# Presentation: 090736

## Outline: 6+ Hours of Edification

-  Philosophy (e.g., theory without equations)
-  Sample FMRI data
-  Theory underlying FMRI analyses: the **HRF**
-  “Simple” or “Fixed Shape” regression analysis
-  Theory and Hands-on examples
-  “Deconvolution” or “Variable Shape” analysis
-  Theory and Hands-on examples
-  Advanced Topics (followed by brain meltdown)

**Goals****: Conceptual **_**Understanding**_** ****+**** Prepare to Try It Yourself**

##  Signal = Measurable response to stimulus
 Noise = Components of measurement that interfere with detection of signal
 Statistical detection theory:
 Understand relationship between stimulus & signal
 Characterize noise statistically
 Can then devise methods to distinguish noise-only measurements from signal+noise measurements, and assess the methods’ reliability
 Methods and usefulness depend strongly on the assumptions
 Some methods are more “robust” against erroneous assumptions than others, but may be less sensitive

-  _**Noise**_ = Components of measurement that interfere with detection of signal
-  Statistical detection theory:
-  _Understand_ relationship between stimulus & signal
-  Characterize noise statistically
-  Can then devise methods to distinguish noise-only measurements from signal+noise measurements, and assess the methods’ reliability
-  Methods and usefulness depend strongly on the assumptions
-  Some methods are more “robust” against erroneous assumptions than others, but may be less sensitive

- Data Analysis Philosophy

## FMRI Philosopy: Signals and Noise

-  FMRI _Stimulus__****__Signal_ connection and _noise statistics_ are both complex and poorly characterized
-  Result: there is no “**best**” way to analyze FMRI time series data: there are only “**reasonable**” analysis methods
-  To deal with data, must make some assumptions about the signal and noise
-  Assumptions will be wrong, but must do ***something***
-  Different kinds of experiments require different kinds of analyses
-  Since signal models and questions you ask about the signal will vary
-  It is important to _understand_ what is going on, so you can select and evaluate “reasonable” analyses

## Meta-method for creating analysis methods

-  Write down a mathematical model connecting stimulus (or “activation”) to signal
-  Write down a statistical model for the noise
-  Combine them to produce an equation for measurements given signal+noise
-  Equation will have unknown parameters, which are to be estimated from the data
-  N.B.: signal may have zero strength (no “activation”)
-  Use statistical detection theory to produce an algorithm for processing the measurements to assess signal presence and characteristics
-  e.g., least squares fit of model parameters to data

## Time Series Analysis on Voxel Data

-  Most common forms of FMRI analysis involve fitting an activation+BOLD model to each voxel’s time series ***separately****** ***(AKA “univariate” analysis)
-  Some pre-processing steps do include inter-voxel computations; e.g.,
-  spatial smoothing to reduce noise
-  spatial registration to correct for subject motion
-  Result of model fits is a set of parameters at each voxel, estimated from that voxel’s data
-  e.g., activation amplitude (********* ***), delay, shape
-  “SPM” = statistical parametric map; e.g., *t* or *F*
-  Further analysis steps operate on individual SPMs
-  e.g., combining/contrasting data among subjects

## Some Features of FMRI Voxel Time Series

-  FMRI only measures _changes_ due to neural “activity”
-  Baseline level of signal in a voxel means little or nothing about neural activity
-  Also, baseline level tends to drift around slowly (100 s time scale or so; mostly from small subject motions)
-  Therefore, an FMRI experiment must have at least 2 different neural conditions (“tasks” and/or “stimuli”)
-  Then statistically test for differences in the MRI signal level between conditions
-  Many experiments: one condition is “rest”
-  Baseline is modeled separately from activation signals, and _baseline model includes “rest” periods_

##  First sample: Block-trial FMRI data
 “Activation” occurs over a sustained period of time (say, 10 s or longer), usually from more than one stimulation event, in rapid succession
 BOLD (hemodynamic) response accumulates from multiple close-in-time neural activations and is large
 BOLD response is often visible in time series
 Noise magnitude about same as BOLD response
 Next 2 slides: same brain voxel in 3 (of 9) EPI runs
 black curve (noisy) = data
 red curve (above data) = ideal model response
 blue curve (within data) = model fitted to data
 somatosensory task (finger being rubbed)

-  “Activation” occurs over a sustained period of time (say, 10 s or longer), usually from more than one stimulation event, in rapid succession
-  BOLD (hemodynamic) response accumulates from multiple close-in-time neural activations and is large
-  BOLD response is often visible in time series
-  Noise magnitude about same as BOLD response
-  Next 2 slides: same brain voxel in 3 (of 9) EPI runs
-  **black curve** (noisy) = data
-  **red curve** (above data) = ideal model response
-  **blue curve** (within data) = model fitted to data
-  somatosensory task (finger being rubbed)

- Some Sample FMRI Data Time Series

## Same Voxel: Runs 1 and 2

- Block-trials: 27 s “on” / 27 s “off”; TR=2.5 s; 130 time points/run

**model fitted to data**

**data**

**model regressor**

**Noise**** ******** ****same size as ********signal**

## Same Voxel: Run 3 and Average of all 9

****** **Activation amplitude & shape vary among blocks!  Why???

## More Sample FMRI Data Time Series

-  _Second sample_: Event-Related FMRI
-  “Activation” occurs in single relatively brief intervals
-  “Events” can be randomly or regularly spaced in time
-  If events are randomly spaced in time, signal model itself _looks_ noise-like (to the pitiful human eye)
-  BOLD response to stimulus tends to be weaker, since fewer nearby-in-time “activations”
-   have overlapping signal changes
-   (hemodynamic responses)
-  Next slide: Visual stimulation experiment

- “Active” voxel shown in next slide

## Two Voxel Time Series from Same Run

**correlation with ideal = 0.56**

**correlation with ideal = –**** ****0.01**

- Lesson: ER-FMRI activation is not obvious via casual inspection

##  HRF is the idealization of measurable FMRI signal change responding to a single activation cycle (up and down) from a stimulus in a voxel

-  **HRF** is the idealization of measurable FMRI signal change responding to a single activation cycle (up and down) from a stimulus in a voxel

- Response to brief activation (< 1 s):
-  delay of 1-2 s
-  rise time of 4-5 s
-  fall time of 4-6 s
-  model equation:
-  *h*(*t** *) is signal change *t* seconds ***after*** activation

_**1 Brief Activation (Event)**_

- Hemodynamic Response Function (HRF)

## Linearity of HRF

-  Multiple activation cycles in a voxel, closer in time than duration of HRF:
-  Assume that overlapping responses add

-  Linearity is a pretty good assumption
-  But not apparently perfect — about 90% correct
-  Nevertheless, is widely taken to be true and is the basis for the “general linear model” (GLM) in FMRI analysis

_**3 Brief Activations**_

## Linearity and Extended Activation

-  Extended activation, as in a block-trial experiment:
-  HRF accumulates over its duration ( 10 s)

_**2 Long Activations (Blocks)**_

-  _**Black**_ curve = response to a single brief stimulus
-  _**Red**_ curve = activation intervals
-  _**Green**_ curve = summed up HRFs from activations
-  Block-trials have larger BOLD signal changes than event-related experiments

## Convolution Signal Model

-  FMRI signal model (in each voxel) is taken as sum of the individual trial HRFs (assumed equal)
-  Stimulus timing is assumed known (or measured)
-  Resulting time series (in **blue**) are called the ***convolution*** of the HRF with stimulus timing
-  Finding HRF=“deconvolution”
-  AFNI code = _**3dDeconvolve**_
-  Convolution models only the FMRI signal **changes**

**22 s**

**120 s**

-  Real data starts at and
-   returns to a nonzero,
-   slowly drifting baseline

##  Assume a fixed shape h(t ) for the HRF
 e.g., h(t ) = t 8.6 exp(-t /0.547)   [MS Cohen, 1997]
 Convolve with stimulus timing to get ideal response function
 Assume a form for the baseline
 e.g., a + bt  for a constant plus a linear trend
 In each voxel, fit data Z(t ) to a curve of the form
         Z(t )  a + b  t +   r (t )
 a, b,  are unknown parameters to be calculated in each voxel
 a, b are “nuisance” parameters
  is amplitude of r (t ) in data = “how much” BOLD

-  e.g., *h*(*t** *) = *t** *8.6 exp(-*t** */0.547)   [MS Cohen, 1997]
-  Convolve with stimulus timing to get ideal response function
-  Assume a form for the baseline
-  e.g., *a *+* b****t*  for a constant plus a linear trend
-  In each voxel, fit data *Z*(*t** *) to a curve of the form
*         **Z*(*t** *)* **** a *+* b **** t* + ******* **** r** *(*t** *)
-  *a*, *b*, ****** are unknown parameters to be calculated in each voxel
-  *a*, *b* are “nuisance” parameters
-  ****** is amplitude of *r** *(*t** *) in data = “how much” BOLD

- Simple Regression Models

- The signal model*!*

## Simple Regression: Example

**Constant baseline**: ***a***

**Quadratic baseline: *****a****** *****+*****b************t****** *****+*****c************t****** *****2**

-  Necessary baseline model complexity depends on duration of **continuous** imaging — e.g., 1 parameter per 150 seconds

## Duration of Stimuli - Important Caveats

-  Slow baseline drift (time scale 100 s and longer) makes doing FMRI with _long duration_ stimuli difficult
-  Learning experiment, where the task is done continuously for 15 minutes and the subject is scanned to find parts of the brain that adapt during this time interval
-  Pharmaceutical challenge, where the subject is given some psychoactive drug whose action plays out over 10+ minutes (e.g., cocaine, ethanol)
-  Multiple very _short duration_ stimuli that are also very close in time to each other are very hard to tell apart, since their HRFs will have 90-95% overlap
-  Binocular rivalry, where percept switches  0.5 s

## 900 s

- _900 s_

- Is it Baseline Drift?  Or Activation?

- Is it one extended activation?
- Or four overlapping activations?

- 4 stimulus times (_**waver**_ + _**1dplot**_)

- _19 s_

- Individual HRFs

- Sum of HRFs

- not real data!

