune status) of the exposed person. All of these factors should be considered in assessing the risk of infection and the need for further follow-up (e.g., PEP).

## Hand Hygiene

## Why Is Hand Hygiene Important?

- Hands are the most common mode of pathogen transmission
- Reduce spread of antimicrobial resistance
- Prevent health care-associated infections

**Notes:**
Next we turn to the subject of Hand Hygiene. So, is hand hygiene the single most important factor in preventing the spread of pathogens in health care settings?
 First, hands are the most common mode of pathogen transmission.
 Hand washing can reduce the spread of antibiotic resistance in health care settings and the likelihood of health care-associated infections.

[Additional comments: CDC estimates that each year nearly 2 million patients in the United States acquire infections in hospitals, and about 90,000 of these patients die as a result.]

## Hands Need to be Cleaned When

- Visibly dirty
- After touching contaminated objects with bare hands
- Before and after patient treatment (before glove placement and after glove removal)

**Notes:**
CDC recommends that hands be cleaned:
When they are visibly dirty.
After touching contaminated objects with bare hands.
Before and after patient treatment, that is, before glove placement and immediately after glove removal.

Photo credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.

## Hand Hygiene Definitions

- Handwashing
- Washing hands with plain soap and water
- Antiseptic handwash
- Washing hands with water and soap or other detergents containing an antiseptic agent
- Alcohol-based handrub
- Rubbing hands with an alcohol-containing preparation
- Surgical antisepsis
- Handwashing with an antiseptic soap or an alcohol-based handrub before operations by surgical personnel

**Notes:**
Hand hygiene is a general term that applies to either handwashing, antiseptic handwash, alcohol-based handrub, or surgical hand hygiene/antisepsis.
Handwashing refers to washing hands with plain soap and water.  
 Antiseptic handwash refers to washing hands with water and soap or other detergents containing an antiseptic agent, such as triclosan or chlorhexidine. 
 Using a waterless agent containing 60%–95% ethanol or isopropanol alcohol-containing preparation is referred to as an alcohol handrub. These agents are a new addition to the dental guidelines and have become more frequently used in the United States to improve compliance with handwashing in hospitals. In dental practices, however, sinks are readily available and the need for alcohol preparations is not as great. 
Surgical antisepsis refers to an antiseptic handwash or alcohol-based handrub* performed preoperatively by surgical personnel to eliminate microorganisms on hands. Antiseptic preparations for surgical hand hygiene should have persistent (long-lasting) antimicrobial activity.
* If using an alcohol-based handrub the hands should first be washed with soap and water.

## Efficacy of Hand Hygiene Preparations in Reduction of Bacteria

**Good**

**Better**

**Best**

**Plain Soap**

**Antimicrobial soap**

**Alcohol-based handrub**

- Source: http://www.cdc.gov/handhygiene/materials.htm

**Notes:**
Plain soap is good for reducing bacterial counts, but antimicrobial soap is better and alcohol-based handrubs are the best, providing activity that prevents or inhibits survival of microorganisms after the product is applied. 

## Alcohol-based Preparations

- Rapid and effective antimicrobial action
- Improved skin condition
- More accessible than sinks

- Cannot be used if hands are visibly soiled
- Store away from high temperatures or flames
- Hand softeners and glove powders may “build-up”

- _Benefits_

- _Limitations_

**Notes:**
This slide lists the benefits and limitations of alcohol-based preparations.
Alcohol  handrubs have a rapid and effective antimicrobial action when applied to the skin but must contain other ingredients, such as chlorhexidine or triclosan, to achieve persistent (long-lasting) activity.   
When combined with emollients, or skin softeners, they can improve skin condition. 
In hospital settings, they are often more accessible than sinks.

However, 
Alcohol is not a good cleaning agent, so these products cannot be used if hands are visibly soiled. 
Because of their flammable nature, they must be stored away from high temperatures or flames.
In addition, there is some concern that hand softeners and glove powders might build up on the hands after repeated use. Hands should be washed occasionally with soap and water.

## Special Hand Hygiene Considerations

- Use hand lotions to prevent skin dryness
- Consider compatibility of hand care products with gloves (e.g., mineral oils and petroleum bases may cause early glove failure)
- Keep fingernails short
- Avoid artificial nails
- Avoid hand jewelry that may tear gloves

**Notes:**
Hand lotions can prevent skin dryness associated with hand washing. However, it’s important to consider the compatibility of lotion and antiseptic products and the effect of petroleum or other oil emollients on the integrity of gloves when selecting and using them. 
Short nails allow thorough cleaning of nails and may reduce premature glove tearing. Artificial nails can harbor pathogens—thus, their use should be avoided.
During surgical procedures, hand or arm jewelry can harbor microorganisms or increase risk of glove failure. If worn during non-surgical procedures, hand or arm jewelry can affect glove placement, fit, or durability.

## Personal Protective Equipment

## Personal Protective Equipment

- A major component of Standard Precautions
- Protects the skin and mucous membranes from exposure to infectious materials in spray or spatter
- Should be removed when leaving treatment areas

**Notes:**
Personal protective equipment (PPE), or barrier precautions, are a major component of Standard Precautions. Use of rotary dental and surgical instruments (e.g., handpieces, ultrasonic scalers) and air-water syringes creates a visible spray that contains primarily large-particle droplets of water, saliva, blood, microorganisms, and other debris. This spatter travels only a short distance and settles out quickly, landing either on the floor, operatory surfaces, dental health care personnel (DHCP), or the patient. 
PPE is essential to protect the skin and the mucous membranes of DHCP from exposure to infectious or potentially infectious materials. PPE should be worn whenever there is potential for contact with spray or spatter and should be removed when leaving treatment areas.

Photo credit:  Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Masks, Protective Eyewear, Face Shields

- Wear a surgical mask and either eye protection with solid side shields or a face shield to protect mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth
- Change masks between patients
- Clean reusable face protection between patients; if visibly soiled, clean and disinfect

**Notes:**
A standard surgical mask that covers the nose and mouth is worn to protect the mucous membranes from spatter generated during dental procedures. Eye protection with solid side shields or a face shield should also be worn.
A mask should be changed between patients or if it becomes wet during patient  treatment.  
Clean reusable face protection with soap and water between patients; if visibly soiled, clean and disinfect. 

