# Presentation: 574003

## Become Your Own Best Editor 

**Become Your Own Best Editor**** **

## Three Levels of Analysis

**Grammar****: putting words together with punctuation as the glue**
**Syntax****: structure of larger units of discourse—phrase, sentence, paragraph, section, essay**
**Semantics****: meaning—from the level of the individual word to the discourse as a whole**

##                Meaning determines

-      grammar, punctuation, and
-           syntax on every level.

## Article Use: A/AN versus Theversus No Article

_**An apple**_** a day keeps the doctor away.**
_**Mountains**_** ****are beautiful.**
_**The mountains**_** in the western part of the state are beautiful.**
**What are the semantic differences between**
**the subjects of these sentences?**

**Notes:**
--inite

## Article Use

**             ****The semantics of article use revolves**
**          ****around the basic distinction between the**
**         ****general/abstract and the specific/concrete     **
_**An apple**_** ****= any one apple; can be counted;**
**                   ****concrete but not specific**
_**Mountains**_** ****= all existing mountains in general;**
**                      ****cannot be counted; abstract but**
**                      ****not specific**
_**The mountains**_** ****= a group of mountains existing**
**                              ****in one location; can be counted;**
**                              ****concrete and specific**
**                                                                **
**         **

**Notes:**
 revolve

## Article Use

**        ****Article choice makes a big semantic**
**                              ****difference!**
**“****Lymphochip” is the name given to **_**a**_
**    ****microarray developed by Lou Staudt and colleagues.**
**“****Lymphochip” is the name given to **_**the**_
**     ****microarray developed by Lou Staudt and**
**     ****colleagues.**
**What does **_**a**_** imply in sentence 1? **
_**The**_** in sentence 2?**

## Article Use

**                  ****Article use makes a big semantic**
**                              ****difference!**
**The library has room for readers.  room = space**
**The library has **_**a**_** room for readers.  room = a**
**                             ****specific, circumscribed location,**
**                             ****usually inside a building**
**Like **_**room**_**, many nouns have several distinct**
**meanings.  Articles help signal which meaning is**
**appropriate in a given context. **

## Article Use

**            ****Some special categories of nouns do not**
**                      ****require the indefinite article**
_**Abstractions**_*: democracy, education, equality
_**Emotions**_: anger, love, confidence, respect, hostility
_**Natural substances/events**_: air, blood, oxygen, rain
_**Categorical nouns, which refer to many objects under**_
-      _**one designation**_: clothing, furniture, equipment, garbage
_**Fields of study**_: architecture, biology, literature, chemistry
- ***Some abstractions can be used concretely: “Democracy**
** ****is one political system”; “The U.S. is a democracy”**

## Subject-Verb Agreement

**          ****Identify**** ****the sentences in which the subject**
**              ****and verb disagree in number (singular**
**                                  ****versus plural)**
**Either the **_**twins**_** or **_**Jim**_** **_**is**_** **_**waiting**_** near the gate.**
**Neither **_**Jim**_** nor the **_**twins**_** **_**is**_** **_**waiting**_** near the gate.**
_**There**_** **_**are**_** no contingencies we have not considered.**
**The primary support **_**mechanism**_** for most graduate students **_**are**_** fellowships.**
_**Fellowships**_** **_**are**_** most graduate students’ primary**
**     ****support mechanism.**

## Subject-Verb Agreement

**The tight semantic relationship between the**
**grammatical subject and the grammatical verb**
**constitutes the core meaning of the sentence.**
**        ****A singular**** ****subject **_**requires**_** a singular verb.**
**              ****Plural subjects **_**require**_** plural verbs.**
**Lack of agreement between subject and verb**
**results in semantic disjunction—the sentence**
**falls apart on the most fundamental level of**
**meaning.**
**  **

## Subject-Verb Agreement

**                               ****The Key Strategy****          **
_**Identify**_** ****the noun or pronoun that acts as the**
**grammatical subject of the sentence**
_**Determine**_** ****whether that subject is singular**
**or plural**