## Multiple Stimuli = Multiple Regressors

-  Usually have more than one class of stimulus or activation in an experiment
-  e.g., want to see size of “**face activation**” vis-à-vis “**house activation**”; or, “**what**” vs. “**where**” activity
-  Need to model each separate class of stimulus with a separate response function *r*1(*t** *), *r*2(*t** *), *r*3(*t** *), ....
-  Each *r**j*(*t** *) is based on the stimulus timing for activity in class number *j*
* *Calculate a ***j* amplitude = amount of *r**j*(*t** *) in voxel data time series *Z*(*t** *)
-  Contrast *** *s to see which voxels have differential activation levels under different stimulus conditions
-  e.g., statistical test on the question ********1****–**********2**** = 0 ?**

## Multiple Stimuli - Important Caveat

-  You do _***not***_ model the baseline (“control”) condition
-  e.g., “rest”, visual fixation, high-low tone discrimination, or some other simple task
-  FMRI can only measure _***changes***_ in MR signal levels between tasks
-  So you need some simple-ish task to serve as a reference point
-  The baseline model (e.g., ***a****** *****+**** *****b****** **********t****** ***) takes care of the signal level to which the MR signal returns when the “active” tasks are turned off
-  Modeling the reference task explicitly would be redundant (or “collinear”, to anticipate a forthcoming concept)

## Multiple Stimuli - Experiment Design

-  How many distinct stimuli do you need in each class?  Our rough recommendations:
-  _Short event-related designs_: at least 25 events in each stimulus class (spread across multiple imaging runs) — and more is better
-  _Block designs_: at least 5 blocks in each stimulus class — 10 would be better
-  While we’re on the subject: _**How many subjects?**_
-  Several independent studies agree that 20-25 subjects in each category are needed for highly reliable results
-  This number is more than has usually been the custom in FMRI-based studies**!**

## Multiple Regressors: Cartoon Animation

-  _**Red**_ curve = signal model for class #1
-  _**Green**_ curve = signal model for #2
-  _**Blue**_ curve =
-     ********1****#****1**+********2****#****2**
- where ********1** and ********2** vary from 0.1 to 1.7 in the animation
-  Goal of regression is to find ********1** and ********2** that make the blue curve best fit the data time series
** **_**Gray**_ curve =
** **** ****1.5****#****1**+**0.6****#****2**+**noise**
-  = simulated data

## Multiple Regressors: Collinearity!!

- _Multiple Regressors: Collinearity!!_

_**Green**_ curve = signal model for #1
_**Red**_ curve = signal model for class #2
_**Blue**_ curve = signal model for #3
**Purple** curve =
**    ****#****1**** **+ **#****2**** **+ **#****3**
- which is exactly = 1
-  We cannot — ***in principle or in practice****** ***— distinguish sum of 3 signal models from constant baseline!!

_***No***_ analysis can distinguish the cases
*   **Z*(*t** *)=10+  5**#****1**                       and
*   **Z*(*t** *)=  0+15**#****1**+10**#****2**+10**#****3**
- and an infinity of other possibilities

- Collinear designs
- are _**bad**__** **__**bad**__** **__**bad**_!

## Multiple Regressors: Near Collinearity

_**Red**_ curve = signal model for class #1
_**Green**_ curve = signal model for #2
_**Blue**_ curve =
-     ********1****#****1**+**(1–**********1****)****#****2**
- where ******1** varies randomly  from 0.0 to 1.0 in animation
_**Gray**_ curve =
** **** ****0.66****#****1**+**0.33****#****2**
-  = simulated data *with no noise*
-  Lots of different combinations of **#****1 **and **#****2** are decent fits to gray curve

- Stimuli are too close in time to distinguish
- response **#****1 **from **#****2**, considering noise

**Red** & **Green** stimuli average 2 s apart

## The Geometry of Collinearity - 1

- z1

- z2

**Basis vectors**

**r****2**

**r****1**

**z=Data value**
**=**** ****1.3********r****1****+1.1********r****2**

- }

- Non-collinear
- (well-posed)

- z1

- z2

**r****2**

**r****1**

**z=Data value**
**=**** ********1.8********r****1****+7.2********r****2**

- }

- Near-collinear
- (ill-posed)

-  Trying to fit data as a sum of basis vectors that are nearly parallel doesn’t work well: solutions can be huge
-  Exactly parallel basis vectors would be impossible:
-  Determinant of matrix to invert would be zero

## The Geometry of Collinearity - 2

- z1

- z2

**Basis**
**vectors**

**r****2**

**r****1**

**z=Data value**
**=**** ****1.7********r****1****+2.8********r****2**
**=**** 5.1********r****2**** ******** ****3.1********r****3**
**=**** an ******** of other**
**combinations**

- }

- Multi-collinear
**=** more than
- one solution
- fits the data
**=** over-determined

-  Trying to fit data with too many regressors (basis vectors) doesn’t work: no unique solution

**r****3**

## Equations: Notation

-  Will approximately follow notation of manual for the AFNI program _**3dDeconvolve**_
-  Time: continuous in reality, but in steps in the data
-  Functions of continuous time are written like *f** *(*t** *)
-  Functions of discrete time expressed like     * * where *n** *= 0,1,2,... and TR=time step
-  Usually use subscript notion *f**n* as shorthand
-  Collection of numbers assembled in a column is a 			***vector*** and is printed in boldface:

## Equations: Single Response Function

- _Equations: Single Response Function_

-  In each voxel, fit data *Z**n* to a curve of the form
*       **Z**n** **** a *+* b****t**n* + ***r**n*   for *n** *=* *0,1,...,*N** *–1 (*N** *=* *# time pts)
* **a*, *b*, ** are unknown parameters to be calculated in each voxel
-  *a*,*b* are “nuisance” baseline parameters
-  ** is amplitude of *r** *(*t** *) in data = “how much” BOLD
-  Baseline model should be more complicated for long (> 150 s) continuous imaging runs:
-  150 < *T* < 300 s: *a*+*b**t** *+*c**t** *2
-  Longer:               *a*+*b**t** *+*c**t** *2 + *T** */150 low frequency components
- 3dDeconvolve uses Legendre polynomials for baseline
-  Often, also include as extra baseline components the estimated subject head movement time series, in order to remove residual contamination from such artifacts (will see example of this later)

- 1 param per 150 s

## Equations: Multiple Response Functions

-  In each voxel, fit data *Z**n* to a curve of the form
*         *
-  ***j* is amplitude in data of *r**n*(*j** *)=*r**j** *(*t**n*) ; i.e., “how much” of *j** *th response function in in the data time series
-  In simple regression, each *r**j*(*t** *) is derived directly from stimulus timing ***and*** user-chosen HRF model
-  In terms of stimulus times:
- Where      is the *k**th* stimulus time in the *j**th* stimulus class
- These times are input using the **-stim_times** option to program **3dDeconvolve**

## Equations: Matrix-Vector Form

-  Express ***known*** data vector as a sum of ***known*** columns with ***unknown*** coefficents:

_*or*_

_*or*_

**‘********’*** *means “least squares”

- the “design” matrix; AKA **X**

**z** depends on the voxel; **R** doesn’t

-  Const  baseline
-  Linear trend

## Visualizing the R Matrix

-  Can graph columns (program **1dplot**)
-  But might have 20-50 columns
-  Can plot columns on a grayscale (program **1dgrayplot** or **3dDeconvolve**** ****-xjpeg**)
-  Easier way to show many columns
-  In this plot, darker bars means larger numbers

*constant baseline: column **#**1*

*linear trend: column **#**2*

*response to stim A: column **#**3*

*response to stim B column **#**4*

## Solving zR for 

-  Number of equations = number of time points
-  100s per run, but perhaps 1000s per subject
-  Number of unknowns usually in range 5–50
-  Least squares solution:
-      denotes an *estimate* of the true (unknown)
-  From    , calculate            as the *fitted model*
-             is the ***residual time series*** = noise (we hope)
- Statistics measure how much each regressor helps reduce residuals
* *Collinearity: when matrix         can’t be inverted
* *Near collinearity: when inverse exists but is huge

## Simple Regression: Recapitulation

-  Choose HRF model ***h*****(*****t*****)** [AKA *fixed-model regression*]
-  Build model responses ***r******n*****(*****t*****)** to each stimulus class
-  Using ***h*****(*****t*****)** and the stimulus timing
-  Choose baseline model time series
-  Constant + linear + quadratic (+ movement?)
-  Assemble model and baseline time series into the columns of the **R** matrix
-  For each voxel time series **z**, solve **z********R******** for
-  **Individual subject maps**: Test the coefficients in that you care about for statistical significance
-  **Group maps**: Transform the coefficients in    that you care about to Talairach space, and perform statistics on these ** **  values

##  Enough theory (for now: more to come later!)
 To look at the data: type cd AFNI_data1/afni ; then afni
 Switch Underlay to dataset epi_r1
 Then Sagittal Image and Graph
 FIMPick Ideal ; then click afni/ideal_r1.1D ; then Set
 Right-click in image, Jump to (ijk), then 29 11 13, then Set

-  To look at the data: type **cd AFNI_data1/afni** ; then **afni**
-  **Switch Underlay** to dataset **epi_r1**
-  Then **Sagittal** **Image** and **Graph**
-  **FIM********Pick Ideal** ; then click **afni/ideal_r1.1D** ; then **Set**
-  Right-click in image, **Jump to (ijk)**, then **29 11 13**, then **Set**

- Sample Data Analysis: Simple Regression

-  Data clearly has activity in sync with reference
-  20 s blocks
-  Data also has a big spike, which is very annoying
-  Subject head movement!

