# Presentation: 482302

## Arab Republic of Egypt

**Arab Republic of Egypt**

**Total Surface Area: 1 001 449 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 75 437 000**

**Egypt is the driest country in Africa with an annual precipitation of 51 mm/year on average and has hardly any forest area**

**100% of Egypt’s cropland is irrigated**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Urbanisation and Pollution
- • Soil Erosion and Land Degradation
- • Threats to Biodiversity

**Facts and Figures**

## Arab Republic of Egypt

**The Disappearing Damietta Promontory**

**At several points along the coast, the delta is now receding**

**Damietta Promontory has eroded dramatically as waves and currents have stripped its sands faster than the river can replenish them (yellow arrow)**

**While there are local areas of accretion such as the Damietta Spit (red arrow), on balance**
**the delta is shrinking**

**Arab Republic of Egypt**

**Notes:**
The Disappearing Damietta Promontory: Egypt
The Nile Delta is built of sands carried to Egypt’s Mediterranean coast by the Nile River,
primarily since the end of the last ice age. Dams along the river and entrapment of sediment
in a vast network of irrigation canals have led to a dramatic decrease in the fl ow of water and
sediment to the delta’s edge. Closing of the Aswan High Dam in 1964 shifted the balance
between sedimentation and erosion in favour of erosion.
At several points along the coast, the delta is now receding. Damietta Promontory has eroded
dramatically as waves and currents have stripped its sands faster than the river can replenish them (yellow arrow). While there are local areas of accretion such as the Damietta Spit (red arrow), on balance
the delta is shrinking.
Prior to the construction of the Aswan High Dam, fresh water from annual fl oods infl uenced salinity and
circulation patterns up to 80 km offshore from the delta. In contrast, current discharge patterns allow salt water
from the Mediterranean to reach dams up to 26 km inland. Diminished freshwater and sediment delivery to the
delta also affects the ecology of coastal lagoons, soil fertility, and salinisation of irrigated land. Coastal protection
structures, regulation of irrigation, and increased groundwater exploitation may mitigate the delta’s decline, but
the current rate of population growth threatens to outstrip these measures.

## Arab Republic of Egypt

**Megacity Growing in the Desert: Cairo**

**Cairo is the largest city in Africa, ranked by urban population**

**Growing continuously, the population of Cairo increased from less than six million in 1965 to more than ten million in 1998 and the city’s current**
**estimates are at 16 million**

**Arab Republic of Egypt**

**The urban extent of Cairo (gray areas) expands dramatically**
**between the 1972 and 2005 images**

**Notes:**
Megacity Growing in the Desert: Cairo, Egypt
Cairo is the largest city in Africa, ranked by urban population, and Egypt is the third most
populous country. In 1850, Cairo’s population was only 250 000; 80 years later it had reached one
million. Growing continuously, the population of the Cairo metropolitan area increased from
less than six million in 1965 to more than ten million in 1998. Estimates of the city’s current
population vary widely, with some reaching as high as 16 million people.
The Nile River is the lifeblood of Egypt as it is the main source of freshwater for household use and irrigation, a
source of power from the hydroelectric facility at Aswan, and a means of transportation for people and goods. The
only arable regions in Egypt are the green fl oodplains that line the Nile River.
Phenomenal population growth in the 20th century has resulted in the loss of much of the critically needed
arable land around Cairo to urban development. The urban extent of Cairo (gray areas) expands dramatically
between the 1972 and 2005 images, both into the Arabian Desert to the east and into the lush agricultural areas
(green) surrounding the Nile. Most of Cairo’s physical growth, particularly its unplanned or informal settlements,
has been concentrated on agricultural land.

## Arab Republic of Egypt

**Nile Waters in the Desert: Toshka Lakes**

**Lake-free Toshka Depression in the Western Desert**

**Arab Republic of Egypt**

**Continued overflow since mid-1990s from Lake Nasser created a series of lakes (Toshka) in the Western Desert**

**Much of the needed infrastructure is already in place and crops are already being produced on irrigated land including fruits and wheat (green around the lakes in 2007 image)**

**Notes:**
Nile Waters in the Desert: Toshka Lakes, Egypt
In the mid 1990s, water levels in Lake Nasser on the Nile River approached the reservoir’s
storage capacity of 183 m above sea level. Excess water was released through a spillway, which
fl owed into the Toshka Depression in the Western Desert. Over the next several years, continued
overfl ow created a series of lakes on some of Egypt’s most arid land. After peaking in 1998,
reservoir levels declined and fl ow through the spillway stopped in 2001. Since that time, water
levels in the Toshka Lakes have been declining as well, primarily by evaporation and to a lesser
degree by infiltration.
In January 1997, the Egyptian government began construction on a network of canals to continue carrying Lake
Nasser water to Toshka with the goal of irrigating 3 360 km2 of land in the Western Desert. The project, called the
New Valley Project, is intended to relieve overcrowding within the densely populated Nile Valley and provide
economic development.
The project is an enormous undertaking with a cost over US$1 000 million. Critics of the project are concerned
that the anticipated withdrawal of 5 000 million m3 of water per year will reduce water available to farmers on the
delta, leave Egypt more economically vulnerable to drought, and reduce resources available for other development
opportunities. Much of the needed infrastructure is already in place and crops are already being produced on irrigated
land including fruits and wheat (green around the lakes, 2007 image).