## Protective Clothing

- Wear gowns, lab coats, or uniforms that cover skin and personal clothing likely to become soiled with blood, saliva, or infectious material
- Change if visibly soiled
- Remove all barriers before leaving the work area

**Notes:**
DHCP should wear long-sleeved disposable or reusable gowns, lab coats, or uniforms that cover skin and personal clothing likely to become soiled with blood, saliva, or infectious material (e.g., when spatter and spray of blood, saliva, or other potentially infectious material to the forearms might occur).
DHCP should change protective clothing when it becomes visibly soiled or as soon as possible if penetrated by blood or other potentially infectious fluids.  
All protective clothing should be removed before leaving patient care or laboratory areas.

Photo credit:  Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Gloves

- Minimize the risk of health care personnel acquiring infections from patients
- Prevent microbial flora from being transmitted from health care personnel to patients
- Reduce contamination of the hands of health care personnel by microbial flora that can be transmitted from one patient to another
- Are not a substitute for handwashing!

**Notes:**
Gloves are worn for three reasons:
To minimize the risk of health care personnel acquiring infections from patients.
To prevent pathogenic organisms from being transmitted from health care personnel to patients.
To reduce contamination of health care personnel's hands by organisms that can be transmitted from one patient to another.
Wearing gloves does not eliminate or replace the need for hand washing. Hand hygiene should be performed immediately prior to putting on and after removal of gloves. Gloves might have small holes or tears that are not noticeable, or hands can become contaminated as gloves are removed. Such circumstances increase the risk of wound contamination and exposure of the DHCP’s hands to microorganisms from patients.

## Recommendations for Gloving

- Wear gloves when contact with blood, saliva, and mucous membranes is possible
- Remove gloves after patient care
- Wear a new pair of gloves for each patient

**Notes:**
For the protection of DHCP and patients, gloves should always be worn when contact with blood, saliva, and mucous membranes is possible.
Gloves should be removed after patient care and hands should be immediately washed. Hands should also be washed before putting gloves on. 

Photo credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA

## Recommendations for Gloving

- Remove gloves that
- are torn, cut or punctured

- Do not wash, disinfect
- or sterilize gloves for reuse

**Notes:**
If  the integrity of a glove is compromised by tears, cuts, or punctures, it should be changed as soon as possible. 
Surgical or examination gloves should not be washed before use, nor should they be washed, disinfected, or sterilized for reuse. Washing of gloves can cause a condition known as “wicking,” or penetration of liquids through undetected holes in the gloves.  These circumstances may increase the risk of wound contamination and exposure of the DHCP’s hands to microorganisms from patients.  Disinfecting agents, oils, certain oil-based lotions, and heat treatments such as autoclaving may result in deterioration of gloves.

Photo credit:  Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Latex Hypersensitivity and Contact Dermatitis

**Notes:**
Occupationally-related contact dermatitis can develop from frequent and repeated use of hand hygiene products, exposure to chemicals, and glove use. 

## Latex Allergy

- Type I hypersensitivity to natural rubber latex proteins
- Reactions may include nose, eye, and skin reactions
- More serious reactions may include respiratory distress–rarely shock or death

**Notes:**
Latex allergy is a Type I or an immediate hypersensitivity reaction to the proteins found in natural rubber latex. These proteins can attach to the powder in gloves which, in turn, causes more latex protein to reach the skin. 
This reaction is generally a more severe and immediate systemic reaction than contact dermatitis. Common reactions include runny nose, itchy eyes, hives, and burning skin sensations.  
More severe reactions are characterized by breathing difficulty and, rarely, anaphylaxis (shock) or death. 

Photo credit: Arto Lahti, MD, Department of Dermatology, University of Oulu, Finland. 

## Contact Dermatitis

- Irritant contact dermatitis
- Not an allergy
- Dry, itchy, irritated areas
- Allergic contact dermatitis
- Type IV delayed hypersensitivity
- May result from allergy to chemicals used in glove manufacturing

**Notes:**
Not all skin reactions are due to an allergic reaction to latex rubber. Most skin reactions are attributed to an irritant or allergic contact dermatitis.
Irritant contact dermatitis develops as dry, itchy, irritated areas on the skin around the contact area.  It is commonly associated with frequent handwashing and is not an allergic reaction.
The second type of contact dermatitis is a type IV or delayed hypersensitivity or allergic reaction due to contact with a chemical allergen (e.g., accelerators and other chemicals used in the manufacture of patient-care gloves). Reactions are generally localized to the contact area and occur slowly, over a period of 12–48 hours.

## General RecommendationsContact Dermatitis and Latex Allergy

- Educate DHCP about reactions associated with frequent hand hygiene and glove use
- Get a medical diagnosis
- Screen patients for latex allergy
- Ensure a latex-safe environment
- Have latex-free kits available (dental and emergency)

**Notes:**
Other recommendations can minimize the risk of contact dermatitis and latex hypersensitivity:
Educate DHCP workers about reactions associated with frequent hand hygiene and glove use.
Staff that have dermatologic problems should get a diagnosis from a qualified medical provider before making changes in gloves or hand hygiene agents.
Screen patients and DHCP for latex allergy in your medical histories.
DHCP and dental patients with latex allergy should not have direct contact with latex-containing materials and should be in a latex-safe environment with all latex-containing products removed from their vicinity.
Have both dental and medical emergency latex-free products available at all times.

## Sterilization and Disinfection of Patient Care Items

## Critical Instruments

- Penetrate mucous membranes or contact bone, the bloodstream, or other normally sterile tissues (of the mouth)
- Heat sterilize between uses or use sterile single-use, disposable devices
- Examples include surgical instruments, scalpel blades, periodontal scalers, and surgical dental burs

**Notes:**
There are three categories of patient-care items depending on their intended use and the potential risk of disease transmission. 
Critical items penetrate soft tissue or contact bone, the bloodstream, or other normally sterile tissues of the mouth. They have the highest risk of transmitting infection and should be heat-sterilized between patient uses. Alternatively, use sterile, single-use disposable devices.
Examples include surgical instruments, periodontal scalers, scalpel blades, and surgical dental burs.