## Preparing Data for Analysis

-  Six preparatory steps are common:
-  Image registration (AKA realignment): program _**3dvolreg**_
-  Image smoothing: program _**3dmerge**_
-  Image masking: program _**3dClipLevel**_ or _**3dAutomask**_
-  Conversion to percentile: programs _**3dTstat**_ and _**3dcalc**_
-  Censoring out time points that are bad: program _**3dToutcount**_ or _**3dTqual**_
-  Catenating multiple imaging runs into 1 big dataset: program _**3dTcat**_
-  Not all steps are necessary or desirable in any given case
-  In this first example, will only do registration, since the data obviously needs this correction

## Data Analysis Script

- _Data Analysis Script_

** ****In file ****epi_r1_decon****:**
**3dvolreg -base 2                  \**
**         ****-verb                    \**
**         ****-prefix epi_r1_reg       \**
**         ****-1Dfile epi_r1_mot.1D    \**
**         ****epi_r1+orig**
**3dDeconvolve                      \**
**    ****-input ****epi_r1_reg+orig****        \**
**    ****-nfirst     2                 \**
**    ****-num_stimts 1                 \**
**    ****-stim_times 1 ****epi_r1_times.1D**** \**
**                  ****'BLOCK(20)'     \**
**    ****-stim_label 1 AllStim         \**
**    ****-tout                         \**
**    ****-bucket epi_r1_func           \**
**    ****-fitts  epi_r1_fitts          \**
**    ****-xjpeg epi_r1_Xmat.jpg        \**
**    ****-x1D epi_r1_Xmat.x1D**

** **_**3dvolreg**_ (3D image registration) will be covered in detail in a later presentation
-  filename to get estimated motion parameters
-   _**3dDeconvolve**_ = regression code

-  Name of _input_ dataset (from **3dvolreg**)
-  Index of first sub-brick to process [skipping #0-1]
-  Number of input model time series
-  Name of _input_ stimulus class timing file (****’s)
-  and type of HRF model to fit
-  Name for results in AFNI menus
-  Indicates to output ***t***-statistic for ****** weights
-  Name of output “bucket” dataset (statistics)
-  Name of output model fit dataset
-  Name of image file to store **X** [AKA **R**] matrix
-  Name of text file in which to store **X** matrix

-   Type **tcsh epi_r1_decon** ; then wait for programs to run

## Text Output of the epi_r1_decon script

** ** _**3dvolreg**__ output_
**++ 3dvolreg: AFNI version=AFNI_2007_03_06_0841 (Mar 15 2007) [32-bit]**
**++ Reading input dataset ./epi_r1+orig.BRIK**
**++ Edging: x=3 y=3 z=1**
**++ Initializing alignment base**
**++ Starting final pass on 110 sub-bricks: 0..1..2..3.. *********** ..106..107..108..109..**
**++ CPU time for realignment=8.82 s  [=0.0802 s/sub-brick]**
**++ Min : roll=-0.086  pitch=-0.995  yaw=-0.325  dS=-0.310  dL=-0.010  dP=-0.680**
**++ Mean: roll=-0.019  pitch=-0.020  yaw=-0.182  dS=+0.106  dL=+0.085  dP=-0.314**
**++ Max : roll=+0.107  pitch=+0.090  yaw=+0.000  dS=+0.172  dL=+0.204  dP=+0.079**
**++ Max displacement in automask = 2.05 (mm) at sub-brick 62**
**++ Wrote dataset to disk in ./epi_r1_reg+orig.BRIK**
**  **_**3dDeconvolve**__ output_
**++ 3dDeconvolve: AFNI version=AFNI_2007_03_06_0841 (Mar 15 2007) [32-bit]**
**++ Authored by: B. Douglas Ward, et al.**
**++ reading dataset epi_r1_reg+orig**
**++ -stim_times using TR=2.5 seconds**
**++ '-stim_times 1' using LOCAL times**
**++ Wrote matrix image to file epi_r1_Xmat.jpg**
**++ Wrote matrix values to file epi_r1_Xmat.x1D**
**++ Signal+Baseline matrix condition [X] (108x3):  2.44244  ++ VERY GOOD ++**
**++ Signal-only matrix condition [X] (108x1):  1  ++ VERY GOOD ++**
**++ Baseline-only matrix condition [X] (108x2):  1.03259  ++ VERY GOOD ++**
**++ -polort-only matrix condition [X] (108x2):  1.03259  ++ VERY GOOD ++**
**++ Matrix inverse average error = 3.97804e-16  ++ VERY GOOD ++**
**++ Matrix setup time = 0.59 s**
**++ Calculations starting; elapsed time=0.817**
**++ voxel loop:0123456789.0123456789.0123456789.0123456789.0123456789.**
**++ Calculations finished; elapsed time=1.774**
**++ Wrote bucket dataset into ./epi_r1_func+orig.BRIK**
**++ Wrote 3D+time dataset into ./epi_r1_fitts+orig.BRIK**
**++ #Flops=4.18044e+08  Average Dot Product=4.56798**
-   _If a program crashes, we’ll need to see this text output __(at the very least)__!_

- } **Output file indicators**

**}**  **Progress meter**** ****/**** ****pacifier**

**}**  **Maximum movement estimate**

- } **Output file indicators**

## Stimulus Timing: Input and Visualization

**epi_r1_times.1D****  **=**  ****22.5 65.0 105.0 147.5 190.0 232.5**
**                  **** **=   times of start of each** BLOCK(20)**

**epi_r1_Xmat.jpg**

**1dplot -sepscl epi_r1_Xmat.x1D**

-  HRFtiming
-  Linear in ***t***
-  All ones

**X** matrix
- columns

## Look at the Activation Map

-  Run **afni** to view what we’ve got
-  **Switch Underlay** to **epi_r1_reg** (output from **3dvolreg**)
-  **Switch Overlay** to **epi_r1_func** (output from **3dDeconvolve**)
-  **Sagittal Image** and **Graph** viewers
-  **FIM********Ignore********2** to have graph viewer not plot 1st 2 time pts
** ****FIM********Pick Ideal** ; pick **epi_r1_ideal.1D** (output from **waver**)
-  **Define Overlay** to set up functional coloring
-  **Olay********Allstim[0] Coef** (sets coloring to be from model fit ********* ***)
-  **Thr********Allstim[0] t-s** (sets threshold to be model fit ***t***-statistic)
-  **See Overlay** (otherwise won’t see the function!)
-  Play with threshold slider to get a meaningful activation map (e.g., *t** *=4 is a decent threshold — more on thresholds later)

## More Looking at the Results

-  Graph viewer: **Opt********Tran 1D********Dataset #N** to plot the model fit dataset output by **3dDeconvolve**
-  Will open the control panel for the **Dataset #N** plugin
-  Click first **Input** on ; then choose **Dataset epi_r1_fitts+orig**
-  Also choose **Color dk-blue** to get a pleasing plot
-  Then click on **Set+Close** (to close the plugin’s control panel)
-  Should now see fitted time series in the graph viewer instead of data time series
-  Graph viewer: click **Opt********Double Plot********Overlay** on to make the fitted time series appear as an overlay curve
-  This tool lets you visualize the quality of the data fit
-  Can also now overlay function on MP-RAGE anatomical by using **Switch Underlay** to **anat+orig** dataset
- Probably won’t want to graph the **anat+orig** dataset!

## Stimulus Correlated Movement?

-  Extensive “activation” (i.e., correlation of data time series with model time series) along top of brain is an indicator of stimulus correlated motion artifact
-  Can remain even after image registration, due to errors in alignment process, magnetic field inhomogeneities, etc.
-  Can be *partially* removed by using estimated movement history (from **3dvolreg**) as extra _baseline_ model time series
-  FMRI signal changes proportional to movement won’t be called “activation”

-  **3dvolreg** saved motion parameter estimates into file **epi_r1_mot.1D**
-  For fun: **1dplot epi_r1_mot.1D**

## Removing Residual Motion Artifacts

- _Removing Residual Motion Artifacts_

-  Script **epi_r1_decon_mot**:
**3dDeconvolve                               \**
** ****-input epi_r1_reg+orig                    \**
** ****-nfirst     2                             \**
** ****-num_stimts 7                             \**
** ****-stim_times 1 epi_r1_times.1D 'BLOCK(20)' \**
** ****-stim_label 1 AllStim                     \**
** ****-stim_file  2 epi_r1_mot.1D'[0]'          \**
** ****-stim_base  2                             \**
** ****-stim_file  3 epi_r1_mot.1D'[1]'          \**
** ****-stim_base  3                             \**
** ****-stim_file  4 epi_r1_mot.1D'[2]'          \**
** ****-stim_base  4                             \**
** ****-stim_file  5 epi_r1_mot.1D'[3]'          \**
** ****-stim_base  5                             \**
** ****-stim_file  6 epi_r1_mot.1D'[4]'          \**
** ****-stim_base  6                             \**
** ****-stim_file  7 epi_r1_mot.1D'[5]'          \**
** ****-stim_base  7                             \**
** ****-tout                                     \**
** ****-bucket epi_r1_func_mot                   \**
** ****-fitts  epi_r1_fitts_mot                  \**
** ****-xjpeg epi_r1_Xmat_mot.jpg                \**
** ****-x1D epi_r1_Xmat_mot.x1D**

- }

- These new lines:
-  add 6 regressors to the model and assign them to the baseline
- (**-stim_base** option)
-  these regressors come from **3dvolreg** output

- Output files: take a
- look at the results

- }

- Input specification:
- same as before

- }

## Some Results: Before and After

**Before**: movement parameters
*are not* in baseline model

**After**: movement parameters
*are* in baseline model

***t***-statistic threshold set to (uncorrected) *p** *-value of **10****-4** in both images
- Before: 105 degrees of freedom (***t****** ***=4.044)        After: 105 – 6 = 99 DOF (***t****** ***=4.054)

## Setting the Threshold: Principles

-  Bad things (i.e., errors):
-  False positives — activations reported that aren’t really there **** **Type I errors **(i.e., activations from noise-only data)
-  False negatives — non-activations reported where there should be true activations found **** **Type II errors**
-  Usual approach in statistical testing is to control the probability of a type I error (the “*p** *-value”)
-  In FMRI, we are making _many_ statistical tests: one per voxel ( 20,000+) — the result of which is an “activation map”:
-  Voxels are colorized if they survive the statistical thresholding process