## Republic of Equatorial  Guinea

**Total Surface Area: 28 051 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 515 000**

**Bioko Island in Equatorial Guinea has several endemic sub-species of primates, including the drill (*****Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis*****) and the red-eared monkey (*****Cercopithecus erythrotis*****)**

**Oil exports as proportion of total national exports - 90%**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Oil Production and Coastal Degradation
- • Deforestation
- • Bushmeat and Hunting on Bioko Island

**Republic of Equatorial  Guinea**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of Equatorial  Guinea

**Oil and Gas in Punta Europa**

**These images show massive infrastructural**
**development of the gas and the hydrocarbon facility at Punta Europa on Bioko between 2000 and 2007**

**The Alba gas field located 19 km north of Bioko Island is the country’s largest natural gas**
**field, with 37 000 million m****3**** of proven reserves**

**Republic of Equatorial  Guinea**

**Notes:**
Oil and Gas: Punta Europa, Equatorial Guinea
Petroleum and natural gas are key to Equatorial Guinea’s rapid development and growing
GDP. The Alba gas fi eld located 19 km north of Bioko Island is the country’s largest natural gas
fi eld, with 37 000 million m3 of proven reserves. The above images show massive infrastructural
development of the gas and the hydrocarbon facility at Punta Europa on Bioko, between 2000
and 2007.
The Punta Europa plant fl ares natural gas and associated byproducts—initially at a rate of approximately
2.5 million m3 per day to the current volume of about 3.5 million m3. To reduce the economic and environmental
damage associated with this fl aring, the Atlantic Methanol Production Company completed construction of a
methanol plant at Punta Europa in May 2001. The plant consumes around 3.5 million m3 per day of quality gas to
produce 19 000 barrels per day of methanol used in a variety of industries. Similarly, Marathon Oil and its partners
are nearing completion of a liquefi ed natural gas plant at Punta Europa. These two facilities will eliminate the
need to fl are gas at Punta Europa. The projected greenhouse gas reduction from the methanol plant alone is
2.85 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year for each year of the project.

## Eritrea

**Total Surface Area: 117 600 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 4 560 000**

**In 2006, Eritrea announced it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coastline into an environmentally protected zone**

**At 6% per year Eritrea had the third highest population growth rate in Africa between 2000 -2005**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Water Stress
- • Land Availability and Land Degradation
- • Deforestation and Threats to Biodiversity

**Eritrea**

**Facts and Figures**

## Eritrea

**Cultivating Mangroves in Hagigo**

**Along 15% of Eritrea’s coast there are stretches of green that contrast with the arid environment surrounding them**

**The 2001 and 2007 images of the coast near Hagigo, Eritrea show how quickly the seedlings are growing into stands of mangrove trees (yellow arrows)**

**More than 700 000 mangrove seedlings have been planted along the Eritrean coast since 2001 (yellow arrows)**

**Eritrea**

**Notes:**
Cultivating Mangroves: Hagigo, Eritrea
Along 15 per cent of Eritrea’s coast there are stretches of green that contrast with the arid
environment surrounding them. They are mangroves—stands of salt tolerant trees and plants
that can get their water from the sea. Dr. Gordon Sato, a retired molecular biologist, wondered
why they occur only intermittently rather than along the entire coast. He discovered that streams
fl owing into the Red Sea during seasonal rains provide nutrients that the mangroves need to
grow. He devised a simple means of delivering these missing nutrients, allowing mangroves to be
grown on otherwise barren shoreline.

More than 700 000 mangrove seedlings have been planted along the Eritrean coast since 2001, (yellow arrows).
These mangroves fl ourish with low cost applications of fertilizer. The 2001 and 2007 images of the coast near
Hagigo, Eritrea, show how quickly the seedlings are growing into stands of mangrove trees (yellow arrows). The
mangrove’s leaves provide fodder for sheep, which in turn are a source of food for the Eritrean population.
The so-called Manzanar Project aims to develop self-suffi ciency in Eritrea, village by village. Coupled with
aquaculture, the mangroves provide both a land- and sea- based economy that might eventually be developed for
the specialty seafood export market.

## Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

**Total Surface Area: 1 104 300 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 79 289 000**

**In 2005 scientists watched a 60 kilometre fissure develop in the Afar Desert of Ethiopia. The fissure created an eight metre wide rift at its centre which may be the beginning of a “future ocean”**

**Ethiopia has the lowest access to an improved water source in Africa at 22%**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Water Availability and Access to a Safe Source
- • Livestock, Soil Erosion, and Land Degradation
- • Threats to Biodiversity and Endemism

**Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia**

**Facts and Figures**

## Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

**In recent times Alemaya’s water level and surface area have declined considerably**

**Increasing irrigation and domestic water use, change in the local climate, and changes in the surrounding land cover are believed to be the causes of Alemaya’s demise**

**Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia**

**Shrinking Water Resources: Lake Alemaya**

**Notes:**
Shrinking Water Resources: Lake Alemaya, Ethiopia
Lake Alemaya in the Ethiopian Highlands has historically provided the surrounding area with
water for domestic use, irrigation, and livestock and has served as a local fi shery. As recently as
the mid-1980s its maximum depth was around eight metres and it covered 4.72 km2. Since then
Alemaya’s water level and surface area have declined considerably, as is evident in these images.
In recent years, low water levels have interrupted the water supply in Harar, a nearby town of
over 100 000.
Increasing irrigation and domestic water use, change in the local climate, and changes in the surrounding
land cover are believed to be the causes of Alemaya’s demise. Agriculture expanded dramatically starting in the
mid-1970s due to improved infrastructure, increased population, and changes in government policies toward
production and marketing. Among the crops grown is khat, a psychoactive leaf consumed heavily in northeastern
Africa. Khat has become an exported cash crop in recent decades and irrigation has increased as a result. In
addition, siltation caused by the deforestation of the Alemaya watershed has reduced the capacity of the shallow
lake. A trend of warmer temperatures since the mid-1980s may also have increased the rate of evaporation from
the lake.

## Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

**Urban Sprawl in Addis Ababa**

**The population of Addis Ababa is currently 2.9 million, and is**
**projected to grow to 5.1 million by 2015**

**27% of Ethiopia’s urban population lives in Addis Ababa**

**Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia**

**These satellite images taken in 1973 and 2005 show the development of Addis Ababa’s massive urban sprawl**

**Notes:**
Urban Sprawl in Addis Ababa: Ethiopia
Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, was established in 1889. Major urban migration into the
city began in the mid-1970s, driven mainly by unemployment, poverty, and declining agricultural
productivity in rural areas. The population of Addis Ababa is currently 2.9 million, and is
projected to grow to 5.1 million by 2015.
Ethiopia as a whole has an annual population growth of 2.8 per cent. Twenty-seven per cent
of Ethiopia’s urban population lives in Addis Ababa and this has created substantial pressure on the city’s infrastructure, housing, and urban services. These satellite images taken in 1973 and 2005 show the
development of Addis Ababa’s massive urban sprawl.
In 1996, the city had only 238 000 residential housing units. That same year, the total number of households
was estimated to be 460 000, leaving 220 000 households or nearly 1 000 000 residents without suitable housing.
This situation led to illegal housing construction and uncontrolled settlements, some of which are encroaching on
protected forest and reserve lands at the edges of the city.

## Gabonese Republic

**Total Surface Area: 267 668 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 1 406 000**

**Gabon has more than 8 000 species of plants, 20% of which are endemic**

**Gabon has the highest proportion of land area under forest on the African continent at 84.5%**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Threats to Biodiversity
- • Coastal Degradation and Industrial Pollution
- • Lack of Sanitation and the Urban Environment

**Gabonese Republic**

**Facts and Figures**

## Gabonese Republic

**Forestry in the Guineo-Congolese Forest**

**The 2000 image shows a clear cut patch in the centre of the image at a re-growth stage**

**In the 1988 image only slight disturbance of the forest cover is visible (yellow arrow)**

**Gabonese Republic**

**Notes:**
Forestry in the Guineo-Congolese Forest: Gabon
Various sources estimate Gabon’s forest cover at between 17 and 20 million hectares, comprising
the majority of the Guineo-Congolese forest. Guineo-Congolese forest is a tropical rain forest
ecosystem known for its high species richness and endemism. This forest is an invaluable
resource to Gabon locally and is also important globally as a source of biodiversity and a carbon
sink, which infl uences the global climate.
Over the past 40 years, the area of forest allocated to logging concessions has grown from
less than 10 per cent to over 50 per cent with most of this increase occurring in the last decade.
Okoume, a valuable African hardwood, accounts for over 70 per cent of Gabon’s timber harvest. It is selectively
harvested by clear-cutting patches of Okoume, leaving a few trees to encourage regrowth. During the fi rst six
months of 2005, production of logs of all species in Gabon rose 4.7 per cent over the previous year
The 2000 image shows a clear cut patch in the centre of the image at a regrowth stage. This is in contrast to
the 1988 image, in which only slight disturbance of the forest cover is visible (yellow arrow). The least densely
populated country in Central Africa, Gabon has less pressure than many of its neighbours to convert forests to
agricultural land. With good forest management practices, the immense value of Gabon’s Guineo-Congolese
forest can be sustainably utilized for many generations.

## Republic of the Gambia

**Total Surface Area: 11 295 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 1 556 000**

**The Gambia is the smallest of the mainland African states**

**90% of the Gambia River’s annual**
**discharge occurs in only four**
**months, July to October**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Drought and Agricultural Productivity
- • Threats to Forest and Wetland Ecosystems
- • Overfishing and Coastal Erosion

**Republic of the Gambia**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of the Gambia

**Urban Sprawl in Greater Banjul Area**

**The capital city of Banjul grew rapidly until the early 1980s, when commuter services from the surrounding area were developed**

**The sprawl of greater Banjul has led to the loss of forest cover and arable land**

**These images show the dramatic increase in urban development in the Banjul area between 1973 and 2006**

**Republic of the Gambia**

**Notes:**
Urban Sprawl: Greater Banjul Area, the Gambia
The Gambia’s capital city, Banjul, is located at the end of a peninsula referred to as Banjul
Island or St. Mary’s Island. Banjul grew rapidly until the early 1980s, when commuter services
from the surrounding area were developed. Easy access to Banjul led to dramatic population
growth in the nearby Kanifi ng District, from less than 12 000 in 1963 to over 332 000 in 2003.
The pattern repeated itself as the Kanifi ng District became crowded in the mid-1990s and
services and amenities were made available in the areas south of Kanifi ng, inducing many
people to move there.

## Republic of Ghana

**Total Surface Area: 238 553 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 22 556 000**

**The closing of Akosombo Dam in the early 1960s flooded 4% of Ghana’s land and created the largest reservoir in the world by surface area - Lake Volta**

**Ghana’s share of the world’s cocoa production is at 21%**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Deforestation
- • Land Degradation and Coastal Erosion
- • Overfishing and Reduced Water Volume in Lake Volta

**Republic of Ghana**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of Ghana

**Forest Reserves Under Pressure in Ghana**

**In the 1973 image the vegetation inside and outside the protected areas appears green and robust**

**In the 2002/2003 dramatic change is apparent; some of the northern reserves have been decimated and the northern edge of the forest zone has moved south**

**Republic of Ghana**

**Mines (yellow arrow) pose a serious threat to Ghana’s remaining forests**

**Notes:**
Forest Reserves Under Pressure: Ghana
The fragmented tropical forest of southwestern Ghana creates a fascinating pattern from space.
The dark green patches seen above are reserves set aside early in the 20th century; they are the
only signifi cant blocks of forest remaining in the country. Recognizing this priceless ecological
heritage, the Ghanaian government has developed policies for sustainable forest management.
In spite of the enormous ecological benefi ts of the forest and the government’s effort to
sustainably manage the reserves, shifting cultivation, uncontrolled logging, surface mining, charcoal production, and increasing population place enormous pressure on these remnants of Ghana’s tropical
forests. In the 1973 image (top left) the vegetation inside and outside the protected areas appears green and
robust. In the 2002/2003 (top right), dramatic change is apparent; some of the northern reserves have been
decimated and the northern edge of the forest zone has moved south.
Recently, mines have been permitted within some of Ghana’s forest reserves. On the advice of the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), Ghana relaxed mining and logging regulations and nurtured investment by the mining and
forestry industries through generous incentives during the 1980s and 1990s. Mines like the one within the Afao
Hills Forest Reserve (yellow arrow on the bottom image) pose a serious threat to Ghana’s remaining forests.