## Semi-critical Instruments

- Contact mucous membranes but do not penetrate soft tissue
- Heat sterilize or high-level disinfect
- Examples: Dental mouth mirrors, amalgam condensers, and dental handpieces

**Notes:**
Semi-critical items contact only mucous membranes and do not penetrate soft tissues.  As such, they have a lower risk of transmission.  
Because most items in this category are heat-tolerant, they should be heat sterilized between patient uses. For heat-sensitive instruments, high-level disinfection is appropriate. 
Examples of semi-critical instruments include dental mouth mirrors, amalgam condensers, and impression trays.  Dental handpieces are a special case. Even though they do not penetrate soft tissue, it is difficult for chemical germicides to reach the internal parts of handpieces.  For this reason, they should be heat sterilized using a steam autoclave or chemical vapor sterilizer. 

## Noncritical Instruments and Devices

- Contact intact skin
- Clean and disinfect using a low to intermediate level disinfectant
- Examples:  X-ray heads, facebows, pulse oximeter, blood pressure cuff

**Notes:**
Noncritical instruments and devices only contact intact (unbroken) skin, which serves as an effective barrier to microorganisms. 
These items carry such a low risk of transmitting infections that they usually require only cleaning and low-level disinfection.  If using a low-level disinfectant, according to OSHA, it must have a label claim for killing HIV and HBV. However, if an item is visibly bloody, it should be cleaned and disinfected using an intermediate-level disinfectant before use on another patient. 
Examples of instruments in this category include X-ray head/cones, facebows, pulse oximeter, and blood pressure cuff.

## Instrument Processing Area

- Use a designated processing area to control quality and ensure safety
- Divide processing area into work areas
-  Receiving, cleaning, and decontamination
-  Preparation and packaging
-  Sterilization
-  Storage

**Notes:**
Most instrument cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilization should occur in a designated central processing area to control both quality and personnel safety. 
To prevent cross-contamination, the instrument processing area should be physically or spatially divided into regions for cleaning, packaging, sterilization, and storage. 
In the cleaning area, reusable contaminated instruments are received, sorted, and cleaned. 
The packaging area is for inspecting, assembling, and packaging clean instruments in preparation for final sterilization. 
The sterilization and storage area contains the sterilizers and related supplies, incubators for analyzing spore tests (if performed in office—although some states require using a testing service), and can contain enclosed storage for sterile items and disposable (single-use) items.

## Automated Cleaning 

- Ultrasonic cleaner
- Instrument washer
- Washer-disinfector

**Notes:**
Cleaning is the basic first step in all decontamination processes.  Cleaning involves the physical removal of debris and reduces the number of microorganisms on an instrument or device. If visible debris or organic matter is not removed, it can interfere with the disinfection or sterilization process.
Automated or mechanical cleaning equipment, such as ultrasonic cleaners, instrument washers, and washer-disinfectors, are commonly used to clean dental instruments. Automated cleaners increase the efficiency of the cleaning process and reduce the handling of sharp instruments.  After cleaning, instruments should be rinsed with water to remove chemical or detergent residue. 

Photo credit: Chris Miller, PhD, Indiana University School of Dentistry.

## Manual Cleaning

- Soak until ready to clean
- Wear heavy-duty utility gloves, mask, eyewear, and protective clothing

**Notes:**
If manual cleaning is necessary, soak instruments in a rigid container filled with detergent, disinfectant/detergent, or an enzymatic cleaner. This step prevents drying of patient material and makes cleaning easier and less time consuming.   
Do not use high-level disinfectants/sterilants (e.g., glutaraldehyde) as instrument-holding solutions.
To avoid injury from sharp instruments, personnel should wear puncture-resistant, heavy-duty, utility gloves (i.e., not patient care gloves) when handling or manually cleaning contaminated instruments and devices. To protect against splashes, a facemask, eye protection or face shield, and a gown or jacket should be worn. 

Photo credit: Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Preparation and Packaging

- Critical and semi-critical items that will be stored should be wrapped or placed in containers before heat sterilization
- Hinged instruments opened and unlocked
- Place a chemical indicator inside the pack
- Wear heavy-duty, puncture-resistant utility gloves

**Notes:**
After thorough cleaning and drying of instruments, critical and semi-critical instruments that will be stored before use should be wrapped or placed into container systems prior to heat sterilization. This step protects items from contamination after the sterilization cycle and during storage. 
Open or unlock hinged instruments so that all surfaces are exposed.  
Place a chemical indicator inside each wrapped package.  If the indicator cannot be seen from the outside, place another indicator (e.g., indicator tape) on the outside of the package. 
Always wear heavy-duty, puncture-resistant utility gloves while inspecting and packaging instruments.

## Heat-Based Sterilization

- Steam under pressure (autoclaving)
- Gravity displacement
- Pre-vacuum
- Dry heat
- Unsaturated chemical vapor

**Notes:**
There are three types of heat sterilization methods commonly used in dentistry.
Steam under pressure (autoclaving). There are two types of tabletop steam autoclaves: 
In most commonly used gravity displacement sterilizers, steam enters the chamber and unsaturated air is forced out of the chamber through a vent in the chamber wall.
In contrast, pre-vacuum sterilizers are fitted with a vacuum pump to create a vacuum in the chamber and ensure air removal from the sterilizing chamber and load before the chamber is pressurized with steam.  This method improves the speed and efficiency of the sterilization process.
Dry heat sterilizers are either static air (convection or FDA-approved oven type) or forced air (rapid heat-transfer).
Unsaturated chemical vapor sterilizers use a proprietary formula of alcohol/formaldehyde.

With all of these methods, always use FDA-approved devices and closely follow
 the manufacturer’s instructions for proper use. 

## Liquid Chemical Sterilant/Disinfectants

- Only for heat-sensitive critical and semi-critical devices
- Powerful, toxic chemicals raise safety concerns
- Heat tolerant or disposable alternatives are available

**Notes:**
Heat-sensitive instruments can be sterilized or high-level disinfected by soaking them in a liquid chemical germicide cleared by the FDA. However, exposure to these powerful and toxic chemicals can be harmful to DHCP and patients if the manufacturer’s instructions for use and safety precautions are not followed precisely. For these reasons, CDC encourages the use of heat-tolerant or disposable alternatives.