**Start of Important Aside**

## Setting the Threshold: Bonferroni

-  If we set the threshold so there is a 1% chance that any given voxel is declared “active” even if its data is pure noise (FMRI jargon: “uncorrected” *p*-value is 0.01):
-  And assume each voxel’s noise is independent of its neighbors (not really true)
-  With 20,000 voxels to threshold, would expect to get 200 false positives — this may be as many as the true activations!  Situation: **Not so good**.
-  Bonferroni solution: set threshold (e.g., on *t** *-statistic) so high that uncorrected *p** *-value is 0.05/20000=2.5e-6
-  Then have only a 5% chance that even a single false positive voxel will be reported
-  **Objection**: will likely lose weak areas of activation

**Important Aside**

## Setting the Threshold: Spatial Clustering

-  Cluster-based detection lets us lower the statistical threshold and still control the false positive rate
-  **Two** thresholds:
-  **First**: a per-voxel threshold that is somewhat low (so by itself leads to a lot of false positives, scattered around)
-  **Second**: form clusters of spatially contiguous (neighboring) voxels that survive the first threshold, and keep only those clusters above a volume threshold — e.g., we don’t keep isolated “active” voxels
-  Usually: choose volume threshold, then calculate voxel-wise statistic threshold to get the overall “corrected” *p** *-value you want (typically, corrected *p** *=0.05)
-  No easy formulas for this type of dual thresholding, so must use simulation: AFNI program **AlphaSim**

**Important Aside**

## AlphaSim: Clustering Thresholds

- _AlphaSim: Clustering Thresholds_

- Uncorrected
*p*-value
-  (per voxel)
- 0.0002
- 0.0004
- 0.0007
- 0.0010
- 0.0020
- 0.0030
- 0.0040
- 0.0050
- 0.0060
- 0.0070
- 0.0080
- 0.0090
- 0.0100

- Cluster Size
- / Corrected *p*
- (uncorrelated)
- 2 / 0.001
- 2 / 0.008
- 2 / 0.026
- 3 / 0.001
- 3 / 0.003
- 3 / 0.008
- 3 / 0.018
- 3 / 0.030
- 4 / 0.003
- 4 / 0.004
- 4 / 0.006
- 4 / 0.010
- 4 / 0.015

-  Simulated for brain mask of 18,465 voxels
-  Look for smallest cluster with corrected *p* < 0.05

- Cluster Size
- / Corrected *p*
- (correlated 5 mm)
- 3 / 0.004
- 4 / 0.012
- 3 / 0.031
- 4 / 0.007
- 4 / 0.032
- 5 / 0.013
- 5 / 0.029
- 6 / 0.012
- 6 / 0.023
- 6 / 0.036
- 7 / 0.016
- 7 / 0.027
- 7 / 0.042

**Corresponds**
**to sample data**

- Can make activation maps for display with cluster editing using **3dmerge** program or in AFNI GUI
- (new: Sep 2006)

**End of Important Aside**

## Multiple Stimulus Classes

-  The experiment analyzed here in fact is more complicated
-  There are 4 related visual stimulus types
-  **Actions** & **Tools** = active conditions (videos of complex movements and simple tool-like movements)
-  **HighC** & **LowC** = control conditions (moving high and low contrast gratings)
-  6 blocks of 20 s duration in each condition (with fixation between blocks)
-  One goal is to find areas that are differentially activated between these different types of stimuli
- That is, differential activation levels between **Actions** and **Tools**, and between **Actions** and **Tools** combined vs. **HighC** and **LowC** combined
-  We have 4 imaging runs, 108 useful time points in each (skipping first 2 in each run) that we will analyze together
-  Already registered and put together into dataset **rall_vr+orig**
** **The first 2 time points in each run have been cut out in this dataset

## Regression with Multiple Model Files

- _Regression with Multiple Model Files_

** **Script file **rall_decon** does the job:
**3dDeconvolve -input rall_vr+orig -concat '1D: 0 108 216 324'   \**
** ****-num_stimts 4                                                 \**
** ****-stim_times 1 '1D: 17.5 | 185.0 227.5 | 60.0 142.5 | 227.5'   \**
**               ****'BLOCK(20,1)'                                   \**
** ****-stim_times 2 '1D: 100.0 | 17.5 | 185.0 227.5 | 17.5 100.0'   \**
**               ****'BLOCK(20,1)'                                   \**
** ****-stim_times 3 '1D: 60.0 227.5 | 60.0 | 17.5 | 142.5 185.0'    \**
**               ****'BLOCK(20,1)'                                   \**
** ****-stim_times 4 '1D: 142.5 185.0 | 100.0 142.5 | 100.0 | 60.0'  \**
**               ****'BLOCK(20,1)'                                   \**
** ****-stim_label 1 Actions  -stim_label 2 Tools                    \**
** ****-stim_label 3 HighC    -stim_label 4 LowC                     \**
** ****-gltsym 'SYM: Actions -Tools'             -glt_label 1 AvsT   \**
** ****-gltsym 'SYM: HighC   -LowC'              -glt_label 2 HvsL   \**
** ****-gltsym 'SYM: Actions Tools -HighC -LowC' -glt_label 3 ATvsHL \**
** ****-fout -tout                                                   \**
** ****-bucket func_rall -fitts fitts_rall                           \**
** ****-xjpeg xmat_rall.jpg -x1D xmat_rall.x1D**
- Run this script by typing **tcsh rall_decon **(takes a few minutes)

-  Run lengths

-  ****’s on command line instead of file:
-  **|** indicates a new “line” (1 line of stimulus start times per run)

-  generate **Actions**** ****–**** ****Tools** statistical map

-  specify statistics  types to output

## Regressor Matrix for This Script

- _Regressor Matrix for This Script_

- via **-xjpeg**

- via **-x1D**** **and** 1dplot -sep_scl xmat_rall.x1D**

- _Tools_

- _Baseline_

- }

- _Actions_

- _HighC_

- _LowC_

## Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 1

- _Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 1_

**-concat '1D: 0 108 216 324'**
- “File” that indicates where distinct imaging runs start inside the input file
-  Numbers are the time indexes inside the file for start of runs
-  In this case, a .1D file put directly on the command line
-  Could also be a filename, if you want to store that data externally
**-num_stimts 4**
-  We have 4 stimulus classes, so will need 4 **-stim_times** below
**-stim_times 1**
** ****'1D: 17.5 | 185.0 227.5 | 60.0 142.5 | 227.5'**
** ****'BLOCK(20,1)’**
** **“File” with 4 lines, each line specifying the start time in seconds for the stimuli within the corresponding imaging run, with the time measured relative to the start of the imaging run itself
-  HRF for each block stimulus is now specified to go to maximum value of 1 (compare to graphs on previous slide)
-  This feature is useful when converting FMRI response magnitude to be in units of percent of the mean baseline

## Aside: the 'BLOCK()' HRF Model

- _Aside: the __**'BLOCK()'**__ HRF Model_

-  **BLOCK(L)** is convolution of square wave of duration **L** with “gamma variate function”                        (peak value =1 at *t** *=* *4):
-  “Hidden” option: **BLOCK5** replaces “4” with “5” in the above
-  Slightly more delayed rise and fall times
-  **BLOCK(L,1)** makes peak amplitude of *block* response = 1

**Black** = **BLOCK(20,1)**
**Red** = **BLOCK5(20,1)**

## Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 2

- _Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 2_

**-gltsym 'SYM: Actions -Tools'  -glt_label 1 AvsT**
** **_**GLT**_s are **G**eneral **L**inear **T**ests
-  **3dDeconvolve** provides test statistics for each regressor and stimulus class separately, but if you want to test combinations or contrasts of the ****** weights in each voxel, you need the **-gltsym** option
-  Example above tests the difference between the ********* ***weights for the **Actions** and the **Tools**** **responses
-  Starting with **SYM:** means symbolic input is on command line
- Otherwise inputs will be read from a file
-  Symbolic names for each stimulus class are taken from **-stim_label** options
-  Stimulus label can be preceded by **+** or **-** to indicate sign to use in combination of ****** weights
-  Goal is to test a linear combination of the ****** weights
-  Tests if ********Actions****– **********Tools****  **=** ****0**
-  e.g., does **Actions** get a bigger response than **Tools** ?
-  Quiz: what would **'SYM: Actions +Tools'** test?

- It would test if ********Actions****+ **********Tools  **=** 0**

## Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 3

- _Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 3_

**-gltsym 'SYM: Actions Tools -HighC -LowC'**
**-glt_label 3 ATvsHL**
** **
-  Goal is to test if (********Actions****+ **********Tool****)–**** ****(**********HighC****+ **********LowC****)****  **=** ****0**
-  Regions where this statistic is significant have different amounts of BOLD signal change in the more complex activity viewing tasks versus the grating viewing tasks
- This is a way to factor out primary visual cortex, and see what areas are differentially more (or less?) responsive to complicated movements
** ****-glt_label 3 ATvsHL**** **option is used to attach a meaningful label to the resulting statistics sub-bricks
-  Output includes the ordered summation of the ****** weights and the associated statistical parameters (*t*- and/or *F*-statistics)

## Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 4

- _Novel Features of 3dDeconvolve - 4_

**  ****-fout -tout****	****=** output both *F*- and *t*-statistics for each
- 		   		   stimulus class (**-fout**)  and stimulus 				   coefficient (**-tout**) — but not for the baseline 			    coefficients (if you want baseline statistics: **-bout**)
-  The full model statistic is an *F*-statistic that shows how well the sum of all 4 input model time series fits voxel time series data
-  Compared to how well* just* the baseline model time series fit the data times (in this example, have 8 baseline regressor columns in the matrix — would have 14 if we added 6 movement parameters as well)
-  The individual stimulus classes also will get individual *F*- and/or *t*-statistics indicating the significance of their individual *incremental* contributions to the data time series fit
** ***F*Actions tells if model {**Actions****+****HighC****+****LowC****+****Tools****+****baseline**} explains more of the data variability than model {**HighC****+****LowC****+****Tools****+****baseline**} — with **Actions** omitted

## Results of rall_decon Script

- Results of **rall_decon** Script

-  Menu showing labels from **3dDeconvolve** run
-  Images showing results from third GLT contrast: **ATvsHL**
-  Play with these results yourself

