**Course Title: Floodplain Management**

**Module 2:** Stream Systems on Dynamic Earth

**Session 5**: **Land Use & Cover** -- The History of Resource
Utilization

**Author**: Dr. Donald R. Reichmuth, P.E., President, Geomax, P.C.,
Spokane, WA

(E-mail -- <Geomax@comcast.net>)

**Time 75 minutes**

# 

# Objectives: (PP 1 -- 2, Laud Use Framework)

At the end of this session, the students will be able to:

5.1 Summarize how vegetative cover, animal use, and human activity
significantly influence floodplain stability.

5.2 Explain why North America, until recent times, was biologically
isolated from other landmasses. (Optional)

5.3 Show the vegetation response in North America to climate change
during the last 20K years.

5.4 Summarize how humans have moved into North America and altered the
environment.(Optional)

5.5 Illustrate how large North American animal habitat and populations
have varied during the last 15K years and how these changes have altered
floodplains. (Part Optional -- I and II)

5.6 List some of the exotic species of plants and animals that have
invaded North America and impacted streams and floodplains. (Optional)

5.7 Identify the human-induced reasons that have caused the dawning of a
new geologic age.

5.8 Discuss land use and land cover within the context case study
floodplains.

**Scope:**

Land use and vegetative cover are some of the most significant factors
that determine **floodplain** and **stream stability**. Vegetation
responds to climate change and utilization especially by large animals
and humans. Because of continental drift, North America was isolated
from other landmasses for a long period of time. This allowed a
distinctive group of plants and animals to evolve and reach a
semi-steady equilibrium state without outside influence. Starting at the
end of the last ice age some 13K (13,000) years ago, this near
**equilibrium** was disrupted by a major climate change, the arrival of
humans, and the systematic elimination of mega fauna including keystone
species like the beaver and the proboscideans.

This session will present material mostly describing the Quaternary
Period including the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Additionally, a
proposed new Epoch, the **Anthropocene (industrial man),** will be
discussed. After the material is presented, the instructor is encouraged
to interrupt the lecture and initiate an informal visioning exercise.
The students should be asked to describe the dominant landscape
conditions that were present within their case study basin at a specific
time period. Each student will then be asked to prepare a formal vision
paper at the end of this session. The objective of this exercise is to
have the students realize that changes have been very dramatic, that
these changes have impacted existing floodplains, and that modern man
has been responsible for the most dramatic changes that the earth has
experienced since the last ice age.

For example, the following time periods could be used:

A.  Three hundred yeas after the arrival of humans in North America.

    1.  When humans arrived 13,000 years ago, the keystone species for
        much of North America was the Giant Beaver and Proboscideans.
        After man killed the mega fauna, a smaller beaver continued to
        dominate the ecological landscape. The resulting
        marshes/wetlands controlled the hydrology of floodplains and the
        corresponding ecology. What impacts did this have on the
        student's case study floodplain? What effects might other mega
        fauna like the Proboscideans have? (What effect do today's mega
        fauna have? Consider cattle grazing along a stream bank, for
        instance)

B.  One hundred years ago after Europeans arrived in America.

    1.  Cottonwoods dominated the riparian ecology of many rivers.
        Cottonwood reproduction is dependent on disturbances. As
        flooding is controlled, these trees are disappearing and the
        ecology is changing. What impact is this having on the student's
        case study floodplain?

(Also, see the suggestions on visioning described earlier)

A second set of visioning exercises will occur after Session 26. At that
time, students will be asked to explore various policy scenarios,
focusing on the floodplains of their respective team projects as
products of this policy and be asked to vision 200 years in the future.

**Readings:**

***Student and Instructor Reading:***

**[General Overview]{.underline}**

Pidwirny, M., 2004, *Fundamentals of Physical Geography*, Chapter 10 --
Introduction to the Lithosphere. On line at:
(<http://www.physicalgeography.net/home.html>)

**[Land Use]{.underline}**

Sisk, T.D., editor, 1999, Perspectives on the Land Use History of North
America: A Context for Understanding Our Changing Environment, USGS
Biological Resources Division, Sciences Report USGS/BRD/BSR-1998-000
(revised Sept.1999), 104 pages (<http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/> also
<http://nbii.gov/about/pubs/factsheet/pdf/luhna/pdf>)

***Instructor Reading:***

O'Neill, Dan. 2004. *The Last Giant of Beringia: The Mystery of the
Bering Land Bridge*, Westview Press, Perseus Books Group, 231 pages.