Photo credit: Col. Shannon Mills, United States Air Force.

## Sterilization Monitoring Types of Indicators

- Mechanical
- Measure time, temperature, pressure
- Chemical
- Change in color when physical parameter is reached
- Biological (spore tests)
- Use biological spores to assess the sterilization process directly

**Notes:**
Proper monitoring of sterilization procedures should include a combination of process indicators, including the following:
Mechanical—involves assessment of cycle time, temperature, and pressure by observing the gauges or displays on the sterilizer.
Chemical—uses sensitive chemicals that change color when a given parameter is reached (e.g., heat-sensitive external tape, internal chemical indicator strip).
Biological—this method is the most valid method for monitoring the sterilization process because it assesses the process directly.  It does so by using the most heat-resistant microorganisms and not by using indicators that only test the physical and chemical conditions necessary for sterilization. 
Mechanical and chemical indicators should be assessed with each load.  If either mechanical indicators or internal or external chemical indicators indicate inadequate processing, items in the load should not be used until reprocessed.
Biological indicators should be assessed at least once a week.

## Storage of Sterile and Clean Items and Supplies

- Use date- or event-related shelf-life practices
- Examine wrapped items carefully prior to use
- When packaging of sterile items is damaged, re-clean, re-wrap, and re-sterilize
- Store clean items in dry, closed, or covered containment

**Notes:**
DHCP have a choice about how they maintain their instrument storage area — either date- or event-related shelf-life practices. In date-related packing, every sterilized package is expiration-dated and the instruments are used on a “first in, first out” basis. In event-related practice, the contents of a sterilized package should remain sterile indefinitely unless some event, for example, torn or wet packaging material, causes it to become potentially contaminated. It is still useful to place the date of sterilization and identify the sterilizer used if multiple sterilizers are utilized in the office. In case of sterilization failure, this information would facilitate retrieval of processed items.
Examine each package. If it is damaged in any way, items should be re-cleaned, re-wrapped, and re-sterilized. Even if an event-related approach is used, all packages should be labeled with the date of sterilization and which sterilizer was used, should a sterilization failure occur.
Store all sterile and clean items and supplies in dry, closed, or covered cabinets.

## Environmental Infection Control

## Environmental Surfaces

- May become contaminated
- Not directly involved in infectious disease transmission
- Do not require as stringent decontamination procedures

**Notes:**
Environmental surfaces can become contaminated with microorganisms during patient care, although they have not been associated directly with disease transmission to patients or DHCP.
Environmental surfaces do not require decontamination procedures as stringent as those used on patient care items. 

## Categories of Environmental Surfaces

-  Clinical contact surfaces
- High potential for direct contamination from spray or spatter or by contact with DHCP’s gloved hand
-  Housekeeping surfaces
- Do not come into contact with patients or devices
- Limited risk of disease transmission

**Notes:**
There are two categories of environmental surfaces.
Clinical contact surfaces have a high potential for direct contamination from patient materials either by direct spray or spatter generated during dental procedures or by contact with DHCP’s gloved hand.  These surfaces can later contaminate other instruments, devices, hands, or gloves.

Housekeeping surfaces do not come into contact with patients or devices used in dental procedures. Therefore, they have a limited risk of disease transmission.

##     Clinical Contact Surfaces

**Notes:**
This slide shows some examples of clinical contact surfaces, including a light handle, countertop, bracket tray, dental chair, and door handle (shown by arrows).

Photo credit:  Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Housekeeping Surfaces

**Notes:**
Examples of housekeeping surfaces are walls, sinks, and floors (shown by arrows). 

Photo credit:  Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte, U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## General Cleaning Recommendations

- Use barrier precautions (e.g., heavy-duty utility gloves, masks, protective eyewear) when cleaning and disinfecting environmental surfaces
- Physical removal of microorganisms by cleaning is as important as the disinfection process
- Follow manufacturer’s instructions for proper use of EPA-registered hospital disinfectants
- Do not use sterilant/high-level disinfectants on environmental surfaces

**Notes:**
Use appropriate protective barriers such as heavy-duty utility gloves, masks, and protective eyewear when cleaning and disinfecting surfaces.
In general, cleaning and removal of microorganisms is as important as the disinfection process itself.  Blood or other patient materials left on surfaces can interfere with the disinfecting process. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for proper storage, dilution, and use of hospital disinfectants.
Because of their toxic nature, the use of sterilants or high-level disinfectants on environmental surfaces is NOT recommended.

## Cleaning Clinical Contact Surfaces

- Risk of transmitting infections greater than for housekeeping surfaces
- Surface barriers can be used and changed between patients
-                       **OR**
- Clean then disinfect using an EPA-registered low- (HIV/HBV claim) to intermediate-level (tuberculocidal claim) hospital disinfectant

**Notes:**
Because clinical contact surfaces come into direct contact with contaminated gloves, instruments, spray or spatter, their risk of transmitting infection is greater than for housekeeping surfaces. These surfaces can subsequently contaminate other instruments, devices, hands, or gloves. 
Surface barriers can be used to protect clinical contact surfaces and changed between patients. Surface barriers are particularly useful for surfaces that are hard to clean, such as switches on dental chairs. This practice will also reduce exposure to harmful chemical disinfectants. 
If surface barriers cannot be used, clean and then disinfect the surface with an EPA-registered hospital disinfectant effective against HIV and HBV (low-level disinfectant).  If the surface is visibly contaminated with blood or other patient material, clean and then disinfect the surface with an EPA-registered hospital disinfectant with a tuberculocidal claim (intermediate-level disinfectant).

## Cleaning Housekeeping Surfaces

- Routinely clean with soap and water or an EPA-registered detergent/hospital disinfectant routinely
- Clean mops and cloths and allow to dry thoroughly before re-using
- Prepare fresh cleaning and disinfecting solutions daily and per manufacturer recommendations

**Notes:**
Housekeeping surfaces carry the least risk for transmitting infections in dental settings.  On a routine basis, these surfaces should be either cleaned with soap and water or an EPA-registered detergent/hospital disinfectant.  
Wet mops and cloths may become contaminated with microorganisms, so clean the mop and cloths after use and allow them to dry thoroughly before re-using.
Prepare fresh cleaning and disinfecting solutions daily and per manufacturer recommendations.

