+------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| ![](media/image1.png)  | Literature for Flight Simulator (Motion)    |
|                        | Requirements Research                       |
| ![](media/image2.png)  |                                             |
+------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
|                        | Prepared by:                                |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | U.S. Department of Transportation           |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | Research and Innovative Technology          |
|                        | Administration                              |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | John A. Volpe National Transportation       |
|                        | Systems Center                              |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | Human Factors Division RTV-4G               |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | Cambridge, MA 02142                         |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | Prepared for:                               |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | U.S. Department of Transportation           |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | Federal Aviation Administration             |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | Air Traffic Organization Operations         |
|                        | Planning                                    |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | Human Factors Research and Engineering      |
|                        |                                             |
|                        | September, 2007                             |
+------------------------+---------------------------------------------+

Preface

This is a snapshot of the literature examined in the framework of the
Federal Aviation Administration/Volpe Center Flight Simulator Human
Factors Program and entered in an EndNote^®^ data base to date. We are
making it available to the public because of feedback received from
researchers all over the world that it helps their own investigations.
The document has been stripped of any notes reflecting subjective
assessments of the reviewers. What remains is a collection, with
abstracts and keywords, of the literature reviewed in connection with
the on-going work on flight simulator fidelity requirements for
effective airline pilot training and evaluation.[^1] This work is
conducted at the United States Department of Transportation\'s John A.
Volpe National Transportation System Center. The research is supported
by the Federal Aviation Administration\'s Human Factors Research and
Engineering Group (ATOP-HF). We thank its Air Carrier Training Program
manager Dr. Eleana Edens for her effective guidance and assistance. The
need for this work was established by the Voluntary Safety Programs
Branch of the FAA's Air Transportation Division (AFS-230). We thank its
manager Dr. Thomas Longridge for his insights.

As much as possible, the original abstracts of the documents cited were
used. We don't recommend quoting directly from this document, but urge
consultation of the original documents. Obvious spelling errors were
corrected, and some spellings were Americanized. URLs at the time the
documents were entered may have changed. Some documents listed as drafts
may now be available in their final version. Any corrections and
suggestions are very welcome and should be e-mailed to
Judith.Burki-Cohen@volpe.dot.gov.

Many researchers, colleagues, and librarians have contributed to this
document, by suggesting, finding, entering, summarizing and interpreting
the pieces of literature. Above all, however, we would like to thank
Andrea Sparko for the countless hours she has spent with all of the
above as well as managing both the electronic data base and the hard
copies in our archive. We are grateful to Young Jin Jo, Mary J. Townsend
(now Lee), Julie Guinn, and Sarah Ulanet for their contributions to
earlier versions.

Judith Bürki-Cohen, Ph.D.

Program Manager

Volpe Center/FAA Flight Simulator Human Factors Program

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Aarons, Richard

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Take a steady stance on upset training

**Magazine:** Business & Commercial Aviation

**Date:** January 1

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**URL:**
<http://www.aviationnow.com/publication/bca/loggedin/AvnowStoryDisplay.do?fromChannel=bca&pubKey=bca&issueDate=1997-01-01&story=xml/bca_xml/1997/01/01/BC_01_01_1997_P1_123.xml&headline=TAKE+A+STEADY+STANCE+ON+UPSET+TRAINING>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Adams, Rick

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** TDs for TAAs

**Magazine:** Civil Aviation Training (CAT)

**Issue Number:** 3

**Pages:** 20-24

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** Technically Advanced Aircraft (TAA), Advanced Aviation
Training Device (AATD), Non-Zero Flight Time (NZFT), Multi-crew Pilot
License (MPL) training

**Abstract:** Just when you thought they had used up all the possible
acronyms, someone comes along with a few new ones (or new meanings for
old ones). AATD, MPL, G1000, NZFT. These are more options in training
equipment than ever before - choosing the right mix is your decision,
writes technology editor Rick Adams.

**URL:** <http://cat.texterity.com/cat/2005-3/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Adams, Rick

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Part 60, part deux?

**Magazine:** Civil Aviation Training (CAT)

**Pages:** 14-17

**Date:** January

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** low-cost training, ATR, part 60, flight training device
(FTD)

**Abstract:** Industry veterans are taking a fresh look at the roster of
approved training devices - at both the airline and primary levels - and
pitching some new headings based on evolving technology.

**URL:**
<http://cat.texterity.com/cat/2006-1/templates/pageviewer_print?pg=14&pm=4>

<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/cat_magazine_jan_20061.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Adams, Rick

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Same ingredients, cheaper package

**Magazine:** Civil Aviation Training (CAT)

**Issue Number:** 6

**Pages:** 21-24

**Abstract:** With the squeeze on operational costs throughout the
airline industry, many training organizations are looking to save money
and time with devices other than a full flight simulator. For some
pilots of the new 787, Boeing may eliminate the FFS entirely.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Advani, S. K.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** The basic research simulator programme and the industrial and
aerospace community: Opportunities for cooperative research

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Institution:** Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of
Technology

**Date:** October

**Report Number:** LR-662

**Number of Pages:** 72

**Keywords:** flight simulators, research projects, human factors
engineering, flight simulation, degrees of freedom, computer systems
hardware, computer systems programs, motion simulation, cockpit
simulators, aircraft, foreign technology

**Abstract:** A new flight simulation facility is being developed as a
system specifically designed to investigate certain issues related to
vehicle simulation. The three specific areas of interest are: The
dynamic behavior and control of motion platforms; The performance of
vehicle simulations in a ground-based environment; and the human factors
of vehicle operation. The report discusses the configuration of the
Basic Research Simulator and outlines the proposed applications of the
facility. The benefits to industry are emphasized throughout.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Advani, S. K.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** The development of SIMONA: A simulator facility for advanced
research into simulation techniques, motion system control and
navigation systems technologies

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Monterey, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Assistant Professor/SIMONA Project
Leader, Member AIAA, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of
Aerospace Engineering, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** SIMONA, simulation techniques, motion systems control,
navigation systems technologies, six-degrees-of freedom, man-machine
interfaces, fixed-wing aircraft, human motion perception research, human
visual perception research, motion-drive algorithms, motion platform

**Abstract:** The design and development of a new technology
six-degrees-of-freedom research simulator will incorporate an advanced
hydraulic motion system and a light-weight moving platform for
outstanding dynamic performance. The primary design goal is to set a new
standard for the fidelity of motion simulation. The simulator will
become the core of the new International Centre for Research in
Simulation, Motion and Navigation Technologies, or \"SIMONA.\"
Fundamental research in the SIMONA facility will be aimed towards the
development of simulation modeling techniques, for the refinement of
motion systems control, and for investigations into pilot interactions
and realistic navigation environments. This simulator, now under
construction, can be configured to represent a wide variety of vehicles
including fixed and rotary-wing aircraft as well as surface vehicles for
land and sea operations. This results in a variety of multi-disciplinary
research roles for the simulator.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** Advani, S. K.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Appendix B - Motion washout filter reference frames

**Pages:** 1-5

**Type of Work:** Appendix to Ph.D. thesis

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** In the development and application of motion drive laws, a
number of reference frames are specified. The aircraft and simulator
reference frames are shown below.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Advani, Sunjoo Kan

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** The kinematic design of flight simulator motion-bases

**Series Title:** Control and Simulation

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Publisher:** Delft University Press

**Volume:** 4

**Number of Volumes:** 4

**Number of Pages:** 243

**ISBN:** 90-407-1671-4

**Number of Pages:** 243

**Abstract:** (From the back cover of the book) The primary kinematic
goal of the flight simulator motion-base is to provide sufficient motion
workspace, such that the transformed specific forces and angular
accelerations of the aircraft can be presented, but without the
actuators achieving their mechanical limits. The workspace is a function
of the motion-base architecture, and can be tailored through
optimization. In the approach presented here, the minimum required
workspace is specified by first synthesizing the motions required by the
simulator through the mapping of the six-dimensional trajectory of the
predicted simulator motions onto fifteen planar surfaces. Then, the
trajectory boundary is approximated by two-dimensional ellipses. These
ellipses are composed into an objective function, in the form of a
six-dimensional hyper-ellipsoid, representing the shape of the desired
workspace. The mechanism is then optimized, by specifying its design
variables and their constraints. The optimization, a
Linearly-Constrained Quadratic Programming sub-problem, attempts then to
fit the hyper-ellipsoid into the workspace of the mechanism while
minimizing the actuator lengths. A minimum-dexterity inequality
constraint of 0.2 is applied, which prevents the mechanism from
approaching architectural or configuration singularities. Following the
optimization, the leg clearance and minimum dexterity (with higher
resolution than allowed by during the optimization) is checked for the
candidate architectures.

It is found that optimizing the position of the gimbal attachment points
of the lower frame yields the most significant improvement in the
desired flight simulator workspace over current Stewart Platform
architectures. In all cases, the minimum-dexterity constraint is active,
and occurs at some combination of the actuators at either their minimum
or maximum lengths. In addition to the constraining of the minimum
dexterity, a dynamic analysis shows that the consideration of the
actuator loads is also important in the selection of a particular
motion-base.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Advani, S. K.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Motion cueing - To move, or not to move

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation Engineering and Maintenance
Conference (FSEMC)

**Date:** September 18

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Director Simulation & Training,
Aircraft Development & System Engineering, b.v.

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Abstract:** (Executive Summary) The subject of motion cueing in flight
simulation is one that has stirred many debates and raised several
questions. This is because motion perception itself is not as easily
understood as, say, the perception of visual information from the
outside-world image, or from the instruments. In fact, the standards
that apply to flight simulation contain no standards for the motion
cueing. These guidelines are limited to the robotic behavior of the
motion system mechanism. The presentation sheds light on motion cueing
from a basic point-of-view, explaining some of its origins---and the
reason for the huge level of subjectivity. It begins by explaining that
motion plays characteristically different roles depending on the task at
hand, whether be it a maneuvering task, or a disturbance rejection task.
Furthermore, motion directly influences the pilot's skill-based control
behavior.

Recent research, as reported in the paper, can now be harnessed in order
to improve the quality of simulation, and to bring objectivity to the
area of motion cueing. The importance of this stems from the significant
variability between simulators. For example, the motion platforms of two
B747-400 simulators, built by the same manufacturer, will often respond
differently even though the aircraft model outputs driving the motion
systems are the same. Subjective tuning of the motion system leads to
these variations; however, the inner-loop motion perception and control
process of humans is to a great extent sub-conscious. Is one better than
another? In order to answer this, we need to develop criteria as well as
an objective means of quantifying the motion cues. In fact, since the
visual information works with the non-visual information (primarily the
vestibular stimuli) to create our self-motion perception, we need a
model that integrates these processes, just as our brain does when
controlling an aircraft. The presentation also suggests such a model,
and how it could be applied to a QTG process. Despite some advances in
motion systems, the flight simulation community can benefit greatly by
incorporating new knowledge in a practical, beneficial, and cost-saving
way. Imagine the day when the motion tuning process becomes an objective
one, alleviating the need for ten evaluation pilots---and eleven
different opinions. The question "to move, or not to move" is not the
relevant question. Understanding how we use motion in the real aircraft,
and applying this knowledge cost-effectively in simulation is however
the key.

**Notes:** This is a summary of a presentation.

**URL:**
<http://www.arinc.com/fsemc/reports/2003/presentations/motion_cueing_advani.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Advani, S. K.; Baarspul, M.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Design philosophies of the basic research simulator

**Conference Name:** International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences
(ICAS)

**Conference Location:** Beijing, China

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** September 20-25

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** Principles applied to the design of the Basic Research
Simulator are discussed and the simulator\'s hardware is described.
Particular attention is given to the simulation of the motion system and
of the flight-deck platform. The applications of the Basic Research
Simulator facility include its use in the design of advanced hydraulic
systems, in motion drive research, in studies related to the improvement
of vehicles simulation models, in aircraft systems research, and in
human factors research.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Advani, S. K.; Hosman, R.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The appliance of science

**Journal:** Journal for Civil Aviation Training

**Volume:** 2000

**Issue:** 9

**Pages:** 40-44

**Number of Pages:** 5

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Advani, Sunjoo K.; Hosman, Ruud J.A.W.

**Year of Conference:** 2006

**Title:** Revising civil simulator standards - An opportunity for
technological pull

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Keystone, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 21-24

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2006-6248

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Advani: President, International
Development of Technology, Overkroetenlaan 162, 4823 KB, Breda, The
Netherlands

Hosman: Director, AMS Consult, Dijkgraafstraat 26, 2645 KN, Delfgauw,
The Netherlands

**Abstract:** The ICAO Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of
Flight Simulators defines the protocol by which civil flight training
simulators are validated. This document is currently undergoing
re-vitalization with the aim of improving the compatibility of flight
simulator technical criteria with new technology. Part of the revision
process is devoted to addressing the process by which the simulator
motion cueing qualified. To date, this part of the qualification has
been based on subjective refinements and limited objective testing of
the motion base mechanism. Meanwhile, scientific knowledge on human
motion perception and control, and technology in motion system design,
is rapidly improving, affording opportunities to make relevant objective
improvements to the qualification criteria at a time of need from a
training perspective.

This paper reviews the current qualification criteria and the
motion-related tests that were recently added to it during its previous
revision. These tests are examined in terms of their relevance to
fidelity in training tasks. The aim is to support the revision of the
document by the ICAO working group through reviewing knowledge existing
today in the scientific community. Specific areas that require research
input are identified.

In addition to reviewing the current technical tests, we also provide
recommendations for implementing criteria to capture the requirements
for motion cueing.

**Author Address:** s.advani@idt-engineering.com

r.hosman@amsconsult.demon.nl

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Advani, Sunjoo K.; Hosman, Ruud J.A.W.; Potter, Mario

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Objective motion fidelity qualification in flight training
simulators

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6802

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Advani: President, International
Development of Technology (IDT), Breda, The Netherlands

Hosman: AMS Consult, Delfgauw, The Netherlands

Potter: Project Engineer, IDT, The Netherlands

**Abstract:** This paper proposes a criterion that defines the motion
cueing performance of a flight simulator. The long-term aim of such a
criterion is to use it to qualify and compare training and engineering
simulators. The approach is based on measuring the total gain and phase
of the motion cueing system components, which include the motion cueing
algorithm, motion system mechanism and transport delay, over a range of
frequencies relevant to the type of flight vehicle being simulated. The
frequency response of the total motion cueing system is then plotted
against the criterion in a modulus - phase distortion plot (Nichols
diagram) indicating the end-to-end performance of the system in gain and
phase. The performance of four research simulator motion systems was
measured and plotted into this format in order to illustrate this
approach. The physical properties of these devices are well known and
documented. The paper describes the initial experimental results using
the proposed approach and the advantages and limitations. This work is
aimed to broaden the understanding of motion cueing, to develop
objective guidelines for simulator qualification and, in the long run,
to simplify the current technical tests.

**Author Address:** s.advani@idt-engineering.com

r.hosman@amsconsult.demon.nl

m.potter@idt-engineering.com

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Advani, S. K.; Mulder, J. A.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Achieving high-fidelity motion cues in flight simulation

**Conference Name:** AGARD FVP Symposium on \"Flight Simulation \--
Where are the Challenges?\"

**Conference Location:** Braunschweig, Germany

**Publisher:** NASA Technical Reports

**Date:** May 22-25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
SIMONA International Research Centre, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, The
Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** cues, accuracy, degrees of freedom, dynamic
characteristics, flight simulation, flight simulators, motion
simulation, motion simulators, robustness (mathematics)

**Abstract:** The simulation of high-bandwidth manual flight control
tasks dictate the use of simulator motion systems for the reproduction
of motion cues on the vestibular and neuromuscular-mechanical
arm-manipulator system. The reproduction of these cues, with particular
emphasis on the lowest possible time delay, is necessary in human
perception research, experimental flight control system development
studies, as well as in routine flight training. Perfect reproduction of
motion cues with ground-based flight simulators is principally
impossible due to kinematic limitations inherent to the motion system.
Washout filters minimize these effects. The dynamic characteristics of
the motion system however lead to two types of control errors: short
term, due to finite oil stiffness and line dynamics, as well as limited
control valve bandwidth, and long-term, due to complexity of the
non-linear motion system dynamics, making compensation of unwanted
parasitic errors difficult. This paper will review techniques which
increase the performance of six-degrees-of-freedom hydraulic motion
systems for flight simulators. Application of pressure-feedback actuator
control increases the robustness of the motion system dynamics, hence
decreasing the short-term errors. The long-term control errors are
addressed by a (separate) robust, multi-variable motion system
controller which provided control signals to the platform with knowledge
of the system state and its inherent properties. The total mass and the
vertical location of the centre of gravity of the platform influence the
time delay (phase lag) and fidelity of the motion system. These
properties also limit any such improvements due to design changes in
software or hydraulic hardware. As a result of these studies, a
fundamentally unique light-weight motion platform design is proposed,
making extensive use of advanced composite materials. This is called the
SIMONA Research Simulator. With the improvements made to motion cue
quality, fundamental research into human perception processes in human
perception research, and experimental flight control system development
work, will not be influenced by parasitic motions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Advani, S. K.; Nahon, M. A.; Haeck, N.; Albronda, J.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Optimization of six-degrees-of-freedom motion systems for
flight simulators

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 36

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 819-826

**Date:** September-October

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The cueing capabilities of a synergistic flight-simulator
motion system are limited primarily by the maximum translational and
rotational travel allowed by the motion-base. This travel capability,
also known as the workspace, is dictated by the kinematic layout of the
motion system. Furthermore, the Jacobian matrix, which maps velocities
from platform space to joint space, indicates the dexterity of the
mechanism, or the mechanical effort needed by the actuators to move the
platform. To systematically design unconventional motion bases, a
methodology has been developed to analyze arbitrary
six-degrees-of-freedom motion systems. The approach is based on an
optimization program to determine the optimal layout of the motion
system, given the workspace performance objectives and the design
constraints. This allows the investigation of unconventional platform
geometries and actuator attachment points, thus allowing the designer to
tailor the workspace as required by the simulation task, to ensure that
a satisfactory dexterity is maintained, and to guarantee that the
actuator legs do not interfere mechanically. This paper describes the
proposed methodology, and shows examples of its applications, first to
generic workspaces, and then to the workspace required for the
simulation of a large transport aircraft.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Advani, S. K.; van der Vaart, J. C.; Rysdyk, R. Th.; Grosz,
J.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** What optical cues do pilots use to initiate the landing
flare? Results of a piloted simulator experiment

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Monterey, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS, Delft, The
Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** A piloted moving-base simulator study of the landing of a
twin-engined executive jet airplane was conducted to find out if pilots
also use an optical variable called the Time-To-Contact (TTC) or tau, to
time their actions. By manipulating the approach-path angle and the
visual speed of the visible runway outline, the influence of the
perceived TTC on the initiation of the landing was assessed. Results
suggest that pilots indeed use some kind of Tau-margin strategy, but
rely on the judgment of absolute height as well. Further experiments are
needed to rule out any influence of prior training on the timing of the
flare. Recent work on timing and perception suggests that the amplitude
or speed of control actions may be determined by a higher order
variable, i.e. the perceived rate of chance of the Time-To-Contact,
called Tau-dot. Possible implications of this for further work are
mentioned.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Advani, S. K.; Verbeek, R. J.

**Year of Conference:** 1994

**Title:** The influence of platform mass properties on simulator motion
system performance

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference** **Location:** Scottsdale, AZ

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Pages:** 145-155

**Date:** August 1-3

**ISBN:** AIAA-94-3418-CP

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Advani: Assistant Professor, SIMONA
Project Leader, Member AIAA, SIMONA International Research Centre, Delft
University of Technology, The Netherlands

Verbeek: Research Assistant, SIMONA International Research Centre, Delft
University of Technology, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** platform mass properties, simulator motion system
performance, mechanical system, hydraulic system, center of mass

**Abstract:** The dynamic performance of a simulator motion system is to
a great extent determined by the mechanical qualities of the motion
system hydraulics, the motion control system which provides signals to
the actuator servo valves, and also the mass properties of the moving
equipment of the simulator placed on the motion system. Quite commonly,
in the case of training flight simulators, the center of gravity of the
large moving payloads is located far above the motion systems upper
gimbals. An investigation, using a complete dynamic model of payload
hydraulic motion system, was carried out to quantify the effects of
payload mass properties on motion system performance. This paper will
review the results obtained from these studies. It is found that the
total mass and vertical location of the center of gravity influence the
time delays, phase, and parasitic noises of the motion system, and that
these properties also limit and further improvements due to design
changes in software or hydraulic hardware. By adapting these design
considerations, a motion system with inherently higher performance will
result. Therefore, a fundamentally new and yet practical light-weight
motion platform design is being proposed. This configuration is being
introduced in the multi-functional SIMONA Research Simulator of the
Delft University of Technology.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Adversity.net

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Part 1: UAL accidents or incidents caused by underqualified
quota hires

**Series Editor:** Adversity.net

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** October 16

**Last Update Date:** October 28, 2003

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), United Airlines flight 863

**Abstract:** On June 28, 1998 an underqualified United quota hire
damned near crashed a loaded Boeing 747-400 into San Bruno outside San
Francisco airport. During takeoff he mistook a failed engine for a blown
tire on and took very inappropriate actions as a result. There were 307
people aboard United Flight 863, and it cleared San Bruno by only 100
feet, according to the FAA.

**Notes:** Includes Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) report and
Associated Press stories.

**URL:** <http://www.adversity.net/united/1_UAL_incidents.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Year of Conference:** 1978

**Title:** Piloted aircraft environment simulation techniques

**Conference** **Name:** AGARD Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\'
Meeting

**Conference** **Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Date:** April 24-27

**ISBN:** AGARD-CP-249

ISBN 92-835-0222-1

**Number of Pages:** 316

**Keywords:** flight simulation, human factors engineering, aerial
warfare, environment simulation, pilots (personnel), aircraft seats,
aircraft, atmospheric models

**Abstract:** These proceedings consist of the papers presented at the
FMP Specialists\' Meeting on \"Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation
Techniques.\" An extensive coverage of the subject is presented. The
areas examined range from requirements and user experience, through
simulation of the atmosphere\--including atmospheric models\--to
assessments of a wide range of visual systems. Also covered are motion
systems, \'g\' seats and air combat simulators. A comprehensive
Technical Evaluation of the meeting appears in AGARD Advisory Report No.
126.

**Notes:** Some of the individual papers from these proceedings have
also been included in this reference list.

Contents:

Summary - iii

Survey Paper -Current Deficiencies in Simulation for Training - 1

By C. D. Brown

[Session I - Requirements on Simulation of the Environment]{.underline}

Simulating the Visual Approach and Landing - 2

By A. G. Barnes

Visual Criteria for Out of the Cockpit Visual Scenes - 3

By C. L. Kraft and L. W. Schaffer

Mission Environment Simulation for Army Rotorcraft Development,
Requirements and Capabilities - 4

By D. L. Key, B. L. Odneal and J. B. Sinacori

Environmental Requirements for Simulated Helicopter/VTOL Operations From
Small Ships and Carriers - 5

By C. W. Woomer and R. L. Williams

[Session II, Part 1 - Simulation of the Atmospheric
Environment]{.underline}

Proposed Advancement in Simulation of Atmospheric Phenomena for Improved
Training - 6

By W. J. Allsopp

Non-Gaussian Structure of the Simulated Turbulent Environment in Piloted
Flight Simulation - 7

By G. A. J. Van De Moesdijk

[Session II, Part 2- Atmospheric Models for Simulation]{.underline}

Handling Qualities of a Simulated STOL Aircraft in Natural and Computer
Generated Turbulence and Shear - 8

By S. R. M. Sinclair and T. C. West

Visibility Modeling for a Landing Simulator with Special Reference to
Low Visibility - 9

By D. Johnson

[Session III - Out Of The Cockpit Visual Scenes]{.underline}

Visual Simulation Requirements and Hardware - 10

By J. C. Dusterberry

Low Budget Simulation in Weapon Aiming - 11

By P. Manville and E. D. Whybray

The Lufthansa Day/Night Computer Generated Visual System - 12

By M. Wekwerth

Recent Advances in Television Visual Systems - 13

By B. L. Welch

A High Resolution Visual System for the Simulation of In-Flight
Refueling - 14

By M. J. P. Bolton

Wide Angle Visual System Developments - 15

By C. R. Driskell

[Session IV - Visual Versus Non-Visual Motion Cues]{.underline}

Visually Induced Motion in Flight Simulation - 16

By L. R. Young

Motion Versus Visual Cues in Piloted Flight Simulation - 17

By J. R. Hall

[Session V - Motion Simulation]{.underline}

Motion and Force Cueing Requirements and Techniques for Advanced
Tactical Aircraft Simulation - 18

By W. B. Albery, D. R. Gum and G. J. Kron

Influence of Motion Wash-Out Filters on Pilot Tracking Performance - 19

By M. F. C. Van Gool

Dynamic Characteristics of Flight Simulator Motion Systems - 20

By P. T. Kemmerling, Jr

The Development and Evaluation of a \"G\" Seat for a High Performance
Military Aircraft Training Simulator - 21

By N. O. Matthews And C. A. Martin

Six Degrees Of Freedom Large Motion System For Flight Simulators - 22

By M. Baret

[Session VI - Up and Away Mission Phases]{.underline}

Simulation De Combat Aérien Du Celar - 23

Par Y. Hignard

Differences Between Simulation and Real World at the LABG Air-to-Air
Combat Simulator with a Wide Angle Visual System - 24

By E. Vogl

Manned Air Combat Simulation - A Tool for Design, Development and
Evaluation of Modern Fighter Weapon Systems & Training of Aircrews - 25

By R. H. Mathews

Use of Piloted Simulation for Studies of Fighter Departure/Spin
Susceptibility - 26

By W. P. Gilbert And L. T. Nguyen

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Year:** 1979

**Title:** Dynamic characteristics of flight simulator motion systems

**City:** Neuilly sur Seine, France

**Institution:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September

**Type:** Advisory Report

**Report Number:** AGARD-AR-144

**Number of Pages:** 40

**Keywords:** flight simulators, flight simulation, performance, display
devices, flight characteristics, flight maneuvers

**Abstract:** In the last five years, there has been a sharp rise in the
number of simulation facilities employing multiple degree-of-freedom
motion systems; however, until recently no substantive attempts have
been made to measure the performance of these systems. Those
measurements that have been made and published have not been made in a
uniform way, so that it is difficult to compare different systems. While
data on the gross excursions, velocities and accelerations of these
systems have been generally available in the literature, dynamic
response, noise and other imperfections were usually neither carefully
measured nor was information on them widely distributed.