Adams, J., Maslin M. & Thomas E. 2004. *Sudden Climate Transitions
During the Quaternary*,
(<http://www.esd.ornl.gov/project/qen/transit.html>)

Hollenbach, M. & Ory, J. 1999. *Protecting & Restoring Watersheds: A
Tribal Approach to Salmon Recover.* Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish
Commission. Find the title page at:
(<http://www.critfc.org/oldsite/handbook/TitlePage.html>)

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**General Requirements:**

The students should start to apply the concepts learned in this session
to their individual Case Studies. The instructor should spend a short
time in class checking student progress with their Case Studies and
answering questions that they may have.

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**Objective 5.1** **Summarize how floodplain stability is significantly
influenced by vegetative cover, animal use, and human activity. (PP 3,
River Basin Stability)**

**Requirements:**

The information in this section is presented as a lecture using Power
Point slides:

**Remarks:**

Watercourses are most stable when flood peaks are dampened and sediment
production in the watershed is stable. Watershed and riparian vegetation
tend to moderate runoff and protect stream banks and gullies from high
velocity flows.

I.  **The vegetative cover found in a specific watershed develops in
    response to the environmental factors that operate at the site.**

    A.  Soil type, precipitation patterns, and exposure are the primary
        controls.

    B.  Over time periods in the hundred-year range, stream systems, if
        undisturbed, tend to reach equilibrium with the watershed
        vegetative cover. This condition is called a vegetation climax.

    C.  When outside forces disturb the vegetation, there tends to be an
        immediate response in the stream as the system shifts toward a
        new state of equilibrium.

        1.  Megafauna (particularly large grazing animals) can
            drastically alter watershed vegetation.

        2.  Competition from introduced plant species can change
            vegetative cover.

        3.  Human activity can significantly alter vegetative cover.

            a.  Logging seriously alters forest cover.

            b.  Road building can alter surface conditions.

            c.  Riparian vegetation is often lost during farming.

            d.  Fire suppression in forests causes species changes.

            e.  Irrigation can radically alter watershed cover.

            f.  Pumping water from aquifers can alter the water table
                that triggers a vegetative response.

        4.  Climate change can produce conditions that affect vegetation

            a.  Drought can kill plants and trigger fire. Always true,
                can we put it in a human context? We have altered the
                landscape and impacts from drought are more severe on
                the watershed.

            b.  Temperature change can cause species to change.

II. **Watershed vegetation moderates surface water runoff.**

    A.  Well-vegetated soil is usually made more permeable. This allows
        precipitation to soak into the ground and surface runoff is
        lessened.

    B.  Organic litter on the ground acts as a sponge slowing runoff.

III. **Riparian vegetation helps stabilize stream banks.**

     A.  Roots along stream banks mechanically bind the alluvial
         material forming the banks.

     B.  Logs and other organic debris that fall into the streams create
         friction that slows\
         stream flow.

**Supplemental Considerations:**

The instructor should identify the local changes in land use and provide
some examples of how nearby streams are affected.

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**Objective 5.2 Explain why North America, until recent times, was
biologically isolated from other landmasses. (Optional)**

**Requirements:**

The information in this section is presented as a lecture using Power
Point slides:

**Remarks:**

I.  North and South America were separated from Europe and Africa by
    continental drift starting about 200 million years ago. (PP 4,
    Biologic Isolation)

    A.  South America separated first and did not connect to North
        America until about 2 million years ago.

    B.  North America separated somewhat later and had sporadic contact
        with Europe/Asia.

        1.  Contact was confined to a land bridge between Alaska and
            Siberia that formed during Ice Ages.

        2.  Some European/Asian species entered North America using the
            land bridge.

            a.  When the land bridge submerged, these species were cut
                off from interacting with their kind in Siberia.

            b.  They then began to evolve independently.

II. The Panamanian Land Bridge 2 connected North and South America
    million years ago. (PP 5, Land Bridge Migration Patterns)

    A.  Twenty-two (22) mammal families moved south while only the
        armadillo moved north.

    B.  Many South American species became extinct because they could
        not compete with the new arrivals.

III. Migration patterns are controlled by competition between native
     fauna and the migrant fauna.

     A.  Species/fauna will tend to preferentially move toward more
         isolated areas where competition was not as prolonged and
         severe.

     B.  The dominant migration pattern was (is): Africa to Europe/Asia
         to North America to South America.

     C.  Usually the migrant species/fauna will out-compete the native
         species/fauna.

         1.  Native species/fauna usually decline in numbers or even go
             extinct.

         2.  Migrant species/fauna often have population explosions
             because predators are left behind and food supplies are
             abundant.

**Supplemental Considerations:**

Presenting an example of a migrant species/fauna that has invaded a
local watershed should spark student interest.