## Medical Waste

- Medical Waste: Not considered infectious, thus can be discarded in regular trash

- Regulated Medical Waste: Poses a potential risk of infection during handling and disposal

**Notes:**
There is no evidence that traditional medical waste management has contributed to increased levels of disease in the community or among health care personnel.  
The majority of waste generated in a medical or dental office (~98%–99%) is not considered infectious and can be discarded in the regular trash. Examples include used gloves, masks, and lightly bloodied gauze.
Some waste, such as used needles, extracted teeth, and gauze soaked in blood, may pose a potential risk of infection, however, and warrants special precautions during handling and disposal. Follow federal, state, and local regulations for proper treatment and disposal. 

## Regulated Medical Waste Management

- Properly labeled containment to prevent injuries and leakage
- Medical wastes are “treated” in accordance with state and local EPA regulations
- Processes for regulated waste include autoclaving and incineration

**Notes:**
Regulated medical waste requires careful containment for treatment or disposal. A single leak-resistant biohazard bag is usually adequate to contain non-sharp, regulated medical waste. Puncture-resistant containers with a biohazard label, such as sharps containers, are used as containment for scalpel blades, needles, syringes, and unused sterile sharps. 
Medical waste, both nonregulated and regulated, should be stored and disposed of in accordance with federal, state, and local EPA regulations.  
Treatment of regulated waste can involve on-site or off-site autoclaving and incineration. Never include extracted teeth with amalgam in regulated waste when disposed by one of these methods.

Photo credit:  NIOSH Web site.

## Dental Unit Waterlines, Biofilm, and Water Quality

**Notes:**
Dental Unit Waterlines (DUWL), Biofilm, and Water Quality.

## Dental Unit Waterlines and Biofilm

- Microbial biofilms form in small bore tubing of dental units
- Biofilms serve as a microbial reservoir
- Primary source of microorganisms is municipal water supply

**Notes:**
Studies have shown that colonies of microorganisms, or biofilms, can form on the inside of the small-bore plastic tubing that transports water within the dental unit to handpieces and air-water syringes. Once formed, a biofilm serves as a reservoir that may dramatically increase the number of free-floating microorganisms in water used for dental treatment.  
Most organisms isolated from dental water systems originate from the public water supply and do not pose a high risk of disease for healthy persons. Although a few pathogenic organisms, such as Legionella spp. and Pseudomonas sp., have been found, adverse public health threats have not been documented.

Photo credit, top: CDC Image library. This Scanning Electron Micrograph depicts an E. coli (ATCC 11775) biofilm grown on PC (polycarbonate) coupons using a CDC biofilm reactor.Photo credit, bottom: Illustration from the Center for Biofilm Engineering, Bozeman MT.

## Dental Unit Water Quality

- Using water of uncertain quality is inconsistent with infection control principles
- Colony counts in water from untreated systems can exceed 1,000,000  CFU/mL
- CFU=colony forming unit
- Untreated dental units cannot reliably produce water that meets drinking water standards

**Notes:**
Despite a lack of documented adverse health effects, using water of uncertain microbiological quality is inconsistent with infection control principles. Levels of contamination in water from untreated systems can exceed 1 million colony forming units per milliliter (mL) of water.
Untreated dental units cannot reliably produce water that meets drinking water standards (fewer than 500 CFU/mL of heterotrophic water bacteria). Even using source water containing ≤500 CFU/mL of bacteria (e.g., tap, distilled, or sterile water) in a self-contained system will not eliminate bacterial contamination in treatment water if biofilms in the water system are not controlled. Removal or inactivation of dental waterline biofilms requires use of chemical germicides.

## Dental Water Quality

- For routine dental treatment, meet regulatory standards for drinking water.*
- * <500 CFU/mL of heterotrophic water bacteria

**Notes:**
For this reason, CDC recommends that water used for routine dental treatment meet regulatory standards for drinking water (fewer than 500 CFU/mL of heterotrophic water bacteria).

## Available DUWL Technology

- Independent reservoirs
- Chemical treatment
- Filtration
- Combinations
- Sterile water delivery systems

**Notes:**
In recent years, commercial devices and procedures designed to improve the quality of water used in dental treatment have become widely available.  Examples of methods shown to be effective include the following:
 Self-contained water systems combined with intermittent or continuous chemical treatment.
 In-line microfilters.
 Combinations of these treatments. 
 Another alternative is to bypass the conventional dental water delivery system entirely and use either autoclavable or disposable pathways, such as sterile water delivery systems.  
As with any dental equipment, always consult with the dental unit manufacturer for appropriate methods to maintain the recommended quality of dental water. 

## Monitoring Options

- Water testing laboratory
- In-office testing with self-contained kits
- Follow recommendations provided by the manufacturer of the dental unit or waterline treatment product for monitoring water quality

**Notes:**
Monitoring of dental water quality may be performed using commercial self-contained test kits or commercial water-testing laboratories.  In-office water-testing systems are available that work at room temperature using small paddles or plates of culture medium to reveal bacterial colonies after 72 or more hours.
Dentists should consult with the manufacturer of their dental unit or water delivery system to determine the best method for maintaining acceptable water quality (i.e., <500 CFU/mL) and the recommended frequency of monitoring.

## Sterile Irrigating Solutions

- Use sterile saline or sterile water as a coolant/irrigator when performing surgical procedures
- Use devices designed for the delivery of sterile irrigating fluids

**Notes:**
During oral surgical procedures, microorganisms may enter the bloodstream and other normally sterile areas of the oral cavity (e.g., bone or subcutaneous tissue).  For this reason, sterile solutions (e.g., sterile saline or sterile water) should be used as a coolant/irrigator when performing surgical procedures. 
Because the tubing cannot be reliably sterilized, conventional dental units cannot reliably deliver sterile water even when equipped with independent water reservoirs. Sterile water delivery devices, such as sterile irrigating syringes, shown here, or bulb syringes should be used to deliver sterile water. Sterile water systems, such as those used with surgical handpieces, bypass the dental unit and use sterile disposable or autoclavable tubing. 