This Advisory Report specifies a uniform method of measuring and
reporting motion performance characteristics, developed by a Working
Group of the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD. Such a uniform method, in
addition to aiding system comparison, can assist in system diagnosis and
might be used in writing performance specifications. The definitive
characteristics selected for system description are excursion limits,
describing function, linearity and acceleration noise, hysteresis, and
dynamic threshold, definitions and methods of measurement and display
are given, illustrated by measurements on particular motion systems.

This Advisory Report was prepared under the sponsorship of the Flight
Mechanics Panel of AGARD.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Year:** 1980

**Title:** Fidelity of simulation for pilot training

**City:** Neuilly sur Seine, France

**Institution:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Pages:** 1-60

**Date:** December

**Type:** AGARD Advisory Report

**Report Number:** AGARD-AR-159

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** AGARD Aerospace Medical and
Flight Mechanics Panels

**Number of Pages:** 61

**Keywords:** flight simulation, accuracy, pilot training, psychology,
pilots (personnel)

**Abstract:** Technology is allowing the simulation of increasingly
complex flight situations with more and more fidelity. High fidelity
generally implies high cost, but high fidelity is not always necessary
to obtain satisfactory training. This report addresses the subject of
fidelity of simulation for pilot training and provides background to
specialists in the multiple disciplines involved. Topics presented in
detail are: the training psychologist\'s views on fidelity of simulation
required to train, and methods of assessing this fidelity; the
physiologist\'s survey of pilot cueing mechanisms, in particular those
provided by motion or visually induced motion sensations; and the
simulator technologist\'s assessment of existing motion, visual and
aircraft mathematical model technology and the characteristics which
could be expected to provide high perceptual fidelity.

In each of these disciplines deficiencies were identified in the current
ability to relate simulator fidelity to the needs for pilot training and
recommendations are made for structuring future efforts.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Characteristics of flight simulator visual systems

**City:** Neuilly sur Seine, France

**Institution:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Pages:** 90

**Date:** May

**Type:** Advisory Report

**Report Number:** AGARD-AR-164

**Keywords:** flight simulators, flight simulation, color vision,
imagery, simulators, visual perception

**Abstract:** Out-of-the-window visual simulation is a formidable
challenge because of the fantastic performance capabilities of the human
eye, the impracticability of producing a simulation system matching this
performance and the inadequate understanding of how a human uses the
visual information in a simulator. There is a continuing task to define
the design characteristics that may affect perception of physiological
responses, to establish the relative importance of the corresponding
visual and physiological effects, and to understand their relationships
with the physical continuums of the displays that can now be generated.

This report addresses only a very small part of the total problem, by
identifying and defining those physical parameters that characterize the
simulator visual system and determine its fidelity. These
characteristics are discussed in terms of the three basic categories of
spatial, energy and temporal properties, and for each of the parameters
there is a description of its effect, a definition of its appropriate
units or descriptors, a discussion of methods of measurement and of its
use or importance to image quality. There is also a presentation of the
experience of the Working Group members regarding the importance of
these parameters in accomplishing a given visual task under given
conditions. The final chapters of this report present projections of
future trends and recommendations for research.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Year of Conference:** 1987

**Title:** Symposium on motion cues in flight simulation and simulator
induced sickness

**Conference** **Name:** AGARD Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium

**Conference** **Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Date:** September 29-October 1

**ISBN:** AGARD-CP-433

**Number of Pages:** 204

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, motion sickness, simulator
after-effects, simulator design trends, simulator training

**Abstract:** These proceedings include seventeen papers, ensuing
discussions of the papers, and a Round Table Discussion from the
Symposium sponsored by the AGARD Aerospace Medical Panel held in
Brussels, Belgium, on September 28 to October 1, 1987.

The frequency of reports of undesirable effects associated with
simulator training has increased as simulator usage has increased to
offset the higher costs and risks of conducting training in the complex
modern aircraft. Review of current and anticipated future trends in
simulator design features suggests that additional problems will arise
if research on the etiology of simulator-induced motion sickness and
other unwanted simulator effects is insufficient to counteract problems
before they arise. The objective of this symposium was to examine
simulator-induced effects, their operational implications, and their
etiology in order to develop ideas for reducing undesired effects. The
papers in this symposium address present and anticipated trends in
simulator design, a theoretical viewpoint underlying many of the studies
of simulator effects, characteristics of simulators associated with
undesired effects, surveys of simulator-induced effects, models for the
design and evaluation of simulators, and perceptual and
neurophysiological functions fundamental to the understanding of
simulation. These papers and the accompanying discussion provide a
summary of information obtained in recent years on simulation, and
guidelines for direction of future research.

**Notes:** Some of the individual papers from these proceedings have
also been included in this reference list.

Contents:

Preface - iii

Panel and Meeting Officials - iv

Technical Evaluation Report - vii

By F. E. Guedry, Jr.

[Session I - Overview: The Nature of the Problem]{.underline}

Etiological Significance of Equipment Features and Pilot History in
Simulator Sickness - 1

By R. S. Kennedy, K. S. Berbaum, G. O. Allgood, N. E. Lane, M. G.
Lilienthal and D. R. Baltzley

Technology Involved in the Simulation of Motion Cues: The Current
Trend - 2

By H. A. Mooij

Aetiological Factors in Simulator Sickness - 3

By A. J. Benson

[Session II - Incidence of Simulator-Induced After Effects]{.underline}

Etude Horizontale De L\'incidence Du Mal Des Simulateurs Dans Les Forces
Aériennes Françaises - 4

Par A. Léger, P. Sandor et R. P. Delahaye

Simulator Induced Sickness Among Hercules Aircrew - 5

By L. E. Magee, L. Kantor and D. M. C. Sweeney

Simulator Sickness in The Royal Air Force: A Survey - 6

By J. W. Chappelow

Paper 7 Withdrawn

Simulator Sickness in US Army And Navy Fixed-and Rotary-Wing Flight
Simulators - 8

By D. W. Gower, M. G. Lilienthal, R. S. Kennedy and J. E. Fowlkes

[Session III - Etiological Factors in Simulator-Induced After Effets
\[sic\]]{.underline}

The Use of Vestibular Models for Design and Evaluation of Flight
Simulator Motion - 9

By S. R. Bussolari, L. R. Young and A. T. Lee

Motion Cues in Everyday Life - 10

By J. Kriebel, A. Kornhuber and M. Lang

Manifestation of Visual/Vestibular Disruption in Simulators: Severity
and Empirical Measurement of Symptomatology - 11

By J. G. Casali and L. H. Frank

Modeling Operator Control Performance and Well-Being as a Function of
Simulator Visual and Motion System Transport Delays - 12

By L. H. Frank, J. G. Casali and W. W. Wierwille

Enquête Sur Le Mal Des Simulateurs De Vol Couplée A Une Etude
Nystagmographique - 13

Par G. De Heyn, P. De Graff et P. Vandenbosch

Head-Mounted Spatial Instruments: Synthetic Reality or Impossible
Dream - 14

By S. R. Ellis, A. Grunwald and M. Velger

Influence of Vection Axis and Body Posture on Visually-Induced
Self-Rotation and Tilt -15

By I. P. Howard, B. Cheung And J. P. Landolt

Vection and the Spatial Disposition of Competing Moving Displays - 16

By I. P. Howard, M. Ohmi, W. Simpson, And J. P. Landolt

[Session IV - Preventive Medical And Operational Management Of Simulator
Induced After-Effects]{.underline}

Cues for Training Vertigo, Providing Suggestions for the Management of
Simulator Sickness - 17

By M. E. Norré

Preadaption to the Stimulus Rearrangement of Weightlessness: Preliminary
Studies and Concepts for Trainer Designs - 18

By D. E. Parker and M. F. Reschke

Round Table Discussion - RTD

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Advances in flying qualities

**Series Title:** AGARD Lecture Series No. 157

**City:** Neuilly Sur Seine, France

**Publisher:** AGARD

**Notes:** [Contents:]{.underline}

Theme

List of Speakers

Introduction and Overview (by I.L. Ashkenas)

Pilot Modeling (by D.T. McRuer)

Pilot Modeling Applications (by I.L. Ashkenas)

Low-Speed Longitudinal Flying Qualities of Modern Transport Aircraft (by
H.A. Mooij)

A Second Look at Mil Prime Flying Qualities Requirements (by R.J.
Woodcock)

The Optimal Control Pilot Model and Applications (by M. Innocenti)

The Role of Simulation in Flying Qualities and Flight Control System
Related Development (by A.G. Barnes)

Bibliography

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Aero Innovation Inc.

**Title:** How do graveyard spirals occur?

**Access Year:** 2002

**Access Date:** July 26

**Keywords:** graveyard spirals, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** (first paragraph) In the parlance of flight instructors
and flight researchers, the term \"graveyard spiral\" refers to any
high-speed spiral dive, as distinguished from a \"graveyard spin\" in
which the airplane is actually stalled at a low airspeed. A pilot can
enter a graveyard spiral in many different ways, including the scenario
described by Gillingham and Wolfe (Spatial Disorientation in Flight,
USAFSAM TR-85-31, Dec 1986), but most often the entry is subtle rather
than violent. The violence typically follows a gentle, unnoticed entry
into a banked attitude below the pilot\'s threshold for angular
acceleration, which calls for a brief account of how the inner ear
works.

**URL:** <http://www.aero.ca/e_graveyard_spiral.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** A\'Harrah, R. C.

**Year:** 1965

**Title:** Flight simulation, past, present, and future

**Conference Name:** AIAA 2nd Annual Meeting

**Conference Location:** San Francisco, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** July 26-29

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA-1965-480

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION, INC.,
COLUMBUS DIV., COLUMBUS, OHIO

**Keywords:** flight simulation, history, overview, visual display,
motion cues

**Abstract:** This paper presents an overview of flight simulation as
used in support of today\'s aerospace research and development programs.
The current practices in application of simulation technology in terms
of computer support, visual display techniques, and motion provisions
are indicated. Pictorial coverage is included for a representative cross
section of flight simulation facilities throughout Germany, the United
Kingdom, and the United States.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Air Deccan

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** ATR and Air Deccan open joint training center in Bangalore

**Date Accessed:** February 8

**Keywords:** ATR, Air Deccan, Mechtronix, Bangalore training center,
Full Flight Trainer (FFT)

**Abstract:** On the occasion of the Aero India Airshow 2007, ATR and
the Indian air carrier Air Deccan today announced the opening of a new
joint Training Center in Bangalore in order to prepare future pilots for
the ATR fleet of the airline. This center counts a Full Flight Trainer
(FFT), the latest generation of flight simulators, developed jointly by
ATR and Canada-based Mechtronix.

**URL:**
<http://www.atraircraft.com/public/atr/html/press/releases-details.php?aid=575>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Air Safety Week

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Upset recovery training and the potential for negative
learning

**Periodical Title:** Air Safety Week

**Issue:** November 11

**Keywords:** negative training, negative learning, upset recovery
training (URT)

**URL:**
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0UBT/is_43_16/ai_94139244>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aircraft Certification Office (ASO)-205

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Airplane simulator qualification

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** July 29

**Type:** Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** Advisory Circular AC 120-40B

**Number of Pages:** 74

**Keywords:** airplane simulator qualification, validation, National
Simulator Program Manager, NSPM

**Abstract:** Lists one of the means of compliance with the Federal
Aviation Regulations (FAR) regarding the evaluation and qualification of
airplane simulators used in training programs. \[Incomplete abstract\]

**Notes:** See also AC 120-40C; See also Part 60, Flight Simulation
Training Device Initial

and Continuing Qualification and Use; See also AFS-205 (2003), Alternate
means for airplane simulator qualifications incorporating Revision 2 to
the ICAO Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of Flight Simulators

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/5B7322950DD10F6B862569BA006F60AA?OpenDocument&Highlight=120-40b>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aircraft Certification Office (ASO)-205

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Airplane flight training device qualification

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** February 5

**Type:** Advisory Circular Draft

**Report Number:** AC 120-45A

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Federal Aviation Administration,
800 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20591

**Keywords:** airplane simulator, flight training device, approval of
flight training device, approval test guide, cockpit, convertible flight
training device, evaluation of flight training device, latency, National
Simulator Program Manager, operator, qualification, replica, set of
airplanes, simulation data, simulator evaluation specialist, snapshot
statement of compliance, time history, transport delay, upgrade

**Abstract:** This Advisory Circular (AC) provides an acceptable means,
but not the only means, of ensuring compliance with the Federal Aviation
Regulations (FAR) regarding the evaluation and qualification of all
training devices in which flight training, qualification, or
certification of airmen under Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations is
accomplished. These devices are referred to in this document and other
documents published by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as
\"flight training devices.\" This AC specifies the criteria to be used
by the FAA when qualifying a device and determining what the
qualification level should be. While these guidelines are not mandatory,
they are derived from extensive FAA and industry experience in
determining compliance with the pertinent FAR. Mandatory terms used in
this AC such as \"shall\" or \"must\" are used only in the sense of
ensuring applicability of this particular method of compliance when the
acceptable method of compliance described herein is used. Applicable
regulations must also be referenced to assure compliance with provisions
herein. This AC does not change regulatory requirements or create
additional ones, and does not authorize changes in, or deviations from,
regulatory requirements. The provisions of the FAR are controlling. This
document does not interpret the regulations. Interpretations are issued
only under established agency training devices described in this
paragraph and further defined in paragraph 6b. Guidance of the
evaluation of simulators is published in AC120-40, Airplane Simulator
Qualifications, as amended.

**Notes:** Cancelled by AC 61-TD.

This document contains a relevant definition list for many terms
associated with flight training and simulators. Also contains appendices
on flight training device standards, flight training device validation
tests, and functional and subjective tests.

Replaces 120-45.

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/2E57CFE51107AFE6862569E00073603A?OpenDocument>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aircraft Certification Office (ASO)-205

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Airplane flight training device qualification

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** August 28

**Type:** Advisory Circular Draft

**Report Number:** 120-45B

**Label:** Draft

**Keywords:** airplane flight training device qualifications, validation
data

**Notes:** See AC 120-45A:
<http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/2E57CFE51107AFE6862569E00073603A?OpenDocument>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aircraft Certification Office (ASO)

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** FAR 135 training program outline

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Type:** Advisory Circular Draft

**Number of Pages:** 16

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA)

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** PCATD

**Periodical Title:** Safety Advisor

**Volume:** 2007

**Issue:** Feb. 5

**Date Accessed:** March 27, 2002

**Number of Pages:** 18

**Keywords:** Personal computer aviation training devices (PCATD)

**Abstract:** Personal computer-based training is making good pilots
better.

**URL:** <http://www.aopa.org/asf/publications/sa10.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Airfinance Journal

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Low-cost airline - High-cost pilots?

**Magazine:** Airfinance Journal

**Pages:** 46-47

**Date:** April

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** pilot shortage, pilot training, finance

**Abstract:** Pilot shortage is restricting growth and hampering new
entrants, particularly in the booming Indian market. Geoff Hearn looks
at how the industry\'s training sector is trying to increase the supply
of qualified flight crew.

**URL:**
<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/airfinancejournalapril20063.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Airmanship On-line

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Le prime notizie del disastro del Concorde dell\'Air France
le appresi attraverso la radio mentre ero in autostrada

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** October 19

**Edition:** Fall

**Keywords:** Air France Concorde accident, blown tires, upset recovery
training (URT)

**Abstract:** Reflections on the disaster of the Concorde.

**Notes:** The first few pages are in Italian, the rest in English.

**URL:**
[http://www.airmanshiponline.com/fall2000/06-Disastrol%20Concorde%20.htm](http://www.airmanshiponline.com/fall2000/06-Disastrol Concorde .htm)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Airplanes

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Jetstream 41

**Type of Medium:** Printouts of information on the Jetstream 41

**Abstract:** [Product Background]{.underline}

The Jetstream 41 is a major development of the highly successful
Jetstream 21/23 family. The J41 is operating throughout the world in
29/30 seat commuter and 14-seat corporate shuttle configurations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Albery, W. B.; Gum, D. R.; Kron, G. J.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Motion and force cueing requirements and techniques for
advanced tactical aircraft simulation

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Albery: Electronics Engineer,
Simulation Techniques Branch, Air Force Human Resources Laboratory,
Advanced Systems Division, AFHRL/ASM, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433

Gum: Chief, Simulation Techniques Branch, Air Force Human Resources
Laboratory, Advanced Systems Division, AFHRL/ASM, Wright-Patterson AFB,
OH 45433

Kron: Senior Staff Engineer, Link Division, Dept 495, Singer Company,
Binghamton, NY 13901

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** motion and force cueing, advanced tactical aircraft
simulation, motion sensory mechanism, time delays, g-seat, g-suit,
g-cueing

**Abstract:** The approach being pursued by the US Air Force to advance
motion and force cueing technology for tactical air flight simulators is
twofold. The first part includes efforts directed toward building a data
base on which to base motion and force cueing requirements. The second
part includes efforts to improve the performance of existing devices
that have been shown to be somewhat effective and to develop new devices
and techniques as indicated by the data base efforts. The data base
development involves looking at the pilot who receives motion and force
cues and the aircraft and environment which impart the motion and force
cues. Models of human motion and force sensory mechanisms (vestibular,
tactile, visual, motion and nonvestibular proprioceptive) describing how
motion is perceived have been developed and the motion and force
environment for tactical aircraft performing various maneuvers is being
characterized. The results of the environment for this are being used to
define motion and force cueing requirements and concepts for new devices
to impart the necessary cues. Cueing device development efforts include
the development of the next generation g-cueing (g-seat, g-suit, and
benefit) system with improved response and onset cueing capability; the
techniques for myoelectric control of visual simulation system
brightness and field-of-view as a function of the g-force environment
and pilot physical action; and design for the systems such as arm,
thigh, and head loading devices to provide for simulation of the
extremely high-g flight environment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Allen, John A.; Hays, Robert T.; Buffardi, Louis C.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Maintenance training simulator fidelity and individual
differences in transfer of training

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 28

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 497-509

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Allen: George Mason University,
Fairfax, VA

Hays: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social
Sciences, Alexandria, VA

Buffardi: George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** training effectiveness, simulator, fidelity

**Abstract:** This study was undertaken to investigate the relationship
between simulator fidelity and training effectiveness. Two aspects of
simulator fidelity were manipulated, namely, the degree to which a
training simulator \"looked like\" actual equipment (physical fidelity),
and the extent to which it \"acted like\" real equipment (functional
fidelity). A transfer of training design was used to assess learning.
Performance on an electromechanical troubleshooting task was correlated
with a number of individual difference variables. Results indicated that
physical and functional fidelity were interdependent and that temporal
measures were most sensitive to fidelity manipulations. Low functional
fidelity was associated with longer problem solution and inter-response
times. Persons with high analytic abilities took longer to solve
problems, but required fewer troubleshooting tests and made fewer
incorrect solutions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Allen, W. R.; DiMarco, R. J.

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Effects of transport delays on manual control system
performance

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Report Number:** NASA CP-2341 Vol. 1

**Keywords:** transport delay, manual control system

**Abstract:** Throughput or transport delays in manual control systems
can cause degraded performance and lead to potentially unstable
operation. With the expanding use of digital processors, throughput
delays can occur in manual control systems in a variety of ways such as
in digital flight control systems in real aircraft, and in
equation-of-motion computers and CGI\'s in simulators. Previous research
has shown the degrading effect of throughput delays on subjective
opinion and system performance and dynamic response. A generic manual
control system model is used in this paper to provide a relatively
simple analysis of and explanation for the effects of various types of
delays. The consequences of throughput delays of some simple system
architectures were also discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Video

**Director:** Allied Pilots Association (APA)

**Year Released:** 1998

**Title:** Highways in the sky: Aviation on the road ahead

**Distributor:** Entertainment Design Workshop

**Medium:** Videotape

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Allied Pilots Association (APA)

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Submission of the Allied Pilots Association to the National
Transportation Safety Board regarding the accident of American Airlines
flight 587 at Belle Harbor, New York November 12, 2001

**Date:** March 24

**Report Number:** NTSB DCA02MA001

**Number of Pages:** 32

**Keywords:** American Airlines flight 587, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Abstract:** (from Introduction) In order for the reader to best
understand the complex factors of the AA 587 accident, the Facts,
Analyses and Recommendations portion of this report is divided into four
main areas:

\- Flight Control System

\- Flight Environment

\- Adverse Aircraft Pilot Coupling

\- Oversight

Each section contains facts and analysis followed by recommendations.

This was a complex accident. The Allied Pilots Association (APA) offers
this Submission to aid the Safety Board in its analysis. Suggestions for
specific safety recommendations that APA believes should be a part of
the Final Report are compiled at the end of the report.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Allsopp, W. J.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Proposed advancements in simulation of atmospheric phenomena
for improved training

**Conference Name:** AGARD Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting
on Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Senior Engineering Test Pilot &
Senior Instructor Pilot, The Boeing Company, P.O. Box 3707, Seattle, WA
98124

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** simulation of atmospheric phenomena, visual systems

**Abstract:** Obviously, flight simulators are a major training vehicle
and the desire to reduce in-airplane training is the driving force to
obtain better flight simulator visual systems. As the result of both
commercial and military applications, major advancements were made in
simulator visual systems, resulting in commercial use of the various
electronically generated visual systems. Improvements appear to be
required in many areas, such as field of view, resolution, brightness,
scene content, lights, visual/motion integration, simulated airplane
short-period response, and atmospheric environment. The latter is the
subject of this paper.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** American Airlines; Airbus

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Point/counterpoint - The Airbus position - Extracts

**Periodical Title:** Air Safety Week

**Issue:** March 29

**Date Accessed:** October 16, 2006

**Keywords:** American Airlines flight 587, upset recovery training
(URT), negative training

**Abstract:** (first two paragraphs)

\'Negative Training\'

Probable cause:

The probable cause of the accident involving AA \[American Airlines\]
587 was the structural overload of the vertical stabilizer induced by
the inappropriate and unnecessary application of cyclic, stop-to-stop
inputs to the rudder pedals by the first officer in anticipation of what
he mistakenly believed would be the aircraft reaction to an encounter
with a wake vortex.

This mistaken belief and the consequent inappropriate and unnecessary
pilot actions were conditioned elements of American Airlines\' AAMP that
advocated the aggressive use of rudder for roll control. This was
reinforced by negative training generated by American Airlines\'
modifications of the A300-600 training simulator that resulted in
temporary inhibition of normal roll control functions such that pilots
were forced to use rudder as a primary means of roll control to recover
from simulated wake vortex encounters.

**URL:**
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0UBT/is_13_18/ai_114714587>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Amery, J. G.; Streid, H.

**Year of Conference:** 1999

**Title:** Flight simulation visual requirements and a new display
system

**Editor:** Hopper, Darrel G.

**Conference** **Name:** International Society for Optical Engineering
(SPIE)

**Volume:** 3690

**Pages:** 356-367

**Series Editor:** Hopper, Darrel G.

**Series Title:** Cockpit Displays VI: Displays for Defense Applications

**Date:** April 7-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** The Boeing Company

John G. Amery: M/S S064 1481 Flight Simulation Technology

Harry Streid: M/S S106 4685 Aerospace Training & Support Systems

**Keywords:** simulation, out-the-window, flat panel display, COTS,
continuous mosaic display, cost effective

**Abstract:** This paper reviews the technical requirements for Out The
Window (OTW) visual systems. Requirements for different modes of
training and/or simulation will be stated. A new type of visual display
will be described that provides improved, cost effective implementation
and performance.