## Statistics from 3dDeconvolve

-  An *F*-statistic measures significance of how much a model component (stimulus class) reduced the variance (sum of squares) of data time series residual
-  After all the other model components were given their chance to reduce the variance
-  **Residuals**  data – model fit = errors = **-errts**
-  A *t*-statistic sub-brick measures impact of one coefficient (of course, **BLOCK** has only one coefficient)
-  Full *F* measures how much the all signal regressors combined reduced the variance over just the baseline regressors (**sub-brick ****#****0**)
-  Individual partial-model *F** *s measures how much each individual signal regressor reduced data variance over the full model with that regressor excluded (**sub-bricks ****#****3, ****#****6, ****#****9, **and** ****#****12**)
-  The **Coef** sub-bricks are the ****** weights (e.g., **#****1, ****#****4, ****#****7, ****#****10**) for the individual regressors
-  Also present: GLT coefficients and statistics

**Group Analysis**: will be carried out on ****** or **GLT** coefs from single-subject analyses

## Deconvolution Signal Models

-  _Simple or Fixed-shape regression_ (previous):
-  We fixed the shape of the HRF — amplitude varies
-  Used **-stim_times** to generate the signal model from the stimulus timing
-  Found the amplitude of the signal model in each voxel — solution to the set of linear equations = ****** weights
-  _Deconvolution or Variable-shape regression_ (now):
-  We allow the shape of the HRF to vary in each voxel, for each stimulus class
-  Appropriate when you don’t want to over-constrain the solution by assuming an HRF shape
-  ***Caveat****** ***: need to have enough time points during the HRF in order to resolve its shape

## Deconvolution: Pros & Cons (+ & –)

-   Letting HRF shape varies allows for subject and regional variability in hemodynamics
-   Can test HRF estimate for different shapes (e.g., are later time points more “active” than earlier?)
-   Need to estimate more parameters for each stimulus class than a fixed-shape model (e.g., 4-15 *vs*. 1 parameter = amplitude of HRF)
-   Which means you need more data to get the same statistical power (assuming that the fixed-shape model you would otherwise use was in fact “correct”)
-   Freedom to get any shape in HRF results can give weird shapes that are difficult to interpret

## Expressing HRF via Regression Unknowns

-  The tool for expressing an unknown function as a finite set of numbers that can be fit via linear regression is an _**expansion in basis functions**_
-  The basis functions ***q*(*t** *) & expansion order *p* are known
-  Larger *p*  more complex shapes & more parameters
-  The unknowns to be found (in each voxel) comprises the set of weights*** **********q**** ***for each ***q*(*t** *)
-  ****** weights appear only by multiplying known values, and HRF only appears in signal model by linear convolution (addition) with known stimulus timing
-  Resulting signal model still solvable by linear regression

##  Need to describe HRF shape and magnitude with a finite number of parameters
 And allow for calculation of h(t ) at any arbitrary point in time after the stimulus times:

 Simplest set of such functions are tent functions
 Also known as “piecewise linear splines”

-  And allow for calculation of *h*(*t** *) at any arbitrary point in time after the stimulus times:
-  Simplest set of such functions are _**tent functions**_
-  Also known as “piecewise linear splines”

*time*

*h*

*t** *=* *0

*t** *=TR

*t** *=* *2TR

*t** *=* *3TR

*t** *=* *4TR

*t** *=* *5TR

- _3dDeconvolve with “Tent Functions”_

## Tent Functions = Linear Interpolation

-  Expansion of HRF in a set of spaced-apart tent functions is the same as linear interpolation between “knots”
-  Tent function parameters are also easily interpreted as function values (e.g., ********2** = response at time ***t ***= **2*********L*** after stim)
-  User must decide on relationship of tent function grid spacing ***L*** and time grid spacing TR (usually would choose ***L***  TR)
-  In **3dDeconvolve**: specify duration of HRF and number of ********* ***parameters (details shown a few slides ahead)

*time*

********0**

********1**

********2**

********3**

********4**

***L***

**2*********L***

**3*********L***

**4*********L***

**5*********L***

**0**

********5**

**N.B.**:  5 intervals = 6 ****** weights

- “knot” times

*h*

## Tent Functions: Average Signal Change

-  For input to group analysis, usually want to compute average signal change
-  Over entire duration of HRF (usual)
-  Over a sub-interval of the HRF duration (sometimes)
-  In previous slide, with 6 ********* ***weights, average signal change is
-        **1****/****2 **********0 ****+**** **********1 ****+****  **********2 ****+**** **********3 ****+**** **********4 ****+**** ****1****/****2 **********5**
**  **First and last ********* ***weights are scaled by half since they only affect half as much of the duration of the response
-  In practice, may want to use **0**************0 **since immediate post-stimulus response is not neuro-hemodynamically relevant
-  All ********* ***weights (for each stimulus class) are output into the “bucket” dataset produced by **3dDeconvolve**
-  Can then be combined into a single number using **3dcalc**

## Deconvolution and Collinearity

-  Regular stimulus timing can lead to collinearity!

- time

**Tail of HRF**
**from ****#****1 overlaps**
**head of HRF**
**from ****#****2, etc**

## Deconvolution Example - The Data

** ****cd AFNI_data2**
-  data is in **ED/** subdirectory (10 runs of 136 images each; TR=2 s)
-  script = **s1.afni_proc_command** (in **AFNI_data2/** directory)
-  stimuli timing and GLT contrast files in **misc_files/**
-  this script runs program **afni_proc.py** to generate a shell script with all AFNI commands for single-subject analysis
- Run by typing **tcsh s1.afni_proc_command**** **; _then_ copy/paste
**tcsh -x proc.ED.8.glt |& tee output.proc.ED.8.glt**
-  Event-related study from _Mike Beauchamp_
** **10 runs with four classes of stimuli (short videos)
** **Tools moving (e.g., a hammer pounding) - _**ToolMovie**_
-  People moving (e.g., jumping jacks) - _**HumanMovie**_
-  Points outlining tools moving (no objects, just points) - _**ToolPoint**_
-  Points outlining people moving - _**HumanPoint**_
-  Goal: find brain area that distinguishes natural motions (**HumanMovie** and **HumanPoint**) from simpler rigid motions (**ToolMovie** and **ToolPoint**)

- Text output from
- programs goes to
- screen *and*  file

## Master Script for Data Analysis

- _Master Script for Data Analysis_

**afni_proc.py                                        \**
** ****-dsets ED/ED_r??+orig.HEAD                         \**
** ****-subj_id ED.8.glt                                  \**
** ****-copy_anat ED/EDspgr                               \**
** ****-tcat_remove_first_trs 2                           \**
** ****-volreg_align_to first                             \**
** ****-regress_stim_times misc_files/stim_times.*.1D     \**
** ****-regress_stim_labels ToolMovie HumanMovie          \**
**                      ****ToolPoint HumanPoint          \**
** ****-regress_basis 'TENT(0,14,8)'                      \**
** ****-regress_opts_3dD                                  \**
** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt1.txt -glt_label 1 FullF  \**
** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt2.txt -glt_label 2 HvsT   \**
** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt3.txt -glt_label 3 MvsP   \**
** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt4.txt -glt_label 4 HMvsHP \**
** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt5.txt -glt_label 5 TMvsTP \**
** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt6.txt -glt_label 6 HPvsTP \**
** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt7.txt -glt_label 7 HMvsTM**

- Master script program
- 10 input datasets
- Set output filenames
- Copy anat to output dir
- Discard first 2 TRs
- Where to align all EPIs
- Stimulus timing files (4)
- Stimulus labels
- HRF model
- Specifies that next lines are options to be passed to **3dDeconvolve** directly (in this case, the GLTs we want computed)

- }

- This script generates file **proc.ED.8.glt** (180 lines), which contains all the AFNI commands to produce analysis results into directory **ED.8.glt.results/** (148 files)

## Shell Script for Deconvolution - Outline

-  Copy datasets into output directory for processing
-  Examine each imaging run for outliers: **3dToutcount**
-  Time shift each run’s slices to a common origin: **3dTshift**
-  Registration of each imaging run: **3dvolreg**
-  Smooth each volume in space (136 sub-bricks per run): **3dmerge**
-  Create a brain mask: **3dAutomask** and **3dcalc**
-  Rescale each voxel time series in each imaging run so that its average through time is 100: **3dTstat** and **3dcalc**
-  If baseline is 100, then a *******q* of 5 (say) indicates a 5% signal change in that voxel at tent function knot #*q* after stimulus
-  Biophysics: believe % signal change is relevant physiological parameter
-  Catenate all imaging runs together into one big dataset (1360 time points): **3dTcat**
-  This dataset is useful for plotting **-fitts** output from **3dDeconvolve** and visually examining time series fitting
-  Compute HRFs and statistics: **3dDeconvolve**

## Script - 3dToutcount

- _Script_ - **3dToutcount**

**# set list of runs**
**set runs = (`count -digits 2 1 10`)**
**# run 3dToutcount for each run**
**foreach run ( $runs )**
**  ****3dToutcount -automask pb00.$subj.r$run.tcat+orig > outcount_r$run.1D**
**end**

- Via **1dplot outcount_r??.1D**
**3dToutcount** searches for “outliers” in data time series;
- You may want to examine noticeable runs & time points

## Script - 3dTshift

**# run 3dTshift for each run**
**foreach run ( $runs )**
**  ****3dTshift -tzero 0 -quintic -prefix pb01.$subj.r$run.tshift \**
**             ****pb00.$subj.r$run.tcat+orig**
**end**

-  Produces new datasets where each time series has been shifted to have the same time origin
-  **-tzero 0** means that all data time series are interpolated to match the time offset of the first slice
-  Which is what the slice timing files usually refer to
-  Quintic (5th order) polynomial interpolation is used
-  **3dDeconvolve** will be run on time-shifted datasets
** **This is mostly important for Event-Related FMRI studies, where the response to the stimulus is briefer than for Block designs
-  (Because the stimulus is briefer)
-  Being a little off in the stimulus timing in a Block design is not likely to matter much

## Script - 3dvolreg

**# align each dset to the base volume**
**foreach run ( $runs )**
**  ****3dvolreg -verbose -zpad 1 -base pb01.$subj.r01.tshift+orig'[0]'  \**
**           ****-1Dfile dfile.r$run.1D -prefix pb02.$subj.r$run.volreg  \**
**           ****pb01.$subj.r$run.tshift+orig**
**end**

-  Produces new datasets where each volume (one time point) has been aligned (registered) to the #0 time point in the #1 dataset
-  Movement parameters are saved into files **dfile.r$run.1D**
-  Will be used as extra regressors in **3dDeconvolve**** **to reduce motion artifacts

**1dplot -volreg dfile.rall.1D**
-  Shows movement parameters for all runs (1360 time points) in degrees and millimeters
-  Important to look at this graph!
-  Excessive movement can make an imaging run useless — **3dvolreg** won’t be able to compensate
-  Pay attention to scale of movements: more than about 2 voxel sizes  in a short time interval is usually bad

## Script - 3dmerge

**# blur each volume**
**foreach run ( $runs )**
**    ****3dmerge -1blur_fwhm 4 -doall -prefix pb03.$subj.r$run.blur   \**
**            ****pb02.$subj.r$run.volreg+orig**
**end**

** ****Why Blur**? Reduce noise by averaging neighboring voxels time series

-  _**White**_ curve   = Data: ***unsmoothed***
-  _**Yellow**_ curve = Model fit (R2 = 0.50)
-  _**Green**_ curve  = Stimulus timing

- This is an extremely good fit for ER FMRI data!