**Objective 5.3 Show the vegetative response in North America to climate
change during the last 35K years. (PP 6, Climate Change, PP 7,Global
Conditions (18K) & PP 8, Global Conditions (Now))**

**Requirements:**

The information in this section is presented as a lecture using Power
Point slides:

**Remarks:**

I.  **Eighteen thousand (18K) years ago North America was in the midst
    of the last glacial age. (PP 9, Land Cover/Use (18K))**

    A.  Large ice fields developed

        1.  Most of Canada and northern U.S. were covered

        2.  Some mountainous regions in the U.S. contained alpine
            glaciers.

    B.  Ice blocked numerous drainages.

        1.  Large ice marginal glacial lakes formed.

        2.  New stream channels were cut and runoff increased.

        3.  Entire stream systems were altered and runoff patterns
            changed.

        4.  Often the altered streams created new valleys and
            floodplains.

        5.  Plant and animal life quickly adjusted to the new
            environment.

II. **The climate started to warm starting about 16K years ago. (PP 10,
    Land Cover/Use (13K) & PP 11, Land Cover/Use (11K))**

    A.  Much of the U.S. began to get drier.

    B.  Some steams returned to their earlier paths but others remained
        locked in their glacially determined locations.

    C.  Large amounts of glacially mobilized gravel were deposited in
        the floodplains.

    D.  Vegetation rapidly responded to these changing conditions.

III. **About 6K years ago most of the ice had melted. (PP 12, Land
     Cover/Use (8K) & PP 13, Land Cover/Use (Now))**

     A.  The climate was generally drier.

     B.  Sediment production slowed.

     C.  Many streams began incising into their floodplains leaving
         stream terraces.

     D.  In some areas, fire and drought began altering plant cover.

**Supplemental Considerations:**

The instructor should describe what the present, local plant cover would
be if humans had not entered the picture.

**Objective 5.4 Summarize how humans have moved into North America and
altered the environment. (Optional)**

**Requirements:**

The information in this section is presented as a lecture using Power
Point slides:

**Remarks:**

I.  Paleo-Indians were the first humans to enter North America.

    A.  The specific travel path and arrival time of the first humans to
        enter the Americas is not yet firmly established.

        1.  There is evidence that a few groups could have arrived
            before the last glacial maximum 16K years ago.

        2.  There is evidence of human occupation near the southern tip
            of South America that may be 15K years old.

    B.  The 1^st^ Wave (Amerind) having major impact arrived about 13K
        years ago. (PP 14, Humans Arrive) The instructor should make
        sure that the relevance of this entire section on floodplains is
        understood \-- how the newcomers changed land use and the
        dominant societies perception of land and its use.

        1.  They came from northeastern Siberia using the Bering Land
            Bridge (Beringia).

        2.  The Amerind were primarily hunters of large animals.

        3.  Northwestern Alaska and northeastern Siberia were mostly
            ice-free during the last ice age.

        4.  The large animals that occupied the ice-free areas attracted
            the hunters. (PP 15, Human Migration & Extinctions)

            a.  These large animals had not been exposed to humans
                before.

            b.  Consequently, they were fairly easy to slaughter.

            c.  They provided an abundant food supply.

        5.  When a path between the Continental (Laurentide) and the
            Alpine (Cordilleran) Ice Sheets opened, some large animals
            and humans moved southward following glacial river valleys
            into areas south of the ice sheets. (There are opposing
            views that suggest this wave came down the Canadian Pacific
            coast to enter the U.S.)

        6.  Land areas south of the Canadian ice fields contained
            numerous species of large animals that were easy prey for
            hunters (both human and animal) moving in from the north.

    C.  The 2^nd^ Wave (Ne-Dene) of significance arrived about 10K years
        ago.

        1.  The Ne-Dene came from the Northern Japan/Eastern Siberia
            area.

        2.  They followed the Pacific coast southward to California.

        3.  They had developed the use of boats to travel and hunt.

        4.  Marine and tidal area food supplied most of their diet.

        5.  Because sea level was lower due to glaciation, coastal areas
            were larger.

        6.  Migration south of California was blocked by desert and lack
            of marine food supplies.

        7.  The Navaho and Apache are descendants, suggesting that the
            final migration followed the Colorado River eastward.

    D.  The 3^rd^ Wave (Eskimo-Aleut) of significance arrived about 4K
        years ago.

        1.  They came from northern Siberia using boats to cross the
            Bering Strait.

        2.  Marine and tidal area food supplied most of their diet.

        3.  They have inhabited coastal and river valleys of northern
            Canada and Greenland.

        4.  They still maintain largely a hunter/gatherer life style and
            now live in harmony with the available food supply.