**URL:** <http://www.rickleephoto.com/mosaicfresnel.htm>

**Author Address:** The Boeing Company, PO Box 516, St. Louis, MO
63166-0516

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Anderson, G. R.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** A method for aircraft simulation verification and validation
developed at the United States Air Force Flight Simulation Facility

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30-October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** 1LT, USAF, Simulation Engineer,
6520 Test Group, Air Force Flight Test Center, Edwards, CA 93523-5000

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** verification, validation, USAF

**Abstract:** The flight simulators at the USAF Flight Test Center
(AFFTC) Aircraft Flight Simulation Facility (AFSF) are primarily used
for performance and flying qualities studies. These high-fidelity,
real-time simulators are used as an engineering tool during the flight
development of the new or modified aircraft. Emphasis is placed on fully
developing, verifying and validating a simulation before the actual
aircraft begins flight testing. The flexibility, accuracy and ease with
which the facility's method of verification and validation can be
learned and implemented are a few of its advantages. This is
demonstrated by the number of simulators which have been developed using
it. The F-15 A/B, B-1B, Shuttle, F-15 C/D, AFTI (Advanced Fighter
Technology Integration), F-16, F-16 C/D and the T-46 are examples of
simulations presently operational at the facility which were developed
using the AFSF\'s method.

The Philosophy of developing a simulation before flight test allows the
most to be learned about the aircraft before testing begins. The \"test
smarter\" approach taken at the AFFTC requires that aircraft simulations
be built quickly and be used to make flight testing more efficient and
safer. The methods for verifying and validating simulations used at the
AFSF assure that these requirements are fulfilled.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Andreassi, J. L.; Greco, J. R

**Year:** 1975

**Title:** Effects of bisensory stimulation on reaction time and the
evoked cortical potential

**Journal:** Physiological Psychology

**Volume:** 3

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 189-194

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Baruch College, City University of
New York, 155 East 24th Street, New York, NY 10010

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** Reaction times and evoked cortical potentials to visual
and auditory stimuli alone and to the two in combination (bisensory
stimulation) were studied. It was found that bisensory stimulation
resulted in significantly faster reaction times than those obtained with
visual or auditory stimulation alone. Auditory reaction times were
faster than visual. The amplitudes of evoked potentials were
significantly higher at both recording times (O~2~ and C~2~) under
conditions of bisensory as compared to unisensory stimulation. Evoked
potential latencies were in the expected direction, i.e., all conditions
using auditory stimulation resulted in shorter latencies than the visual
stimulation alone condition. It was concluded that evidence for sensory
interaction (facilitative) had been obtained in this experiment and that
the amplitude increases with bisensory stimulation were reflected in
faster reaction times. A definitive statement regarding the central
nervous system locus of this sensory interaction is not yet possible.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Anselmo, Joseph C.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** A little competition

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 53

**Date:** December 4

**Type of Article:** part of section on Simulation and Training

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Abstract:** Mechtronix takes on giant CAE by targeting smaller
airlines.

**Notes:** Part of section on Simulation and Training. All articles in
this section include:

Fighting human error (F. Fiorino)

Retooling maintenance lessons (L. A. Tegtmeier)

Getting upset (E. H. Phillips)

A little competition (J. C. Anselmo)

Ready, VLJet, go (F. Fiorino)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Anstis, Stuart M.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Visual-vestibular interactions: Effects on self-motion
perception and postural control

**Editor:** Held, R.; Leibowitz, H. W.; Teuber, H.-L.

**Book Title:** Handbook of Sensory Physiology: Perception

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** Springer Verlag

**Volume:** 8

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Aoki, Hirofumi; Oman, Charles M.; Natapoff, Alan; Buckland,
Dan; Liu, Andrew

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** The effect of configuration, frame of reference, and spatial
ability on spatial orientation during 3-dimensional navigation training

**Presentation Event:** 7th Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular
Organs in Space Exploration

**Event Location:** The Netherlands

**Date:** June 7-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Man-Vehicle Laboratory,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

**Keywords:** spatial orientation, upset recovery training (URT)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Ashkenas, Irving L.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Collected flight and simulation comparisons and
considerations

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30 - October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Vice President, Systems Technology,
Inc., 13766 S. Hawthorne Boulevard, Hawthorne, CA 90250

**Number of Pages:** 34

**Keywords:** fidelity, perceptual, motion, tracking, failure detection,
field-of-view

**Abstract:** Government-sponsored research at Systems Technology, Inc.
dealing with simulation fidelity and utility is reviewed, starting with
some generic effects of motion and vision system characteristics and of
computational artifacts. Diagnostic methods and tools useful in
discovering and delineating significant qualitative and quantitative
differences between simulation and flight are then exposed and
illustrated. Finally examples of both fixed and moving simulation
successes and shortcomings are reviewed and examined as to root causes
of either. The research-simulator equipment involved in the above
comparison ranges from modeling large-scale motion systems and
computer-generated imagery to fixed-base with simple CRT-generated
displays.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Ashworth, Billy R.; McKissick, Burnell T.; Parrish, Russell
V.

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Effects of motion base and g-seat cueing on simulator pilot
performance

**City:** Hampton, VA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Langley Research Center

**Date:** March

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** NASA TP-2247

**Keywords:** motion cue, g-seat cue, simulation, tracking error

**Abstract:** In order to measure and analyze the effects of a motion
plus g-seat cueing system, a manned-flight-simulation experiment was
conducted utilizing a pursuit tracking task and an F-16 simulation model
in the NASA Langley Visual/Motion Simulator. This experiment provided
the information necessary to answer the primary question; do motion and
g-seat cues have an additive effect on the performance of this task?
With respect to the lateral tracking error and roll-control stick force,
the answer is affirmative. In this paper it is shown that presenting the
two cues simultaneously caused significant reductions in lateral
tracking error and that using the g-seat and motion base separately
provided essentially equal reductions in the pilot\'s lateral tracking
error.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** ASME International

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The Link flight trainer: A historic mechanical engineering
landmark

**Date:** June 10

**URL:**
<http://files.asme.org/ASMEORG/Communities/History/Landmarks/5585.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-200

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Crew qualification and pilot type rating requirements for
transport category aircraft

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** May 13

**Type:** Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** 120-53

**Keywords:** transport category aircraft, rating requirements, crew
qualification

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/C9574229A4AAB7E9862569EA00695F04?OpenDocument&Highlight=120-53>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-205

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Helicopter simulator qualification

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** October 11

**Type:** Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** AC 120-63

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/B56F9F7D967AFFBB862569E000736080?OpenDocument&Highlight=120-63>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-205

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Airplane simulator qualification

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** July 1

**Type:** Advisory Circular Draft

**Report Number:** 120-40C

**Label:** Draft

**Keywords:** simulator data requirements, simulator standards,
validation tests

**Abstract:** Contains numerous appendices for qualifications based on
wind shear, validation tests, simulator standards, functions and
subjective tests

**Notes:** See also AC 120-40B:
<http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/5B7322950DD10F6B862569BA006F60AA?OpenDocument>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-205

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Alternate means for airplane simulator qualifications
incorporating Revision 2 to the ICAO Manual of Criteria for the
Qualification of Flight Simulators

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), National
Simulator Program

**Date:** September 12

**Type:** FSTD Guidance Bulletin draft

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/aircraft_aviation/nsp/flight_training/bulletins/media/03-13.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-210

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Crewmember cabin safety training

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Type:** Advisory Circular Draft

**Report Number:** AC120-51A DRAFT

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Notes:** This version has been canceled and replaced. Latest version
is AC 120-51E:
<http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/80038CF51AACE53686256E24005CBB23?OpenDocument>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-210

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Crew Resource Management Training

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Type:** Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** AC120-51E

**Number of Pages:** 27

**URL:**
<http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/80038cf51aace53686256e24005cbb23/$FILE/AC120-51e.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-210

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Use of airplane flight training devices; Inflight checking
and training for airman qualification and certification

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** October 11

**Type:** Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** 120-46A

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** use of airplane flight training devices, inflight training
and checking for airman qualification and certification, authorizations,
old vs. new training device and simulator qualification level
terminology

**Notes:** This AC is no longer in effect.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-210

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Crew resource management training

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** March 1

**Type:** Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** 120-51B

**Number of Pages:** 28

**Notes:** This version has been canceled and replaced. Latest version
is AC 120-51E:
<http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/80038CF51AACE53686256E24005CBB23?OpenDocument>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-210

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Line operational simulation: Line-oriented flight training,
special purpose operational training, line operational evaluation

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Type:** Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** AC 120-35C

**URL:**
[http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/B86DE77A355EA57B86256F25006D977A?OpenDocument&Highlight=ac%20120-35b](http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/B86DE77A355EA57B86256F25006D977A?OpenDocument&Highlight=ac 120-35b)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)-840

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Qualification and approval of personal computer-based
aviation training devices

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** May 12

**Type:** FAA Advisory Circular

**Report Number:** AC 61-126

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** This advisory circular (AC) provides information and
guidance to potential training device manufacturers and aviation
training consumers concerning a means, acceptable to the Administrator,
by which personal computer-based aviation training devices (PCATD) may
be qualified and approved for flight training toward satisfying the
instrument rating training under the provisions of Title 14 of the Code
of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts 61 and 141. While these guidelines
are not mandatory, they are derived from extensive Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and industry experience in determining compliance
with the pertinent parts of 14 CFR. Mandatory terms used in this AC such
as \"shall\" and \"must\" are used only in the sense of ensuring
applicability of this method of compliance. PCATDs are distinct from
flight training devices (FTD) qualified under AC 120-45, Airplane Flight
Training Device Qualification, and flight simulators qualified under AC
120-40, Airplane Simulator Qualification. It also provides acceptable
criteria under which the airplane of FTD flight-hour training time
required for an instrument rating may be reduced by using PCATDs that
have been determined to meet acceptable FAA standards. This AC details
only one means of determining the acceptability of such devices for use
in instrument training curricula.

**URL:**
[http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/D0D8CDA61E05EB90862569BA0052B8F6?OpenDocument&Highlight=ac%2061-126](http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/D0D8CDA61E05EB90862569BA0052B8F6?OpenDocument&Highlight=ac 61-126)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Airline transport pilot and type rating practical test
standards

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** August

**Report Number:** FAA-S-8081-5E

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-5.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** CFR 14 Parts 1 through 199: Index of FARs

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Abstract:** FAR PART 1\--DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

FAR PART 11\--GENERAL RULE-MAKING PROCEDURES

FAR PART 13\--INVESTIGATIVE AND ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES

FAR PART 14\--RULES IMPLEMENTING THE EQUAL ACCESS TO JUSTICE ACT OF 1980

FAR PART 15\--ADMINISTRATIVE CLAIMS UNDER FEDERAL TORT CLAIMS ACT

FAR PART 21\--CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES FOR PRODUCTS AND FAR PARTS

FAR PART 23\--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: NORMAL, UTILITY, ACROBATIC, AND
COMMUTER CATEGORY AIRPLANES

FAR PART 25\--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY AIRPLANES

FAR PART 27\--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: NORMAL CATEGORY ROTORCRAFT

FAR PART 29\--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY ROTORCRAFT

FAR PART 31\--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: MANNED FREE BALLOONS

FAR PART 33\--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: AIRCRAFT ENGINES

FAR PART 34\--FUEL VENTING AND EXHAUST EMISSION REQUIREMENTS FOR TURBINE
ENGINE POWERED AIRPLANES

FAR PART 35\--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: PROPELLERS

FAR PART 36\--NOISE STANDARDS: AIRCRAFT TYPE AND AIRWORTHINESS
CERTIFICATION

FAR PART 39\--AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES

FAR PART 43\--MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE, REBUILDING, AND
ALTERATION

FAR PART 45\--IDENTIFICATION AND REGISTRATION MARKING

FAR PART 47\--AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION

FAR PART 49\--RECORDING OF AIRCRAFT TITLES AND SECURITY DOCUMENTS

FAR PART 61\--CERTIFICATION: PILOTS AND FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS

FAR PART 63\--CERTIFICATION: FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS OTHER THAN PILOTS

FAR PART 65\--CERTIFICATION: AIRMEN OTHER THAN FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS

FAR PART 67\--MEDICAL STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION

FAR PART 71\--DESIGNATION OF CLASS A, CLASS B, CLASS C, CLASS D, AND
CLASS E AIRSPACE AREAS; AIRWAYS; ROUTES; AND REPORTING POINTS

FAR PART 73\--SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

FAR PART 77\--OBJECTS AFFECTING NAVIGABLE AIRSPACE

FAR PART 91\--GENERAL OPERATING AND FLIGHT RULES

FAR PART 93\--SPECIAL AIR TRAFFIC RULES AND AIRPORT TRAFFIC PATTERNS

FAR PART 95\--IFR ALTITUDES

FAR PART 97\--STANDARD INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES

FAR PART 99\--SECURITY CONTROL OF AIR TRAFFIC

FAR PART 101\--MOORED BALLOONS, KITES, UNMANNED ROCKETS AND UNMANNED
FREE BALLOONS

FAR PART 103\--ULTRALIGHT VEHICLES

FAR PART 105\--PARACHUTE JUMPING

FAR PART 107\--AIRPORT SECURITY

FAR PART 108\--AIRPLANE OPERATOR SECURITY

FAR PART 109\--INDIRECT AIR CARRIER SECURITY

FAR PART 119\--CERTIFICATION: AIR CARRIERS AND COMMERCIAL OPERATORS

FAR PART 121\--CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS: DOMESTIC, FLAG, AND
SUPPLEMENTAL AIR CARRIERS AND COMMERCIAL OPERATORS OF LARGE AIRCRAFT

FAR PART 125\--CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS: AIRPLANES HAVING A SEATING
CAPACITY OF 20 OR MORE PASSENGERS OR A MAXIMUM PAYLOAD CAPACITY OF 6,000
POUNDS OR MORE

FAR PART 129\--OPERATIONS: FOREIGN AIR CARRIERS AND FOREIGN OPERATORS OF
U.S. REGISTERED AIRCRAFT ENGAGED IN COMMON CARRIAGE

FAR PART 133\--ROTORCRAFT EXTERNAL-LOAD OPERATIONS

FAR PART 135\--AIR TAXI OPERATORS AND COMMERCIAL OPERATORS

FAR PART 137\--AGRICULTURAL AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS

FAR PART 139\--CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS: LAND AIRPORTS SERVING
CERTAIN AIR CARRIERS

FAR PART 141\--PILOT SCHOOLS

FAR PART 142\--TRAINING CENTERS

FAR PART 143\--GROUND INSTRUCTORS

FAR PART 145\--REPAIR STATIONS

FAR PART 147\--AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN SCHOOLS

FAR PART 150\--AIRPORT NOISE COMPATIBILITY PLANNING

FAR PART 151\--FEDERAL AID TO AIRPORTS

FAR PART 152\--AIRPORT AID PROGRAM

FAR PART 155\--RELEASE OF AIRPORT PROPERTY FROM SURPLUS PROPERTY
DISPOSAL RESTRICTIONS

FAR PART 156\--STATE BLOCK GRANT PILOT PROGRAM

FAR PART 157\--NOTICE OF CONSTRUCTION, ALTERATION, ACTIVATION, AND
DEACTIVATION OF AIRPORTS

FAR PART 158\--PASSENGER FACILITY CHARGES (PFC\'S)

FAR PART 161\--NOTICE AND APPROVAL OF AIRPORT NOISE AND ACCESS
RESTRICTIONS

FAR PART 169\--EXPENDITURE OF FEDERAL FUNDS FOR NONMILITARY AIRPORTS OR
AIR NAVIGATION FACILITIES THEREON

FAR PART 170\--ESTABLISHMENT AND DISCONTINUANCE CRITERIA FOR AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL SERVICES AND NAVIGATIONAL FACILITIES

FAR PART 171\--NON-FEDERAL NAVIGATION FACILITIES

FAR PART 183\--REPRESENTATIVES OF THE ADMINISTRATOR

FAR PART 185\--TESTIMONY BY EMPLOYEES AND PRODUCTION OF RECORDS IN LEGAL
PROCEEDINGS, AND SERVICE OF LEGAL PROCESS AND PLEADINGS

FAR PART 187\--FEES

FAR PART 189\--USE OF FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEM

FAR PART 191\--WITHHOLDING SECURITY INFORMATION FROM DISCLOSURE UNDER
THE AIR TRANSPORTATION SECURITY ACT OF 1974

FAR PART 198\--AVIATION INSURANCE

**URL:**
<http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?&c=ecfr&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title14/14tab_02.tpl>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Airline transport pilot and aircraft type rating practical
test standards for helicopter

**Series Editor:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** United States Government Printing Office

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Flight Standards Service,
Washington DC 20591

**Report Number:** FAA-S-8081-20

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-20.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Airline transport pilot and/or type rating practical test
standards

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** February

**Report Number:** FAA-S-8081-5D

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Keywords:** practical test standards (PTS)

**Abstract:** Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
61 specifies the areas in which knowledge and skills must be
demonstrated by the applicant before the issuance of an airline
transport pilot certificate and/or a type rating in airplanes. The CFRs
provide the flexibility to permit the FAA to publish practical test
standards (PTSs) containing specific TASKS in which pilot competency
must be demonstrated.

**Notes:** On 2/22/07, the web page was no longer accessible.

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-5D.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Aviation Flight Standards (AFS)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Flight standards advisory circular index

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Abstract:** AC No: 20-62D

ELIGIBILITY, QUALITY, AND IDENTIFICATION OF AERONAUTICAL REPLACEMENT
PART

This advisory circular (AC) provides information and guidance for use in
determining the quality, eligibility, and traceability of aeronautical
parts and materials intended for installation on U.S. certificated
products and to enable compliance with the applicable regulations.

Special Issue AC No: 43-16

AFS-96-1, TRANSPORTATION OF OXYGEN GENERATORS (CHEMICAL)

The purpose of the special issue is to advise and provide guidance
concerning the prohibition of transporting chemical oxygen generators as
cargo on passenger-carrying aircraft.

AC No: 61-101

PRESOLO WRITTEN TEST

To provide guidance to flight instructors in developing a written test
to administer to student pilots prior to solo flight.

AC: 61-103

ANNOUNCEMENT OF AVAILABILITY: INDUSTRY-DEVELOPED TRANSITION TRAINING
GUIDELINES FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE AIRCRAFT.

This advisory circular (AC) informs all Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) certificated pilots and flight instructors of the availability of
industry-developed guidelines for pilots transitioning into high
performance single and multiengine piston-powered small airplanes and
single and multiengine turbopropeller small airplanes.

AC No: 61-107

OPERATIONS OF AIRCRAFT AT ALTITUDES ABOVE 25,000 FEET MSL AND/OR MACH
NUMBERS (M sub mo) GREATER THAN .75

This advisory circular (AC) is issued to alert pilots transitioning to
complex, high-performance aircraft which are capable of operating at
high altitudes and high airspeeds of the need to be knowledgeable of the
special physiological and aerodynamic considerations involved within
this realm of operation.

AC No. 61-10A

REFRESHER COURSES FOR PRIVATE AND COMMERCIAL PILOTS

Interest of pilots in refresher courses and special training to upgrade
their piloting skills is increasing significantly. Training courses are
being held at \"pilot clinics\" sponsored by state aeronautics
commissions and national aviation organizations, and by local agencies
such as flying clubs and operators organizations. The number of pilots
who are individually seeking advanced flight training is also
increasing.

AC No. 61-12M

STUDENT PILOT GUIDE

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is charged by Congress with
the promotion, encouragement, and development of civil aeronautics. This
guide seeks to encourage the development of civil aviation by providing
guidance to novice pilots.

AC No: 60-22

AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING

This Advisory Circular (AC) provides introductory material, background
information, and reference material on Aeronautical Decision Making
(ADM). The material in this AC provides a systematic approach to risk
assessment and stress management in aviation, illustrates how personal
attitudes can

influence decision making and how those attitudes can be modified

AC No: 61-65C

CERTIFICATION: PILOTS AND FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS

This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance for pilots and flight
instructors on the certification standards, written test procedures, and
other requirements contained in Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) Part
61.

AC No: 61-67B

STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS TRAINING

This advisory circular (AC) explains the stall and spin awareness
training required under Part 61 of the Federal Aviation Regulations
(FAR) and offers

guidance to flight instructors who provide that training.

AC No: 61-83C

NATIONALLY SCHEDULED FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION- APPROVED,
INDUSTRY-CONDUCTED FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CLINICS

This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance for the preparation and
approval of a training course outline (TCO) for industry-conducted
flight instructor

refresher clinics (FIRC), and sets forth guidelines to assist qualified
sponsors/ organizations in obtaining approval for the use of a
designated airman certification representative (ACR) employed solely by
the FIRC sponsor.

AC No: 61-84B

ROLE OF PREFLIGHT PREPARATION

This advisory circular (AC) modifies and updates the flight information
available to pilots as a result of changes in the basic Airmen
Information Manual format.

AC No: 61-89D

PILOT CERTIFICATES: AIRCRAFT TYPE RATINGS

This Advisory Circular (AC) provides a generic type rating curriculum
that may serve as a basis for schools to develop a training course
outline (TCO) to

meet the type rating training requirements of the Federal Aviation
Regulations (FAR) Parts 61 and 141.

AC No: 61-98A

CURRENCY AND ADDITIONAL QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR CERTIFICATED
PILOTS

This advisory circular (AC) provides information for certificated pilots
and flight instructors to use in complying with the flight review
required by Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) Section 61.56, the recent
flight experience requirements of FAR Section 61.57, and the general
limitations contained in FAR Section 61.31(d), (e), and (g).

AC No: 90-23E

AIRCRAFT WAKE TURBULENCE

This advisory circular (AC) is intended to alert pilots to the hazards
of aircraft wake turbulence and recommends related operational
procedures.

AC No: 90-42F

TRAFFIC ADVISORY PRACTICES AT AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING CONTROL TOWERS

This advisory circular (AC) contains good operating practices and
procedures for use when approaching or departing airports without an
operating control tower and airports that have control towers operating
part time. This AC has been updated to include changes in radio
frequencies and phraseology.

AC No: 90-66A

RECOMMENDED STANDARD TRAFFIC PATTERNS AND PRACTICES FOR AERONAUTICAL
OPERATIONS AT AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING CONTROL TOWERS

This advisory circular (AC) calls attention to regulatory requirements
and recommended procedures for aeronautical operations at airports
without operating control towers. It recommends traffic patterns and
operational procedures for aircraft, lighter than air, glider,
parachute, rotorcraft, and ultralight vehicle operations where such use
is not in conflict with existing procedures in effect at those airports.

AC No: 90-89A

ULTRALIGHT FLIGHT TESTING HANDBOOK

This advisory circular (AC) sets forth suggestions and safety related
recommendations to assist amateur and ultralight builders in developing
individualized aircraft flight test plans.

AC No: 91.21-1

USE OF PORTABLE ELECTRONIC DEVICES ABOARD AIRCRAFT

This advisory circular (AC) provides aircraft operators with information
and guidance for assistance in the compliance of Federal Aviation
Regulations (FAR) Section 91.21.

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/MainFrame?OpenFrameSet>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Aviation Safety Council (ASC)

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** United\'s near miss sparks pilot review

**Periodical Title:** ASC Newsletter

**Issue:** December

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), United Airlines flight 863

**Abstract:** As the United Airlines jumbo jet lifted off from San
Francisco International Airport one night last summer (1998), one of its
four engines lost power. Because of poor flying techniques, the co-pilot
who was at the controls slowed and nearly stalled and crashed the plane.

**URL:** <http://www.asc.gov.tw/author_files/e3.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Aviation Safety Network

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Aircraft accident description McDonnell Douglas DC-10-40F
N141WE - San Salvadore International Airport

**Series Editor:** Flight Safety Foundation

**Series Title:** Aviation Safety Network

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** October 19

**Last Update Date:** August 22, 2003

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), McDonnell Douglass
DC-10-40F accident

**Abstract:** At rotation, the flightcrew heard a sound described as a
\'thump\' or \'bang\'. After becoming airborne, hydraulic pressure was
lost on the nos. 1 and 2 systems. The flightcrew lowered the landing
gear and returned to a landing on the takeoff runway. The airplane was
brought to a stop and shut down. Examination found extensive damage in
the left wing, above the left main landing gear, that included fractured
nos. 1 and 2 hydraulic lines, and fractured or damaged mechanical
control cables, pulleys, push rods, and electrical wiring. The no. 5
tire was found blown, and tread on the no. 1 tire damaged, both on the
left main mount. Marks of a reverser cascade, identified as coming from
a Boeing 727 engine, were found impressed into the runway, and a cascade
was recovered in a search of the takeoff runway. Pieces of what appeared
to be aluminum and other aircraft debris were also found on and near the
takeoff runway.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Aviation Safety Network

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Aircraft accident description McDonnell Douglas DC-9-15RC
N565PC - Cleveland-Hopkins Airport

**Series Editor:** Flight Safety Foundation

**Series Title:** Aviation Safety Network

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** October 19

**Keywords:** McDonnell Douglas DC-9-15RC accident, compressor stall,
upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Ryan Flight 590 landed at Cleveland at 23:44 and taxied to
the mail ramp. Snow (dry and blowing) fell throughout the 35 minutes
that the DC-9 was on the ground. The deicing service was not requested
during this period. Clearance to taxi to runway 23 was received at
00:09. Takeoff clearance was given at 00:18.