Photo credit, top: Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.
Photo credit, bottom: Eve Cuny, University of the Pacific School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA.

## Special Considerations

- Dental handpieces and other devices attached to air and waterlines
- Dental radiology
- Aseptic technique for parenteral medications
- Single-use (disposable) Devices
- Preprocedural mouth rinses
- Oral surgical procedures

- Handling biopsy specimens
- Handling extracted teeth
- Laser/electrosurgery plumes or surgical smoke
- Dental laboratory
*Mycobacterium tuberculosis*
- Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD) and other prion-related diseases

## Dental Handpieces and Other Devices Attached to Air and Waterlines

- Clean and heat sterilize intraoral devices that can be removed from air and waterlines
- Follow manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning, lubrication, and sterilization
- Do not use liquid germicides or ethylene oxide

**Notes:**
Any removable device that is attached to the air or waterlines should be heat sterilized to ensure that internal components have been sterilized.  
It is very important to follow the manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning and lubrication.  These protocols can ensure the effectiveness of the process and contribute to the life of the device.
Surface disinfection or liquid chemical germicide immersion are not acceptable. In addition, the use of ethylene oxide is not recommended because it cannot reliably penetrate the internal components.

## Components of Devices Permanently Attached to Air and Waterlines

- Do not enter patient’s mouth but may become contaminated
- Use barriers and change between uses
- Clean and intermediate-level disinfect the surface of devices if visibly contaminated

**Notes:**
Some parts of dental instruments are permanently attached to dental unit waterlines. These items do not enter the patient’s mouth but are likely to become contaminated with oral fluids during treatment procedures. Some examples include handles or dental unit attachments of saliva ejectors, high-speed air evacuators, and air/water syringes. 
These components should be covered with waterproof barriers and changed after each use. 
If the item becomes visibly contaminated during use, clean and disinfect with an EPA-registered hospital disinfectant with a tuberculocidal claim (intermediate-level disinfectant) before using it with the next patient. 

## Saliva Ejectors

- Previously suctioned  fluids might be retracted into the patient’s mouth when a seal is created
- Do not advise patients to close their lips tightly around the tip of the saliva ejector

**Notes:**
Backflow, meaning reverse flow, can occur when there is more negative pressure in the patient’s mouth than in the evacuator tubing, for example, when the patient uses the saliva ejector as a straw. When this happens, material from the mouth of a previous patient might remain in the vacuum line of the saliva ejector and be aspirated into the mouth of the next patient being treated. 
Although there have been no reports of any adverse health issues, patients should not be instructed to close their lips tightly around the saliva ejector tip during use. 

Photo credit:  Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Dental Radiology

- Wear gloves and other appropriate personal protective equipment as necessary
- Heat sterilize heat-tolerant radiographic accessories
- Transport and handle exposed radiographs so that they will not become contaminated
- Avoid contamination of developing equipment

**Notes:**
When taking or processing radiographs:
Wear gloves and other appropriate personal protective equipment as necessary.
Heat sterilize heat-tolerant radiographic accessories.
Transport and handle exposed radiographs so as to prevent cross-contamination.
Avoid contamination of developing equipment.

## Parenteral Medications

- Definition: Medications that are injected into the body
- Cases of disease transmission have been reported
- Handle safely to prevent transmission of infections

**Notes:**
Parenteral medications are medications that are injected into the body.
Cases of disease transmission following improper administration of parenteral medications have been reported in medical settings. For this reason it is critical that DHCP handle parenteral medications safely and use special precautions to prevent infection transmission.

## Precautions for Parenteral Medications

- IV tubings, bags, connections, needles, and syringes are single-use, disposable
-  Single dose vials
- Do not administer to multiple patients even if the needle on the syringe is changed
- Do not combine leftover contents for later use

**Notes:**
Precautions to prevent disease transmission associated with the use of parenteral medications include:
Treat fluid infusion and administration sets, including IV tubings, bags, connections, needles, and syringes as single-patient, disposable.
Regarding single-dose vials:
Do not administer to multiple patients even if the needle on the syringe is changed.
Use single-dose instead of multi-dose vials whenever possible.
Do not combine leftover contents for later use.

Photo credit: Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte, U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Single-Use (Disposable) Devices

- Intended for use on one patient during a single procedure
- Usually not heat-tolerant
- Cannot be reliably cleaned
- Examples: Syringe needles, prophylaxis cups, and plastic orthodontic brackets

**Notes:**
A single-use device, also referred to as a disposable device, is intended for use on one patient. It was never intended to be cleaned, disinfected, or sterilized and used on another patient. 
Single-use devices used in dentistry are usually not heat tolerant and cannot be reliably cleaned. Examples of such items include syringe needles, prophylaxis cups and brushes, and plastic orthodontic brackets. 

## Preprocedural Mouth Rinses

- Antimicrobial mouth rinses prior to a dental procedure
- Reduce number of microorganisms in aerosols/spatter
- Decrease the number of microorganisms introduced into the bloodstream
- Unresolved issue–no evidence that infections are prevented

**Notes:**
Preprocedural mouth rinsing is the use of an antimicrobial mouth rinse by the patient prior to a dental procedure. These mouth rinses can contain, for example, chlorhexidine gluconate, essential oils, and povidine-iodine.
Studies have shown that preprocedural mouth rinses can reduce the number of aerosolized bacteria, and in some cases, the number of bacteria introduced into the bloodstream. However, there is no scientific evidence that this practice can prevent clinical infections among patients or DHCP.
Although there is no harm in using preprocedural mouth rinses because of the lack of evidence that clinical infections are prevented, no recommendation is made.