## Republic of Ghana

**Gold Mining in Wassa West District**

**The mines in Wassa West have been kept out of the forest reserves, which can be seen as dark green areas with**
**clear straight boundaries**

**The 2002 image shows that the footprints of mining operations in the district have grown  dramatically since 1986**

**Republic of Ghana**

**Notes:**
Gold Mining in Wassa West District: Ghana
With the encouragement and support of the World Bank, Ghana revised its mining laws in the
1980s, privatising the industry and liberalising regulation. This resulted in several hundreds of
millions of dollars of foreign investments in Ghana’s mining industry. While this brought gold
production to new highs, replacing cocoa as Ghana’s most valuable commodity, it also resulted in
social and environmental impacts that are proving to be unpopular locally and internationally.
Over 60 per cent of the Wassa West District in western Ghana is now under concession to large-scale gold
mining companies, the greatest concentration of mining in a single district in Africa. The large footprints of these
open-pit mines directly result in signifi cant forest loss. In addition, related infrastructure and associated population
growth indirectly drive even greater land cover conversion. Signifi cant portions of Wasa West’s tropical rainforest
have been degraded by or lost to this gold mining boom since the 1980s.
The mines in Wassa West have been kept out of the forest reserves, which can be seen as dark green areas with
clear straight boundaries in both the 1986 and 2002 images. However, the 2002 image shows that the footprints of
mining operations in the district have grown dramatically since 1986.

## Republic of Guinea

**Total Surface Area: 245 857 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 9 603 000**

**Guinea has the world’s largest bauxite reserves and is the world’s**
**number one exporter of bauxite ore**

**22 of West Africa’s rivers originate**
**in Guinea including the Niger,**
**Senegal, and Gambia Rivers**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Deforestation and Refugees
- • Overfishing and Destruction of Mangrove Forests
- • Land Degradation

**Republic of Guinea**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of Guinea

**A City Between the Mangroves: Conakry**

**In the 1975 image dense settlement has reached**
**the airport and beyond, but natural vegetation still covered much of the area**

**By 2007 nearly all of that**
**vegetation has been overtaken by Conakry’s rapid growth**

**Republic of Guinea**

**Notes:**
A City Between the Mangroves: Conakry, Guinea
Natural resources in Guinea’s coastal zone are crucial to local economies, which depend on their
immediate environment for freshwater, fuelwood, fi sheries, and agriculture. Guinea’s coastal
zone is also home to one-fourth of West Africa’s mangroves, which are linked to the vitality of
the terrestrial and marine ecosystems that they bridge. These resources are being exploited
at an unsustainable pace due to rapid population growth which without changes in resource
management practices will lead to irreversible environmental degradation.
Population in Guinea’s resource-rich coastal zone nearly tripled between 1963 and 1996. In the capital of
Conakry, rural-to-urban migration, including refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone in the 1990s, dramatically
increased the population. Estimated at approximately 39 000 in the 1960s, Conakry’s population had increased
to nearly two million by 2006. Conakry’s growing population puts intense pressure on the surrounding woody
savannahs and mangroves, which are being converted to agriculture and exploited for fuelwood.
Conakry was founded on Tombo Island at the tip of Kaloum Peninsula. Its growth since then has followed
the peninsula, hemmed in on either side by mangrove forests. In the 1975 image, dense settlement has reached
the airport and beyond, but natural vegetation still covered much of the area. By 2007, however, nearly all of that
vegetation has been overtaken by Conakry’s rapid growth.

## Republic of Guinea

**Mining a “Hotspot”: Sangaredi Mine**

**The Sangaredi Mine in the Upper Guinea Forest falls within one of the world’s most biologically**
**rich, yet seriously threatened, ecosystems**

**The Sangaredi Mine is Guinea’s largest and most profitable**

**In the 2007 image, the Sangaredi Mine is visible as a vast open pit approximately 20 km from one end to the other**

**Republic of Guinea**

**Notes:**
Mining a “Hotspot”: Sangaredi Mine, Guinea
The Sangaredi Mine in the Upper Guinea Forest falls within one of the world’s most biologically
rich, yet seriously threatened, ecosystems. Recent biological assessment of the area surrounding
the bauxite mine and proposed alumina processing facility identifi ed fi ve reptile species, 17
amphibian species, 140 species of birds, 16 species of mammals, and eight primate species,
including the endangered West African chimpanzee and western red colobus.
The Sangaredi Mine is Guinea’s largest and most profi table. A proposed alumina refi nery,
sited approximately 25 km to the west of the mine, is expected to bring a US$3 000 million capital investment, thousands of jobs, and infrastructure development. The consortium which is building the refi nery
is working with Conservation International to incorporate ecological considerations into the plans. A biological
assessment of the area was conducted as a part of that process.
Bauxite mines and alumina refi neries typically create serious ecological problems. Bauxite ore is mined in
open pits, requiring the removal of vegetation and topsoil. In the 2007 image, the Sangaredi Mine is visible as a
vast open pit approximately 20 km from one end to the other. Alumina refi ning produces highly caustic “red mud”
that negatively affects surface and groundwater quality. In addition to direct environmental impacts, the increased
population and infrastructure development associated with the mine will likely put immense pressure on this
environmental “hotspot.”