The aircraft stalled during take-off and rolled 90 at 50-100 feet. The
airplane then suffered compressor stalls, the left wing contacted the
runway and the aircraft cart wheeled. The DC-9 came to rest inverted
6500 feet from the threshold.

**URL:**
<http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19910217-2&lang=en>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Aviation Safety Network

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Aircraft accident description McDonnell Douglass DC-9-32
EC-BYH - Granada Airport

**Series Editor:** Flight Safety Foundation

**Series Title:** Aviation Safety Network

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** October 19

**Keywords:** McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32 accident, blown tires, upset
recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** The DC-9 landed hard on runway 09, 50m past the threshold
with 11 knots tailwind. The aircraft bounced and landed 360m further on
after manual spoiler deployment. All the tires blew out and the fuselage
broke in two between Stat & 760.

A vertical acceleration of 4.49g on the first impact and 4.79g on the
second impact were recorded.

**Notes:** On 6/21/07, the web page was no longer available.

**URL:** <http://aviation-safety.net/record.php?id=19920330-1&lang=en>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Aviation Safety Network

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Aircraft accident description Boeing 737-4Y0 G-OBME -
Kegworth

**Series Editor:** Flight Safety Foundation

**Series Title:** Aviation Safety Network

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** October 19

**Last Update Date:** April 27, 2007

**Keywords:** Boeing 737-4Y0 accident, compressor stalls, upset recovery
training (URT)

**Abstract:** Flight 092 took off from London at 19:52 for a flight to
Belfast. Some 13 minutes later, while climbing through FL283, moderate
to severe vibration was felt, accompanied by a smell of fire in the
cockpit. The outer panel of one of the no. 1 engine fan blades detached,
causing compressor stalls and airframe shuddering. Believing the No. 2
engine had been damaged the crew throttled it back. The shuddering
stopped and the No 2 engine was shut down. The crew then decided to
divert to East Midlands. The flight was cleared for a runway 27
approach. At 900 feet, 2.4nm from the runway, no. 1 engine power
suddenly decreased. As the speed fell below 125 knots, the stick shaker
activated and the aircraft struck trees at a speed of 115 knots. The
aircraft continued and impacted the western carriageway of the M1
motorway 10m lower and came to rest against the wooded embankment, 900m
short of the runway.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** AVweb

**Title:** USAir 427: One accident, three views

**Periodical Title:** AVweb

**Date Accessed:** April 6, 2007

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), USAir 427, wake turbulence

**Abstract:** On September 8, 1994, USAir Flight 427, a Boeing 737-300
on a scheduled flight from Chicago to Pittsburgh, crashed while
maneuvering to land at Pittsburgh International Airport. The airplane
was destroyed by impact forces and all 132 persons on board were fatally
injured. Three years of investigation has failed to yield conclusive
proof of why the aircraft crashed. What is known is that the aircraft
encountered wake turbulence from a preceding aircraft while at 6,000
feet and 190 knots. The effects of the wake should have been easily
recoverable. However, a few seconds after encountering the wake vortex,
the 737\'s rudder deflected full-left and remained in that position for
23 seconds until the aircraft impacted the ground in a near-vertical
position.

In 1997, the National Transportation Safety Board asked major
participants in the investigation to submit their findings and
recommendations. The Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA), The Boeing
Company, and US Airways all submitted lengthy reports, the full text of
which are available here. We were fascinated by the diversity of
findings among these three parties, and present summaries of all three
here (with links to the full reports).

**URL:** <http://www.avweb.com/other/us427vue.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Baarspul, M.; Hosman, R. J.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Some fundamentals of simulator cockpit motion generation

**Conference Name:** Advances in Flight Simulation: Visual and Motion
Systems

**Conference Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** April 20-May 1

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Keywords:** problem areas of aircraft simulator motion generation,
motion simulation, false motion cues, disturbance cues, confidence cues,
onset, transient and sustained cues, simulation time-delays

**Abstract:** After showing a few examples of motion hardware quality
assessment, the present paper highlights some problem areas of aircraft
simulator motion generation. Since motion simulation is, by nature, an
engineering compromise, motion simulation errors (false motion cues)
have to be accepted.

A qualitative framework, featuring disturbance cues, confidence cues and
false cues on the one side and onset, transient and sustained cues on
the other, is proposed and some examples of false transient cues due to
motion filtering will be considered in the light of recent man machine
research at Delft University of Technology. Special attention is given
to proper phasing of motion cues and the role of simulation time-delays
in connection with measured human operator time-delays.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Baarspul, M.; Mulder, J. A.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Essays on stability and control

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Institution:** Delft University of Technology

**Report Number:** Report LR-600

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bachelder, E.; McRuer, D.; Hansman, R. J.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Experimental study of 3-D synthetic cues on rotorcraft hover
performance

**Conference Name:** AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference

**Conference Location:** Monterey, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 5-8

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Edward Bachelder and Duane McRuer:
Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, CA

R.J. Hansman: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Keywords:** night vision devices (NVD), synthetic cues, cueing,
rotorcraft, helicopter, hover

**Abstract:** Helicopter flight using night vision devices (NVDs) is
difficult to perform, as evidenced by the high accident rate associated
with NVD flight compared to day operation. The approach proposed in this
paper is to augment the NVD image with synthetic cueing, whereby the
cues would emulate position and motion and appear to be actually
occurring in the physical space on which they are overlaid. Synthetic
cues allow for selective enhancement of perceptual state gains to match
the task requirements.

A hover cue set was developed on an analogue of a physical target used
in a flight handling qualities tracking task, a perceptual task analysis
for hover, and fundamentals of human spatial perception. The display was
implemented on a simulation environment, constructed using a virtual
reality device, an ultrasound head-tracker, and a fixed-base helicopter
simulator. Seven highly trained helicopter pilots were used as
experimental subjects and tasked to maintain hover in the presence of
aircraft position disturbances while viewing a synthesized NVD
environment and the experimental hover cues. The simulation employed a
number of unique techniques that enabled identification of visual
perception and division-of-attention effects. Measures of hover
performance and subjective ratings were collected, and frequency
analysis was used to measure system (i.e. pilot/display/vehicle suite)
stability and bandwidth.

Significant performance improvements in NVD flight were observed when
using synthetic cue augmentation. Subjective ratings showed longitudinal
control to be more difficult than in the other axes for both single and
multi-axis control. This paper demonstrates that artificial
magnification of perceptual states through synthetic cueing can be an
effective method of improving night-vision helicopter hover operations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bailey, Randall E.; Knotts, Louis H.; Horowitz, Scott J.;
Malone, Hugh L.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Effect of time delay on manual flight control and flying
qualities during in-flight and ground-based simulation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Monterey, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 17-19

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bailey and Knotts: Calspan Advanced
Technology Center, Buffalo, NY

Capt. Horowitz and Capt. Malone: USAF, Human Resources Laboratory,
Williams AFB, AZ

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Keywords:** time delay, pilot-induced oscillations (PIO), flying
qualities

**Abstract:** (from introduction) During the flight testing of the F-16,
F-18, Tornado, and Space Shuttle vehicles, potentially disastrous
pilot-induced oscillations (PIO) were encountered. These severe flying
qualities deficiencies were largely attributed to the delay between
cockpit control input and aircraft response introduced by the flight
control systems. These incidents spurred considerable research
investigating the effects of time delay on flying qualities.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Baillie, S. W.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Handling qualities research at the Flight Research
Laboratory, IAR/NRC, 1980-1990 and beyond

**Journal:** Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal

**Volume:** 38

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 9-15

**Date:** March

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Flight Research Laboratory,
IAR/NRC, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** flight research laboratory, IAR airborne simulator,
rotorcraft, handling qualities requirements, useable cue environment,
vertical axis, side arm controller

**Abstract:** A summary of the handling qualities research performed at
the Flight Research Laboratory, Institute for Aerospace
Research/National Research Council Canada (IRC/NRC) over the past 10
years is presented. Three major areas are discussed: the study of
advanced military rotorcraft handling qualities requirements, the
integration and development of 4-axis side-arm controllers for
rotorcraft, and investigations regarding the expansion of rotorcraft IFR
operations.

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Baillie, Stewart W.; Hui, Ken; DeLeeuw, Jaap

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** The flight test and data analysis program for the development
of a Boeing/De Havilland Dash 8 simulator model

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Symposium

**Conference Location:** Chania, Crete, Greece

**Publisher:** Advisory Panel for Aerospace Research and Development

**Date:** May 11-14

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Baillie, Hui: Flight Research Lab,
IAR/NRC, Montreal Road, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6, Canada

DeLeeuw: Ph.D., AERCOL

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Keywords:** flight tests, flight control, performance evaluation,
integrated systems, test procedures, avionics, digital systems

**Abstract:** A joint program between CAE Electronics Ltd. Montreal, and
Flight Research Laboratory, NRC, was conducted to develop high fidelity
simulator models of Dash 8 Series 100 and 300 aircraft. This paper
focuses primarily on the Series 100 program. The flight test portion of
the program entailed a relatively limited set of instrumentation due to
aircraft ownership and regulatory constraints. The primary measurements
were the basic inertial quantities and flight path reconstruction
techniques were used to generate the time histories of other required
flight path parameters (such as angle of attack and sideslip). The major
problem of flight test data was analyzed using Maximum Likelihood
Estimation with reliance on trim condition data for initial model
estimates. The final simulator model was validated using specifically
designed maneuvers conducted solely for validation purposes.

**Notes:** Published in October 1992.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Ball, Karlene; Sekuler, Robert

**Year:** 1980

**Title:** Models of stimulus uncertainty in motion perception

**Journal:** Psychological Review

**Volume:** 87

**Pages:** 435-469

**Number of Pages:** 35

**Abstract:** A model is proposed to account for the loss in visibility
of moving targets that occurs when an observer is uncertain about the
target's direction of motion. The model's key features are an array of
directionally selective visual mechanisms and a rule governing the
mechanisms from which an observer will derive sensory data. In response
to uncertainty about two possible directions of motion, the observer is
assumed to use a mechanism whose peak sensitivity is to a direction
midway between the two possible directions. Seven experiments, using
both reaction time and forced-choice data, demonstrate the predictive
advantages of this midway model over competing single-band and
multiple-band models. Additionally, the experiments reveal several new
properties of human motion perception: (a) direction and velocity
information have orthogonal representations in the visual system; (b)
although motion sensitivity does not vary with direction, the prediction
with which small changes in direction can be recognized does, reflecting
differential breadth of tuning for directionally selective mechanisms
sensitive to various directions; and (c) motion-analyzing mechanisms are
broadly tuned for direction as well as speed.

**Notes:** Referenced in Ruud Hosman\'s book, *Pilot\'s perception and
control of aircraft motions* (1996).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Baret, Michel

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Six degrees of freedom large motion system for flight
simulators

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Le Matériel Téléphonique, Division
Simulateurs et Systèmes Electroniques, 3 avenue Albert Einstein, 78192
Trappes Cedex, France

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** six degrees of freedom, long-stroke, hydrostatic bearings,
hollow-rod jack

**Abstract:** The special feature of the six degrees of freedom large
motion system described in this document is the long-stroke, hollow-rod
jack with hydrostatic bearings.

This technique provides an improved performance and considerably reduces
the level of the unwanted accelerations normally generated by motion
systems, while offering new possibilities in the study of control laws.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Edited Book

**Editor:** Barlow, H. B.; Mollon, J. D.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** The senses

**City:** Cambridge, UK

**Publisher:** Cambridge University Press

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Barnes, A. G.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Simulating the visual approach and landing

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Chief Simulation Engineer, British
Aerospace, Aircraft Group, Warton Division, Warton Aerodrome,
Lancashire, PR4 1AX, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** visual approach, landing, textural quality

**Abstract:** A general view is taken of the standards of simulation
which are currently achieved in training and research simulators. The
approach and landing is subdivided into separate phases; straight-in
approach, curved approach, flare and ground roll. The piloting task is
critically examined in each case with particular reference to the use of
outside world visual cues. The merits and deficiencies of existing
simulators, as a means of providing the equivalent information, are then
discussed. Improvements to the overall simulation of the landing
approach are more likely to emerge if a better understanding of the
information which the pilot uses in each phase is available. This paper
is an attempt to assemble some of the information pieces, and to relate
them to the technology of simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Barnes, A. G.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Simulation of aircraft behavior on and close to the ground

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30 - October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** British Aerospace plc, Warton
Division, Preston, Lancs PR4 1AX, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** behavior, ground simulation

**Abstract:** (from 2. Contents) The first part of the report lists the
benefits to be reaped from a good simulation of ground handling. They
are considerable. They apply not only to Research and Development, but
to Pilot Training. They apply to Military Aircraft of every type, and to
Civil Aircraft of every type. In fact, we confined ourselves to
fixed-wing aircraft; there is an equal case to be made for a report on
the status of simulation of helicopters, on and close to the ground.
\[\...\] The report next considers the components which are needed to
put together a simulation - the data set, the computer, the visual
system, the motion system, and other cueing devices. \[\...\] The report
then strongly recommends the use of a motion system for landing and
take-off simulation. \[\...\] Examples are quoted of various programs,
to demonstrate the effectiveness of simulators. Both Research and
Training applications are presented. They illustrate that many operators
have for many years made good use of simulators in this phase of flight,
for a wide variety of problems. Even so, simulator improvements now
offer much greater possibilities.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Baron, Sheldon; Levison, William H.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Display analysis with optimal control model of the human
operator

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 19

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 437-457

**Date:** October

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.,
Cambridge, MA

**Number of Pages:** 21

**Keywords:** optimal control model

**Abstract:** Application of the optimal control model of the human
operator to problems in display analysis is discussed. Those aspects of
the model pertaining to the operator-display interface and to operator
processing are reviewed and discussed. The techniques are then applied
to the analysis of advanced display/control systems for a Terminal
Configured Vehicle. Model results are compared with those obtained in a
large, fixed-based simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Barrett, G. V.; Thornton, C. L.

**Year:** 1968

**Title:** Relationship between perceptual style and simulator sickness

**Journal:** Journal of Applied Psychology

**Volume:** 52

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 304-308

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Goodyear Aerospace Corporation,
Akron, Ohio

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, perceptual style, cue conflict

**Abstract:** Simulator sickness was hypothesized to be caused by the
conflict between the visual presentation of apparent motion and the lack
of any corresponding body sensation of motion. The hypothesis was tested
by correlating individual differences in scores on the Rod and Frame
Test (RFT; which measures accuracy of adjustment of a rod to true
vertical under conditions of visual-kinesthetic conflict) and degree of
simulator sickness. The data for Series 3 of the RFT and the indexes of
sickness were best represented by hyperbolic functions yielding
correlations of .40-.52. Implications for simulation technology and for
a general conflict of cue theory are discussed with emphasis on
supporting evidence from several areas of investigation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bartel, Charles; Foster, Dan

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Life cycle motion base cost comparison: Electric vs.
hydraulic

**Conference Name:** SimTecT 2004: Simulation - Better Than Reality?

**Conference Location:** Canberra, Australia

**Publisher:** Simulation Industry Association of Australia (SIAA)

**Date:** May 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bartel: Simulation Marketing
Manager, Industrial Controls Division, Moog Inc.

Foster: Engineering Manager, Industrial Controls Division, Moog Inc.

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** Until very recently, motion systems for flight training
have been hydraulically actuated. Today these systems are being provided
using electric actuation technology.

This paper was developed to provide information for potential users of
motion simulators in navigating the question of electric or hydraulic
actuation. The focus of this paper is the life cycle cost associated
with the motive technology used in motion simulators. The life cycle of
a motion base can be divided into four phases and an estimate of total
ownership must include the cost from each phase:

1\) capital procurement

2\) installation

3\) operation

4\) maintenance

A detailed comparison of the two technologies, the limitations, and
differences as they apply to motion systems is included. Estimates of
actual costs are used to calculate the net savings and break even point
between the two technologies.

**URL:**
[www.siaa.asn.au/get/2396672252.pdf](http://www.siaa.asn.au/get/2396672252.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Bates, Karl Leif

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Seasick in cyberspace

**Newspaper:** The Detroit News

**Issue Date:** December 11

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** cybersickness, virtual reality

**Abstract:** Your sense of balance is aided by a structure called the
semicircular canals in the inner ear which works just like a
carpenter\'s level, measuring tilt in six directions.

Disagreement between what the semicircular canals report and what your
eyes see is one source of discomfort for virtual reality users.

**Notes:** As of 2/02/07, the web page was no longer available

**URL:** <http://detnews.com/menu/stories/28102.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Baughn, James; Wolf, Jason

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Teaching aircraft flight performance in aeronautical
engineering using PC-based flight simulation

**Conference Name:** AIAA/SAE World Aviation Conference

**Conference Location:** Anaheim, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA); Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

**Date:** September 28-30

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA-1998-5530

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Label:** PC-based flight simulation, Personal Computer-based Aviation
Training Device (PCATD), Microsoft Flight Simulator, teaching flight
performance, aeronautical engineering students

**Abstract:** This paper describes some ways in which PC-based flight
simulation can be used to teach aircraft flight performance and flight
testing to aeronautical engineering students. Two PC-based flight
stimulation programs are used here for this purpose; the Jeppesen FS200
PCATD and Microsoft Flight Simulator 98. Examples of student flight test
assignments using these programs are given for cruise (straight and
level, unaccelerated) flight, climbs, descents (power off glide), and
for (level) maneuvering flight. Simulation flight test data from these
assignments are presented and compared to theory. It is concluded that
PC-based flight simulation can be a valuable tool for illustrating
flight performance and flight testing to aeronautical engineering
students and can be challenging, interesting and fun for students.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** BBC News

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Air traffic simulator introduced

**Periodical Title:** BBC News

**Volume:** 2007

**Issue:** Feb. 5

**Pages:** Online News article

**Date Accessed:** May 5, 2006

**Abstract:** Air traffic control staff will use a £1.5m simulator to
train to use a £50m control tower at Heathrow.

**URL:** <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4975974.stm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Beaudan, Eric

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Flight simulation in the 90\'s

**Magazine:** Aviation and Aerospace

**Volume:** 64

**Issue Number:** 6

**Pages:** 18-20

**Date:** June

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** Flight simulation, a \$4 billion industry worldwide, is
moving into the 1990s at an aggressive pace. With the introduction of
such new aircraft as the Airbus A330/340, the Advanced Tactical Fighter,
the C-17 airlifter and the US Army\'s LH light helicopter, the
commercial and military market for simulators is growing at the rate of
20 per cent a year. The leading manufacturers of flight
simulators\--Canada\'s CAE Electronics Ltd. and its Link subsidiary in
the US, Hughes Training and Support System Group and its British
subsidiary Rediffusion, British Aerospace\'s Reflectone Inc., France\'s
Thomson-CSF, and FlightSafety International of the U.S.\--are
capitalizing on this trend by introducing technology that will make
flight simulation more realistic and affordable.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Bekey, George A.; Burnham, Gerald O.; Seo, Jinbom

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Control theoretic models of human drivers in car following

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 19

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 399-413

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bekey: University of Southern
California, Los Angeles, CA

Burnham: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA

Seo: Korean Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, Korea

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Abstract:** This paper is concerned with mathematical models of the
control behavior of human drivers while following another vehicle in
single lane traffic. The emphasis is on the representation of the
individual driver, rather than on such abstract parameters of multi-lane
traffic as average density or average velocity. Three basic types of
approaches to representing the driver's control strategy are reviewed.
First is a classical control structure in which assumptions concerning
the stimulus-response characteristics of the driver are included, and a
form for his control strategy algorithm is assumed. The second class of
models is based on optimal control theory. The major feature of this
class of models is that an assumed performance index is explicitly
included in the formulation, so that the driver's control strategy
arises as a result of his attempts to minimize this index or criterion.
The third class of models reviewed in the paper are heuristic models,
which arise from control theory. The first of these, termed the
\"look-ahead\" model, is based on the assumption that the driver is
capable of observing more than one car ahead of him, and that he adjusts
his own strategy from an analysis of the behavior of a majority of the
vehicles he perceives. The second of these heuristic models is a finite
state structure which is developed from the hypothesis that the driver
attempts at all times to maintain a velocity equal to that of the lead
car along with a safe headway. The paper concludes with a brief
discussion of some current areas of research and possible applications.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Bellenkes, A; Bason, R; Yacavone, M

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Spatial disorientation in naval aviation mishaps: A review of
Class A incidents from 1980 through 1989

**Journal:** Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine (ASEM)

**Volume:** 63

**Pages:** 128-131

**Date:** February

**Type of Article:** Technical Note

**Abstract:** Spatial Disorientation (SD) has long been a major
aeromedical factor contributing to naval aviation mishaps. In the past,
it has been viewed as a generalized phenomenon, described by its
vertigo-related symptoms. More recently, however, three distinct types
of SD have been identified, each based on whether the aviator recognizes
and responds to its onset. In the current retrospective study, Flight
Surgeon and Mishap Investigation Report narratives from 33 Class A
mishaps occurring from 1980 through 1989 were reviewed. SD was
determined to have been a causal factor in all cases. The mishaps were
examined to categorize SD into the three descriptive types and to
describe the relationship (if any) between SD and various
mission-related factors. Aircraft type, phase of flight, time of day,
pilot experience, and flight topography were all considered. The results
indicate that Types I and II SD could be identified as causal factors in
all 33 Class A mishaps. Further, most Type I SD was experienced
primarily by helicopter pilots at night while most Type II SD incidents
affected let pilots during day missions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Benson, A. J.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Aetiological factors in simulator sickness

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Royal Air Force Institute of
Aviation Medicine, Farnborough Hants GU14 6SZ, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** aetiological factors, motion sickness, visual display,
cues, neural mismatch, simulator sickness

**Abstract:** The clinical features of simulator sickness are similar to
the malaise induced by other motion stimuli. The essential aetiology of
the condition is considered to be the same as in other types of motion
sickness, namely, the mismatch between the motion information provided
by the body\'s sense organs and the brain's internal model of
\'expected\' motion cues. The mismatch can be between concomitant inputs
provided by the angular and linear acceleration transducers of the
vestibular apparatus, or between visual and vestibular inputs. More
significantly, in a fixed base simulator, it is the essence of
\'expected\' inertial cues when the ambient visual system is stimulated
by the external world, visual display that engenders neural mismatch.
Even when the simulator has a motion base, quantitative and temporal
disparities between visual and inertial cues commonly occur and can
contribute, along with visual distortions and other anomalies, to the
induction of the motion sickness syndrome.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Benson, A. J.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Spatial disorientation - Common illusions

**Editor:** Dhenin, Geoffrey

**Book Title:** Aviation Medicine: Physiology and Human Factors

**City:** London

**Publisher:** Tr-Med

**Pages:** 434-467

**Chapter:** 21

**Keywords:** spatial disorientation, illusions, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Abstract:** The aetiology of spatial disorientation is discussed in
general terms in Chapter 20 \[Benson, \"Spatial Orientation\"\]. The
salient features of some of the more frequently reported illusions,
together with their causal mechanisms are the subject of this chapter.

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Benson, A. J.; Spencer, M. B.; Stott, J. R.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Thresholds for the detection of the direction of whole-body,
linear movement in the horizontal plane

**Journal:** Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine (ASEM)

**Volume:** 57

**Issue:** November

**Pages:** 1088-1096

**Date:** November

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Royal Air Force Institute of
Aviation Medicine, Farnborough, Hampshire, U.K.

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Keywords:** translational threshold, whole-body motion

**Abstract:** Thresholds for the detection (at p=0.67 correct) of the
direction of discrete linear movements in the horizontal plane, having a
cosine bell velocity trajectory and duration of 3 s, were determined in
24 subjects. Thresholds in the Z body axis (mean 0.154 m/s\^2) were
significantly higher than thresholds for movement in the X (mean 0.063
m/s\^2) and Y (mean 0.057 m/s\^2) body axes. In 8 subjects, X axis
acceleration threshold was found to increase as a monotonic function of
stimulus duration over the range of 0.98 to 6.96 s and exhibited similar
frequency-dependent characteristics to thresholds for the detection of
continuous oscillatory stimuli. This finding implies that the sensory
system mediating the transduction and perception of liminal, whole-body
linear movement is sensitive to a combination of the acceleration and
rate change of acceleration (jerk) of the motion stimulus, and has
similar dynamics to the \"irregular\" sensory receptors of the otolith
organs.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Benson, Johan

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Conversations with Richard Christiansen

**Journal:** Aerospace America

**Volume:** May

**Pages:** 14-16

**Date:** May

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** Richard Christiansen is acting associate administrator for
NASA\'s Aeronautics and Space Transportation Technology Enterprise. He
was formerly the director of the aerospace research division, leading
NASA\'s efforts in implementing basic aeronautics research. This
includes flight demonstration projects on advanced concepts for
rotocraft, high-speed research, high-performance aircraft, hypersonic
vehicles, and advanced space transportation systems.