## Oral Surgical Procedures

- Present a risk for microorganisms to enter the body
- Involve the incision, excision, or reflection of tissue that exposes normally sterile areas of the oral cavity
- Examples include biopsy, periodontal surgery,
-      implant surgery, apical surgery, and surgical
-      extractions of teeth

**Notes:**
The oral cavity is colonized by many types and large numbers of microorganisms. Surgical procedures present an opportunity for these microorganisms to enter the bloodstream and other normally sterile areas of the mouth.  Entry of microorganisms into bone and subcutaneous tissue may increase the potential for localized or systemic infection.
CDC recommendations define oral surgical procedures as those that “involve the incision, excision, or reflection of tissue that exposes normally sterile areas of the oral cavity.”
Examples include biopsy, periodontal surgery, implant surgery, apical surgery, and surgical extractions of teeth, defined as the removal of erupted or nonerupted teeth requiring elevation of mucoperiosteal flap, removal of bone, or sectioning of teeth and suturing if needed.

## Precautions for Surgical Procedures

**Sterile Irrigating **
**Solutions**

**Sterile Surgeon’s **
**Gloves**

**Surgical**** **
**Scrub**

**Notes:**
A higher level of infection control is warranted when performing surgical procedures and includes the following:
Surgical handscrub using an antimicrobial agent.
Use of sterile surgeon’s gloves.
Use of sterile irrigating solutions.  The latter includes delivery systems that bypass the dental unit, such as sterile bulb syringes or sterile injection syringes.

Photo credit (top left and at right): U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.
Photo credit (center): Eve Cuny, University of the Pacific School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA..

## Handling Biopsy Specimens

- Place biopsy in sturdy, leakproof container
- Avoid contaminating the outside of the container
- Label with a biohazard symbol

**Notes:**
To protect the people handling and transporting biopsy specimens, each specimen must be placed in a sturdy, leakproof container with a secure lid to prevent leakage during transport. 
Care should be taken when collecting the specimen to avoid contaminating the outside of the container. If the outside of the container becomes visibly contaminated, it should be cleaned and disinfected or placed in an leakproof bag. 
The container also must be labeled with a biohazard symbol.

Photo credit:  Lt. Col. Jennifer Harte,  U.S.A.F. Dental Investigation Service, Great Lakes, IL.

## Considered regulated medical waste
Do not incinerate extracted teeth containing amalgam
Clean and disinfect before sending to lab for shade comparison
Can be given back to patient

- Do not incinerate extracted teeth containing amalgam
- Clean and disinfect before sending to lab for shade comparison
- Can be given back to patient

**Extracted Teeth**

**Notes:**
Extracted teeth that are being discarded are considered infectious and should be treated as regulated medical waste. 
Extracted teeth containing amalgam should not be placed in a medical waste container that uses an incinerator for final disposal. State and local regulations should be consulted regarding disposal of amalgam.
Extracted teeth used for shade comparison should be cleaned and the surface disinfected with an intermediate-level EPA-registered hospital grade disinfectant before sending to the laboratory.
If patients request their own extracted teeth, the tooth fairy wins: OSHA regulations no longer apply once the tooth has been returned to the patient.  However, for the safety of others who may come into contact with the tooth, it should be cleaned and disinfected before it is returned to the patient.

## Handling Extracted Teethin Educational Settings

- Remove visible blood and debris
- Maintain hydration
- Autoclave (teeth with no amalgam)
- Use Standard Precautions

**Notes:**
Extracted teeth are occasionally collected and used for preclinical educational training.  
Extracted teeth should be cleaned of visible blood and debris and kept hydrated in tap water or saline. Be sure to use a sturdy, leakproof container if transporting and label the container with a biohazard symbol.   
 Using teeth without amalgam is preferred because teeth can be safely autoclaved. If extracted teeth that contain amalgam must be used, DO NOT heat sterilize since this will produce harmful mercury vapors.  Instead, immerse in 10% formalin for 2 weeks before use.
 Even though the inside of the pulp chamber is now safe to touch, CDC suggests that students use Standard Precautions, because preclinical exercises should simulate clinical practice.

## Laser/Electrosurgery Plumes and Surgical Smoke

- Destruction of tissue creates smoke that may contain harmful by-products
- Infectious materials (HSV, HPV) may contact mucous membranes of nose
- No evidence of HIV/HBV transmission
- Need further studies

**Notes:**
Lasers or electrosurgical units can cause thermal destruction of tissue and create a smoke by-product containing toxic gases and vapors such as benzene; dead and live cellular material (including blood fragments), and viruses. 
One concern is that aerosolized infectious material, such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) and human papillomavirus (HPV) in the laser plume may contact the nasal mucosa of the laser operator and nearby DHCP. 
No evidence exists that HIV or HBV have been transmitted via aerosolization and inhalation.
Until studies have fully evaluated the risk for DHCP from exposure to laser plumes and electrosurgery smoke, it might be practical to follow National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommendations (see guidelines). Use of precautions beyond Standard Precautions is an unresolved issue in dentistry.

## Dental Laboratory

- Dental prostheses, appliances, and items used in their making are potential sources of contamination
- Handle in a manner that protects patients and DHCP from exposure to microorganisms

**Notes:**
Dental prostheses, such as crowns, full and partial dentures, orthodontic appliances, and items used in their fabrication are potential sources of contamination in the dental laboratory. 
As such, they should be handled in a manner that protects patients and DHCP from exposure to microorganisms.

## Dental Laboratory

- Clean and disinfect prostheses and impressions
- Wear appropriate PPE until disinfection has been completed
- Clean and heat sterilize heat-tolerant items used in the mouth
- Communicate specific information about disinfection procedures

**Notes:**
Prostheses, orthodontic appliances, and impressions should be cleaned, disinfected with an intermediate-level disinfectant, and rinsed before and after being manipulated. Wear gloves and other appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) until disinfection has been completed.
Clean and heat sterilize heat-tolerant items used in the mouth.
Communicate specific information about disinfection procedures; personnel in both the dental office and the laboratory should ensure that the other knows what has occurred.

## Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

- Spread by droplet nuclei
- Immune system usually prevents spread
- Bacteria can remain alive in the lungs for many years (latent TB infection)

**Notes:**
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) is spread from person to person through the air. When a person with pulmonary or laryngeal TB coughs or sneezes, tiny particles, known as droplet nuclei, are expelled into the air.  The particles are an estimated 1-5 μm in size, and normal air currents can keep them airborne for prolonged periods of time and spread them throughout a room or building.  Infection may occur when a person inhales droplet nuclei containing TB organisms. 
During the first few weeks after infection, organisms can spread from the initial location in the lungs to the lymph nodes in the center of the chest and then to other parts of the body by way of the bloodstream.  Within 2 to 12 weeks, the body's immune system usually prevents further multiplication and spread, although they can remain alive in the lungs for years.  This condition is referred to as latent TB infection.
Photo credit:  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.