## Republic of Guinea-Bissau

**Total Surface Area: 36 125 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 1 634 000**

**Guinea-Bissau is the world’s sixth largest producer of cashew nuts,**
**which account for over 90%  of its export earnings**

**82% of Guinea-Bissau’s people are employed in agriculture**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Deforestation
- • Cashew Farming and Soil Erosion
- • Threats to the Bijagos Biosphere Reserve

**Republic of Guinea-Bissau**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of Guinea-Bissau

**Balanta Rice Farming: Gêba Estuary**

**The 2005 high-resolution image shows the intensity of rice cultivation in an area near Cufar**

**Rice paddies have replaced many of the mangroves along the Gêba and Mansôa Rivers to the north of the capital, Bissau (2007 image)**

**Republic of Guinea-Bissau**

**The production of paddy, or “wetland,” rice started in the late 17th and early 18th centuries**

**Notes:**
Balanta Rice Farming: Gêba Estuary, Guinea-Bissau
Rice is a major crop and staple food in Guinea-Bissau. The production of paddy, or “wetland,”
rice started in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, when the Balanta (the country’s largest
ethnic group) started organising men and women for agricultural production. Rice paddies have
replaced many of the mangroves along the Gêba and Mansôa Rivers to the north of the capital,
Bissau (2007 image).
These rice paddies are built by cutting a path through the mangroves and piling up mud
to form a dike that will keep back the tide. The mangroves, cut off from the ocean, quickly die. The ground is then burned to clear remaining undergrowth. After the paddies are constructed, their walls trap
rainwater, in which rice will grow.
The 2007 image (above right) shows several dark green belts of mangrove forests adjacent to the Gêba and
Mansôa Rivers. Intensive rice farming is indicated by the light-grey areas bordering these mangroves. This pattern
is observed around Bissau, as well as the smaller towns of Cufar, Mansôa, Bissassema de Cima, and Nã Balanta. The
2005 high-resolution image (above left) shows the intensity of rice cultivation in an area near Cufar (from yellow
box, above right). Inundated rice paddies (whitish rectangles) and rice fi elds (light- to dark-green rectangles)
surround the meandering river. Only isolated patches of mangroves (deep-green) remain along much of the river.

## Republic of Kenya

**Total Surface Area: 580 367 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 35 106 000**

**Kenya is world-famous for wildlife safaris to areas like Amboseli and Nakuru National Parks, and the Maasai Mara Game Reserve**

**Important Environmental Issues**
-  Water Scarcity and Pollution
-  Desertification and Deforestation
-  Degradation of Freshwater Ecosystems

**Republic of Kenya**

**Facts and Figures**

**Kenya is the number 1 producer and exporter of black tea in Africa**

## Republic of Kenya

**Protection and Management of Mount Kenya**

**Depending on altitude and rainfall, there are a variety of different ecosystems on Mount Kenya, which are visible to some degree as various shades of green in the 2007 image **

**Republic of Kenya**

**Kamweti is part of Mount Kenya’s protected**
**forest**

**Notes:**
Protection and Management: Mount Kenya, Kenya
Mount Kenya has been described as one of the most impressive landscape features in East
Africa. In addition to its beauty and value for timber, farmland, and tourism, it is a critical water
catchment for Kenya and crucial to hydro-power generation on the Tana River. Depending
on altitude and rainfall, there are a variety of different ecosystems on Mount Kenya, which are
visible to some degree as various shades of green in the 2007 satellite image above.
After independence in 1963, the Kenyan government encouraged settlement of the Mount Kenya region and
over a period of roughly forty years population increased ten-fold. In the late 1990s it was recognized that this
intense population growth, along with misuse of non-resident cultivation policies, illegal charcoal production,
illegal forestry, and marijuana cultivation were threatening the future of Mount Kenya. New policies and improved
enforcement have signifi cantly reduced unsustainable exploitation of the mountain’s forests.
Continued monitoring and management of this majestic mountain is aimed at maintaining its immeasurable
value for future generations. Sustainable uses such as eco-tourism help provide employment without undermining
the essential ecosystem functions and invaluable biodiversity of this natural asset.

## Republic of Kenya

**Irrigated Agriculture: Yala Swamp**

**These images show the area before and after development of the region began**

**The small farm parcels in**
**the 2002 image have largely been replaced by larger parcels, as is evident in the 2007 image**

**Republic of Kenya**

**A dam (yellow arrow)**
**has also been erected on the river, to provide water for irrigation**

**Notes:**
Irrigated Agriculture: Yala Swamp, Kenya
Yala Swamp is located in western Kenya, on the northeastern shore of Lake Victoria. It is the
third-largest wetland ecosystem in the country, after Lorian Swamp and the Tana River Delta.
The swamp provides a habitat for many plants and animals, some of which are extinct in the
larger lake ecosystem and others that are endemic to the swamp.
Nutrient rich sediments deposited by the Yala River and the availability of water makes Yala
Swamp particularly attractive for agriculture, including the intensive production of rice, cotton,
and various other irrigated cash crops.
The development of this area has pitted the Kenyan government and private investors against conservationists.
While the government and the investors argue that a well-planned exploitation of part of this area can help
alleviate hunger and poverty in the region, conservationists feel that the Yala Swamp is too important an ecosystem
to be disturbed for any economic gains.
These two images show the area before and after development of the region began. The small farm parcels in
the 2002 image have largely been replaced by larger parcels, as is evident in the 2007 image. A dam (yellow arrow)
has also been erected on the river, to provide water for irrigation.