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I.  European/African migrations to North America started about 1000AD.
    (PP 16, More Humans Arrive)

    A.  The 4^th^ Wave (Viking) arrived about 1000AD.

        1.  They came from Norway via Iceland.

        2.  They sailed to Greenland and northeastern Canada and
            attempted to settle.

            a.  Farming and raising domestic livestock provided food.

            b.  No serious attempt was made to adapt the Eskimo-Aleut
                life style into their settlements.

            c.  The settlements failed because the climate got colder
                and farms could not produce enough food.

    B.  The 5^th^ Wave (Iberian) started arriving in 1500AD.

        1.  They came from Spain and Portugal.

        2.  The first settlements were in the Caribbean, Mexico, and
            South America.

        3.  The Indian life style was totally disrupted and farming
            expanded.

        4.  There were no large animals in Mexico or Central America
            when they arrived.

        5.  The Spanish introduced domestic animals (especially horses)
            into the area.

        6.  The Spanish influence started spreading northward.

            a.  Europeans and Indians began mixing cultures but the
                Spanish culture dominated.

    C.  The 6^th^ Wave (Anglo-Saxon) started arriving in 1600AD.

        1.  Settlers came primarily from France and England.

        2.  The English tended to clear land and develop farming as was
            done in England.

            a.  The first settlements were confined to New England and
                the coastal Mid-Atlantic regions.

            b.  The Indians were driven westward to make room for farms.

            c.  Private ownership of land dominated.

            d.  Floodplains were often cleared for farms because they
                contained the best soils.

        3.  The French settled in the St. Laurence and Lower Mississippi
            River valleys.

            a.  They tended to adapt Indian lifestyles to a greater
                degree than the English.

            b.  Fur trade often dominated and populations of beaver were
                greatly reduced.

    D.  The 7^th^ Wave (Bantu) started arriving in 1700AD.

        1.  The Bantu mostly came from western Africa.

        2.  They were brought into the Caribbean and southeastern U.S.
            as slaves by European landowners.

        3.  They were used for farm labor.

            a.  Land was cleared.

            b.  Monocultures like cotton dominated.

    E.  The 8^th^ Wave (Polyglot) started arriving in 1800AD.

        1.  This wave contained people from all over the world.

        2.  People migrated for various reasons.

            a.  Overpopulation in home countries limited opportunity.

            b.  Loss of land productivity caused food shortages.

            c.  Disease triggered by over crowding.

            d.  New land was available for settlement

            e.  Escape from persecution.

        3.  Many were involved with mineral exploitation, logging, and
            agriculture.

            a.  River bottomland was often the first land utilized
                because the most productive soils were found there.

            b.  Later arrivals often had to use poorer land because the
                best areas were already claimed.

            c.  Logging old growth forests was widespread.

            d.  Mining often polluted streams with excess sediment and
                acid drainage.

        4.  Immigrants rapidly spread westward across the land and often
            displaced the Indians whose populations had been decimated
            by European diseases.

II. The clash of cultures begins. (PP 17, Cultures Clash)

    A.  The Indians had occupied North America for 13K years when
        Europeans arrived.

        1.  Most tribes and bands were primarily hunter/gatherers.

        2.  Both human and animal populations had generally stabilized

        3.  The food supply was sufficient to feed everyone.

            a.  Most tribal bands traveled from area to area (usually in
                a yearly cycle) following the food supply

            b.  Limited agriculture had developed in some areas.

            c.  Fire was commonly used in food production either to
                drive animals or cause grass or berry patches to
                improve.

            d.  The plains contained large herds of buffalo and other
                large animals that had learned to avoid human hunters.

        4.  Sustainable conditions had developed.

            a.  In some places climate conditions and/or change forced
                populations to move either permanently or seasonally.

            b.  Intertribal warfare kept populations in check.

        5.  The introduction of Spanish horses caused the first major
            disruption of Indian cultures.

            a.  Tribes with horses had a major advantage over groups
                without horses.

            b.  Horses had only minor impact on plant cover.

        6.  Land was generally considered communal.

            a.  Specific groups or clans could claim certain special
                areas like prime fishing sites or berry patches.

            b.  Food sharing did occur in difficult times.

    B.  The Europeans brought new technology and Old World culture to
        the Americas.

        1.  They had a long established farming tradition that tied them
            to a specific plot of land.

        2.  The farmers brought the tradition of individual ownership
            with them.

            a.  Farm plots were fenced off.

            b.  Domestic animals displaced wild animals.

            c.  Control of the environment was the general goal.

        3.  The concept of lord (master) and serf (slave) was carried to
            the extreme especially where labor-intensive crops such as
            cotton were grown.

