# Presentation: 507541

## Copyright:  Protecting Your Rights at Home and Abroad

- Office of International Relations
- US Patent and Trademark Office

## U.S. Constitution (1787)

- 	“The Congress shall have Power...To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Rights to their Respective Writings and Discoveries.
*	**	**	**	**-- Article 1, Section 8, Clause 8*

## What is Copyright?

- 	Copyright is a legal protection for the authors of “original works of authorship,” including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works.

## What Works are Protected?

- Work must be fixed in a tangible form of expression.
- The fixation need not be directly perceptible so long as it may be communicated with the aid of a machine or device.

## What Works are Protected?

- Must be an original work of authorship, meaning that the work must be independently created by the author (as opposed to copied from other works).
- The U.S.’ required level of originality is very low.  Other countries’ laws may differ in this respect.

## Categories of Protected Works

- Literary works
- Musical works
- Sound recordings
- Dramatic works
- Choreographic works
- Pictorial, graphic and sculptural works
- Motion pictures
- Architectural works

**Notes:**
Literary Works
Includes Computer Programs.
Dramatic Works
Including any accompanying music.
Musical Works
Includes any accompanying words.
A musical work is the underlying music and words (the sheet music)—and not the sound recording.
Sound recordings
Works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds . . . Regardless of the material objects . . . in which they are embodied.
Choreographic Works
Choreographic works and pantomimes can be fixed through dance notation or other written description or graphic depiction.
 Choreographic works can also be fixed by means of an audiovisual work.

Works of Visual Art
Pictorial, Graphic, and Sculptural Works 
Includes Works of Applied Arts
Includes Maps and Plans
Sound recordings
Works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds . . . Regardless of the material objects . . . in which they are embodied.
Choreographic Works
Works of Visual Art
Pictorial, Graphic, and Sculptural Works 
Includes Works of Applied Arts
Includes Maps and Plans
Audiovisual Works
Motion pictures;
Television programming;
Includes the soundtrack that accompanies the images;
Images must be related, presented in a series, and capable of being shown by a machine or device.

## Works from Pre-existing Works 

- Compilations
- Derivative Works

## What Works are Not Protected?

- Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of expression
- Titles, names; familiar symbols or designs; mere variations of lettering; mere listings of ingredients or content
- Ideas, procedures, concepts, principles
- Works consisting entirely of common property, containing no original authorship

## Copyright: A Bundle of Rights

- Reproduction
- Adaptation
- Distribution
- Public Performance
- Public Display

## Securing Protection		

- Copyright protection is secured automatically upon creation (fixation).
- No publication or registration is required.

**Notes:**
Even though registration is not a requirement for protection, the copyright law provides several inducements or advantages to encourage copyright owners to make registration. Among these advantages are the following: 
Registration establishes a public record of the copyright claim.
Before an infringement suit may be filed in court, registration is necessary for works of U. S. origin.
If made before or within 5 years of publication, registration will establish prima facie evidence in court of the validity of the copyright and of the facts stated in the certificate.
If registration is made within 3 months after publication of the work or prior to an infringement of the work, statutory damages and attorney's fees will be available to the copyright owner in court actions. Otherwise, only an award of actual damages and profits is available to the copyright owner.
Registration allows the owner of the copyright to record the registration with the U. S. Customs Service for protection against the importation of infringing copies. 

## Registration Process

- A copyright owner must:
- File an application;
- Pay a nominal filing fee ($30); and
- Deposit copies of the work at the Copyright Office.  Some of the works may be added to the collections of the Library of Congress.

## Registration

- Registration is administered by the U.S. Copyright Office of the Library of Congress
- Forms available at www.copyright.gov
- Registration does not involve complex examination of applications as for patents and trademarks.

## Why Register?

- As a U.S. copyright owner, you must register in order to be able to bring suit in federal court for infringement.
- Pre-requisite for obtaining statutory damages and attorney’s fees.
- Easier to enforce your copyrights in foreign courts.
- Puts others on notice.
- Easier to license work, collect royalties, and enforce your rights outside of court.

**Notes:**
Even though registration is not a requirement for protection, the copyright law provides several inducements or advantages to encourage copyright owners to make registration. Among these advantages are the following: 
Registration establishes a public record of the copyright claim.
Before an infringement suit may be filed in court, registration is necessary for works of U. S. origin.
If made before or within 5 years of publication, registration will establish prima facie evidence in court of the validity of the copyright and of the facts stated in the certificate.
If registration is made within 3 months after publication of the work or prior to an infringement of the work, statutory damages and attorney's fees will be available to the copyright owner in court actions. Otherwise, only an award of actual damages and profits is available to the copyright owner.
Registration allows the owner of the copyright to record the registration with the U. S. Customs Service for protection against the importation of infringing copies. 

## Notice

- No notice is required.
- Notice may benefit the owner against a supposed “innocent infringer.”
- Forms of notice:  ©, the word “Copyright,” or the abbreviation “Copr.”, year of publication, and name of the copyright owner.

**Notes:**
For works published on or after March 1, 1989 – notice is optional
For works published between January 1, 1978 and February 28, 1989 – notice is required but omitted and defective notices can be cured
For works published before January 1, 1978 – notice is mandatory; failure to provide notice at time of first publication places the work in public domain

## Copyright Term

- Life Plus 70:  In the U.S., copyright subsists from creation and endures the full life of the author plus 70 years after the author’s death.
- 95 Years from Publication:  If the author is not a natural person, then copyright endures 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation, whichever expires first.