He began his NASA career at the Ames Research Center, Moffett Field,
Calif., and has been instrumental in many of the enterprise\'s successes
in aerospace research and development.

Christiansen received a B.S. degree in aerospace engineering from the
California Polytechnic State University in Pomona in 1979 and an M.S.
degree in aerospace engineering from Stanford University in 1985.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Berger, Daniel R.; Schulte-Pelkum, Jörg; Bülthoff, H.

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Simulating believable forward accelerations on a Stewart
motion platform

**City:** Tübingen, Germany

**Institution:** Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics

**Report Number:** Technical Report No. 159

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department Bülthoff (Cognitive and
Computational Psychophysics), Max Planck Institute for Biological
Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany

**Keywords:** motion simulation, forward accelerations, Stewart platform
motion, hexapod platform motion

**Abstract:** Here we present a study where human participants rated the
believability of forward accelerations simulated with a hexapod motion
platform equipped with a projection screen. Visual forward accelerations
were presented together with brief forward surge translations and
backwards pitches of the platform, and synchronous random up-down
movements of the camera in the visual scene and the platform. The
magnitudes of all the parameters were varied independently across
trials. Even though we found a high variability between participants,
most believable simulation occurred with strong visual accelerations
combined with backwards pitches of the platform which approximately
matched the visually simulated acceleration. This was contrary to a
previous study, which had found most believable simulation when the
platform movements simulated a much smaller acceleration than what was
shown visually. Furthermore, surge translations increased believability
if they qualitatively matched the magnitude of visual acceleration. The
acceleration-deceleration profile of the surge translation and the
magnitude and frequency range of the up-down movements had little effect
on the believability. When strong visual acceleration cues were given,
most participants reported trials as realistic even when the platform
tilt rate was above thresholds for the vestibular canals reported in
literature. These results can be used to optimize motion cueing
algorithms for the simulation of linear accelerations in motion
simulators.

**URL:**
<http://www.kyb.mpg.de/publications/attachments/mpik-tr-159_4373%5B0%5D.pdf>

**Author Address:** daniel.berger@tuebingen.mpg.de

joerg.sp@tuebingen.mpg.de

heinrich.buelthoff@tuebingen.mpg.de

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Berger, Daniel R.; Terzibas, Cengiz; Beykirch, Karl;
Bülthoff, Heinrich H.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** The role of visual cues and whole-body rotation in helicopter
hovering control

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6798

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Berger: Research Scientist, Max
Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, P.O. Box 2169, 72012
Tübingen, Germany

Terzibas: Research Assistant, Max Planck Institute for Biological
Cybernetics, P.O. Box 2169, 72012 Tübingen, Germany

Beykirch: Research Scientist, Max Planck Institute for Biological
Cybernetics, P.O. Box 2169, 72012 Tübingen, Germany

Bülthoff: Professor, Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics,
P.O. Box 2169, 72012 Tübingen, Germany

**Abstract:** Helicopters in flight are unstable, and hovering at one
spot requires the pilot to do a considerable amount of active control.
To date, it is still under discussion which sensory

cues helicopter pilots use for this stabilization task, and how these
cues are combined. Here we investigated how cues from different sensory
modalities (visual cues and body cues) are used when humans stabilize a
simulated helicopter at a target location in a closed perception-action
loop.

Participants were seated inside a closed cabin on a Stewart platform
equipped with a projection screen. They had to stabilize a simulated
helicopter on a target spot. To investigate the influence of individual
visual cues on the stabilization, a minimalistic visual scene was used.
Two spheres in the scene represented the location of the target and the
position of the helicopter. Optical flow was provided by
world-stationary random dots, and a horizon was produced by a black
ground plane and white sky. We measured stabilization performance in ten
different conditions: black background, horizon, optical flow, both
horizon and optical flow, and horizontal stripes; all of these both with
and without platform rotation cueing. Physical pitch and roll body
rotations were presented by tilting the platform exactly as the
simulated helicopter tilted.

Our results show that all manipulated cues -- horizon, optical flow, and
platform rotations -- can help the participants to stabilize a simulated
helicopter. In particular, adding physical rotation cues to visual
stimulation in a simulator can significantly improve the ability of
trained participants to stabilize the simulated helicopter at a target
location.

**Author Address:** daniel.berger@tuebingen.mpg.de

cengiz.terzibas@tuebingen.mpg.de

karl.beykirch@@tuebingen.mpg.de

heinrich.buelthoff@tuebingen.mpg.de

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bergeron, H. P.

**Year:** 1980

**Title:** The effects of motion cues on compensatory tracking tasks

**Conference Name:** AIAA Visual and Motion Simulation Technology
Conference

**Conference Location:** Cape Canaveral, FL

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** March 18

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA-1970-352

**Keywords:** motion cues, tracking

**Abstract:** The data presented are taken from tests which were
designed to define areas where motion cues are beneficial in controlling
compensatory tracking tasks and to determine some of the requirements of
these motion inputs. One- and two-axis tests were made with and without
motion. Two-axis tests were also performed in which the amplitude of
motion, as compared to the visual input, was varied from one run to the
next. The results indicate that the addition of motion had little or no
effect on the control of the single-axis tasks. However, motion did make
a difference in the more difficult two-axis tasks. Also, the data show
that a reduction in the scale of motion, in the two-axis tasks, to as
little as one-fourth motion scale, produces results comparable to when
full scale motion was used.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Berggren, Selina Mård ; Källgren, Laban

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Special feature: Introducing a method for enabling comparison
of research results between vehicle simulators

**Newspaper:** Test and Evaluation Technical Group (TETG) Newsletter

**Issue Date:** Fall

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Berggren: Human, Vehicle, Transport
System Interaction, Swedish National Road and Transport Research
Institute

Källgren: Vehicle Technology and Simulation, Swedish National Road and
Transport Research Institute

**Abstract:** Applying an interdisciplinary approach, this paper
proposes a method that enables comparison of research results between
platforms of different levels of fidelity. Technological and software
development over the last decades has given the research society new,
complex tools for studying and understanding the interaction between
human and vehicle transport systems. Today\'s vehicle simulators range
from low fidelity to extremely high fidelity. Simulator studies
involving several partners make it possible to learn about cultural
differences in driving behavior, to share costs, to include a large
number of study subjects, to generalize results and to increase research
exchange. However, there are methodological problems in comparing data
obtained in studies involving several different vehicle simulators.
Differences in simulator complexity and fidelity give rise to
uncertainty in the analysis of data. As collaboration worldwide
increases it is evident that it is crucial to develop a tool for
comparison of research results between vehicle simulators.

**URL:**
<http://www.engineering.uiowa.edu/simusers/Readings/pdf/SEP2006_TETG_NewsletterB.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Beringer, Dennis B.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Use of off-the-shelf PC-based flight simulators for aviation
human factors research

**Date:** April

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/AM-96/15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Civil Aeromedical Institute,
Federal Aviation Administration, Oklahoma City, OK 73125

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** personal computer-based aviation flight simulation,
simulator research, instrument flight psychology, applied psychology

**Abstract:** Flight simulation has historically been an expensive
proposition, particularly if out-of-window views were desired. Advances
in computer technology have allowed a modular, off-the-self flight
simulation (based on 80486 processors or Pentiums) to be assembled that
has been adapted, with minimal modification, for conducting general
aviation research. This simulation includes variable flight
instrumentation, forward, 45 and 90 degree left external world views,
and a map display. Control inputs are provided by high-fidelity analog
controls (e.g., damped and self-centering yoke, high-performance
throttle quadrant, gear, flap, and trim controls; and navigation radio
frequency select). The simulation is based upon two commercially
available flight simulation software packages, one originally designed
as an instrument flight trainer and the other as a \"game\"-type flight
simulation. The provisions of these packages are discussed highlighting
their particular research capabilities, as well as their limitations.
The comparatively low cost and ease of assembly/integration allow
multiple \"standardized\" systems to be distributed for cooperative
inter-laboratory studies. The approach appears to have utility for both
research and training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Beringer, Dennis B.; Williges, Robert C.; Roscoe, Stanley N.

**Year:** 1975

**Title:** The transition of experienced pilots to a frequency-separated
aircraft attitude display

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 17

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 401-414

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Keywords:** human factors engineering, display systems, horizontal
indicators, flight testing, performance (human), pilots, tracking,
horizontal orientation, flight simulators, naval training

**Abstract:** Independent groups of eight professional pilots each were
given one flight in a Link GAT-2 simulator and one flight in a
Beechcraft C-45H using, respectively, the moving horizon, moving
airplane, and frequency-separated attitude displays. The flight tasks
performed by the subjects included recovery from unknown attitudes,
disturbed attitude tracking, and completion of an area navigation
course. Data collected in the C-45H aircraft demonstrated superior
performance of both the frequency-separated and moving horizontal
displays when compared to the moving airplane display during unknown
attitude recoveries. The frequency-separated display was superior to all
others during disturbed attitude tracking. It was concluded that the
flight performance of experienced pilots during their initial transition
to a frequency-separated flight attitude presentation is at least
comparable, and for some tasks superior, to their flight performance
with the conventional moving horizon presentation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Berry, D. T.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** Flying qualities: A costly lapse in flight control design?

**Journal:** Astronautics and Aeronautics

**Pages:** 54-57

**Date:** April

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Dryden
Flight Research Facility

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** Serious problems in flight control emphasize the need for
timely and adequate research on flying qualities and in-flight
simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Beykirch, Karl; Nieuwenhuizen, F.M.; Teufel, H.J.; Nusseck,
H.-G.; Butler, J.S.; Bülthoff, H.H.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Control of a lateral helicopter side-step maneuver in an
anthropomorphic robot

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6801

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Beykirch: Research Scientist

Nieuwenhuizen: Ph.D. student

Teufel: Research Assistant

Nusseck: VR-System Administrator

Butler: Research Scientist

Bülthoff: Professor

Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, P.O. Box 2169, 72012,
Tübingen, Germany

**Abstract:** Our society relies more and more on flight simulation for
pilot training to enhance safety and reduce costs. But to meet the
highest level of general technical requirements for simulators set forth
by the FAA and EASA requires high-cost equipment. To make simulator use
more accessible, reduced costs might be achieved with novel simulator
designs and/or through research to improve the performance of existing
designs. This report explores the use of such a novel design, based on
an anthropomorphic robot arm to reproduce an experiment designed to
evaluate flight simulator motion requirements for helicopter pilot
training. Results compare promisingly well to those from a large,
high-performance facility where the original work was performed.

**Author Address:** karl.beykirch@tuebingen.mpg.de

frank.nieuwenhuizen@tuebingen.mpg.de

harald.teufel@tuebingen.mpg.de

hg.nusseck@tuebingen.mpg.de

john.butler@tuebingen.mpg.de

heinrich.buelthoff@tuebingen.mpg.de

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Bigarré, J.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Training & safety - It\'s time to question our beliefs!

**Presentation Event:** RAeS International Working Group meeting

**Event Location:** Toulouse, France

**Publisher:** ATR Training Centre

**Date:** September 20

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Birch, Stewart

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** CFM powers Airbus

**Magazine:** Aerospace Engineering

**Pages:** 9-10

**Date:** October

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Abstract:** Full-scale testing of an acoustically upgraded CFM56-5B
with double annular compressor is now under way.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Bles, Willem

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Desdemona: Advanced disorientation trainer

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** Feb. 5

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Dr. Willem Bles, TNO Human Factors

**Keywords:** Desdemona, disorientation training, upset recovery
training (URT)

**Abstract:** Desdemona is a sophisticated demonstration, simulation and
training facility specified by Toegepast Natuurwetenschappelijk
Onderzoek (TNO) Human Factors and developed by AMST Systemtechnik
(Austria). Desdemona is planned to be operational in 2003 at the TNO
Human Factors facility in Soesterberg, the Netherlands, for basic and
advanced disorientation training courses for the benefit of the Royal
Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF).

**URL:**
[www.amst.co.at/publics/desdemona_pub.htm](http://www.amst.co.at/publics/desdemona_pub.htm)

**Author Address:** Dr. Willem Bles, TNO Human Factors, P.O., Box 23
3769 ZG, Soesterberg, The Netherlands E-mail: bles@tm.tno.nl

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Bles, Willem; Wentink, Mark; Mayrhofer, Michael; de Graaf,
Bernd

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Revolutions and more

**Magazine:** Military Simulation & Training (MS&T)

**Issue Number:** 1

**Pages:** 24-25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bles, Wentink, and de Graaf: TNO
Human Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands

Mayrhofer: AMST Systemtechnik, Ranshofen, Austria

**Keywords:** high-g, spatial disorientation, Desdemona, upset recovery
training (URT)

**Abstract:** Cost reduction, saving the environment, and crew safety
will contribute to the notion that simulators will be used more and more
for pilot training in the near future especially for high g and spatial
disorientation training. \[The authors\] describe Desdemona, a
revolutionary motion platform.

**URL:** <http://mst.texterity.com/mst/2007-1/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Blickenderfer, B.; Liu, D.; Hernandez, A.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Simulation-based training: Applying lessons learned in
aviation to surface transportation modes

**Institution:** Embry Riddle Aeronautical University

**Date:** June 30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Embry Riddle Aeronautical
University

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Center for Advanced
Transportation Systems Simulation (CATSS)

**Abstract:** Executive Summary

After reviewing the literature regarding simulation for aviation
training and reviewing the literature on use of simulation in surface
transportation, a number of lessons learned become apparent.

Lesson Learned 1: Simulation has been proven to be an effective
educational and instructional tool. In tests of flight simulator
training effectiveness, trainees develop knowledge and skills in
simulated systems as well as they do in the actual systems (Hays,
Jacobs, Prince, & Salas, 1992). The simulator is an excellent classroom,
as the learner is able to make mistakes and learn from them (Duncan &
Feterle, 2000). The instructor is allowed to focus on teaching and not
operating the vehicle. Additionally, many simulators have the capability
to collect performance measures during the training scenarios that can
help assess competencies and deficiencies. Not as much research has
occurred regarding the effectiveness of training via simulation in the
surface transportation domain compared to the aviation field, yet
considerable research support has appeared. It is likely that the
results regarding simulator effectiveness for aviation training will
generalize to the surface transportation domain, but simulation must be
used wisely. Users should consider the competencies needed to perform
the task and the capabilities of the simulator. Not all simulators are
appropriate for training all competencies. Furthermore, not all
competencies require simulation for effective training.

Lesson Learned 2: Simulators increase safety and reduce training costs.
As noted in our review of the aviation literature, two main benefits of
using simulation for training are increased safety during training and
reduced training costs.

In terms of safety, using simulators for training enables individuals to
practice in conditions that would be too dangerous to train in actual
situations (for example, aircraft engine failures, accidents, and other
emergencies). This is also true when training driving and will likely be
a major benefit of using simulation in surface transportation training.

Regarding cost, aviation simulation saves aircraft fuel, aircraft
maintenance costs, and keeps aircraft available for revenue producing
activities. In the case of automobiles, buses, and trucks, although
training via simulation would conserve fuel, the cost savings are most
likely not as great as they are in aviation. Indeed, considerable
driving training can occur in the actual vehicles at low cost. Training
train operators, on the other hand, may benefit from significant cost
savings as well as benefiting from the simpler logistics of training via
simulators rather than actual trains.

A benefit related to both safety and cost is that simulation can be used
to give trainees experiences with unusual events. Unusual events are
just that---unusual. Despite their rare occurrences, they can prove
deadly in aviation as well as in surface transportation. Simulation
offers the opportunity for drivers to experience these and learn how to
perform effectively in these unusual situations (Down, Petford, &
McHale, 1982). Consider driver training. Driving around in the real
world, the driver may not encounter many, if any, hazardous or emergency
situations. Using simulation, the scenario can be scripted to include a
variety of hazards and emergencies. Thus, not only will simulation
training give driver trainees the opportunity to master the knowledge
and skills necessary to perform effectively in hazardous situations, but
also it will do so in a safe environment.

Lesson Learned 3: Simulation alone does not equal training. Simulation
is a tool for trainers to use (Salas, Bowers, & Rhodenizer, 1998).
Simply experiencing a simulated environment is not effective training
(Salas et al., 1998). Simulation must be used in a thoughtful,
well-planned manner that includes identification of training needs,
proper design of scenarios, appropriate performance measurement, and
feedback to the learner (Oser et al., 1999). The same principles apply
in surface transportation as well (Uhr et al., 2003).

Lesson Learned 4: Simulation is one variable in the "big picture" of
training effectiveness. Training effectiveness is a complex problem
(Cannon-Bowers et al., 1995, Colquitt et al., 2000, Baldwin and Ford,
1998). Training method (e.g., use of simulation) is one variable
involved. Numerous other variables also exist including trainee
characteristics, work environment characteristics, and the transfer
environment. Simulation training will not solve every training challenge
for any domain.

Lesson Learned 5: The Scenario Based Training model (Oser et al., 1999)
is one method to ensure simulation is used appropriately. Aviation
training researchers advocate using the scenario based training model to
use simulation effectively. While a few papers have appeared in the
surface transportation training literature regarding effective use of
simulation (Uhr et al. 2003; Nagata & Kuriyama, 1983; Walker & Bailey,
2002; Down et al. 1982), limited advice exists regarding use simulation
effectively in this domain. Fortunately, the basic principles of the
Oser et al (1999) model apply to surface transportation and, if
advocated in the surface field, can help instructors to use driving
simulator systems most effectively. The Oser et al. approach is based on
basic principles of learning. This approach guides training designers
to 1) identify the task/mission and the knowledge, skills, and abilities
involved; 2) design scenarios to include events which allow the trainee
to develop and practice the specific knowledge, skills, and abilities
identified; 3) design performance measures to enable the trainer to
assess performance; and 4) ensure specific feedback is given to the
trainee.

Lesson Learned 6: Effective human performance measurement is crucial
both for simulation validation and assessing skill development. As new
simulators are developed, validation must occur. Validation should occur
not only from the engineering/system performance standpoint but also
from the human performance perspective (Hays & Singer, 1989). For
example, when examining whether performance in a simulator equals
performance in the real-world task, accurate, reliable human performance
measures are essential to understand the human interactions with the
system. Without such measures, it will be impossible to quantify
training transfer. Both objective and subjective measurement approaches
exist. Careful time and attention should be paid to developing and
selecting the appropriate measures to ensure a well-rounded assessment
of skills.

Lesson Learned 7: Simulation fidelity is an important concept that needs
to be understood. Simulation fidelity is the degree to which a device
can replicate the actual environment or how "real" the simulation
appears and feels (Alessi, 1998; Gross et al., 1999). Simulation
fidelity is composed of a number of dimensions including psychological
and cognitive factors as well as the more obvious physical factors
(e.g., visual, auditory, motion, etc.). Numerous researchers are devoted
to studying fidelity issues regarding aviation training such as how to
define fidelity, fidelity dimensions, measuring fidelity, and the
relationship between fidelity and training effectiveness, yet questions
still remain. In terms of surface transportation, limited study exists
on the relationship between fidelity and performance in surface
transportation tasks. For comparable skills (e.g., control vs.
perceptual vs. decision making), it is expected the findings from
fidelity research in aviation should generalize to surface
transportation. However, surface transportation researchers should use
these findings as a springboard for their own domain specific research.

Lesson Learned 8: The relationship between simulation fidelity and
training effectiveness is not a positive, linear relationship. The
simulation industry pushes for higher and higher levels of physical
fidelity. Indeed, as simulation technology continues to evolve,
simulations come ever closer to being exact replicas of the real world
environment. At the current time, high fidelity translates as high
financial cost, and many questions remain regarding the cost-benefit
trade-offs of using high physical fidelity simulations for aviation
training. Research indicates that high fidelity is not necessary to
train certain skills (Jentsch & Bowers, 1998; Koonce & Bramble, 1998).
In terms of surface vehicle driver training, training control tasks such
as braking will require a high level of physical fidelity. On the other
hand, it is likely that for other skills (e.g., risk assessment
training), a lower level of physical will be adequate (Fisher et al.,
2002). Thus, an expensive, high fidelity simulator is not always
required to fulfill training needs. However, more research is needed to
identify the exact relationship between fidelity and training
effectiveness.

Lesson Learned 9: Motion fidelity is not always necessary. Motion
fidelity is the extent to which a simulator replicates the motion cues
actually felt during flight (Kaiser & Schroeder, 2003). In terms of
aviation, motion appears to provide very little to training
effectiveness (Garrison, 1985; Ray, 1996 \[sic\]). While it is likely
that these results generalize to surface transportation to some degree,
the knowledge and skills required for effective driving differ somewhat
from aviation (e.g., consider driving a vehicle over bumpy terrain), and
motion is likely needed to train certain skills. Thus, additional domain
specific research is needed.

Lesson Learned 10: Establishing a standard classification system for
different types of simulations can facilitate collaboration within the
simulation industry. In aviation, levels of simulation are specifically
defined with certifications and regulations regarding necessary fidelity
for training certain skills (e.g., level A, level B, and level C). Using
a classification system of this nature has provided industry and
academia with common terminology to use in simulation design and
evaluation (i.e., everyone is using the same terminology to refer to the
same concepts). In comparing the current simulation work in aviation to
that of surface transportation, aviation has specific standards, but a
simulation classification schema is not apparent in the surface
transportation industry.

Lesson Learned 11: Many opportunities to use simulation exist---be
creative! The aviation industry has moved beyond using simulation only
for pilot training to also using it to train air traffic controllers. In
addition, simulations are helping to design airport layouts, assess
traffic problems, and teach ground workers airport navigation. In
surface transportation, researchers have begun to use simulation to
assess road design (Godley et al., 1997). Indeed, use of simulation
seems limited only by our imagination.

As is the case in aviation training, the surface simulation industry is
facing great challenges and also opportunities to make the roads safer,
more efficient and enjoyable. With the development of technology, many
driving operations become easier and require less effort. Unfortunately,
these same technologies can introduce new opportunities for human error.
The simulation industry must stay abreast of technological advances to
produce up-to-date, effective training in a cost efficient manner. Many
of the questions we posed in this report cannot be answered in a simple
sentence, nor will the answers occur overnight. Instead, continued,
fundamental research remains the key to understanding the human
interaction with the vehicle.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Thesis

**Author:** Boer, Erwin R.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Identification of time varying systems with applications to
adaptive human control

**Academic Department:** Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

**City:** Chicago

**University:** University of Illinois

**Thesis Type:** Doctor of Philosophy

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ir. Twente University, Enschede,
The Netherlands, 1990

**Abstract:** In pursuit to identify an adapting human operator, five
contributions resulted: 1) the Recursive Delay-time Identifier (RDI)
capable of tracking time varying delay simultaneously with linear model
coefficients, 2) an identifiable discrete-time Look Ahead Predictive
Error Correcting (LAPEC) Human Operator Model (HOM) for pursuit and
preview tracking, 3) new insights in human operator adaptation to the
time varying experimental parameters (EPs), i.e. preview length (PV),
reference signal bandwidth (BW) and control plant cutoff frequency
(COF), 4) a set of performance measures that break the standard root
mean squared error up into a shape match and a time shift component, 5)
a set of experimental human operator tracking data collected under a
wide variety of static and time varying conditions.

Application of the RDI to the data obtained under time varying
conditions produced new insights into human operator adaptation. Humans
respond differently to increasing and decreasing experimental
parameters; a hysteresis type response is observed. Detectability
differences plus performance driven adaptation are thought to cause the
observed hysteresis in the sense that the degree to which subjects
perceive a gradual change in the experimental parameter settings depends
on whether it forces them to alter control to maintain a constant
performance level or not. They tend to act on a performance decreasing
change more acutely than one that allows them to maintain similar
strategy without being penalized by a performance drop. This means that
a decrease in preview, an increase in track bandwidth and an increase in
control plant lag are adapted to quickest. These results could not have
been obtained without the availability of the RDI.

The RDI was compared and contrasted with the following four other delay
time tracking methods on simulated and experimental data: segmented
cross correlations, peak to peak delay time estimation, segmented
recursive least squares, and the multiple model approach. In all cases,
the RDI performed equally well or better.

The RDI is based on the extended Kalman filter plus the
Rauch-Tung-Striebel optimal smoother. The human delay time is treated as
a non-linear operator which under the constraint of differentiability of
the input and output signals (i.e. bandlimited signals) can be
identified recursively. Applicability is also constrained by the rate at
which delay time changes. Differentiability is imposed because the input
signal is interpolated with a bicubic interpolation scheme to obtain
fractional delay time estimates. This constraint is weak in the sense
that the RDI shows good performance on stochastic bandlimited data. A
significant advantage of the RDI over other static delay time
identification methods is the fact that the delay time estimated are not
limited to integer multiples of the sampling interval. One of its strong
points is that it estimates delay time based on data sampled at the
maximum available sampling frequency while the linear model coefficients
can be identified on a decimated version of the same data sets to
eliminate discrete time identification problems associated with high
sampling frequencies.