        4.  Indians were driven off the best land and forced to live in
            marginal areas.

    C.  The two groups had/have different belief systems that govern
        resource management.

        1.  The Indian culture generally believes in a concept that can
            be called "Mother Earth."

            a.  "The water that runs through Mother Earth's veins is the
                life blood of all beings." Allen Slickpoo, Sr. Nez Perce
                Tribal Elder.

            b.  Humans are supplied their needs by a benevolent earth.
                "Salmon was presented to me and my family through our
                religion as our brother. The same with the deer. And our
                sisters are the roots and berries. And you would treat
                them as such. Their life to you is just as valuable as
                another person would be." Margaret Saluskin, Yakama.

            c.  "The tribes always treated water as a medicine because
                it nourished the life of the earth, flushing poisons out
                of humans, other creatures and the land...." Levi Holt,
                Nez Perce.

            d.  Humans should honor and protect the good "Mother" at all
                times.

            e.  The "Mother" can display her displeasure with humans by
                causing natural disasters.

            f.  Humans were to adjust their actions to be in harmony
                with nature.

        2.  Most Americans of European decent have a belief system based
            on Judeo-Christian principals.

            a.  Bible teachings have often formed the fundamental basis
                for resource management.

                1.  Genesis 1:28 (King James Version) "And God blessed
                    them, and God Said unto them, "Be fruitful and
                    multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it;
                    and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over
                    the fowl of the air, and over every living thing
                    that moveth upon the earth."

                2.  Psalms 72:8 (King James Version) "He shall have
                    dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river
                    unto the ends of the earth."

            b.  Nature was normally something to exploit and subdue
                (i.e. have dominion over).

            c.  Watercourses were always a problem.

                1.  Streams frequently flooded and destroyed man's work.

                2.  Lack of water would destroy crops.

                3.  Channel changes would often render irrigation
                    systems useless.

            d.  Because controlling rivers was so difficult, riparian
                corridors often were treated differently from other
                land.

                1.  Streams often became dumps (land-fills).

                2.  Chemicals, sewage, and other toxic materials were
                    dumped into watercourses.

                3.  Monumental diking and channelization projects were
                    implemented in attempts to gain control.

                4.  Nature was to be dominated and forced to conform to
                    human desires.

III. Human emotions significantly influence management decisions
     concerning watersheds. (PP 18, "Hard-Wired" Emotions)

     A.  Human brains have been "hard wired" with certain emotional
         responses to aid survival.

     B.  Evolutionary change in physical make-up is a rather slow
         process.

     C.  Fire and water (i.e. floods, storms, etc.) can be life
         threatening and can cause panic.

     D.  Utilization of fire and water are extremely important
         developments in the rise of humans.

         1.  Fire utilization/control by humans and our immediate
             predecessors has occurred only in the last one million
             years.

         2.  Water utilization/control (i.e. harvesting marine foods,
             irrigation, boat transport, etc.) started less than 100K
             years ago.

     E.  Events involving both fire and water trigger an extreme range
         of human emotional responses.

         1.  The scale ranges from: Mesmerization → Pleasure →
             Contentment → Satisfaction → Curiosity → Anxiety → Fear →
             Panic → Irrationality

         2.  Lounging in a hot tub or in front of a cozy fireplace would
             be at the mesmerization end of the scale.

         3.  Being caught in a forest fire or flood would be at the
             irrationality end of the scale when the most primitive
             emotions surface.

         4.  Floodplain and watershed managers must understand and cope
             with this range of human emotions to be effective.

     F.  People often find change of any kind (good or bad)
         controversial and threatening. The most common request when
         working with streams is to "Put it back where it was." Meaning
         put it back as they remember it to be.

**Supplemental Considerations:**

The instructor should identify some local site-specific examples of
cultural or philosophical differences (i.e. between any modern groups)
and/or where land use decisions are different between upland and
riparian areas.
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**Objective 5.5 Illustrate how large, North American animal habitat and
populations have varied during the last 15K years and how these changes
have altered floodplains. (Optional I and II)**

**Requirements:**

The information in this section is presented as a lecture using Power
Point slides:

**Remarks:**

I.  **Before the arrival of humans 13K years ago, many species of large
    animals occupied the ice-free areas of North America.**

    A.  The ecosystem was in equilibrium.

        1.  The continent had been isolated from Europe/Asia by ice.

        2.  Herbivores were using the available forage.

        3.  Predators and prey were in balance.

        4.  Climate change caused by the glacial cycles was the only
            significant disruption in the plant/animal interaction.