## Why Blur? - 2		 

- fMRI activations are (usually)       			blob-ish (several voxels across)
- Averaging neighbors will also     			     reduce the fiendish multiple  	 		comparisons problem
- Number of independent “resels” will be smaller than number of voxels (*e.g.*, 2000 *vs*. 20000)
- Why not just acquire at lower resolution?
- To avoid averaging across brain/non-brain interfaces
- To project onto surface models
- Amount to blur is specified as FWHM
-     (**F**ull **W**idth at **H**alf **M**aximum) of spatial
-    averaging filter (4 mm in script)

## Script - 3dAutomask

**# create 'full_mask' dataset (union mask)**
**foreach run ( $runs )**
**  ****3dAutomask -dilate 1 -prefix rm.mask_r$run pb03.$subj.r$run.blur+orig**
**end**
**# get mean and compare it to 0 for taking 'union'**
**3dMean -datum short -prefix rm.mean rm.mask*.HEAD**
**3dcalc -a rm.mean+orig -expr 'ispositive(a-0)' -prefix full_mask.$subj**

-  **3dAutomask** creates a mask of contiguous high-intensity voxels (with some hole-filling) from each imaging run separately
-  **3dMean** and **3dcalc** are used to create a mask that is the _union_ of all the individual run masks
-  **3dDeconvolve** analysis will be limited to voxels in this mask
-  Will run faster, since less data to process

## Script - Scaling

**# scale each voxel time series to have a mean of 100**
**# (subject to maximum value of 200)**
**foreach run ( $runs )**
**  ****3dTstat -prefix rm.mean_r$run pb03.$subj.r$run.blur+orig**
**  ****3dcalc -a pb03.$subj.r$run.blur+orig -b rm.mean_r$run+orig  \**
**         ****-c full_mask.$subj+orig                              \**
**         ****-expr 'c * min(200, a/b*100)' -prefix pb04.$subj.r$run.scale**
**end**

-  **3dTstat** calculates the mean (through time) of each voxel’s time series data
-  For voxels in the mask, each data point is scaled (multiplied) using **3dcalc** so that it’s time series will have mean = 100
-  If an HRF regressor has max amplitude = 1, then its ****** coefficient will represent the percent signal change (from the mean) due to that part of the signal model
-  Scaled images are very boring
-  No spatial contrast by design!
-  Graphs have common baseline now

## Script - 3dDeconvolve

**3dDeconvolve -input pb04.$subj.r??.scale+orig.HEAD -polort 2       \**
**  ****-mask full_mask.$subj+orig -basis_normall 1 -num_stimts 10       \**
**  ****-stim_times 1 stimuli/stim_times.01.1D 'TENT(0,14,8)'            \**
**  ****-stim_label 1 ToolMovie                                          \**
**  ****-stim_times 2 stimuli/stim_times.02.1D 'TENT(0,14,8)'            \**
**  ****-stim_label 2 HumanMovie                                         \**
**  ****-stim_times 3 stimuli/stim_times.03.1D 'TENT(0,14,8)'            \**
**  ****-stim_label 3 ToolPoint                                          \**
**  ****-stim_times 4 stimuli/stim_times.04.1D 'TENT(0,14,8)'            \**
**  ****-stim_label 4 HumanPoint                                         \**
**  ****-stim_file 5 dfile.rall.1D'[0]' -stim_base 5 -stim_label 5 roll  \**
**  ****-stim_file 6 dfile.rall.1D'[1]' -stim_base 6 -stim_label 6 pitch \**
**  ****-stim_file 7 dfile.rall.1D'[2]' -stim_base 7 -stim_label 7 yaw   \**
**  ****-stim_file 8 dfile.rall.1D'[3]' -stim_base 8 -stim_label 8 dS    \**
**  ****-stim_file 9 dfile.rall.1D'[4]' -stim_base 9 -stim_label 9 dL    \**
**  ****-stim_file 10 dfile.rall.1D'[5]' -stim_base 10 -stim_label 10 dP \**
**  ****-iresp 1 iresp_ToolMovie.$subj -iresp 2 iresp_HumanMovie.$subj   \**
**  ****-iresp 3 iresp_ToolPoint.$subj -iresp 4 iresp_HumanPoint.$subj   \**
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt1.txt -glt_label 1 FullF                \**
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt2.txt -glt_label 2 HvsT                 \**
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt3.txt -glt_label 3 MvsP                 \**
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt4.txt -glt_label 4 HMvsHP               \**
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt5.txt -glt_label 5 TMvsTP               \**
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt6.txt -glt_label 6 HPvsTP               \**
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt7.txt -glt_label 7 HMvsTM               \**
**  ****-fout -tout -full_first -x1D Xmat.x1D -fitts fitts.$subj -bucket stats.$subj**

- }

- }

- }

- }

**4 stim types**

**motion params**

**GLTs**

**HRF outputs**

## Results: Humans vs. Tools

-  Color overlay: **HvsT** GLT contrast
-  **Blue** (upper) graphs: Human HRFs
-  **Red** (lower) graphs: Tool HRFs

## Script - X Matrix

- Via **1grayplot -sep Xmat.x1D**

## Script - Random Comments

**-polort 2**
- Sets baseline (detrending) to use quadratic polynomials—in each run
**-mask full_mask.$subj+orig**
- Process only the voxels that are nonzero in this mask dataset
**-basis_normall 1**
- Make sure that the basis functions used in the HRF expansion all have maximum magnitude=1
**-stim_times 1 stimuli/stim_times.01.1D**
**            ****'TENT(0,14,8)'**
** ****-stim_label 1 ToolMovie**
- The HRF model for the **ToolMovie** stimuli starts at 0 s after each stimulus, lasts for 14 s, and has 8 basis tent functions
- Which have knots spaced 14/(8-1) = 2 s apart)
**-iresp 1 iresp_ToolMovie.$subj**
- The HRF model for the **ToolMovie** stimuli is output into dataset **iresp_ToolMovie.ED.8.glt+orig**

## Script - GLTs

** ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt2.txt -glt_label 2 HvsT**
-  File **../misc_files/glt2.txt**  contains 1 line of text:
** ****-ToolMovie +HumanMovie -ToolPoint +HumanPoint**
-  This is the “Humans vs. Tools” **HvsT** contrast shown on Results slide
-  This GLT means to take all 8 ****** coefficients for each stimulus class and combine them with additions and subtractions as ordered:
-  This test is looking at the integrated (summed) response to the “Human” stimuli and subtracting it from the integrated response to the “Tool” stimuli
- Combining subsets of the ****** weights is also possible with **-gltsym**** **:
***  *****+HumanMovie[2..6] -HumanPoint[2..6]**
** **This GLT would add up just the #2,3,4,5, & 6 ********* ***weights for one type of stimulus and subtract the sum of the #2,3,4,5, & 6 ********* ***weights for another type of stimulus
-  And also produce *F*- and *t*-statistics for this linear combination

## Script - Multi-Row GLTs

-  GLTs presented up to now have had one row
-  Testing if some linear combination of ****** weights is nonzero; test statistic is *t* or *F *(*F** *=*t** *2 when testing a single number)
-  Testing if the **X** matrix columns, when added together to form one column as specified by the GLT (**+** and **–**), explain a significant fraction of the data time series (equivalent to above)
-  Can also do a single test to see if several different combinations of ****** weights are ***all*** zero
**  ****-gltsym ../misc_files/glt1.txt**
**  ****-glt_label 1 FullF**
-  Tests if ***any ***of the stimulus classes have nonzero integrated HRF (each name means “add up those ****** weights”) : DOF= (4,1292)
-  Different than the default “**Full F-stat**” produced by **3dDeconvolve**, which tests if any of the ***individual*** ****** weights are nonzero: DOF= (32,1292)

## Two Possible Formats for -stim_times

*** ***A single column of numbers (GLOBAL times)
*** ***One stimulus time per row
-  Times are relative to first image in dataset being at ***t***** ****=**** ****0**
-  May not be simplest to use if multiple runs are catenated
*** ***One row for each run within a catenated dataset (LOCAL times)
*** ***Each time in *j** *th row is relative to start of run #*j* being ***t***** ****=**** ****0**
-  If some run has NO stimuli in the given class, just put a single “*****” in that row as a filler
-  Different numbers of stimuli per run are OK
-  At least one row must have more than 1 time
-     (so that the LOCAL type of timing file can be told from the GLOBAL)
*** ***Two methods are available because of users’ diverse needs
*** *****N.B.**: if you chop first few images off the start of each run, the inputs to **-stim_times** must be adjusted accordingly

**4.7**
**9.6**
**11.8**
**19.4**

**4.7 9.6 11.8 19.4**
*****
**8.3 10.6**

## Other Features of 3dDeconvolve

-  **-input1D** = used to process a single time series, rather than a dataset full of time series
-  e.g., test out a stimulus timing sequence on sample data
-  **-nodata** option can be used to check for collinearity
-  **-censor** = used to turn off processing for some time points
-  for time points that are “bad” (e.g., too much movement; scanner hiccup)
-  **-CENSORTR 2:37**** **= newer way to specify omissions (e.g., run #2, index #37)
-  **-sresp** = output standard deviation of HRF estimates
-  can then plot error bands around HRF in AFNI graph viewer
-  **-errts** = output residuals (difference between fitted model and data)
-  for statistical analysis of time series noise
-  **-TR_times dt** = calculate **-iresp** and **-sresp** HRF results with time step **dt** (instead of input dataset TR)
-  Can be used to make HRF graphs look better
-  **-jobs*** ****N*** = run with independent threads — ***N*** of them
-  extra speed, if you have a dual-CPU system (or more)!