The bicubic interpolation scheme proved superior in estimating subsample
magnitudes and slopes of the track when compared with the truncated
Whittacker interpolation, the third order Taylor expansion, the bicubic
interpolation method, the biquadruple method, linear interpolation and
the second and third order polynomial interpolation methods.

LAPEC- HOM was developed to provide a classical control based intuitive
framework in which all results could be explained. It characterizes
manual pursuit and preview tracking and consists of the following
functional components: 1) visual reference signal processing delay, 2)
visual reference signal filter/predictor, 3) error signal processing in
terms of three different feed back loops, 4) internal model of control
plant, 5) internal processing delay, 7) internal model of the
neuro-muscular dynamics and 8) colored execution noise. LAPEC- HOM
bypasses the identifyability problems associated with Optimal Control
Models (OCMs) and is more flexible than existing classical HOMs. The
predictor/filter component is based on the finding that humans apply
prediction during short preview and visual filtering during long
preview. It is also shown that human\'s equalize the control plant\'s
lag if sufficient preview is available thus suggesting in internal
models of the control plant and neuromuscular dynamics. Sufficient
preview is a function of the human\'s internal processing delay, the
track bandwidth and the control plant dynamics.

The 2D preview tracking experiments were conducted with a fixed vertical
drag velocity, which means that the subjects had no control over the
perceived bandwidth of the track. Tracking was performed in a dark
sound-proof room, whereby the six subjects sat comfortably on a chair 30
inches away from the 19 inch screen holding the springless joy stick
manipulator in the dominant hand with the lower arm supported in the
horizontal position. Stick movement, sampled at 60 Hz, was congruent
with the lateral movement of the cross on the screen, which indicated
the output of the control plant. The reference signal (track) was
represented by a vertical curved line. Part of the experimental design
consisted of developing methods to construct smoothly varying preview,
track bandwidth and control plant dynamics. Twelve different settings of
the EPs were used for statics experiments (PV=0,167,700ms, BW=1.0,0.5Hz,
COF=0.75,2.5Hz) and twenty three combinations of one or two time varying
EPs were selected for the time varying experiments (PV=0-700ms,
BW@1.0-0.25Hz, COF=0.5- 2.5Hz).

To compare the findings with those in the literature, several batch
analyses were performed on the static experiment data. A new performance
measure (RMSSE) was introduced that is defined as the Root Mean Square
(RMS) of the error (RMSE) between the plant output and a realization of
the reference signal that is shifted by the lag (LAG) at which maximum
correlation (XCOR) between the track and the plant output occurs. It is
a true measure of the shape mismatch between the system input and
output. Application of the RMSSE revealed that high bandwidth tracking
(BW=l.0Hz) for zero and 167 ms preview caused a significant increase in
RMSE when the plant\'s lag increases while RMSSE showed no significant
change. The lag did increase significantly indicating that the observed
increase in RMSE was mainly due to an increase lag between the track and
the plant output. This means that a short preview provided the subjects
with enough information to match the reference signal shape very well
but were not able to null the tracking lag. Longer preview allowed for
zero tracking delay for either COF setting.

The principal findings based on the batch analysis are: 1) regardless of
the preview length, a 1.0 Hz track is never tracked as accurately as a
0.5 Hz one as indicated by the fact that all four measures (RMSE, RMSSE,
LAG, XCOR) show a performance decrease for such a change in track
bandwidth, 2) performance increased always when preview changed from 0
to 167 ms while a further increase to 700 ms caused a performance
decrease in two of the less consistent subjects which was a result of
anticipation as well as a decrease in shape match between the track and
the control plant output while performance remained steady for the other
four subjects and 3) a 167 ms preview provides enough look ahead time
and information for further prediction to assure lag -free tracking
except when the control plant introduces a significant lag; in that
case, humans need more preview to equalize this lag (700 ms is
sufficient). These findings were explained from the point of view that
the HO acts as a predictor in his attempt to null his inherent delay
time and equalize the control plant\'s lag.

The Fourier transform obtained bode plots showed good agreement with the
identified ARMAX(2,2,2) model. Humans were found to induce substantially
less noise when preview increased which is expected to be due to a
better trade off between applying control and letting the tracking error
temporarily increase. Furthermore, the cutoff frequencies associated
with the AR portion of the model showed a dramatic decrease as preview
increases resulting in a lower high frequencies gain which supports the
finding that humans apply predictive tracking during low preview and
visual filtering during high preview tracking.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Edited Book

**Editor:** Boff, K.; Kaufman, L.; Thomas, J.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Handbook of perception and human performance

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** John Wiley and Sons

**Volume:** 1

**Number of Volumes:** 2

**Edition:** 1st

**ISBN:** 0-471-88544-4(v.1)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Boldovici, J.A.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Measuring transfer in military settings

**Book Title:** Transfer of learning: Contemporary research and
applications

**Pages:** 239-260

**Number of Pages:** 22

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Boldovici, John A.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Simulator motion

**Date:** September

**Type:** ARI technical report

**Report Number:** 961

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** U.S. Army Research Institute

**Number of Pages:** 37

**Keywords:** simulator motion, force motion cueing, test reliability,
statistical power, testing unsafe tasks, validity of inferences

**Abstract:** This review analyzes the arguments for and against using
various methods of force motion cueing in land-vehicle and aircraft
simulators. Research literature was reviewed and opinions were solicited
from 31 authorities, 24 of whom replied. Analysis of the literature and
of the reasons given by the authorities for and against the use of force
motion cueing indicated the following: 1) no transfer of training data
support using motion-based rather than fixed-base simulators; 2) the
absence of supporting data may be due to the unknown characteristics of
motion used in transfer research, safety considerations that preclude
conducting definitive transfer of training experiments, and deficiencies
in experiments that lead to inadequate statistical power; and 3)
objective examination of the effects of force motion cueing on transfer
to land vehicles and aircraft requires developing and using reliable and
safe tests for assessing the performance of tasks that cannot safely be
performed in parent vehicles. In the absence of transfer data
demonstrating the superiority of fixed-based or motion-based simulators,
analyses to identify discriminative stimuli are recommended. The report
presents algorithms for deciding for which tasks the use of force motion
cueing in training is likely to facilitate transfer to parent vehicles
and for deciding whether seat shakers, g-seats, or motion bases are
sufficient to provide discriminative stimuli for task performance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bolton, Martin J. P.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** A high resolution visual system for the simulation of
in-flight refueling

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Research Engineer, Redifon
Simulation Ltd., Gatwick Road, Crawley, West Sussex RH10 2RL, England

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Keywords:** simulation, in flight refueling

**Abstract:** This paper describes a unique visual system, developed for
the simulation of the in-flight refueling task; it incorporates both
wide bandwidth and computer generated image (CGI) techniques. After a
brief review of the in-flight refueling task and the simulation
requirements, Redifon's previous experience in this field is outlined
and the overall design of the latest visual system is described.

Particular attention is paid to the problem of providing the essential
visual information within the constraints of cost and available
technology. An important part of this visual system is the "special
effects unit," which provides all video processing and image generation
functions under the control of an autonomous computer.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Boothe, Edward M.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** A case for simulator motion standards

**Conference Name:** European Forum on Matching Technology to Training
Requirements

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Federal Aviation Administration,
National Simulator Program, Atlanta, GA

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** The Federal Aviation Administration, the Civil Aviation
Authority of the United Kingdom, and other aviation authorities require
that simulators used in pilot training and checking be equipped with a
motion base. The purpose, of course, is to provide the needed onset cues
during pilot licensing and performance assessment. There is data to
support the concept that pilot performance is improved when motion cues
are available versus pilot performance in fixed-based devices. Data that
are available are often disputed. In fact, discussions intended to
address standards and testing of simulator motion systems are usually
terminated without conclusion. Such discussions seem to quickly
degenerate into emotional arguments about the need or worth of motion at
all. Opinion seems to be about 50 percent for and 50 percent against
motion. Proponents of airborne or in-flight simulation, however, cite
the adverse influence that lack of motion has on pilot performance as a
justification for in-flight simulation. Likely, such arguments will
continue. The regulatory authorities have, however, taken the
conservative position of \"motion required.\" It is important,
therefore, to properly specify the motion system characteristics so as
to provide the appropriate cues and minimize any false cues.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Boothe, Edward M.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Simulation realism, cost and benefits

**Conference Name:** Information Technology Exposition and Conference
(ITEC)

**Date:** April 8

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Manager, Federal Aviation
Administration, National Simulator Program

**Number of Pages:** 8

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Boothe, Edward M.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** The requirement for high quality data for flight simulators

**City:** Stone Mountain, GA

**Institution:** Flight Simulation and Training

**Date:** May

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Consultant, Flight Simulation and
Training, Stone Mountain, GA

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** There are several categories of data required for flight
simulator modeling and validation including aerodynamic, flight control
engine, aircraft systems, terrain and, of course, dimensional. Each is
important, each contributes to the quality of simulation and none can be
neglected. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the [Advanced
Simulation Plan]{.underline}, however, emphasized the aerodynamic data
and reiterated the emphasis in Advisory Circular (AC) 120-40B. The new
international standards published by The Royal Aeronautical Society also
emphasize aerodynamic data. In fact, all except aerodynamic data are
hardly mentioned in these documents or are simply required by inference
in statements such as \"a full scale replica of the airplane simulated\"
or \"systems must simulate the applicable airplane systems operation.\"
The International Air Transport Association design and performance data
requirements reflect the same aerodynamic data importance. This emphasis
has stimulated the acquisition of much higher quality data for simulator
aerodynamic modeling and validation.

The emphasis on aerodynamic data and simulator validation is well
justified based on the permitted use of flight simulators. Total pilot
training and certification, requiring no additional training in an
airplane, is permitted and has become common practice among airlines.
This practice demands that a simulator provoke proper pilot responses
which in turn demands a continuous mathematical model and quality data
to describe the airplane and its systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** Boothe, Edward M.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Appendix 7: Level B motion and aerodynamics tests
requirements

**Date:** November 11

**Type of Work:** Draft

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Notes:** Appendix to FAA/Industry Symposium on Aeromodel Transcript,
Bürki-Cohen (ed.) (1996). See http://www.volpe.dot.gov/opsad/pubs.html

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Borah, J.; Young, L. R.; Curry, R. E.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Sensory mechanism modeling

**Institution:** Air Force Human Systems Laboratory

**Pages:** 1-85

**Type:** Interim Report

**Report Number:** AFHRL-TR-77-70

**Number of Pages:** 86

**Keywords:** flight simulation, motion perception, orientation
perception, optimal estimation, sensory system modeling, neural sensory
receptors, vestibular sensors, tactile sensors, proprioceptive sensors,
visual effects, motion effects, linearvection, circularvection

**Abstract:** Pilots use information from a variety of sensory
mechanisms to determine their estimate of orientation and motion. An
understanding of this process and a quantitative model are essential for
development of effective simulator motion cueing devices. A multisensory
model for dynamic spatial orientation is being developed for this
purpose. Aircraft or simulator motion is translated into stimuli which
are processed by dynamic models of the appropriate sensors (visual,
vestibular, tactile, and proprioceptive), and are then fed to a central
estimator which has been modeled as a linear optimal estimator,
specifically a steady state Kalman Filter. In addition to the linear
estimation process, some non-linear effects, such as the well documented
delay in onset of visually induced motion, require non-linear additions
to the model. Such additions have been kept to a minimum so as to retain
the uniqueness and conceptual appeal of a linear optimization algorithm.

The model has been implemented as a computer program and has predicted
some of the important qualitative characteristics of human dynamic
spatial orientation under combined wide field visual motion and platform
motion. Several types of special tactile and proprioceptive cues are
also being considered but have not been validated.

The modeling effort has underscored the need for additional data in some
areas and several experiments have been suggested to help fill these
gaps.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Borah, Joshua; Young, Laurence; Curry, Renwick

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Sensory mechanism modeling

**City:** Ohio

**Institution:** Advanced Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Airforce Base

**Date:** October

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** AFHRL-TR-78-83

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Gulf + Western, Applied Science
Laboratories, 335 Bear Hill Road, Waltham, MA 02154

**Number of Pages:** 85

**Keywords:** flight simulation, motion perception, orientation
perception, optimal estimation, sensory system modeling, neural sensory
receptors, vestibular sensors, tactile sensors, proprioceptive sensors,
visual effects, motion effects, linearvection, circularvection

**Abstract:** Pilots use information from a variety of sensory
mechanisms to determine their estimate of orientation and motion. An
understanding of this process and quantitative model are essential for
the development of effective simulator motion cueing devices. A
multisensory model for dynamic spatial orientation is being developed
for this purpose.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Bos, J. E.; Bles, W.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Modeling motion sickness and subjective vertical mismatch
detailed for vertical motions

**Journal:** Brain Research Bulletin

**Volume:** 47

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 537-542

**Date:** January 24

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** In an attempt to predict the amount of motion sickness
given any kind of motion stimulus, we describe a model using explicit
knowledge of the vestibular system. First, the generally accepted
conflict theory is restated in terms of a conflict between a vertical as
perceived by the sense organs like the vestibular system and the
subjective vertical as determined on the basis of previous experience.
Second, this concept is integrated with optimal estimation theory by the
use of an internal model. If detailed for vertical motions only, the
model does predict typical observed motion sickness characteristics,
irrespective the parameter setting. By adjusting the nonvestibular
parameters, the model can also quantitatively be adapted to seasickness
data from the literature. With this concept, sickness severity
hypothetically can also be predicted for other motions, irrespective of
their origin and complexity.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Boser, Robert J.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** What is the status of the solution to the B-737 rudder design
defect? Is the problem solved?

**Periodical Title:** AirlineSafety.com

**Date Accessed:** October 17, 2006

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Editor-in-Chief, AirlineSafety.Com

**Keywords:** B737, rudder, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** \[What is the status of the solution to the B-737 rudder
design defect? Is the problem solved?\] Yes, and no. Redesigned control
units are being installed and pilots have been trained to \"fly around\"
the problem in the interim. But, until they completely redesign the
rudder so that it is controlled by at least two separate PCUs, like
other airliners, I will not be satisfied the \"fix\" is sufficient to
prevent any possible repetitions of previous incidents/accidents.

**URL:** <http://www.airlinesafety.com/faq/B-737Rudder.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bowen, Shane A.; Oakley, Brian P.; Barnett, John S.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Effects of motion on skill acquisition in future simulators

**Institution:** United States Army Research Institute for the
Behavioral and Social Sciences

**Pages:** 1-24

**Date:** May

**Report Number:** 2006-07

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bowen and Oakley: Micro Analysis
and Design, Inc.

Barnett: U.S. Army Research Institute

**Number of Pages:** 24

**Keywords:** training, motion-based simulation, human performance,
simulator sickness

**Abstract:** In order to develop recommendations for the use of motion
in ground vehicle simulators, a thorough literature review was
conducted. Literature on motion cueing theories as well as basic and
applied research in the use of motion in simulation was examined. A
particular focus was paid to research on the effects of motion cueing on
transfer of training from both ground vehicle and aircraft simulators.
From the information gathered in the literature reviews on motion
cueing, recommendations for the use of motion in ground vehicle training
simulation were developed. In addition to motion cueing factors,
theories and applied research on motion sickness were also investigated.
As motion sickness holds the potential to significantly affect
performance both in a simulator and in an actual ground vehicle, it was
considered important to develop recommendations for the use of simulator
motion to mitigate these effects. Guidelines were developed from the
information gathered in this review for the use of simulator motion in
training to diminish the effects of motion sickness.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Bradley, Perry

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Advanced CRM: A trial program attempts to go a step further
to help all pilots fly like the best pilots

**Magazine:** Business & Commercial Aviation

**Pages:** 62-66

**Date:** June

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** CRM, ACRM, ACA, NTSB

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bradshaw, Gary; Taylor, Henry; Lintern, Gavan; Talleur, Don

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** The potential of subjective estimates of transfer

**Institution:** Aviation Research Lab (ARL)

**Date:** May

**Report Number:** Technical Report ARL-99-6

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Aviation Research Lab Institute of
Aviation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1 Airport Road,
Savoy, Illinois 61874

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Innovative Technologies
Corporation, Dayton, OH

**URL:**
<http://www.humanfactors.uiuc.edu/Reports&PapersPDFs/TechReport/99-06.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Braithwaite, M.G; Durnford, S.J; Rosado, N.R

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Spatial disorientation in U.S Army rotary-wing operations

**Journal:** Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine (ASEM)

**Volume:** 69

**Pages:** 1031-1037

**Date:** November

**Abstract:** This paper describes two surveys concerning spatial
disorientation (SO) in U.S. Army rotary-wing operations that sought to
assess the hazard and to identify recommendations to control it. One
survey was of accident records, and the other was of aircrew
experiences. Both surveys highlighted the magnitude of the problem. The
accident survey showed that 30% of class A to C accidents involved SO as
a significant factor, while the aircrew survey showed that 78% of
aircrews have been disoriented (8% to the extent that flight safety was
threatened). Both surveys showed a significant increase in SO associated
with combat operations. Several differences between the two surveys were
noted: 90% of the reviewed accidents were thought to involve type I
(unrecognized) SO compared with only 43% of the reported incidents; both
pilots in a particular aircraft were considered to have been disoriented
in at least 59% of accidents compared with 23% of incidents; sudden loss
of visual cues (\"brownout,\" \"whiteout,\" or inadvertent entry to
instrument meteorological conditions) accounted for 25% of SO accidents
compared with 13% of incidents; and 62% of the accidents occurred at
night compared with only 36% of incidents. Neither survey showed any
association between SO and fatigue or other human factors. The results
of both surveys suggested that crew coordination, alerting devices
(e.g., audio warnings on the radar altimeter), flight information
displays, and autopilot functions would be good targets for improvement.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Brandt, T.; Dichgans, J.; Koenig, E.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** Differential effects of central versus peripheral vision on
egocentric and exocentric motion perception

**Journal:** Experimental Brain Research

**Volume:** 16

**Pages:** 476-491

**Number of Pages:** 16

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**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Brauser, K.; Seifert, R.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Computer simulation studies on human control reliability

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30 - October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm GmbH,
Ergonomics and Cockpit System LKE 301, Postfach 80 11 60, D-8000 München
80

**Number of Pages:** 10-1 - 10-19

**Keywords:** human control reliability, task taxonomy

**Abstract:** Pilot Induced Oscillations usually are defined as a
sensitive indication of bad handling qualities. In the view of human
performance reliability, PIOs are related to input errors with respect
to the control characteristics of the controlled system. It has been
learnt that this is a special aspect to the general rule that man will
make errors while performing an arbitrary task under the influence of
possible \"performance shaping factors\" (PSFs).

A recently developed \"Task Taxonomy Method\" is used as a tool for
assessment of Human Error Probabilities (HEP) depending quantitatively
on the effects of performance shaping factors (PSF) like task dimensions
and characteristics, operator characteristics, system characteristics
and environment factors. Using this Task Taxonomy procedure, HEP values
for manual aircraft control tasks have been calculated. HEP values are
drastically increased (0.5 - 0.9) by the influence of bad handling
qualities while good handling qualities only reduce the HEP value to
0.1, because other PSFs may remain active. Therefore PIO incidents
remain possible, even in aircraft with good handling qualities. This has
been demonstrated by means of SAINT computer simulations using
appropriate HEP values.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

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**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bray, R. S.

**Year:** 1972

**Title:** Initial operating experience with an aircraft simulator
having extensive lateral motion

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Pages:** 1-21

**Date:** May

**Type:** Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** NASA TM X-62,155

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 22

**Abstract:** Late in 1969, a new research flight simulation facility,
termed the Flight Simulator for Advanced Aircraft, was put into
operation at Ames Research Center. This facility features an extensive
cockpit motion system, emphasizing lateral motion for the simulation of
lateral-directional control tasks. This paper describes briefly the
motion capabilities of the simulator, and describes in some detail the
logic with which the motion drives are controlled to provide the most
effective approximations of the motion of flight. Preliminary
assessments of the effectiveness of these motions, in the simulation of
large transport aircraft, are discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Bray, Richard S.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** A study of vertical motion requirements for landing
simulation

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 15

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 561-568

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ames Research Center, NASA, Moffett
Field, CA

**Abstract:** Tests were conducted to determine the significance of
vertical acceleration cues in the simulation of the visual approach to
landing maneuver. Landing performance measures were obtained for four
subject pilots operating a visual landing simulation mechanized in the
Ames Height Control Test Apparatus, a device that provides up to +/-40
ft. of vertical motion. Test results indicate that vertical motion cues
are utilized in the landing task, and that they are particularly
important in the simulation of aircraft with marginal
longitudinal-handling qualities. To assure vertical motion cues of the
desired fidelity in the landing task, it appears that a simulator must
have excursion capabilities of at least +/-20 ft.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bray, Richard S.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Visual and motion cueing in helicopter simulation

**Conference Name:** AGARD Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30-October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** visual and motion cueing, helicopter simulation, fidelity,
cockpit motion, washout

**Abstract:** For the past decade, helicopter handling qualities have
been the subject of piloted-simulator programs at Ames Research Center.
Early experience in fixed-cockpit simulators, with limited field of
view, demonstrated the basic difficulties of simulating helicopter
flight at the level of subjective fidelity required for confident
evaluation of the vehicle characteristics. More recent programs
utilizing large-amplitude cockpit motion and a multiwindow
visual-simulation system have received a much higher degree of pilot
acceptance However, none of these simulations has presented critical
visual-flight tasks that have been accepted by pilots as the full
equivalent of flight. In this paper, the visual cues presented in the
simulator are compared with those of flight in an attempt to identify
deficiencies that may contribute significantly to these assessments. It
is suggested that a non-optimum distribution of field-of-view elements,
coupled with a severe lack of near-field detail, compromises the pilots
sensing of transitional rates relative to nearby terrain or landing
surface. For the low-amplitude maneuvering tasks normally associated
with the hover mode, the unique motion capabilities of the Vertical
Motion Simulator (VMS) at Ames Research Center permit nearly a full
representation of vehicle motion. Especially appreciated in these tasks
are the vertical-acceleration responses to collective control. For
larger-amplitude maneuvering, motion fidelity must suffer diminution
through direct attenuation or through high-pass filtering \"washout\" of
the computer cockpit accelerations or both. Experiments were conducted
in an attempt to determine the effects of these distortions on pilot
performance of height-control tasks. Results revealed that in holding
position in the presence of vertical disturbances, pilot control-gain
and resultant open-loop crossover frequency were significantly depressed
as the fidelity of vertical motion was reduced. In height-tracking of a
moving reference, gain and crossover were not greatly affected, but
phase margin and tracking performance improved with motion fidelity.
Pilot-opinion ratings of varied vertical-response characteristics were
significantly modified by changes in motion-cue fidelity.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bresee, J. S.; O\'Neal, A. F.; Jennings, J. S.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Establishing relationships between flight data parameter
values and instructor evaluations of performance for selected advanced
qualification program qualification standards

**Conference Name:** International Training & Education Conference
(ITEC)

**Conference Location:** Lausanne, Switzerland

**Date:** April 28-30

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** Flight Operations Quality Assurance (FOQA), Automated
Performance Management System (APMS), Advanced Qualification Program
(APQ)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Breuhaus, Waldemar O.; Harper, Robert P.

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** The selection of tasks and subjects of flight simulation
experiments

**Conference Name:** Simulation

**Conference Location:** Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** March

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Breuhaus: Aerosciences Division
Director, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, NY 14221

Harper: Assistant Head, Flight Research Department, Cornell Aeronautical
Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, NY 14221

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Keywords:** flight simulation, task selection

**Abstract:** The fundamental, underlying purpose of flight simulation
experiments is to estimate the results of a real-world evaluation of the
flight problem that is being simulated. Many factors are important in
the design of the simulation experiment, and it is essential that these
factors be identified and dealt with. This paper considers two important
areas: the selection of the simulation tasks, and the selection and
preparation of the evaluation subjects.

The limitations of various simulators directly affect the simulation
tasks which can be performed and, hence, affect the validity of the
evaluation results obtained. The ability of simulator pilots to produce
valid and repeatable evaluations which are applicable to the real-world
situation can be no better than the accuracy with which the simulator
tasks represent the essential characteristics of the real world.
Unfortunately, this paper does not propose to set forth these sought-for
necessities\--it is beyond the knowledge of the authors to do so.
Instead, certain considerations in the selection of simulator tasks are
discussed, and problems are set forth which should be considered
explicitly in the design of simulation experiments.

The selection and preparation of evaluation pilots are discussed in
terms of the factors which appear to have substantial effects upon the
program results. Experience in the real-world mission is one of several
key elements which greatly enhances the evaluation results, and is
discussed as an aid in bridging the gap to the real world. The
discussion of the preparation of subjects considers the importance and
nature of communication between the subject pilot and the analyst, and
participation of the subjects in the experimental design.