## Kingdom of Lesotho

**Total Surface Area: 30 355 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 1 791 000**

**The Tlaeeng Pass, in the north of Lesotho, is 3 275 metres above**
**sea level; it is the highest road in Africa**

**80% of Lesotho’s land area is classified as rangeland**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Degradation of Rangelands
- • Threats to Biodiversity in the Lesotho Highlands
- • Water Resource Management and Pollution

**Kingdom of Lesotho**

**Facts and Figures**

## Kingdom of Lesotho

**The Lesotho Highlands Water Project**

**The 1991 image shows part of the project area before the dams were constructed**

**The 2006 image shows the areas inundated after both dams were completed**

**Kingdom of Lesotho**

**Notes:**
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project: Lesotho
In 1986, a treaty signed by South Africa and Lesotho initiated the Lesotho Highlands Water
Project. The project design included a total of fi ve dams, but committed the parties to only
the fi rst two dams and related infrastructure at a cost of over US$1 400 million. The project’s
purpose was to deliver water to Gauteng Province in the industrial heartland of South Africa
and hydroelectric power and income to Lesotho. In 1997, the 185-metre Katse Dam was
completed on the Malibamatso River. The second phase of the project including the Mohale
Dam was completed in 2003.
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project has been controversial since it began, with concerns about both social
and environmental impacts. More than 20 000 people were affected by Katse Dam and 7 400 by Mohale, including
loss of homes, farmland, and communal grazing land. The 1991 image shows part of the project area before the
dams were constructed. The 2006 image shows the areas inundated after both dams were completed. The fi rst two
dams, Katse and Muela (not shown) took approximately 1 900 hectares of croplands and Mohale a further 1 000
hectares. Together, the three dams decreased pastureland by 5 000 hectares. In addition to the impact on the
immediate area, approximately 150 000 people are affected by reduced stream flow below the dams.

## Republic of Liberia

**Total Surface Area: 111 369 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 3 356 000**

**Monrovia, the capital city of Liberia, receives on average 5 140 mm of rain per year, making it one of the wettest**
**inhabited places in the world**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Deforestation and Rubber Plantations
- • Threats to Biodiversity
- • Water Pollution

**Republic of Liberia**

**Facts and Figures**

**Liberia’s 2007 estimated annual population growth rate was the highest in the world at 4.8%**

## Republic of Liberia

**The Harbel Rubber Plantation**

**The Harbel Rubber Plantation just north of Monrovia, Liberia, is the largest in the world**

**These two images show that the extent of the Harbel rubber plantation has expanded slightly in 30 years (yellow arrow)**

**Republic of Liberia**

**Notes:**
The Harbel Rubber Plantation: Liberia
Built in the 1920s and 1930s, the Harbel rubber plantation just north of Monrovia, Liberia, is
the largest in the world. This large monoculture plantation has created a host of environmental
problems, including loss of biodiversity and the release of chemical waste into surface waters.
Plantation workers are also exposed to compounds and chemicals that are internationally
recognized as toxic and environmentally damaging.
These two images show that the extent of the Harbel rubber plantation has expanded slightly in 30 years (yellow arrow). The change in colour of most of the plantation’s vegetation may be the result of seasonal variations—rubber trees drop their leaves at least once per year—or the age of the trees
in the later image. Mature stands have more shadows and allow less of the leafy understory vegetation to show
through than younger trees.
Most of the trees on Liberia’s rubber plantations are nearing the end of their productive lifespan. This has
brought the country’s rubber industry to the brink of collapse. A new extension to the lease arrangement between
Harbel’s owners and the Liberian government was signed in 2005 which, according to the company, will allow for
replanting to begin. However, it will likely take many years for the older trees to be replaced.

## Republic of Liberia

**Indigenous Rain Forest: Sapo National Park**

**The 1974 image shows the intact forest of the Sapo area prior to the park’s creation**

**Roads and villages**
**appear to have increased in the area surrounding the park - the 2001/2003 image shows that within the park itself**
**the forest remains in good condition**

**Republic of Liberia**

**Notes:**
Indigenous Rain Forest: Sapo National Park, Liberia
Liberia’s Sapo National Park is a largely undisturbed area (161 400 hectares) of lowland rain
forest in the Upper Guinean Forest ecosystem. This ecosystem, which stretches from Cameroon
to Guinea, has been decimated by logging, mining, and agriculture, leaving just three intact
blocks, two of them in Liberia. Created in 1983, Sapo National Park was expanded by over 50
per cent in 2003. It is habitat for vulnerable and endangered species including the western
chimpanzee, pigmy hippo, and forest elephant. The park’s relatively pristine condition makes it
an invaluable resource to Liberia and the world.
In the 25 years prior to Liberia’s current government, the area of logging concessions granted totaled
approximately 2.5 times the entire forested area of the country, with multiple concessions often overlapping one
another. Concessions surrounded the area of Sapo National Park. Following a review of legality and status, all of
the existing forest concessions were cancelled in February 2006. A year earlier, squatters who were illegally mining
and poaching within Sapo were evicted.
The 1974 image shows the intact forest of the Sapo area prior to the park’s creation. While roads and villages
appear to have increased in the area surrounding the park, the 2001/2003 image shows that within the park itself,
the forest remains in good condition.

## Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

**Total Surface Area: 1**** ****759 540 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 5 968 000**

**The Great Man-Made River is the largest underground network of pipes in the world, supplying water from a fossil aquifer in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya’s Sahara Desert to its coastal cities**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Water Scarcity
- • Land Conversion and Desertification
- • Oil Production and Pollution

**Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya**

**Facts and Figures**

**Freshwater supplied per day by the GMMR 6.5 million m****3**

## Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

**Great Man-Made River Project**

**When fully operational, the GMMR will pump 3.6 million m****3**** of the Nubian Aquifer water per day.**
**Water from the aquifer is used to support extensive centre-pivot irrigation agriculture at Al Kufra (see 1972 and 2001**
**images).**

**Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya**

**GMMR’s largest reservoir, known as the Grand Omar Mukhtar, is located at Suluq (2006 image)**

**Notes:**
Great Man-made River Project: Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
In the 1950s, oil exploration in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya turned up another resource beneath the
scorching sands: the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System. Radiocarbon analysis showed that some of
the water in the aquifer system was 40 000 years old. Tapping the aquifers was chosen as the most
cost-effective option for meeting the country’s water needs.
In 1993, Phase I of the Great Man-made River (GMMR) Project brought water from eastern well-
fields at Sarir and Tazerbo to Benghazi (not shown). In 1996, Phase II brought water from well-fields at Jebel Hassouna to Tripoli (not shown). Phase III is still under construction. The project’s largest reservoir, known
as the Grand Omar Mukhtar, is located at Suluq (2006 image, yellow arrows).
When fully operational, the GMMR will pump 3.6 million cubic metres of the Nubian Aquifer water per day.
Water from the aquifer is used to support extensive centre-pivot irrigation agriculture at Al Kufra (see 1972 and 2001
images above).
At current extraction rates the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System is not likely to be depleted for a thousand years.
Nevertheless, it is shared among four African nations: Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Chad, Sudan, and Egypt. The concern
of environmentalists is that eventually people will drain the aquifer faster than nature can renew it. The International
Atomic Energy Agency is trying to bring the four countries together to plan rational shared use of the water.

## Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

**Urban Expansion in Tripoli**

**These satellite images, from 1976 and 2006, document some of the major changes in urban**
**extent and the intensification of agriculture in the area surrounding the city.**

**Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya**

**Darker patches south of the city, visible in the 1976 image, represent grasslands that have since been converted to agricultural fields**

**Yellow arrows indicate a few small areas of remaining natural vegetation**

**Notes:**
Urban Expansion: Tripoli, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Tripoli, the capital city of Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, is located on the country’s Mediterranean
coast along a narrow band of fertile lowlands that quickly give way to a vast interior of arid, rocky
plains and seas of sand. Tripoli has undergone steady urban growth over the past thirty years.
These satellite images, from 1976 and 2006, document some of the major changes in urban
extent and the intensifi cation of agriculture in the area surrounding the city.
Urban areas appear as shades of grey. Darker patches south of the city, visible in the 1976 image, represent
grasslands that have since been converted to agricultural fi elds. Bright green areas are planted croplands. A few
small areas of natural vegetation remain (yellow arrows).
Before the GMMR project began supplying water to the Tripoli area, the city’s demands on the coastal Upper
Aquifer were raising concerns of unsustainable use leading to salinisation of coastal water resources. The GMMR
project began supplying water to Tripoli in August 1996 and is continuing to expand its delivery across the
country’s coastal area.

## Republic of Madagascar

**Total Surface Area: 587 041 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 19 105 000**

**An astonishing 98% of  Madagascar’s land mammals, 92% of its reptiles, 68% of its plants, and 41% of its breeding bird species exist nowhere else on Earth**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Soil Erosion
- • Endemism and Threats to Biodiversity
- • Deforestation

**Of the world’s 8 baobab species Madagascar has 7**

**Republic of Madagascar**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of Madagascar

**Deforestation in Mikea Forest**

**The area of Mikea Forest shown in these images has lost approximately 28% of its primary forest cover in the last three decades and the rate of loss appears to be accelerating**

**The 2002/2003 image shows deforestation advancing still further to the west**

**Republic of Madagascar**

**The white dashed line shows loss between 1962 and 1999**

**Notes:**
Deforestation in Mikea Forest: Madagascar
On an island known for endemic species, the South Malagasy spiny forests in the southwestern
corner of Madagascar are one of the islands most distinct ecosystems. Within Mikea Forest,
the unusual Didierea madagascariensis (see photo) and Euphorbia stenoclada as well as the more
common Adansonia fony are among the most widespread tree species. Mikea Forest is also
home to many endemic reptile and bird species. Two bird species unique to the Mikea Forest,
the subdesert mesite (Monias benschi) and the long-tailed ground-roller (Uratelornis chimaera),
are classified as vulnerable.
The area of Mikea Forest shown in these images has lost approximately 28 per cent of its primary forest cover
in the last three decades and the rate of loss appears to be accelerating. The white dashed line shows loss between
1962 and 1999. The 2002/2003 image shows deforestation advancing still further to the west.
A large portion of the forest has been lost to charcoal production, most of it for commercial sale in Toliara.
This is especially true at the southern edge of the forest where road accessibility is greatest. Further north, slashand-
burn maize cultivation is practiced by the Mikea people native to the area. Most of this maize is for local
consumption. This appears to be the driving force of forest loss along the eastern edge of the forest, which has
moved almost 10 km to the west since 1973.

## Republic of Madagascar

**Morondava’s Centre Pivot Irrigation**

**These three images show the region before irrigation (1973), after irrigation**
**was introduced (2000), and after further expanded irrigation (2006)**

**Roughly 22 000 metric tonnes of sugar were produced in this region in 2006**

**Republic of Madagascar**

**Notes:**
Centre Pivot Irrigation: Morondava, Madagascar
The large circular fields of irrigated sugarcane near Morondava in western Madagascar are an
anomalous sight in this area more known for its baobab trees. While the average temperature
in the area is ideal for sugarcane cultivation, a long dry season (April to November) makes
irrigation necessary. These three images show the region before irrigation (1973), after irrigation
was introduced (2000), and after further expanded irrigation (2006). Managed by a foreign
company, most sugar cane grown in the area is exported. Ironically, sugar must be imported for
the local market. Roughly 22 000 metric tonnes of sugar were produced here in 2006.
Baobabs, sometimes called “upside down trees” can live for up to 5 000 years. While there is only one baobab
species on the African continent, Madagascar is home to seven different species. The volume of water needed
for irrigating sugar cane fields may threaten the survival of these ancient trees if sugar cane farming extends into
baobab areas—particularly the “allée des Baobabs” (Baobabs Boulevard, yellow arrows). Baobabs are also under
threat by local community rice farming. Since August 2007 the “allée des Baobabs” has been temporarily
classified as a protected area, the result of consultation between local communities, local authorities, and
government authorities.