##  http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/misc/Decon/DeconSummer2004.html
 http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/misc/Decon/DeconSpring2007.html
 Equation solver: Program computes condition number for X matrix (measures of how sensitive regression results are to changes in X)
 If the condition number is “bad” (too big), then the program will not actually proceed to compute the results
 You can use the -GOFORIT option on the command line to force the program to run despite X matrix warnings
 But you should strive to understand why you are getting these warnings!!
 Other matrix checks:
 Duplicate stimulus filenames, duplicate regression matrix columns, all zero matrix columns
  Check the screen output for WARNINGs and ERRORs
 Such messages also saved into file 3dDeconvolve.err

** ****http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/misc/Decon/DeconSpring2007.html**
-  Equation solver: Program computes **condition number** for **X** matrix (measures of how sensitive regression results are to changes in **X**)
-  If the condition number is “bad” (too big), then the program will not actually proceed to compute the results
-  You can use the **-GOFORIT** option on the command line to force the program to run despite **X** matrix warnings
-  But you should strive to understand why you are getting these warnings!!
-  Other matrix checks:
-  Duplicate stimulus filenames, duplicate regression matrix columns, all zero matrix columns
-   Check the screen output for **WARNING**s and **ERROR**s
-  Such messages also saved into file **3dDeconvolve.err**

- _Other Features - 2_

## Other Features - 3

-  All-zero regressors *are* allowed (with **-GOFORIT**)
-  Will get zero weight in the solution
-  Example: task where subject makes a choice for each stimulus (e.g., male or female face?)
-  You want to analyze correct and incorrect trials as separate cases
-  What if some subject makes no mistakes?  Hmmm...
-  Can keep the all-zero regressor (e.g., all **-stim_times** = *****)
-  Input files and output datasets for error-making and perfect-performing subjects will be organized the same way
-  **3dDeconvolve_f**** **program can be used to compute linear regression results in single precision (7 decimal places) rather than double precision (16 places)
-  For better speed, but with lower numerical accuracy
-  Best to do at least one run ***both*** ways to check if results differ significantly  (Equation solver *should* be safe, but ...)

##  Default output format is 16-bit short integers, with a scaling factor for each sub-brick to convert it to floating point values
 -float option can be used to get 32-bit floating point format output — more precision, and more disk space
 3dDeconvolve recommends a -polort value, and prints that out as well as the value you chose (or defaulted to)
 -polort A can be used to let the program set the detrending (AKA “high pass filtering”) level automatically
 -stim_file is used to input a column directly into X matrix
 Motion parameters (as in previous examples)
 If you create a stimulus+response model outside 3dDeconvolve (e.g., using program waver)

-  **-float** option can be used to get 32-bit floating point format output — more precision, and more disk space
-  **3dDeconvolve**** **recommends a **-polort** value, and prints that out as well as the value you chose (or defaulted to)
-  **-polort A** can be used to let the program set the detrending (AKA “high pass filtering”) level automatically
-  **-stim_file** is used to input a column directly into **X** matrix
-  Motion parameters (as in previous examples)
-  If you create a stimulus+response model outside **3dDeconvolve **(e.g., using program **waver**)

- _Other Features - 4_

##  -stim_times has some other basis function options for the HRF model besides BLOCK and TENT
 CSPLIN = cubic spline instead of TENT = linear spline
 Same parameters: (start,stop,number of regressors)  
 Can be used as a “drop in” replacement for TENT

-  **CSPLIN** = cubic spline instead of **TENT** = linear spline
-  Same parameters: **(start,stop,number of regressors) **
-  Can be used as a “drop in” replacement for **TENT**

- _Other Features - 5_

**Red**    = **CSPLIN**
**Black** = **TENT**
**Differences are not significant**

**-iresp** plotted using **-TR_times**** ****0.1**

## Other Features - 6

-  **-fitts** option is used to create a synthetic dataset
-  each voxel time series is full (signal+baseline) model as fitted to the data time series in the corresponding voxel location
-  **3dSynthesize** program can be used to create synthetic datasets from *subsets* of the full model
-  Uses **-x1D** and **-cbucket** outputs from **3dDeconvolve**
-  **-cbucket** stores ****** coefficients for each **X** matrix column into dataset
-  **-x1D** stores the matrix columns (and **-stim_label**s)
-  Potential uses:
-  Baseline only dataset
-  **3dSynthesize -cbucket fred+orig -matrix fred.x1D -select baseline -prefix fred_base**
-  Could subtract this dataset from original data to get signal+noise dataset that has no baseline component left
-  Just one stimulus class model (+ baseline) dataset
** ****3dSynthesize -cbucket fred+orig -matrix fred.x1D -select baseline Faces -prefix fred_Faces**

## Upgrades – Planned or Dreamed of

-  “Area under curve” addition to **-gltsym** to allow testing of pieces of HRF models from **-stim_times**
-  Slice- and/or voxel-dependent regressors
-  For physiological noise cancellation, etc.
-  To save memory?  (Process each slice separately)
- One slice-at-a-time regression can be done in a Unix script, using 3dZcutup and 3dZcat programs
-  Estimate temporal correlation structure of residual time series, then use that information to re-do the regression analysis (to improve/correct the statistics)
-  Could do the same with spatial correlation?

##  AM = Amplitude Modulated (or Modulation)
 Have some extra data measured about each response to a stimulus, and maybe the BOLD response amplitude is modulated by this
 Reaction time; Galvanic skin response; Pain level perception; Emotional valence (happy or sad or angry face?)
Want to see if some brain activations vary proportionally to this ABI (Auxiliary Behaviorial Information)
Discrete levels (2 or maybe 3) of ABI:
Separate the stimuli into sub-classes that are determined by the ABI (“on” and “off”, maybe?)
Use a GLT to test if there is a difference between the FMRI responses in the sub-classes
3dDeconvolve ...                                                 \
 -stim_times 1 regressor_on.1D  'BLOCK(2,1)' -stim_label 1 'On'  \
 -stim_times 2 regressor_off.1D 'BLOCK(2,1)' -stim_label 2 'Off' \
 -gltsym 'SYM: +On | +Off' -glt_label 1 'On+Off'                 \
 -gltsym 'SYM: +On -Off'   -glt_label 2 'On-Off' ...
“On+Off” tests for any activation in either the “on” or “off” conditions
“On-Off” tests for differences in activation between “on” and “off” conditions
Can use 3dcalc to threshold on both statistics at once to find a conjunction

-  Have some extra data measured about each response to a stimulus, and maybe the BOLD response amplitude is modulated by this
-  Reaction time; Galvanic skin response; Pain level perception; Emotional valence (happy or sad or angry face?)
- Want to see if some brain activations vary proportionally to this **ABI** (**A**uxiliary **B**ehaviorial **I**nformation)
- Discrete levels (2 or maybe 3) of ABI:
- Separate the stimuli into sub-classes that are determined by the ABI (“on” and “off”, maybe?)
- Use a GLT to test if there is a difference between the FMRI responses in the sub-classes
**3dDeconvolve ****...****                                                 \**
** ****-stim_times 1 regressor_on.1D  'BLOCK(2,1)' -stim_label 1 'On'  \**
** ****-stim_times 2 regressor_off.1D 'BLOCK(2,1)' -stim_label 2 'Off' \**
** ****-gltsym 'SYM: +On | +Off' -glt_label 1 'On+Off'                 \**
** ****-gltsym 'SYM: +On -Off'   -glt_label 2 'On-Off' ****...**
**“****On+Off****” **tests for any activation in *either* the “on” or “off” conditions
**“****On-Off****” **tests for differences in activation *between* “on” and “off” conditions
- Can use **3dcalc** to threshold on ***both***** **statistics at once to find a **conjunction**

**AM**** Regression - 1**

## Continuous ABI levels
 Want to find active voxels whose activation level also depends on ABI
 3dDeconvolve is a linear program, so must make the assumption that the change in FMRI signal as ABI changes is linearly proportional to the changes in the ABI values
Need to make 2 separate regressors
One to find the mean FMRI response (the usual -stim_times analysis)
One to find the variations in the FMRI response as the ABI data varies
The second regressor should have the form

Where ak = value of k th ABI value, and a is the average ABI value
Response ( ) for first regressor is standard activation map
Statistics and  for second regressor make activation map of places whose BOLD response changes with changes in ABI
Using 2 regressors allows separation of voxels that are active but are not detectably modulated by the ABI from those that are ABI-sensitive

-  Want to find active voxels whose activation level also depends on ABI
-  **3dDeconvolve** is a linear program, so must make the assumption that the change in FMRI signal as ABI changes is linearly proportional to the changes in the ABI values
- Need to make 2 separate regressors
- One to find the mean FMRI response (the usual **-stim_times** analysis)
- One to find the variations in the FMRI response as the ABI data varies
- The second regressor should have the form
- Where *a**k** *= value of *k** *th ABI value, and *a** *is the average ABI value
- Response (*** *) for first regressor is standard activation map
- Statistics and* *** for second regressor make activation map of places whose BOLD response changes with changes in ABI
- Using 2 regressors allows separation of voxels that are active but are not detectably modulated by the ABI from those that are ABI-sensitive