**Notes:** Lead discussion by A. Filisetti and A. D. Brown. Also
contains an open discussion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** British Standards Institution

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Quality management systems - Requirements

**Institution:** International Standards Organization

**Date:** December

**Type:** Standards

**Report Number:** ISO 901:2000

**Number of Pages:** 40

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Brock, John F.; Jacobs, Cynthia; Van Cott, Harold; McCauley,
Michae ; Norstrom, David M.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Simulators and bus safety: Guidelines for acquiring and using
transit bus operator driving simulators

**City:** Washington, D.C.

**Institution:** Transit Cooperative Research Program

Transportation Research Board - National Research Council

**Report Number:** TCRP Report 72

**Number of Pages:** 29+appendix+glossary

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Brown, Charles D.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Current deficiencies in simulation for training

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Colonel, United States Air Force,
Tactical Air Warfare Center (USAFTAWC)

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** flight simulation, deficiencies

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Brown, Yorke J.; Cardullo, Frank M.; McMillan, Grant R. ;
Riccio, Gary E.; Sinacori, John B.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** New approaches to motion cueing in flight simulators

**City:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

**Date:** September

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** AL-TR-1991-0139

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Brown, Cardullo, McMillan, Riccio:
Cardullo, Brown, & Associates, State University of New York

Sinacori: John B. Sinacori Associates, University of Illinois

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Armstrong Laboratory, Crew
Systems Directorate, Human Engineering Division, Human Systems Center,
Air Force Systems Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7022

**Keywords:** motion cueing

**Abstract:** A study was conducted to investigate new approaches in
motion simulation. The study developed a conceptual model of pilot
control of an aircraft. This model was subsequently used in a
\"need-based\" analysis of motion cueing devices. This analysis
technique involved a frequency domain representation of aircraft
maneuvers, pilot perception of these maneuvers, and pilot perception of
the cues from various simulator cueing devices. The analysis led to an
assessment founded upon principles of pilot perception and behavior. An
analysis task was performed on a pop-up attack in an F-4 aircraft to
generate the aircraft maneuver time histories and pilot cue matrix. The
results were used in a frequency domain analysis to determine the value
of cueing devices for particular portions of the maneuver. The study
investigated various cueing techniques beginning with proposed
optimization of existing devices and proceeding to discuss several new
techniques such as vibromyesthetic stimulation and direct electrical
stimulation of nerves and muscles. The report concludes with
recommendations for (1) future work employing the newly developed
analytical technique and (2) experimentation with selected new devices
to determine their cueing value.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Brown, Yorke J.; Cardullo, Frank M.; Sinacori, John B.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Need-based evaluation of simulator force and motion cueing
devices

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Boston, MA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Brown: Member of AIAA, Cardullo,
Brown and Associates, Binghamton, NY

Cardullo: Member of AIAA, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY

Sinacori: Member of AIAA, John B. Sinacori Associates, Pebble Beach, CA

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** pilot sensation of motion cues, force and motion cueing,
mission profile, aircraft response, pilot sensory system response, and
simulator cueing device performance

**Abstract:** Since aircraft\--and particularly military aircraft\--can
produce sustained periods of significant acceleration, whereas ground
based simulators cannot, the technical problem of providing faithful
force and motion cues in a simulator is particularly difficult. Many
force and motion cueing strategies and devices have been proposed, and
many have been tested, but opinion remains divided as to the
effectiveness of, or even the need for, such equipment. We have
developed a method for analyzing the dynamic properties of force and
motion cueing in terms of the relationship between the pilot sensation
of motion cues involved in typical aircraft maneuvers and the pilot
sensation of the corresponding synthetic cues produced by a simulator
equipped with force and motion cueing devices. This analytic method will
serve to characterize the applicability of available devices, indicate
areas of fruitful development of new technologies, and guide research
aimed at resolving applicability and usefulness issues. The analytic
technique involves identifying the motions typical of operational flight
maneuvers and then characterizing the pilot's sensory response to the
resulting accelerations and forces in the frequency domain. When a
corresponding spectrum for the sensation of synthetic stimuli is
overlaid, quantitative comparisons may be made. The analysis effectively
integrates the relevant effects of mission profile, aircraft response,
pilot sensory system response, and simulator cueing device performance
into a unified graphical presentation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Brunt, Mark A.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Use of VDU\'s \[sic\] by flight simulator instructors

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30 - October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Factors Consultant, Research
& Development Department, Rediffusion Simulation Limited, Gatwick Road,
Crawley, RH10 2RL, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** VDU, flight simulator instructors

**Abstract:** This paper compares the development of VDU-based simulator
instructor stations with some Ergonomics \[sic\] rules, and provides a
discussion around design aims and practical experience. Further rules
are developed to establish a baseline for designers, procurers and users
of instructor stations.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bryant, Richard Barry; Douglass, D. Scott; Ewart, Ronald;
Slutz, Jeff Gary

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Dynamic latency measurement using the Simulator Network
Analysis Project (SNAP)

**City:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

**Institution:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bryant, Douglass, Ewart: WL/FIGD,
2180 8th St., WPAFB, OH 45433

Slutz: EAI Services, Division of Halifax Corporation, 2180 8th St.,
WPAFB, OH 45433

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Keywords:** SNAP, simulator network analysis project, network
latencies, simulation accuracy, protocol data units, network delays,
EVDAS, electronic visual display altitude sensor, distributed
interactive simulation

**Abstract:** This document outlines the SNAP project, its goals, its
requirements, hardware and software, the verification and the
experiments involved.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Buffett, A. R.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Visual cueing requirements in flight simulation

**Conference Name:** RAeS Advances in Flight Simulation - Visual and
Motion Systems

**Number of Pages:** 31

**Abstract:** The aim of this lecture is to examine the requirements for
visual cueing in flight simulators and the principles on which the
provision of such cues are based. The information needs and perceptual
capabilities of the human operators will necessarily be considered,
along with the nature of the tasks for which the simulators may be used.
This will indicate the particular cues which would ideally be provided
in specific situations, and the extent to which current simulator visual
systems are able to meet such requirements.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bull, John; Mah, Robert; Davis, Gloria; Conley, Joe; Hardy,
Gordon; Gibson, Jim; Blake, Matthew; Bryant, Don; Williams, Diane

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Piloted simulation tests of propulsion control as backup to
loss of primary flight controls for a mid-size jet transport

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** December

**Type:** NASA Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** NASA TM-110374

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bull - CAELUM Research Corporation

Mah, Davis, Conley, Hardy, Blake - NASA Ames Research Center

Gibson - Recom Technologies

Bryant, Williams - ManTech/NSI Technology Services Corporation

**Number of Pages:** 32

**Keywords:** propulsion control, jet transport, piloted simulation

**Abstract:** Failures of aircraft primary flight-control systems to
aircraft during flight have led to catastrophic accidents with
subsequent loss of lives (e.g., DC-10 crash, B-747 crash, C-5 crash,
B-52 crash, and others). Dryden Flight Research Center (DFRC)
investigated the use of engine thrust for emergency flight control of
several airplanes, including the B-720, Lear 24, F-15, C-402, and B-747.
A series of three piloted simulation tests have been conducted at Ames
Research Center to investigate propulsion control for safely landing a
medium size jet transport which has experienced a total primary
flight-control failure. The first series of tests was completed in July
1992 and defined the best interface for the pilot commands to drive the
engines. The second series of tests was completed in August 1994 and
investigated propulsion controlled aircraft (PCA) display requirements
and various command modes. The third series of tests was completed in
May 1995 and investigated PCA full-flight envelope capabilities. This
report describes the concept of a PCA, discusses pilot controls,
displays, and procedures; and presents the results of piloted simulation
evaluations of the concept by a cross-section of air transport pilots.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Burcham, Frank W. Jr.; Maine, Trindel A.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Using engine thrust for emergency flight control: MD-11 and
B-747 results

**City:** Edwards, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** May

**Report Number:** NASA/TM-1998-206552

**Number of Pages:** 27

**Abstract:** With modern digital control systems, using engine thrust
for emergency flight control to supplement or replace failed aircraft
normal flight controls has become a practical consideration. The NASA
Dryden Flight Research Center has developed a propulsion-controlled
aircraft (PCA) system in which computer-controlled engine thrust
provides emergency flight control. An F-15 and an MD-11 airplane have
been landed without using any flight control surfaces. Preliminary
studies have also been conducted that show that engines on only one wing
can provide some flight control capability if the lateral center of
gravity can be shifted toward the side of the airplane that has the
operating engine(s). Simulator tests of several airplanes with no flight
control surfaces operating and all engines out on the left wing have all
shown positive control capability within the available range of lateral
center-of-gravity offset. Propulsion-controlled aircraft systems that
can operate without modifications to engine control systems, thus
allowing PCA technology to be installed on less capable airplanes or at
low cost, are also desirable. Further studies have examined simplified
\"PCA Lite\" and \"PCA Ultralite\" concepts in which thrust control is
provided by existing systems such as autothrottles or a combination of
existing systems and manual pilot control.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Burcham, Patricia M.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Motion sickness literature search

**Institution:** Army Research Laboratory (ARL)

**Report Number:** ARL-MR-504

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Research & Engineering
Directorate, Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD
21005-5425

**Keywords:** motion sickness, simulator sickness

**Abstract:** A review of the literature about motion-induced cognitive
and perceptual decrements and about motion sickness was conducted to
identify screening methods and mitigation techniques to gain estimates
of the portion of population affected. Screening and mitigation
techniques that show promise for indirect driving will be evaluated in
imminent laboratory and field experiments.

**URL:**
<http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA402963>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** An analysis of tower (ground) controller - pilot voice
communications

**City:** Washington, DC

**Date:** November

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/AR-96/19

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/ground2.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Say again? How complexity and format of air traffic control
instructions affect pilot recall

**Conference Name:** 40th Annual Air Traffic Control Association
Convention

**Conference Location:** Las Vegas, Nevada

**Date:** September 10-14

**Abstract:** Until recently, controllers were required to communicate
all numerical air traffic control (ATC) information in sequential
format, that is, digit by digit. For example, an altitude of 17,000 ft
had to be transmitted as \"Climb to one seven thousand.\" According to
the latest versions of the Air Traffic Control handbook (7110.65G),
however, controllers may restate altitude clearances in grouped format
as \"seventeen thousand\" after giving them in sequential format.
Although controllers appear to generally agree that grouping numbers
improves recall, there is no direct scientific evidence to support this
belief.

This study compared the recall of ATC information presented in either
grouped or sequential format in a part-task simulation. It also tested
the effect of complexity of ATC clearances on recall, that is, how many
pieces of information a single transmission may contain without
resulting in a readback error.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/atcafinal.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** How to say it and how much: The effect of format and
complexity on pilot recall of air traffic control clearances

**Editor:** Kanki, B.G.; Prinzo, V.O.

**Book Title:** Methods and Metrics of Voice Communications

**Volume:** DOT/FAA/AM-96/10

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Meeting Transcript

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.

**Year of Meeting:** 1996

**Title:** Transcript of the joint FAA/industry symposium on level B
airplane simulator aeromodel validation requirements

**Meeting** **Name:** Joint FAA/Industry Symposium on Level B Airplane
Simulator Aeromodel Validation Requirements

**Meeting** **Location:** Washington Dulles Airport Hilton

**Publisher:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date of Meeting:** March 13-14

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/valreqma.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Meeting Transcript

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.

**Year of Meeting:** 1996

**Title:** Transcript of the joint FAA/industry symposium on level B
airplane simulator motion requirements

**Meeting** **Name:** Joint FAA/Industry Symposium on Level B Airplane
Simulator Motion Requirements

**Meeting** **Location:** Washington Dulles Airport Hilton

**Publisher:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date of Meeting:** June 19-20

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/valreqju.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Evidence for the need of realistic radio communications for
airline pilot simulator training and evaluation

**Conference Name:** International Conference Simulation of the
Environment

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** November 5-6

**Abstract:** This paper presents arguments in favor of realistic
representation of radio communications during training and evaluation of
airline pilots in the simulator. A survey of airlines showed that radio
communications are mainly role-played by Instructor/Evaluators (I/Es),
which increases I/E workload but reduces pilot workload. Opinions
gathered from I/Es and the literature indicate that this may lead to
inadequate preparation of pilots to handle the complex
radio-communications environment encountered in the air. A look at
incidents during Initial Operating Experience (IOE) in revenue service
via a review of the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) give
additional support to this hypothesis. The paper concludes with a
discussion of industry and airline efforts to find alternative means to
provide realistic radio communications.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/raes-2003.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.; Boothe, E.M.; Soja, N.N.; DiSario, R.; Go,
T. H.; Longridge, T.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Simulator fidelity: The effect of platform motion

**Conference Name:** International Conference Flight Simulation\--The
Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Volpe Center Flight Deck Human
Factors

**Abstract:** This research is part of the Federal Aviation
Administration\'s (FAA) initiative towards promoting affordable flight
simulators for U.S. commuter airline training. This initiative becomes
even more important as the FAA is considering regulatory action that
will mandate the use of simulators for all air carrier flight-crew
training and qualification. Consequently, sound scientific data on the
relationship between certain simulator features such as platform motion
and their effect on the transfer of pilot performance and behavior to
and from the respective airplane become very important. The present
study examined the effect of platform motion (i.e., FAA qualified Level
C six-degree-of-freedom synergistic motion) in the presence of a
high-quality wide-angle visual system on 1) pilot performance and
behavior for evaluation prior to any repeated practice or training, 2)
the course of training in the simulator, and 3) the transfer of skills
acquired during training in the simulator with or without motion to the
simulator with motion as a stand-in for the airplane (quasi-transfer
design). Every effort was made to avoid deficiencies in the research
design identified in a review of prior studies, by measuring pilot
stimulation and response, testing both maneuvers and pilots that are
diagnostic of a need of motion, avoiding pilot and instructor bias, and
ensuring sufficient statistical power to capture operationally relevant
effects. Results of the analyses and their implications are presented in
this paper.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/raes-2000.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.; Go, T. H.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** The effect of simulator motion cues on initial training of
airline pilots

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** San Francisco, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 15-18

**Abstract:** Two earlier studies conducted in the framework of the
Federal Aviation Administration/Volpe Flight Simulator Human Factors
Program examining the effect of simulator motion on recurrent training
and evaluation of airline pilots have found that in the presence of a
state-of-the-art visual systems, motion provided by a
six-degree-of-freedom platform-motion system only minimally affected
evaluation, and did not benefit training, of pilots that were familiar
with the airplane. This paper gives preliminary results of a study on
the effect of simulator platform motion on initial training of airline
pilots that have never flown the simulated airplane.

**Notes:** First, the study confirmed the small but statistically
significant alerting effect of motion found in the recurrent study with
enhanced motion although for initial training, the effect was only
marginally significant. Even forewarned of an engine failure, pilots
without motion cues remained unable to respond to an engine failure on
take-off as fast as pilots with motion cues. It also showed, however,
that like experienced pilots, pilots unfamiliar with the motion cues
encountered in the airplane were able to catch up immediately once they
receive motion cues, in other words, they did not have to be trained
with motion to recognize the cues signaling an engine failure on
takeoff. During the transfer portion of the study, all pilots responded
equally fast for the V1 cut, regardless of the simulator configuration
employed during training. With platform motion, the no-motion trained
pilots improved significantly in response time, presumably because the
motion cues alerted them to the engine failure.

Second, for the V1 cut only, motion appeared to help pilots to keep the
column steady, which in turn helped them with airspeed\--but not pitch
angle-control. Recurrent pilots in the simulator with enhanced motion
had controlled pitch angle better with motion, but only during the very
first exposure to the V1 cut. Already with the second V1 cut, which was
still flown without motion by the no-motion group, the difference
between groups was gone. For both studies, the effects were small, and
their operational relevance will need to be assessed by the operators
themselves.

Third, although both groups improved on many variables for the ILS
approach between training and transfer of training, the only group
effect found was steadier pedal control for the no-motion group
throughout. The recurrent study with enhanced motion had also found an
overall steadier control strategy for the no-motion group, but for the
wheel, not for the pedal. Also, the improved flight precision without
motion found for recurrent pilots was not replicated with initial
pilots.

Fourth, participants\' perceptions did not indicate a marked preference
for either of the two conditions. Most importantly, again there was no
evidence that the sensory conflict between eyes and vestibular apparatus
induced discomfort in the no-motion condition.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/aiaa-2005-6109.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.; Go, T. H.; Chung, W. W.; Schroeder, J.;
Jacobs, S.; Longridge, T.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Simulator fidelity requirements for airline pilot training
and evaluation continued: An update on motion requirements research

**Conference Name:** International Symposium on Aviation Psychology
(ISAP)

**Conference Location:** Dayton, OH

**Date:** April 14-17

**Abstract:** Preliminary results are presented on the effect of
enhanced hexapod motion on airline pilot recurrent evaluation, training,
and transfer of training to the simulator with motion as a stand-in for
the airplane (quasi-transfer). A first study, which tested \"as is\"
motion in an FAA qualified full flight simulator, had not found any
effect of motion. Under the enhanced motion conditions of the present
study many effects of motion emerged that have not been previously shown
in the airline-pilot training and evaluation context, indicating that
motion may be required at least for pilot evaluation purposes. The
implications of the results for recurrent training are also discussed.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/isap-2003.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.; Go, Tiauw H.; Longridge, Thomas

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Flight simulator fidelity considerations for total airline
pilot training and evaluation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Montreal, Canada

**Publisher:** American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 6-9

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** This paper presents the FAA/Volpe Center\'s Flight
Simulator Fidelity Research Program, which is part of the Federal
Aviation Administration\'s effort to promote effectiveness, availability
and affordability of flight simulators. This initiative will become
increasingly critical with the anticipated regulatory changes mandating
the use of simulators in airline pilot training and evaluation,
dramatically reduced pilot new-hire experience levels and growing
operational complexity. Two research areas with high pay-off potential
for this effort are radio communications and platform motion simulation.
Initial results suggest that to be fully effective in training and
evaluating the cognitive and workload skills associated with radio
communications, significant improvements in radio communications realism
are needed. Initial research on the training effectiveness of a
fixed-base simulator with a wide field-of-view visual system compared to
a like system having platform motion failed to find an operationally
significant effect of motion. Follow-up work will examine whether this
result was a function of the motion characteristics or the maneuvers
tested. No changes in regulatory requirements can be expected without
absolute confidence in the reliability and validity of the results,
requiring considerable additional research in both areas.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/aiaa-2001-4425.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.; Kendra, Andrew J.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Air traffic control in airline pilot simulator training and
evaluation

**Journal:** Air Traffic Control Quarterly

**Volume:** 9

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 229-253

**Abstract:** Much airline pilot training and checking occurs entirely
in the simulator, and the first time a pilot flies a particular
airplane, it may carry passengers. Simulator qualification standards,
however, focus on the simulation of the airplane without reference to
the air traffic environment. This paper describes research examining the
question of whether simulator pilot training and evaluation would
benefit from improved simulation of radio communications. First,
existing radio communication simulation practices were investigated.
Second, opinions from instructors/evaluators were solicited. Third, the
pertinent literature was reviewed. Fourth, the effectiveness of current
practices was evaluated by surveying the Aviation Safety Reporting
System. Finally, recent efforts to improve radio communication
simulation were examined. The paper concludes that there is much
evidence that increasing the realism of radio communications would
improve simulator training and evaluation of airline pilots, but that
finding effective ways to do so will depend on collaboration of
government, industry, military and academia.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/atcq-v9n3-01.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.; Kendra, A.J.; Kanki, B.G.; Lee, A.T.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Realistic radio communications in pilot simulator training

**City:** Washington, DC

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/AR-00/13

**Keywords:** air traffic control communications, company
communications, flight simulator, airline pilot training and evaluation,
advanced qualification program, crew resource management, task
management, situation awareness, realism

**Abstract:** Simulators used for total training and evaluation of
airline pilots must satisfy stringent criteria in order to assure their
adequacy for training and checking maneuvers. Air traffic control and
company radio communications simulation, however, may still be left to
role-play by the already taxed instructor/evaluators in spite of their
central importance in every aspect of the flight environment. The
underlying premise of this research is that providing a realistic radio
communications environment would increase safety by enhancing pilot
training and evaluation.

This report summarizes the first-year efforts of assessing the
requirement and feasibility of simulating radio communications
automatically. A review of the training and crew resource/task
management literature showed both practical and theoretical support for
the need for realistic radio communications simulation. A survey of 29
instructor/evaluators from 14 airlines revealed that radio
communications are mainly role-played by the instructor/evaluators. This
increases instructor/evaluators\' own workload while unrealistically
lowering pilot communications load compared to actual operations, with a
concomitant loss in training/evaluation effectiveness. A technology
review searching for an automated means of providing radio
communications to and from aircraft with minimal human effort showed
that while promising, the technology is still immature. Further research
and the need for establishing a proof of concept are also discussed.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/rrcrprt.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, Judith; Soja, Nancy N.; Longridge, Thomas

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Simulator fidelity requirements: The case of platform motion

**Conference Name:** International Training & Education Conference
(ITEC)

**Conference Location:** Lausanne, Switzerland

**Publisher:** Computer Multimedia Productions Corporation

**Date:** April 28-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bürki-Cohen: Volpe National
Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge, MA

Soja: Consultant, Brookline, MA

Longridge: Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Abstract:** Today, the use of airplane simulators in pilot training
and evaluation is universal. Simulators not only enable savings in
training cost, but they have also practically eliminated training
accidents for major airlines. They allow the training of emergency
maneuvers which are inherently unsafe in the aircraft; and they permit
crews to gain experience in operationally realistic scenarios that focus
on both technical and crew resource management skills. In fact,
initiatives such as the Federal Aviation Administration\'s (FAA)
Advanced Qualification Program (SFAR 58, 1990), which heavily relies on
crew resource management and need-based proficiency objectives, would be
unthinkable without ready access to a full flight simulator.
Nevertheless, some regional airlines elect to do at least their
recurrent training in the airplane. In part, this situation is due to a
shortage of qualified simulators, especially for certain turboprop
airplanes where the flight test data is not readily available. A second,
and perhaps even more important, reason can be found in the high rental
and purchase costs for full flight simulators, which, for small
turboprops, may even exceed the cost of the airplane.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/itec-1998.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, J.; Soja, N. N.; Longridge, T.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Simulator platform motion\--The need revisited

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 8

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 293-317

**Type of Article:** Literature Review and Research Issues

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bürki-Cohen: U.S. Department of
Transportation-Volpe Center DTS-79,

Soja: Consultant

Longridge: Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Number of Pages:** 25

**Abstract:** The need to provide increased access to flight simulator
training for US regional airlines, which historically have been limited
by cost considerations in the use of such equipment for pilot recurrent
training, is discussed. In light of that need, that issue of whether
more affordable fixed-base simulators, identical to full flight
simulators in all respects except for absence of platform motion, might
provide an equivalent level of safety when employed for recurrent
training, is examined. Pertinent literature form the past two decades is
reviewed. The paper observes that no definitive conclusion can be drawn
that would warrant modification of current qualification requirements
for platform motion in full flight simulators. The article concludes
that this situation will remain unchanged unless new research is
undertaken, which takes into account the lessons learned from past
research, and the opportunities engendered by new technology. Broad
guidelines for an appropriate research design are discussed.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/ijap_v8n3-98.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Bürki-Cohen, Judith; Sparko, Andrea L.; Go, Tiauw H.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Training value of a fixed-base flight simulator with a
dynamic seat

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Abstract:** In this paper, we first explain that pilots experience
airplane motion via multiple perceptual systems, which makes motion a
candidate for simulation via stimulation of only a subset of these
systems. Next, we discuss the relative merit of vestibular cues when
piloting an airplane. This is followed by a comparison of the vestibular
cues received in the airplane and those possible, or practicable, in an
airline-pilot training simulator, considering also the history of
flight-simulator motion and alternative technologies. We conclude that a
vast body of research has shown that accurate cues are not achievable at
present, and that those available have not been shown to improve
transfer between airplane and simulator. We then examine the cost of
motion, and posit that it may prohibit some airline pilots from reaping
the benefits of simulator training, with a concomitant loss in passenger
safety. This consideration is especially pertinent given the world-wide
training needs. Moreover, the equipment, facility, and maintenance costs
associated with hexapod-platform motion systems may serve to discourage
operators from upgrading the simulator's fidelity in other important
areas, such as assuring that the simulator cockpit does in fact match
the equipment in the target aircraft, and that the simulation includes
realistic operational representation of the national air space,
including the air-traffic-control environment. We describe current and
planned research on the training effectiveness of an alternative
approach, which provides trainees with visual motion and heave-onset
cues in what otherwise corresponds to an FAA Level D Full Flight
Simulator in terms of data fidelity. This includes the results of a
"proof-of-concept" phase that culminated in the successful type-rating
of six pilots on a twin-engine turboprop airplane.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Burnham, Frank

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Flight simulation: Hindrance or help in teaching to fly?