    B.  Riparian areas were heavily utilized.

        1.  Stream-bank vegetation probably was sparse.

        2.  Streams were probably not stabilized by vegetation.

II. **Massive large animal extinctions occurred immediately after the
    Amerinds arrive. (PP 19, Impact of Human Migration)**

    A.  Upon the arrival of humans, large animal extinctions have also
        been documented in other places.

        1.  In Australia 50K years ago

        2.  In New Zealand & Madagascar 1K years ago.

    B.  Most of the large animals went extinct within 300 years of human
        arrival. **(PP 20. 13K Year Old Loss)**

    C.  Major changes in vegetative cover would have occurred.

        1.  Streams should have become more stable from the lack of
            grazing.

        2.  Extra glacial meltwater would have offset the gain in
            stability to some degree.

        3.  The Amerinds also introduced fire for hunting and/or by
            accident that affected both animals and vegetation.

    D.  Some large animal species like buffalo adapted to hunting
        pressure and began to utilize the surplus vegetation that was
        now available.

    E.  In wetter areas east of the Mississippi, heavy forest cover
        developed.

    F.  In dryer areas west of the Mississippi, savanna developed.

        1.  Frequent fires kept trees from taking hold.

        2.  Buffalo populations exploded and utilized the grass.

        3.  Riparian vegetation became sparse due to the combined effect
            of fire and buffalo.

III. **Starting in 1600, European immigrants triggered massive changes
     in the landscape. (PP 21Agricultural Land Conversions (1850) (PP
     22, Agricultural Land Conversions (1900) (PP 23, Agricultural Land
     Conversions (1950) (PP 24, Population Distribution (1950) (PP 25,
     Population & Land Use Change 1990)**

     A.  Eastern woodlands were cut and domestic animals were
         introduced.

         1.  The combination of cover removal and grazing caused streams
             to become unstable.

         2.  Peak flows increased

         3.  Soil erosion increased

         4.  Gullies began to form on the land destroying the land's
             productivity.

     B.  Buffalo were eliminated from the Plains.

         1.  Tillable land was converted to farms.

         2.  Cattle were pastured on non-tillable areas.

         3.  Riparian vegetation continued to be impacted by cattle.

     C.  Great Lakes region and Western mountains were heavily logged.
         **(PP 26,Forest Cover (Pre-1800) & PP 27, Forest Cover (Now))**

         1.  Habitat was badly fragmented and populations of large
             animals declined.

         2.  Early fires added to the habitat destruction.

         3.  Sheep were grazed in the mountains further degrading the
             watersheds.

         4.  Sediment loads increased in the drainages.

     D.  Wooded area fire management has varied considerably since
         humans entered North America. **(PP 28, Fire Ecology & PP 29,
         Fire History Example)**

         1.  Pre-Columbian Indians utilized fire to clear land and drive
             animals.

         2.  Fire suppression began in earnest around 1900.**(PP 30,
             Fire History (1600 to 2000) & PP 31, Fire Management
             Summary)**

             a.  Fire suppression allowed some forested areas to
                 recover.

             b.  Big game (deer, elk and moose) moved into this habitat
                 because it offered some refuge and food to eat.

         3.  Starting in the 1980's there were major wild fires and
             controlled burns started to be used to control fuel
             buildup.

         4.  Federal forest management policy again changed in 2000.

             a.  Logging and thinning are now preferred to control fuel
                 buildup.

             b.  Secondary problems related to increased erosion and
                 nutrient removal may increase. (Critical nutrients are
                 removed with the logs, which leaves the logged area
                 nutrient deficient).

**Supplemental Considerations:**

The instructor should identify local areas where domestic animals caused
streams to become less stable.

**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**

**Objective 5.6 List some of the exotic species of plants and animals
that have invaded North America and impacted streams and floodplains.
(Optional)**

**Requirements:**

The information in this section is presented as a lecture using Power
Point slides:

**Remarks:**

I.  **Invasive species are found in many environments.**

    A.  A detailed list can be found by searching
        [www.invasivespecies.gov/](http://www.invasivespecies.gov/)

    B.  Many jurisdictions have regulations that govern these species.

        1.  A typical definition of aquatic weeds is:

            a.  Grows in or is closely associated with the aquatic
                environment, whether floating, immersed, submersed, or
                ditch-bank species, and including terrestrial phases of
                any such plant organism.

            b.  Exhibits characteristics of obstructive nature and
                either massive productivity or choking density.

            c.  Is or may become a threat to public health or safety or
                to existing or new beneficial uses of the waters of
                \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.