_**AM Regression - 2**_

## New feature of 3dDeconvolve: -stim_times_AM2
Use is very similar to standard -stim_times
 -stim_times_AM2 1 times_ABI.1D 'BLOCK(2,1)' 
The times_ABI.1D file has time entries that are “married” to ABI values:

Such files can be created from 2 standard .1D files using the new 1dMarry program
The -divorce option can be used to split them up
 3dDeconvolve automatically creates the two regressors (unmodulated and amplitude modulated)
Use -fout option to get statistics for activation of the pair of regressors (i.e., testing null hypothesis that both  weights are zero: that there is no ABI-independent or ABI-proportional signal change)
Use -tout option to test each  weight separately
Can 1dplot X matrix columns to see each regressor

- Use is very similar to standard **-stim_times**
** ****-stim_times_AM2 1 times_ABI.1D 'BLOCK(2,1)'**** **
- The **times_ABI.1D** file has time entries that are “married” to ABI values:
- Such files can be created from 2 standard .1D files using the new **1dMarry** program
- The **-divorce** option can be used to split them up
-  **3dDeconvolve** automatically creates the two regressors (unmodulated and amplitude modulated)
- Use **-fout** option to get statistics for activation of the pair of regressors (i.e., testing null hypothesis that *both* ** weights are zero: that there is no ABI-independent *or* ABI-proportional signal change)
- Use **-tout** option to test each ** weight separately
- Can **1dplot** **X** matrix columns to see each regressor

_**AM Regression - 3**_

**10*5 23*4 27*2 39*5**
**17*2 32*5**
*****
**16*2 24*3 37*5 41*4**

## The AM feature is new, and so needs some practical user experiences before it can be considered “standard practice”
In particular: don’t know how much data or how many events are needed to get good ABI-dependent statistics
If you want, -stim_times_AM1 is also available
It only builds the regressor proportional to ABI data directly, with no mean removed:

Can’t imagine what value this option has, but you never know ... (if you can think of a good use, let me know)
Future directions:
Allow more than one amplitude to be married to each stimulus time (insert obligatory polygamy/polyandry joke here) 
How many ABI types at once is too many?  I don’t know.
How to deal with unknown nonlinearities in the BOLD response to ABI values?  I don’t know.
Deconvolution with amplitude modulation?  Requires more thought.

- In particular: don’t know how much data or how many events are needed to get good ABI-dependent statistics
- If you want, **-stim_times_AM1** is also available
- It only builds the regressor proportional to ABI data directly, with no mean removed:
- Can’t imagine what value this option has, but you never know ... (if you can think of a good use, let me know)
- Future directions:
- Allow more than one amplitude to be married to each stimulus time (insert obligatory polygamy/polyandry joke here)
- How many ABI types at once is too many?  I don’t know.
- How to deal with unknown nonlinearities in the BOLD response to ABI values?  I don’t know.
- Deconvolution with amplitude modulation?  Requires more thought.

_**AM Regression - 4**_

## Timing: AM.1D = 10*1 30*2 50*3 70*1 90*2 110*3 130*2 150*1 170*2 190*3 210*2 230*1
3dDeconvolve -nodata 300 1.0 -num_stimts 1 \
    -stim_times_AM1 1 AM.1D 'BLOCK(10,1)' -x1D AM1.x1D
1dplot AM1.x1D'[2]'

3dDeconvolve -nodata 300 1.0 \
-num_stimts 1     \
-stim_times_AM2 1  \ 
AM.1D 'BLOCK(10,1)' \  
-x1D AM2.x1D
1dplot -sepscl \
  AM2.x1D'[2,3]'

- Timing:** AM.1D** = **10*1 30*2 50*3 70*1 90*2 110*3 130*2 150*1 170*2 190*3 210*2 230*1**
**3dDeconvolve -nodata 300 1.0 -num_stimts 1 \**
**    ****-stim_times_AM1 1 AM.1D 'BLOCK(10,1)' -x1D AM1.x1D**
**1dplot AM1.x1D'[2]'**
**3dDeconvolve -nodata 300 1.0 \**
**-num_stimts 1     \**
**-stim_times_AM2 1  \ **
**AM.1D 'BLOCK(10,1)' \  **
**-x1D AM2.x1D**
**1dplot -sepscl \**
**  ****AM2.x1D'[2,3]'**

_**AM Regression - 5**_

**AM1** model of signal (modulation = ABI)

**AM2** model of signal

##  Can have activations with multiple phases that are not always in the same time relationship to each other; e.g.:
 subject gets cue #1
 variable waiting time (“hold”)
 subject gets cue #2, emits response
 which depends on both cue #1 and #2
 Cannot treat this as one event with one HRF, since the different waiting times will result in different overlaps in separate responses from cue #1 and cue #2
 Solution is multiple HRFs: separate HRF (fixed shape or deconvolution) for cue #1 times and for cue #2 times
 Must have significant variability in inter-cue waiting times, or will get a nearly-collinear model
impossible to tell tail end of HRF #1 from the start of HRF #2, if always locked together in same temporal relationship
 How much variability is “significant”?  Good question.

-  subject gets cue #1
-  variable waiting time (“hold”)
-  subject gets cue #2, emits response
-  which depends on both cue #1 and #2
-  Cannot treat this as one event with one HRF, since the different waiting times will result in different overlaps in separate responses from cue #1 and cue #2
-  Solution is multiple HRFs: separate HRF (fixed shape or deconvolution) for cue #1 times and for cue #2 times
-  Must have significant variability in inter-cue waiting times, or will get a nearly-collinear model
- impossible to tell tail end of HRF #1 from the start of HRF #2, if always locked together in same temporal relationship
-  How much variability is “significant”?  Good question.

**Other Advanced Topics in Regression**

##  Solving a visually presented puzzle:
 subject sees puzzle
 subject cogitates a while
 subject responds with solution
 The problem is that we expect some voxels to be significant in phase (b) as well as phases (a) and/or (c)
 Variable length of phase (b) means that shape for its response varies between trials
Which is contrary to the whole idea of averaging trials together to get decent statistics (which is basically what linear regression for the  weights does, in an elaborate sort of way)
 Could assume response amplitude in phase (b) is constant across trials, and response duration varies directly with time between phases (a) and (c)
Need three HRFs
Can’t generate (b) HRF in 3dDeconvolve

-  subject sees puzzle
-  subject cogitates a while
-  subject responds with solution
-  The problem is that we expect some voxels to be significant in phase (b) as well as phases (a) and/or (c)
-  Variable length of phase (b) means that shape for its response varies between trials
- Which is contrary to the whole idea of averaging trials together to get decent statistics (which is basically what linear regression for the ** weights does, in an elaborate sort of way)
-  Could assume response ***amplitude*** in phase (b) is constant across trials, and response ***duration*** varies directly with time between phases (a) and (c)
- Need three HRFs
- Can’t generate (b) HRF in **3dDeconvolve**

_**Even More Complicated Case**_

## Noise Issues

-  “Noise” in FMRI is caused by several factors, not completely characterized
-  MR thermal noise (well understood, unremovable)
-  Cardiac and respiratory cycles (partly understood)
-  In principle, could measure these sources of noise separately and then try to regress them out
-  RETROICOR program underway (Rasmus Birn of FIM / NIMH)
-  Scanner fluctuations (e.g., thermal drift of hardware)
-  Small subject head movements (10-100 m)
-  Very low frequency fluctuations (periods longer than 100 s)
-  Data analysis should try to remove what can be removed and allow for the statistical effects of what can’t be removed
-  “Serial correlation” in the noise time series affects the *t*- and *F*-statistics calculated by **3dDeconvolve**
-  At present, nothing is done to correct for this effect (by us)

## Nonlinear Regression

-  Linear models aren’t the only possibility
-  e.g., could try to fit HRF of the form
-  Unknowns ***b*** and ***c*** appear nonlinearly in this formula
-  Program **3dNLfim** can do nonlinear regression (including nonlinear deconvolution)
-  User must provide a C function that computes the model time series, given a set of parameters (e.g., ***a***, ***b***, ***c***)
-  We could help you develop this C model function
-  Several sample model functions in the AFNI source code distribution
-  Program then drives this C function repeatedly, searching for the set of parameters that best fit each voxel
-  Has been used to fit pharmacological wash-in/wash-out models (difference of two exponentials) to FMRI data acquired during pharmacological challenges
-  e.g., injection of nicotine, cocaine, ethanol, etc.
-  these are difficult experiments to do ***and*** to analyze

## Smooth data in space before analysis
Average data across anatomically-selected regions of interest ROI (before or after analysis)
Labor intensive (i.e., hire more students)
Reject isolated small clusters of above-threshold voxels after analysis

- Average data across anatomically-selected regions of interest ROI (before or after analysis)
- Labor intensive (*i.e.*, hire more students)
- Reject isolated small clusters of above-threshold voxels after analysis

_**Spatial Models of Activation**_

## Spatial Smoothing of Data

-  Reduces number of comparisons
-  Reduces noise (by averaging)
-  Reduces spatial resolution
- Blur it enough: Can make FMRI results look like low resolution PET data
-  Smart smoothing: average ***only*** over nearby brain or gray matter voxels
- Uses resolution of FMRI cleverly
- New AFNI program: **3dBlurToFWHM**
- _Or_: average over selected ROIs
- _Or_: cortical surface based smoothing

## Spatial Clustering

- Analyze data, create statistical map  (*e.g.*, ***t*** statistic in each voxel)
- Threshold map at a low ***t*** value, in each voxel separately
- Will have many false positives
- Threshold map by rejecting clusters of voxels below a given size
- Can control false-positive rate by adjusting ***t*** threshold and cluster-size thresholds together

## Cluster-Based Detection

_**Cluster-Based Detection**_

## What the World Needs Now

- Unified HRF/Deconvolution ****** **Blob analysis
- Time****Space patterns computed all at once, _instead of_ arbitrary spatial smoothing
- Increase statistical power by bringing data from multiple voxels together cleverly
- _Instead of_ time analysis followed by spatial analysis (described earlier)
- _Instead of_ component-style analyses (*e.g.*, ICA) that do not use stimulus timing
- Difficulty: models for spatial blobs
- Little information *à priori* **** must be adaptive