**Notes:**
Discuss the Eldred case.
For works created on or after January 1, 1978, copyright begins with creation and lasts for the life of the author plus 70 years
For works made for hire, copyright lasts for 95 years from the date of first publication, or 120 years from the date of creation, whichever comes first. 

General rule:  copyright begins upon first publication and lasts for 28 years, renewable for an additional 28 years
For works published between 1923 and 1963, initial term of 28 years, with a renewal term of 67 years
For works published between 1964 and 1977, initial term of 28 years, with automatic renewal term of 67 years
Works published before 1923 are in the public domain.
For unpublished works created before January 1, 1978, copyright term is same as term for works created on or after that date (life plus 70) subject to two exceptions
Earliest date for expiration is December 31, 2002, no matter when the author died
For works in this category that were published before December 31, 2002, copyright was extended to December 31, 2047.
Publication is the distribution of copies...of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending.  The offering to distribute copies...to a group of persons for purposes of further distribution...constitutes publication.  A public performance or display of a work does not of itself constitute publication.

## Ownership of Copyright

- Copyright initially belongs to the individual authors
- Joint authors are co-owners of the copyright in joint works
- Under the work-made-for-hire doctrine, the employer is the owner of the copyright for works created within the scope of employment
- Special rules apply to “commissioned works”

## Who is an employee?

- Right to control the manner and means of production
- Skill required
- Employee benefits
- Tax treatment
- Right to assign additional projects
- Tools
- Location of work

##   Works Made for Hire

-   Works Made for Hire

- A work prepared by an _employee_
- within the_ __scope_
- _of his or her_
- _employment_.

- A work _specially ordered _
- _or commissioned_
- for use as:
-  A contribution to a collective work;
-  A part of a motion picture
-    or other audiovisual work;
-  A translation;
-  A supplementary work;
-  A compilation;
-  An instructional text;
-  A test;
-  Answer material for a test;
-  An atlas.

**Notes:**
Please steal this presentation:
The U.S. Government does not claim copyright in any work it creates.

Note the political lobbying that resulted in the Copyright Act.

## Transfer of Copyright

- 	“Any or all of the copyright owner’s exclusive rights...may be transferred, but the transfer of *exclusive* rights is not valid unless that transfer is in writing....  Transfer of a right on a *nonexclusive *basis does not require a written agreement.”
- 			-- *U.S. Copyright Office, Circular 1, page 6*

## Copyright Infringement

- Infringement is a violation of any of the exclusive rights of copyright

## Elements of a Copyright Infringement Case

- Validity and ownership of a copyright
- Wrongful copying of protected expression

##   Proving Infringement

- Direct Evidence of Infringement
- 	or
- Circumstantial evidence of infringement:
_*Access*_ to plaintiff’s copyrighted work
- Unlawful copying of the work as evidenced by
_*Substantial similarity*_ of original and infringing work

## Liability for Infringement

- Direct Liability
- Contributory Liability
- Knowledge of infringement
- 	     (actual or constructive)
- Material contribution
- Vicarious Liability
- The right and ability to supervise
- Financial interest

## Limitations & Exceptions

- First sale doctrine
- Special exceptions for libraries, archives, and teaching;
- Certain statutory licenses;
- Certain television & radio exceptions;
- Reproduction for those with disabilities;
- Single software copy for archival purposes.

##      Fair Use

- “Fair Use” is not an infringement of copyright.  Use for purposes such as:
- Criticism,
- Comment,
- News reporting,
- Teaching,
- Scholarship, or
- Research.

##    Four Factor Test

- The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;
- The nature of the copyrighted work;
- The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and
- The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.

## Fair Use Checklist

- Does the use infringe exclusive rights protected by copyright?
- Is the use of the work “commercial,” or for nonprofit purposes such as criticism, commentary, education, or news reporting?
- Is the use “transformative,” bringing new expressive meanings to the copyrighted material?
- Does the use impact an existing market for the work, or one that is likely to be exploited in the future?
- How much of the copyrighted material is being used?

## Copyright Remedies

- Actual damages
- Statutory damages
- Injunctions, including temporary and permanent
- Impounding infringing copies
- Destroying infringing copies and the machinery and equipment used to produce them
- Attorney’s fees and costs

## The WIPO “Internet” Treaties

- Negotiated in 1996 under the auspices of the World Intellectual Property Organization, part of the United Nations.
- The WIPO Copyright Treaty entered into force with 30 ratifications on March 6, 2002.
- The WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty entered into force with 30 ratifications on May 20, 2002.
- The U.S. implemented the Treaties through the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.

## Three New Obligations Established

- The Right of Making Available to the Public;
- Legal Protection of Technological Measures to Protect Copyrighted Works (“TPMs”); and
- Legal Protection of Rights Management Information (“RMI”).

## Digital Millennium Copyright Act

- 1998 U.S. implementation of the treaties;
- Extends U.S. copyright law into the digital realm; and
- Prohibits circumvention of technological protection measures;
- Prevents tampering with rights management information;
- Limits infringement liability for ISPs that meet certain criteria.

## Notice and Takedown System	

- Once an ISP receives a proper notice alleging infringement, it must expeditiously take the material down and notify the user.
- The user may then respond to the notice and the ISP must put back the material if no court order is filed by right holder.

## THANK YOU

- For further information, please contact:
- US Patent & Trademark Office
- Department of External Affairs
- www.USPTO.gov