        2.  The North Carolina Aquatic Weed Control Act of 1991 is an
            example that can be found at:
            [www.ncagr.com/plantind/regs/aqlaw.htm](http://www.ncagr.com/plantind/regs/aqlaw.htm)

II. **Humans, either intentionally or accidentally, brought numerous
    plant and animal species to North America. (PP 32, Exotic Species
    Invasion)**

    A.  Many of the plants had evolved in ancient agricultural areas.

        1.  They could quickly colonize disturbed ground.

        2.  Resident animals could not eat many.

        3.  Some had chemical defenses that deterred growth of other
            plants.

        4.  Disturbed areas on floodplains often were exploited.

        5.  Some of these plants caused stream banks to become unstable
            while others choked off the stream with heavy growth.

        6.  Almost always, native vegetation cannot compete.

        7.  Examples include: kudzu, Russian knapweed, leafy spurge,
            saltcedar (tamarisk), and Russian olive. **(PP 33, Kudzu
            Invasion & PP 34, Saltcedar Invasion)**

    B.  Aquatic plants have hitchhiked on boats or were intentionally
        introduced for aquatic gardens into North America.

        1.  Most have left behind their natural enemies.

        2.  Without competition, they often exhibit explosive growth.

        3.  They can plug waterways and slow stream flow.

        4.  Often they deplete the waterway's oxygen supply either
            during growth or die-off causing fish kills.

        5.  Examples include: Eurasian milfoil, water hyacinth, and
            hydrilla.

        6.  See
            [www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/weeds/](http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/weeds/)
            for more detailed information.

    C.  Aquatic animals have entered North America in ships' ballast
        water, escaped from aquariums or were intentionally introduced.

        1.  Often they are able to out-compete native species and take
            over an environmental niche.

        2.  Without natural enemies, their populations often explode.

        3.  Many that were intentionally introduced exhibited
            characteristics that were not understood and therefore the
            species did not act according to the original plan.

        4.  Examples include: nutria, northern snakehead, zebra mussel,
            European Gypsy Moth, and opossum shrimp.

        5.  See [www.nas.er.usgs.gov/](http://www.nas.er.usgs.gov/) for
            more detailed information.

III. **Invasive species have seriously damaged watercourses and
     floodplains.**

IV. **With the human population explosion and ease of travel, there is
    little likelihood that invasions by exotic species will stop. The
    principal of species migration from more biologically complex
    regions (i.e. Africa, Asia & Europe) to more isolated regions (i.e.
    Australia, South America & North America) will continue. (PP
    35,Population Explosion)**

**Supplemental Considerations:**

The instructor should consider discussing local invasive species that
affect nearby streams and floodplains.

**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**

**Objective 5.7 Identify the human-induced reasons that have caused the
dawning of a new geologic age. (PP 36, New Geologic Age)**

**Requirements:**

The information in this section is presented as a lecture using Power
Point slides:

**Remarks:**

I.  The proposed name for the new age is [Anthropocene]{.underline},
    which stresses the human cause.

II. Changes to earth caused by humans since the Industrial Revolution
    (1800's) are so profound many argue that a new geologic age has
    begun.

    A.  The changes are equivalent to the Pleistocene advent of
        glaciation or the Cretaceous meteorite impact.

    B.  Species extinctions are high.

    C.  Atmospheric change has been rapid.

    D.  Human population has exploded.

    E.  Human activity in many areas is not sustainable.

        1.  Fossil fuels (especially oil and gas) that are burned cannot
            be replaced.

        2.  Soil fertility (especially trace minerals) is being depleted
            by mono-cultural agriculture and not replaced.

        3.  Utilization of marine and fresh-water resources now exceeds
            the rate of replenishment.

        4.  Water mined from deep aquifers cannot be replaced under
            present climate conditions.

III. Specific changes that now/or will affect waterways include:

     A.  Human population explosion

         1.  The world's population distribution is uneven. (PP 37,
             Population Distribution)

         2.  The U.S. uses a disproportionate amount of resources.

         3.  The demand for clean water will increase.

         4.  Food production that demands water will have to increase.

     B.  Burning of fossil fuels.

         1.  There has been an increase of carbon dioxide in the
             atmosphere.

         2.  This gas will cause the earth to warm.

         3.  Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide cause acid rain that
             harms vegetative growth in watersheds.

         4.  Changes in precipitation will occur that will affect stream
             flow.

     C.  Water is being mined from subsurface aquifers.

         1.  "Mining" means that water is removed from underground
             formations without any foreseeable chance that recharge
             can/will occur.

         2.  Surface flow in some streams is increased while other
             streams show decease in flow because the groundwater table
             has been lowered.

         3.  Developments requiring mined water are not sustainable.

             a.  The Phoenix, AZ, area is an urban example.

             b.  The High Plains in the central U.S. over the Ogallala
                 Formation (Aquifer) is an agricultural example.

     D.  Open cycles that shift water, nutrients, and/or minerals from
         one location to another.

         1.  Open cycles are not sustainable. This is in contrast to
             closed cycles like the hydrologic cycle that are
             sustainable.