## Republic of Malawi

**Total Surface Area: 118 484 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 13 166 000**

**With over 1 000 species, many of them endemic, Lake Malawi (Nyasa) is home to the largest variety of fish of any lake in the world**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Land Scarcity and Soil Erosion
- • Deforestation for Fuelwood
- • Water Pollution and Aquatic Biodiversity

**83% of Malawi’s population is rural**

**Republic of Malawi**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of Malawi

**Algae Blooms: Lake Malawi (Nyasa)**

**In these images, the bluish green swirls in the lake are algae blooms caused by excess nutrients**
**Among other things, the algae reduce dissolved oxygen levels in the water**

**The algae blooms appear worse in 2006 image (note their concentration along the lake’s western shore)**

**Republic of Malawi**

**Notes:**
Algae Blooms: Lake Malawi (Nyasa), Malawi
Lake Malawi (Nyasa), the third-largest lake in Africa, is an essential water resource for Malawi, Mozambique, and
United Republic of Tanzania. A 2003 study indicated that sediments and nutrients from densely settled areas
surrounding Lake Malawi (Nyasa) are entering lake waters, increasing nutrient loading by as much as 50 per cent.
In these images, the bluish green swirls in the lake are algae blooms caused by these excess nutrients. Among
other things, the algae reduce dissolved oxygen levels in the water. This poses a threat to the lake’s fi sh species.
The algae blooms appear worse in 2006 (note their concentration along the lake’s western shore, yellow arrow),
suggesting that water quality may be continuing to decline.

## Republic of Malawi

**Mountain Deforestation in Mount Mulanje**

**Rising to 3 000 metres, Mount Mulanje is the tallest peak in south-central Africa**

**Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve was created in 1927**
**primarily to safeguard the water catchments and to control the extraction of the endemic Mulanje cedar—Malawi’s national tree**

**Between 1973 and 2006, the top of the mountain underwent notable deforestation**

**Republic of Malawi**

**08 Oct 1973**

**09 Aug 2006**

**Notes:**
Mountain Deforestation: Mount Mulanje, Malawi
Rising to 3 000 metres, Mount Mulanje is the tallest peak in south-central Africa. It is an important source of water
for almost every river that runs through southern Malawi. Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve was created in 1927,
primarily to safeguard the water catchments and to control the extraction of the endemic Mulanje cedar—Malawi’s
national tree.
Forest cover in and around the park is threatened by agricultural conversion, wildfi res, fuelwood collection, and
invasive species. Between 1973 and 2006, the top of the mountain underwent notable deforestation (yellow arrow).

## Republic of Mali

**Total Surface Area: 1 240 192 km****2**
**Estimated Population in 2006: 13 918 000**

**The Dogon people of Mali use an endemic plant (*****Acridocarpus monodii*****) as an effective remedy for malaria and various other illnesses**

**Important Environmental Issues**
- • Desertification and Drought
- • Water Availability and Pollution
- • Threats to Biodiversity

**Percentage of Mali’s land which is arable 3.8%**

**Republic of Mali**

**Facts and Figures**

## Republic of Mali

**The Drying Up of Lake Faguibine**

**Water levels have fluctuated widely in Lake Faguibine since the beginning of the 20th century**

**In the late 1980s, an extended period of reduced precipitation led to a complete drying up of the lake in the 1990s**

**As global warming intensifies, there may be more change in store for the people who depend on water resources such as Lake Faguibine for their livelihoods**

**Republic of Mali**

**Notes:**
The Drying Up of Lake Faguibine: Mali
When Mali’s Lake Faguibine is full, it is among the largest lakes in West Africa—it covered an estimated
590 km2 in 1974—and is an important source of water for the surrounding area. The lake
is at the end of a series of basins that receive water from the Niger River when it fl oods. Thus,
water levels in Lake Faguibine are closely tied to the fl ow of the Niger River. A lack of rainfall in
the catchments of either the lake or the river can affect water levels in Lake Faguibine.
Water levels have fl uctuated widely in Lake Faguibine since the beginning of the 20th century.
However, in the late 1980s, an extended period of reduced precipitation led to a complete drying up of the lake in the 1990s, making the traditional livelihoods of fi shing, agriculture, and pastoralism diffi cult if
not impossible. Despite relatively normal rainfall in recent years, Lake Faguibine remains nearly dry.
A 2003 Columbia University study linked changes in sea surface temperature to drought in the Sahel during
the 1970s and 1980s. More recent research has linked sea surface temperatures to human induced global warming.
As global warming intensifi es, there may be more change in store for West Africa and for the people who depend
on water resources such as Lake Faguibine for their livelihoods.

## Republic of Mali

**Consequences of Manantali Dam**

**Drought in the 1970s spurred the formation of the Multinational Organization for the Development of the Senegal River (OMVS)**

**The Manantali Dam was one of two large dams built as part of the OMVS project**

**The Manantali Dam did not produce any hydroelectric power until 13 years after its completion**

**Republic of Mali**

**Notes:**
Consequences of Manantali Dam: Mali
Seasonal rainfall at the source of the Bafi ng River in Guinea has historically led to seasonal
fl ooding along the Senegal River, which receives over half of its fl ow from the Bafi ng. Prior to
the 1970s, this pattern of inundation provided the basis for fl ood recession agriculture that
supported hundreds of thousands of people.
Drought in the 1970s, however, spurred the formation of the multinational Organization
for the Development of the Senegal River (OMVS) to develop irrigation, power generation, and
navigation. The Manantali Dam in western Mali was one of two large dams built as part of the OMVS project. These images show the vast extent of land inundated by the fi lling of the dam’s reservoir. Roughly
10 000 to 11 000 thousand people were displaced above the dam.
Below the dam, loss of the normal annual cycle of fl ood and recession reduced traditional agriculture
substantially. Village-scale irrigation schemes have had limited capital for equipment and have been constructed
without adequate drainage, resulting in soil salinisation. Flood recession farming was shown to give small farmers
a better return with less risk than irrigated rice. Reduced fl ooding may also be contributing to deforestation along
the Senegal River. The Manantali Dam did not produce any hydroelectric power until 13 years after its completion,
and only after additional money was provided by the World Bank and others.