## Risk of TB Transmission in Dentistry

- Risk in dental settings is low
- Only one documented case of transmission
- Tuberculin skin test conversions among DHP are rare

**Notes:**
Overall, the risk for transmission of TB in most dental settings is quite low.  
There has been only one case report of transmission of tuberculosis bacteria from an infected dentist to patients, reportedly transmitted by direct inoculation of extraction sites through the dentist's fingers (Smith WH, Davies D, Mason KD, Onions JP: Intraoral and pulmonary tuberculosis following dental treatment. Lancet 1982;1:842-4).
In addition, tuberculin skin test conversions among DHCP are rare, even among populations of dentists at high risk for exposure to TB patients.

## Preventing Transmission of TB in   Dental Settings

- Assess patients for history of TB
- Defer elective dental treatment
- If patient must be treated:
- DHCP should wear face mask
- Separate patient from others/mask/tissue
- Refer to facility with proper TB infection control precautions

**Notes:**
Periodic updates of medical histories should include questions concerning history of TB exposure, infection or (current or past) treatment for active TB, and symptoms consistent with TB. 
Elective dental treatment should be deferred for any patient suspected or known to have active TB until they have been evaluated by medical personnel.
DHCP should wear a face mask (surgical) or N-95 respirator for all patient contact. Any patient with suspected or possible infectious TB should be separated from other patients or DHCP, given a surgical mask to wear, and provided with tissues for coughing or sneezing. Refer the patient to a facility with proper TB infection control precautions for medical evaluation or urgent dental treatment.
If you are in an office or facility that will provide dental treatment for patients with TB, additional precautions are necessary. Refer to CDC Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of MTB in Health-care Facilities. MMWR 1994;43(No. RR-13)
Photo credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

## Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)and other Prion Diseases

- A type of a fatal degenerative disease of central nervous system
- Caused by abnormal “prion” protein
- Human and animal forms
- Long incubation period
- One case per million population worldwide

**Notes:**
Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD) is a rare, fatal disease of the central nervous system characterized by rapid, progressive dementia and other sensory and motor disturbances. 
CJD is thought to be caused by small, proteinaceous agents referred to as prions. Prions occur naturally in mammals and birds but turn destructive when they become folded in a way that changes how they react with other brain chemicals.  
CJD has an extremely long incubation period and is fairly rare–only one case per million worldwide.               

## New Variant CJD (vCJD)

- Variant CJD (vCJD) is the human version of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
- Case reports in the UK, Italy, France, Ireland, Hong Kong, Canada
- One case report in the United States – former UK resident

**Notes:**
A new form of CJD, known as variant CJD, was reported in 1996 in the United Kingdom (UK) where an outbreak of BSE had been occurring among cattle since the early 1980s.  
Laboratory tests have shown a strong similarity between the prions causing BSE and vCJD. Although specific foods have not been identified, transmission is believed to occur primarily by processed food items that contain infectious bovine tissues such as brain or spinal cord.  
Most cases of vCJD have been reported from the UK, as well as a few cases from Italy, France, Ireland, Hong Kong, and Canada. One case has been reported from the U.S. in 2002. The patient had grown up in the UK when the BSE outbreak was increasing and when the risk for human exposure to BSE was probably at its peak. 

## Infection Control for Known CJD or vCJD Dental Patients

- Use single-use disposable items and equipment
- Consider items difficult to clean (e.g., endodontic files, broaches) as single-use disposable
- Keep instruments moist until cleaned
- Clean  and autoclave at 134°C for 18 minutes
- Do not use flash sterilization

**Notes:**
Until additional scientific information is available regarding the transmissibility of CJD or vCJD, special precautions in addition to Standard Precautions, may be indicated when treating the known CJD or vCJD patient. A list of such precautions is provided for consideration without recommendation. 
Use single-use disposable items and equipment. 
Consider items that are difficult to clean (e.g., endodontic files, broaches, carbide and diamond burs) as single-use, disposable and discard after one use.
Keep instruments moist until cleaned and decontaminated.
Clean thoroughly and steam autoclave in a prevacuum sterilizer at 134°C for 18 minutes. This is the least stringent of a list of sterilization methods offered by WHO. 
Do not use flash sterilization for reprocessing instruments or devices.

## Program Evaluation

**“****Systematic way to improve (infection control) procedures so they are useful, feasible, ethical, and accurate”**
**Develop standard operating procedures**
**Evaluate infection control practices**
**Document adverse outcomes**
**Document work-related illnesses**
**Monitor health care-associated infections**

**Notes:**
Program evaluation is an essential component of an infection control program. The CDC Guidelines describe program evaluation as a “systematic way to ensure that infection control procedures are useful, feasible, ethical, and accurate.” 
A successful infection-control program depends on:
Developing standard operating procedures.
Evaluating practices.
Routinely documenting adverse outcomes (e.g., occupational exposures to blood) and work-related illnesses in DHCP.
Monitoring health care–associated infections in patients. 

## Infection Control Program Goals

**Provide a safe working environment**
**Reduce health care-associated infections **
**Reduce occupational exposures**

**Notes:**
The goal of an infection control program is to provide a safe working environment for DHCP and their patients. 
We can accomplish this by adopting measures that will reduce health care-associated infections among patients and occupational exposures among DHCP.

## Program Evaluation

**Strategies and Tools**
**Periodic observational assessments**
**Checklists to document procedures**
**Routine review of occupational exposures to bloodborne pathogens**** **

**Notes:**
Strategies and tools to evaluate the infection control program can include the following: 
Periodic observational assessments.
Checklists to document procedures.
Routine review of occupational exposures to bloodborne pathogens. 
Constructive review and feedback to staff.

##     “Program evaluation provides an opportunity to identify and change inappropriate practices, thereby improving the effectiveness of your infection control program.”

**Notes:**
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