## Subject-Verb Agreement

**         ****Unusual or complex syntactic constructions**
**               ****can make identifying the grammatical**
**                                 ****subject tricky!**
**Inverted word order:**
- What _is_ our main _priority_?
- What _are_ our _priorities_?
- Among the investigators presenting papers _was_ _Dr._
-      _Shosh Segal_.
**The grammatical subject is followed by a subordinate**
**noun or pronoun that differs in number:**
- A very large _number_ of people _passes_ through the Clinical
-      Center every day, even every hour.
- Constantly _running_ in circles _keeps_ me busy.

## Subject-Verb Agreement

-                      **Unusual or Complex Syntactic**
**                                  ****Constructions**
**Conflicts in number between subject and predicate nouns:**
- A prime _requirement_ in any experimental scenario _is_ carefully
-      controlled conditions.
- Carefully controlled _conditions_ _are_ a prime requirement in
-      any experimental scenario.
**Multiple subject nouns linked by **_**and**_**, **_**either/or**_**, **_**neither/nor**_**:**
- One _man_ _and_ three _women_ _are_ _walking_ by.
-      Three _women_ _and_ one _man_ _are_ _walking_ by.
- Either three _women_ _or_ one _man_ _is_ _walking_ by.
-      Either one _man_ _or_ three _women_ _are_ _walking_ by.
- Neither three _women_ _nor_ one _man_ _is_ _walking_ by.
-      Neither one _man_ _nor_ three _women_ _are_ _walking_ by.

## Subject-Verb Agreement

**         ****Determining the number of indefinite**
**               ****pronouns can be tricky too!**
**Group 1—always singular**
**anybody, somebody, nobody, everybody**
**anyone, someone, everyone**
**anything, something, everything, nothing**
**one, no one **
**each, either, neither**
**much**
**none*****  * This one is the real killer!**
- _None_ of these options _is_ bad. [Of these options, _none_ _is_ bad.]
- _No one_ _knows_ the trouble I’ve seen.
- _Each_ of these alternatives _is_ bad.
- _Much_ _is_ expected, but _little_ _is_ realized.

## Subject-Verb Agreement

**                       ****Indefinite Pronouns**
**Group 2—always plural**
**both**
**few**
**many**
**several**
- _Many_ _are_ called, but _few_ _are_ chosen.
- _Several_ _are_ planning to leave their e-mail addresses
-      after the lecture ends.
- _Both_ _are_ agreeable to me. [Contrast to: “_Neither_ _is_
-      agreeable to me.]

## Subject-Verb Agreement

-                        **Indefinite Pronouns**
**Group 3—singular or plural depending on context**
**all**
**any**
**more**
**most**
**some**
- _All_ of the _money_ _is_ in the group’s bank account.
-      _All_ of the _funds_ _are_ in the group’s bank account.
- _More_ [of anything] _is_ always better than less.
-      _More_ [postdocs] _have_ been unhappy working with that principal
-      than _have_ been happy.

## Subject-Verb Agreement

-                **Nouns that are plural in form but **
**                    ****singular in meaning are **
**                       ****the trickiest of all!**
-           **This class of nouns requires a singular verb.**
- semantics                         news                          economics
- politics                              statistics                     wages
- genomics                          proteomics                 metabolomics
- _Economics_ _is_ known as the dismal science; _statistics_ _is_ its
-      handmaiden.
**         ****Special case: Measurements and figures ending in**
**                –****s take a singular verb when the quantity to **
**                               ****which they refer is a unit.**
- _Three years_ _is_ a long time.
- _Three-fourths_ of the library _consists_ of journals.