         2.  Monoculture agricultural tends to strip nutrients and
             minerals from the soil and send them to population centers
             where they ultimately end up in sewage systems that
             discharge into water bodies.

         3.  Logging carries nutrients and minerals from forests to
             population centers where the wood is ultimately burned or
             buried in landfills. Ultimately, the forests will loose
             productivity and watersheds will become more unstable
             because forest cover has been diminished.

         4.  Resource extraction/mining shifts minerals to population
             centers where they can become pollutants that foul surface
             waters.

         5.  Trans-basin transfers of water cause both depletion and
             surplus in the areas affected.

             a.  Examples include the Owens Valley in California and the
                 Arkansas River in Colorado.

             b.  These transfers have questionable long-term
                 sustainability.

         6.  Too often, these nutrients and minerals end up in water
             bodies where they can cause secondary problems.

             a.  Oxygen can be depleted by algae blooms and fish killed.

             b.  Toxic metals can accumulate in aquatic species, disrupt
                 food chains, and limit human consumption.

             c.  The Dead Zone that forms off the mouth of the
                 Mississippi is an example of over-nutrient loading that
                 causes algae blooms and fish kills. (PP 38, Mississippi
                 Basin Nitrogen Input & PP 39,Mississippi Dead Zone)

**Supplemental Considerations:**

The instructor should consider discussing local examples of recent human
related activity that significantly alters the past geologic framework.

**Objective 5.8**

Discuss land use and land cover within the context case study
floodplains.

**Remarks:**

A.  Students will continue to work on their homework projects. The
    instructor should spend some class time answering student questions
    concerning their Case Studies. To insure that the Case Studies are
    progressing, the instructor should ask the students questions based
    on the Session 2 Handouts.

B.  In addition to the above assignment, the instructor should introduce
    a vision exercise for three time periods. Relating each period to
    their case study floodplains and corresponding basin.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
1.  The period before the arrival of the first human.

2.  The period immediately before the arrive of Europeans

3.  Pre-modern, 1850 - 1950

> Toward the end of the course, students will be asked to recommend
> alternative policy scenarios and vision 200 years in the future.

**[References:]{.underline}**

**[Land Cover]{.underline}**

Barks, S. & Funkhouser, J. 2002*. Effects of a Simulated Change in Land
Cover on Surface-Water Velocity Distribution at a Bridge in Southeastern
Arkansas*. In Proceedings of the Second Federal Interagency Advisory
Committee on Water Information, Aug. 2002

<http://smig.usgs.gov/SMIG/features_0902/roc_roe.html>

**[Climate Change]{.underline}**

Adams, Jonathan. *Sudden Transitions During the Quaternary*. 1997.
(<http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/transit2.html>)

National Assessment Synthesis Team. 2000. *Climate Change Impacts on the
United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and
Change.* US Global Change Research Program,
(<http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/Library/nationalassessment/overview.htm>)

Overview (especially the Water Sector)
([http://prod.gcrio.org/National%20Assessment/overpdf/overview.html](http://prod.gcrio.org/National Assessment/overpdf/overview.html))

Weart, S., 2003. "The Discovery of Rapid Climate Change,*"* *Physics
Today*, August 2003.
([http://www.physicstoday.org](http://www.physicstoday.org/))

Milly, Wetherald, Dunne & Delworth, 2002. "Increasing Risk of Great
Floods in a Changing Climate," *Nature*, 415, 514-517 (Jan 2002).

(<http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v414/n6871/full/415514a>\...)

**[Megafauna Extinctions]{.underline}**

Pickrell, J., 2002. "Early hunters are guilty as charged," *Science
News* 161 (Mar.23): 190. (Available to subscribers at
<http://www.sciencenews.org/20020323/note16.asp>)

Stevens, William K. 1997. "New Suspect in Ancient Extinctions of the
Pleistocene Megafauna: Disease," *New York Times,* 4-29-97

**[Anthropocene (A new geologic age)]{.underline}**

Crutzen, P.J. 2002. "Geology of Mankind," *Nature*, Vol. 415, Jan. 3,
2002

Overview (<http://www.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/~air/anthropocene/Text.html>)

Alden, A. 2004*. Introducing the Anthropocene,*
(<http://geology.about.com/library/weekly/aa080402a.htm>)

Kirby, A. 2004. "Earth: Entering Uncharted Waters," *BBC News*, 20 Jan
2004 (<http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3411053.stm>)

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, 2004. *QUEST --
QUaternary Earth-system STability, Research Questions*
(<http://www.pik-potsdam.de/topik/tlnde/quest/>)