## That versus Which

**Affymetrix**_**, which manufactures gene chips,**_** is**
**     ****located in California.**
**A company **_**that manufactures gene chips**_** is sending representatives to the National Cancer Institute (NCI).**
**   **
**         ****What is the semantic difference**
**           ****between these two sentences?**

## That versus Which

**  ****That ****introduces a subordinate clause ****essential**
**    ****to the meaning of the sentence.**
**  ****Which****, with commas, introduces a subordinate**
**    ****clause ****NOT essential**** ****to the meaning of the **
**    ****sentence.**
-                             **A Two-Step Test**
**  **_**Identify**_ the element.
**  **_**Remove**_ the element—does the fundamental
-    meaning of the sentence change or become
-    less precise?

## That versus Which

**THE TEST**

-                          **Analyze these sentence pairs**
-   Affymetrix_, which manufactures gene chips,_ is
-    located in California.
-    Affymetrix is located in California.
-   A company _that manufactures gene chips_ is
-    sending representatives to the National Cancer
-    Institute.
-    A company is sending representatives to the
-    National Cancer Institute.

## That versus Which

**  ****Choosing **_**that**_** instead of **_**which**_** radically changes the meaning of the same basic sentence.**
**The schools **_**that educate our children**_** should **
**      ****be supported.**
**The schools**_**, which educate our children,**_** should**
**      ****be supported.**
**             ****What is the semantic difference between**
**                            ****these two sentences?**

## That versus Which

**               ****Punctuation Point: Comma Use**
**        ****Commas indicate that a subordinate clause is **
**                  ****NOT essential to the meaning of the**
**                                    ****sentence.  **
**    **
**Never use a comma with clauses introduced by**
**     **_**that**_**.****      **
**Always use commas with clauses introduced by**
**     **_**which**_**. **
**Using commas with phrases introduced by **_**who**_
**     ****varies, depending on meaning.**

## That versus Which

**            ****Punctuation Point: Comma Use**
**   **
**Analyze the meaning of these sentence pairs*:**
**He **_**who hesitates**_** is lost.**
**     ****He**_**, who hesitates,**_** is lost.**
**Janet Smith**_**, who works in Dr. Barrett’s lab,**_** lives**
**     ****next door.**
**     ****The Janet Smith **_**who works in Dr. Barrett’s lab**_** lives**
**     ****next door.**
_**Who**_** is used only for persons; **_**that**_** and**
**     **_**which**_** for objects, animals, emotions, concepts, events—anything nonhuman**

## Finale

**       ****Almost all sentences involve several**
**       ****grammatical issues simultaneously!**
**It is microbial components that stimulate dendritic cells to mature.**
**         ****Grammatically AND semantically defective versions**** **
**It is [are] the microcrobial components, which**
**     ****stimulate the dendritic cells to mature.**
**Microbial components is what stimulates the dendritic**
**     ****cells to mature.**

## Grammar Resources

**                                        ****Books**
**Grammar handbooks:**** **
_**The Little, Brown Handbook**_**, 8****th**** ed.  New York: Little, Brown,**
**2001 **
**ESL guides:**
_**The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary**_**, 6****th**** ed.  Oxford:**
**Oxford University Press, 2000.**
**Style guides:**
**W. Follett, **_**Modern American Usage: A Guide**_**.  New York: Hill &**
**Wang, 1984.**
**W. Strunk, E.B. White.  **_**The Elements of Style**_**, 4****th**** ed.  New**
**York: Longman, 2000.**
**	****	****	****           **

## Grammar Resources

**                               ****Courses**
**The Foundation for Advanced Education in the**
**Sciences (FAES) offers:**
**Engl 305—Advanced English Structure I**
**Engl 306—Advanced English Structure II**
**Each course examines the grammar, syntax, and**
**semantics of extended discourse; stresses**
**vocabulary building; and offers writing practice.**

**            ****I would like to thank the members**
**            ****of the Fellows’ Editorial Board for**
**               ****their invaluable assistance in**
**                 ****preparing this presentation.**
**                                     **--Kay Fleming, Ph.D.