**Magazine:** Airport Services Management

**Pages:** 47-48, 57-58, 60

**Date:** October

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** flight simulation, enclosed cockpit environment, desk-top
training devices

**Abstract:** Computers have enabled the development of an array of
devices that simulate an aircraft in flight. While some of these offer
students quality practice at a reasonable price, others are no more than
toys.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Burr, David C.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Motion perception, elementary mechanisms

**Book Title:** Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks

**Abstract:** Visual motion is essential for many aspects of biological
function, including rapidly detecting predators and prey, navigating
through the visual environment, and constructing a three-dimensional
visual representation from two-dimensional retinal input. However,
motion information is not provided by the instantaneous retinal signal,
but has to be computed from temporal variations in luminance over the
image. Although the neural mechanisms that achieve this vary
considerably throughout the animal kingdom, the underlying principles of
the algorithms seem to be very similar.

**Notes:** Draft version Jan. 30, 2002

**URL:** <http://www.pisavisionlab.org/downloads/motion_burr.pdf>

[http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/burr%20(0)%20motion%20perception,%20elementary%20mechanisms.pdf](http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/burr (0) motion perception, elementary mechanisms.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Bussolari, Steven R.; Lee, Alfred T.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** The effects of flight simulator motion on pilot performance
and simulator acceptability in transport category aircraft

**Institution:** Massachusetts Institute of Technology/NASA Ames
Research Center

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** A series of quantitative models for human spatial
orientation have been developed and applied to the assessment of flight
simulator motion fidelity. A study was conducted to determine the
effects of alterations in flight simulator motion upon pilot performance
and opinion. Eighteen airline pilots, currently flying the Boeing 727
were given a series of flight scenarios in a Phase II simulator of that
aircraft under varying conditions of simulator motion. The scenarios
were chosen to reflect the flight maneuvers that these pilots might
encounter during a routine pilot proficiency check. Pilot performance
was measured during the simulated flights and they were asked to
evaluate the simulator fidelity in comparison with the actual aircraft.
No significant differences in pilot performance or rating of simulator
fidelity was observed, despite large differences in the amplitude of
simulator platform motion. The lack of sensitivity to simulator motion
is predicted by estimates of pilot motion sensation generated with the
spatial orientation models.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bussolari, Steven R.; Sullivan, R. Bryan; Young, Laurence R.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Vestibular models for design and evaluation of flight
simulator motion

**Conference Name:** Advances in Flight Simulation: Visual and Motion
Systems

**Conference Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Man-Vehicle Laboratory, Cambridge, MA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** Quantitative models for the dynamics of the human
vestibular system have been applied to the generation of flight
simulator platform motion. An optimal simulator motion control algorithm
has been generated to minimize the vector difference between perceived
spatial orientation estimated in flight and in simulation. The motion
controller has been implemented on the motion system of the Vertical
Motion Simulator at NASA Ames Research Center and evaluated
experimentally through measurement of pilot performance and subjective
rating during a VTOL aircraft simulation. In general, pilot performance
in a longitudinal tracking task (formation flight) did not appear to be
sensitive to variations in platform motion condition as long as motion
was present. However, pilot compensation required to perform the flight
tasks, as reflected in Cooper-Harper ratings of vehicle handling
qualities and the direct assessment of motion fidelity by means of a
rating scale designed for this purpose, were sensitive to motion
controller design. The experiments generally validate the use of spatial
orientation models in the design and evaluation of control systems for
motion-base flight simulators.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Bussolari, Steven R.; Young, Laurence R.; Lee, Alfred T.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** The use of vestibular models for design and evaluation of
flight simulator motion

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bussolari: Ph.D., Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Man-Vehicle Laboratory, Room 37-219, Cambridge,
MA

Young: Sc.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Man-Vehicle
Laboratory, Room 37-219, Cambridge, MA

Lee: Ph.D., MS 239-1, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** Quantitative models for the dynamics of the human
vestibular system have been applied to the design and evaluation of
flight simulator platform motion. An optimal simulator motion control
algorithm has been generated to minimize the vector difference between
perceived spatial orientation estimated in flight and in simulation. The
motion controller has been implemented on the motion system of the
Vertical Motion Simulator at NASA Ames Research Center and evaluated
experimentally through measurement of pilot performance and subjective
rating during VTOL aircraft simulation. In general, pilot performance in
a longitudinal tracking task (formation flight) did not appear to be
sensitive to variations in platform motion condition as long as motion
was present. However, pilot compensation required to perform the flight
tasks, as reflected in Cooper-Harper ratings of vehicle handling
qualities and the direct assessment of motion fidelity by means of a
rating scale designed for this purpose, were sensitive to motion
controller design. Platform motion generated with the optimal motion
controller was found to be generally equivalent to that generated by
conventional linear crossfeed washout.

The vestibular models have been used to evaluate the motion fidelity of
transport category aircraft (Boeing 727) simulation in a pilot
performance and simulator acceptability study at the Man-Vehicle Systems
Research Facility at NASA Ames Research Center. Eighteen airline pilots,
currently flying the B-727, were given a series of flight scenarios in
the simulator under various conditions of simulator motion. The
scenarios were chosen to reflect the flight maneuvers that these pilots
might expect to be given during a routine pilot proficiency check. Pilot
performance and subjective rating of simulator fidelity was relatively
insensitive to motion condition, despite large differences in the
amplitude of motion provided. This lack of sensitivity may be explained
by means of the vestibular models, which predict little difference in
the modeled motion sensations of the pilots when different motion
conditions are imposed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Calhoun, G.; Valencia, G.; Furness III, T. A.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Three-dimensional auditory simulation for crew station
design/evaluation

**Conference Name:** Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Armstrong Aerospace Medical
Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH
45433-6573

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** A three-dimensional (3-D) auditory display can increase
the pilot\'s situational awareness without requiring visual fixation.
When visual acquisition is required the directional sound can give the
pilot a more rapid cue to aim the eyes or head. in order to determine
the utility and performance of a 3-D auditory display for cockpit
applications, a method for generating 3-D auditory cues is required for
simulation. Two laboratory systems are described which create, from
monaural stimuli, binaural stimuli which can be perceived as localized
and stabilized in space, regardless of the listener\'s head position.
Additionally, preliminary results of the localization performance with
one approach are presented.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Callantine, T. J.; Palmer, E. A.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Fast-time simulation studies of terminal-area spacing and
merging concepts

**Conference Name:** 22nd AIAA/IEEE Digital Avionics Systems Conference

**Conference Location:** Indianapolis, Indiana

**Publisher:** Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Todd J. Callantine: San Jose State
University

Everett A. Palmer: NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** Air-traffic-control; Air-transportation;
Airport-operations; Aviation; Flight-simulators;
Human-factors-engineering; Merging-control; Monte-Carlo-method; Spacing

**Abstract:** This paper examines fast-time simulation that is designed
to complement real time human-in-the-loop simulations. Presented is
preliminary fast-time simulation as designed for TRACON spacing and
merging concepts. These simulations allow a variety of experimental
conditions to be varied via Monte Carlo method.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Calspan Flight Research Group

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Airborne simulation

**Series Editor:** Calspan Corporation

**City:** Buffalo, NY

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** February 7

**Description:** Overview of airborne simulation and Calspan operated
variable stability aircraft

**Keywords:** in-flight simulation, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Airborne simulation, also known as in-flight simulation
(IFS), provides a realistic replication of the flight and flying
qualities of an aircraft, short of flying the actual aircraft. Airborne
simulation is one of the key the \[sic\] development process for any new
aircraft.

**URL:** Overview: <http://www.calspan.com/airborne.htm>

Calspan operated variable stability aircraft:
http://www.calspan.com/variable.htm

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Cardosi, K.M.; Bürki-Cohen, J.; Boole, P.W.; Hourihan, J.;
Mengert, P.; DiSario, R.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Controller response to conflict resolution advisory

**City:** Washington, DC

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/NA-92/2

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cardullo, Frank

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Fundamentals of simulation

**Conference Name:** The Fifteenth Annual Flight and Ground Vehicle
Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 11-15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Professor, State University of New
York at Binghamton

**Number of Pages:** 18

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cardullo, Frank

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Motion and force cueing II

**Conference Name:** The Fifteenth Annual Flight and Ground Vehicle
Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 11-15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** State University of New York at
Binghamton

**Number of Pages:** 90

**Abstract:** Motion and Force Cueing, II deals with the utilization of
devices, which provide motion cueing by other than platform motion
systems. All of these classes of systems are employed to supplement or
fill the void not addressed by platform motion systems or to be used in
place of those devices. There are portions of the motion environment
experienced by pilots of aircraft that are not reproduced by platform
motion systems. Hence these systems were developed to attempt to, \"fill
in the gaps\".

There were three major classes of these systems in the past: G-Seats,
Vibration Systems and High-G Augmentation Devices. The G-Seat was
designed originally to provide sustained acceleration cues since
platform motion onset cues are usually sustained for no more than 0.3 of
a second. Vibrations systems were developed to provide the higher
frequency vibration environment (usually 3-20 Hz) which for various
reasons are not provided through platform motion systems. High-G
Augmentation devices also extend the cueing capability of the platform
motion system. In this case, these systems attempt to provide some of
the physical effects, which occur in high-g flight and cannot be induced
by platform motion systems. Some of these effects are a diminution of
the visual field of view (tunnel vision), an increase in apparent weight
of the head and extremities, etc. The current thinking goes beyond the
above to include primary motion cueing by devices other than platform
motion systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cardullo, Frank M.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** An assessment of the importance of motion cueing based on the
relationship between simulated aircraft dynamics and pilot performance:
A review of the literature

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Associate Professor, Mechanical
Engineering, Associate Fellow AIAA, State University of New York,
Binghamton, NY

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** motion cueing, simulated aircraft dynamics, pilot
performance, visual system, categories of motion

**Abstract:** This paper reviews a method of assessing the need for
motion cueing based on the simulated aircraft flight dynamics
environment. The flight environment is reduced into four categories:
maneuvers which are largely open loop and low gain, high gain and closed
loop with good visual, high gain and closed loop with poor visual and
aircraft which are unstable; and assesses motion cueing requirements on
that basis. Also reviewed is the motion cueing literature including both
the results of performance studies and the transfer of training studies
with the intent of establishing a determination of the relationship
between the necessity of motion cueing and the task performed in the
simulator.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Carey, Susan

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Demand for pilots is soaring as old-timers take off

**Newspaper:** The Wall Street Journal

**Pages:** B1, B12

**Issue Date:** June 4

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Staff Reporter of The Wall Street
Journal

**Number of Pages:** 1

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Carey, Susan; Michaels, Daniel

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** At some airlines, laptops replace pilots\' \'brain bags\'

**Newspaper:** The Wall Street Journal

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Carley, William M.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Pull up! United 747\'s near miss sparks a widespread review
of pilot skills\--Flight 863 skirted a mountain and buzzed residences in
the San Francisco area\--\'They didn\'t do the basics\'

**Newspaper:** The Wall Street Journal

**Pages:** A1, A8

**Issue Date:** March 19

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Staff reporter of the Wall Street
Journal

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), United 747

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Caro, P.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Platform motion and simulator training effectiveness

**Conference Name:** NTEC/Industry Conference

**Publisher:** Naval Training Equipment Center (NTEC)

**Number of Pages:** 6

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Caro, Paul

**Year:** 1979

**Title:** Some factors influencing transfer of simulator training

**Institution:** Human Resources Research Organization

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Caro, Paul W.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** Aircraft simulators and pilot training

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 15

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 502-509

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Resources Research
Organization, Fort Rucker, AL

**Keywords:** aircraft pilots, aviation technology, educational
programs, flight training, simulated environment, simulation, skill
development, student projects, teaching methods, training laboratories,
training methods, transfer of training

**Abstract:** Flight simulators are built as realistically as possible,
presumably to enhance their training value. Yet, their training value is
determined by the way they are used. Traditionally, simulators have been
less important for training than have aircraft, but they are currently
emerging as primary pilot training vehicles. This new emphasis is an
outgrowth of systems engineering of flight training programs, and a
characteristic of the resultant training is the employment of techniques
developed through applied research in a variety of training settings.
These techniques include functional context training, minimizing
over-training, effective utilization of personnel, use of incentive
awards, peer training, and objective performance measurement. Programs
employing these and other techniques, with training equipment ranging
from highly-realistic simulators to reduced-scale paper mockups, have
resulted in impressive transfer of training. The conclusion is drawn
that a proper training program is essential to realizing the potential
training value of a device, regardless of its realism.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Caro, Paul W.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Some factors influencing Air Force simulator training
effectiveness

**Date:** March

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** HumRRO-TR-77-2

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Seville Research Corporation, 400
Plaza Building, Pensacola, FL 32505

**Number of Pages:** 104

**Keywords:** aircraft simulation, simulators, simulator training,
training device, training effectiveness, experimental design, simulator
effectiveness, motion, fidelity, visual display, trainee
characteristics, attitude, expectation, training

**Abstract:** A study of US Air Force simulator training was conducted
to identify factors that influence the effectiveness of such training
and to learn how its effectiveness is being determined. The research
consisted of a survey of ten representative Air Force simulator training
programs and a review of the simulator training research literature. A
number of suspected or potential factors influencing simulator training
effectiveness were identified. These factors include simulator design
for training, visual display fidelity, platform motion system fidelity,
handling characteristics, training program features, trainee and
instructor characteristics, and attitudes and expectations toward
simulator training. The discussion of each factor reviews relevant
literature and Air Force simulator design features and training
practices. Ten simulator training effectiveness study design models were
identified. Efforts by the Air Force to validate the simulator training
activities surveyed are described in relation to these ten models. It
was found that the programs surveyed had not been subjected to formal
evaluation studies that would establish their training effectiveness in
quantitative terms. Therefore, the influence of factors identified
during the survey upon such training could only be hypothesized.
Recommendations were made concerning research and administrative action
that could enhance future simulator training effectiveness.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Caro, P. W.

**Year:** 1979

**Title:** The relationship between flight simulator motion and training
requirements

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 21

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 493-501

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Seville Research Corporation,
Pensacola, FL

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** Flight simulator motion has been demonstrated to affect
performance in the simulator, but recent transfer of training studies
have failed to demonstrate an effect upon in-flight performance.
However, these transfer studies examined the effects of motion in
experimental designs that did not permit a dependency relationship to be
established between the characteristics of the motion simulated and the
training objectives or the performance measured. Another investigator
has suggested that motion cues which occur in flight can be dichotomized
as maneuver and disturbance cues, i.e., as resulting from pilot control
action or from external forces. This paper examines each type cue and
relates it analytically to training requirements. The need to establish
such relationships in simulator design is emphasized. Future transfer
studies should examine specific training objectives that can be expected
to be affected by motion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Data

**Author:** Caro, Paul W.

**Year:** 1983

**Title:** Flight crew training technology\--A review

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Seville Training Systems

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Abstract:** (from first page) This paper devotes a good bit of
attention to simulators and other training equipment, but the most
important message it contains is that pilot training is a process that
is not dependent upon costly training equipment. Such equipment may be
an important factor in making the training process easier to administer
and control, but the single most important factor in efficient and cost
effective training is the training process, that is, the way in which
equipment and training resources are used to present information and
cues, and to provide and reinforce practice.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Carr, P.C.; McKissick, B. T.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Analysis procedures and subjective flight results of a
simulator validation and cue fidelity experiment

**Institution:** NASA

**Pages:** 1-28

**Date:** July

**Type:** Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** NASA-TM-88270

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Peter C. Carr: Ames Research
Center, Dryden Flight Research Facility, Edwards, CA

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Burnell T. McKissick: Langley
Research center, Hampton, VA

**Number of Pages:** 29

**Keywords:** cues, flight simulators, flight tests, pilot performance,
proving

**Abstract:** A joint experiment to investigate simulator validation and
cue fidelity was conducted by the Dryden Flight Research Facility of
NASA Ames Research Center (Ames-Dryden) and NASA Langley Research
Center. The primary objective was to validate the use of a closed-loop
pilot-vehicle mathematical model as an analytical tool for optimizing
the tradeoff between simulator fidelity requirements and simulator cost.
The validation process includes comparing model predictions with
simulation and flight test results to evaluate various hypotheses for
differences in motion and visual cues and information transfer. A group
of five pilots flew air-to-air tracking maneuvers in the Langley
differential maneuvering simulator and visual motion simulator and in an
F-14 aircraft at Ames-Dryden. The simulators used motion and visual
cueing devices including a g-seat, a helmet loader, wide field-of-view
horizon, and a motion base platform.

**URL:** <http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/88103main_H-1371.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Carretta, Thomas R.; Dunlap, Ronald D.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Transfer of training effectiveness in flight simulation:
1986-1997

**Institution:** United States Air Force Research Laboratory

**Date:** September

**Report Number:** AFRL-HE-AZ-TR-1998-0078

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Carretta: Training Effectiveness
Branch, Warfighter Training Research Division, 7909 Lindbergh Drive,
Brooks AFB, TX 78235-5352

Dunlap: Air Warrior Training Branch, Warfighter Training Research
Division, 6001 South Power Road, Bldg. 558, Mesa AZ 85206-0904

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Keywords:** flight simulation, flight simulator, simulation-based
training, simulator effectiveness, simulator transfer of training,
training effectiveness, transfer of training

**Abstract:** The purpose of this report was to review recent studies
regarding the effectiveness of flight simulators as augmentation for
\"hands-on\" flying training. Simulation-based training has been
proposed to reduce costs, extend aircraft life, maintain flying
proficiency, and provide more effective training, especially in areas
difficult to train in operational aircraft. A review of the literature
from 1986 to 1997 identified 67 articles, conference papers, and
technical reports regarding simulator flying training and transfer. Of
these, only 13 were related directly to transfer of training from the
simulator to the aircraft. Studies of simulator effectiveness for
training landing skills constituted a majority of the transfer studies,
although a few examined other flying skills such as radial bombing
accuracy and instrument and flight control. Results indicate that
simulators are useful for training landing skills, bombing accuracy, and
instrument and flight control. Generally, as the number of simulated
sorties increases, performance improves, but this gain levels off after
approximately 25 missions. Further, several studies indicate that
successful transfer may not require high-fidelity simulators or
whole-task training, thus reducing simulator development costs.
Evaluation of this literature is difficult for many reasons. Typically,
researchers fail to report sufficient detail regarding research methods,
training characteristics, and simulator fidelity. In addition to these
methodological concerns, there is a lack of true simulator-to-aircraft
transfer studies involving complex pilot skills. This may be due to
problems such as inadequate simulator design, cost, and availability,
and access to simulators in operational flying units. Future directions
in simulator transfer of training are discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Casali, John G.; Frank, Lawrence H.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Perceptual distortion and its consequences in vehicular
simulation: Basic theory and incidence of simulator sickness

**City:** Washington, D.C.

**Institution:** Transportation Research Board

**Report Number:** Transportation Research Record 1059

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Factors Laboratory,
Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research - Virginia
Polytechnic Institute

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** Simulator-induced sickness is a serious problem that can
afflict the users of vehicular simulators including aircraft and driving
devices. Operators and passengers in training and research simulators
have experienced symptoms akin to those of motion sickness both during
and following a simulator experience. In some cases, even several hours
postexposure, aftereffects or flashbacks to the simulation environment
may surface creating sudden disorientation in the individual. The
simulator-sickness syndrome appears to be severe and frequent enough
that it affects the utility of simulation and may create safety hazards
for users. It has, therefore, recently received considerable attention
by the human engineering community. This paper provides background
information on the sickness problem; its theoretical underpinnings; and
a brief, tabularized literature review specific to simulator sickness.
All available articles, reports, technical memoranda, and papers
directly dealing with the problem of operator discomfort in vehicular
simulators were obtained and selectively reviewed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Casali, John G.; Frank, Lawrence H.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Manifestation of visual/vestibular disruption in simulators:
Severity and empirical measurement of symptomatology

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Casali: Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Department of Industrial Engineering and
Operations Research, Blacksburg, VA 24060

Frank: LCDR, MSC, USN, Ph.D., Human Factors and Operational Analysis
Branch, Pacific Missile Test Center, Point Mugu, CA 93042-5000

**Number of Pages:** 18

**Keywords:** visual, vestibular disruption, simulator sickness, motion
sickness, symptoms

**Abstract:** Reported incidence rates on vehicular simulator-induced
sickness in operators is highly variable both within and between
devices. Recent review of the literature indicates that documented
incidence rates range from 0 to nearly 90% in flight devices and even
higher in some driving devices. However, the severity of the simulator
sickness problem is not adequately gauged by a simple count of those
operators experiencing one or more physiologic symptoms. Instead, a
battery of metrics is useful in identifying and properly assessing an
induced state of simulator sickness. This is of particular importance
with the recent thrust in empirical research toward determination of the
effects of simulator design parameters, such as control loop delays, on
operator sickness and performance. This paper reviews the symptomatology
experienced by operators of flight and driving simulators. Drawing upon
this review, dependent measures are recommended for use in
simulator-sickness research including self-report forms, specific
physiologic indices, postural equilibrium tests, performance tests and
susceptibility prediction instruments. A tabular documentation of
published research studies concerning simulator sickness is also
provided, as is a discussion of the ramifications of the problem.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Caudrey, Kip

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The importance of matching technology advancement with
training needs

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Captain, Flight Safety Boeing
Training International

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** (Introduction) Advances made in Simulation Technology
particularly during the past 10 years have been astonishing, primarily
as a result of the massive increases in host and image generator
computing power. Who would have guessed that it would now be possible to
run a FFS including Motion & Visual from a laptop? However, few would
disagree that although the fidelity of simulation and consequently
training realism has been significantly improved during the same time
period,

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Caudrey, Kip

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Can flight simulators do everything?

**Conference Name:** SimTecT

**Conference Location:** Canberra, Australia

**Publisher:** Simulation Industry Association of Australia

**Date:** May 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Captain Kip Caudrey, Director
Simulator Evaluation & Standards, Alteon Training

**Abstract:** \[from Introduction\] Although this paper will still
address the theme "Can Flight Simulators Do Everything" I have taken the
liberty of making modifications to take into consideration that not
everyone at this Conference is familiar with Flight Simulation nor the
common acronyms. I have therefore spent more time focusing on the
current status of our Industry and where we are going, to hopefully make
the paper of greater interest to you.

**URL:** <http://www.siaa.asn.au/simtect/2004/2004.htm>

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Chamberlain, H. Dean

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Qualified PC computer-based training devices take off

**Periodical Title:** FAA Aviation News

**Volume:** 2006

**Issue:** Sept. 6

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** personal computers, flight training, flight simulators,
personal computer-based aviation training devices (PCATD\'s)

**Abstract:** Describes the role of personal computer-based aviation
training devices in pilot training.

**Notes:** As of 2/05/07, the web site was no longer accessible.

**URL:** <http://avstop.com/Stories/Training.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Chamberlain, H. Dean

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Personal computer-based aviation training devices: Does yours
meet FAA training requirements?

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Last Update Date:** April 30, 2002

**Type of Medium:** Online article

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Notes:** On 2/05/07, the web page was no longer accessible.

**URL:** <http://avstop.com/Technical/computer.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chambers, Walter S.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Visual simulation

**Conference Name:** The Fifteenth Annual Flight and Ground Vehicle
Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 11-15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Consultant, Future Technology, Inc.

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** visual simulation, perception

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chappelow, J. W.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Simulator sickness in the Royal Airforce: A survey

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** RAP Institute of Aviation Medicine,
Farnborough, Hampshire GU14 6SZ

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** motion cues, simulator sickness

**Abstract:** A questionnaire survey was undertaken of pilots with
experience of two air combat simulators. Two hundred and seventy one
respondents completed questionnaires, some up to two years
retrospectively and other immediately after a simulator session. There
were, thus, four separate studies. The questionnaire sought information
on the incidence of disequilibrium and other symptoms experienced in the
simulator and after leaving it. The proportion of those suffering at
least one symptom in the simulator varied between 50% and more than 90%
across studies (53.5% overall). However, not all the symptoms reported
were unequivocally ascribable to disequilibrium. The proportion of each
sample reporting delayed symptoms was between 10% and 50% (13% overall).
The effect on the respondent's motivation to use the simulator was
negligible.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Chief Scientific and Technical Advisor for Human Factors
(AAR-100)

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Human factors newsletter #02-07

**Volume:** 2007

**Issue:** Feb. 5

**Pages:** Electronic newsletter

**Date Accessed:** April 12

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** New Feature: Research Report - *Realistic Radio
Communications in Pilot Simulator Training*

**URL:**
<http://www.hf.faa.gov/docs/508/docs/newsletters/newsletter_0207.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chung, W.; Bürki-Cohen, J.; Go, T.H.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Task and vehicle dynamics based assessment of motion cueing
requirements

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Providence, RI

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 16-19

**Abstract:** One significant difference between real and simulated
flight on the ground are the stimuli or cues provided to the pilot. Due
to physical and/or cost constraints, it is nearly impossible to match
all the cues experienced in the air in ground-based simulators. Motion
cues, in particular, are severely affected by the limits imposed on the
ground, such as the extent of travel and the dynamics bandwidth.
Researchers have been struggling for decades to develop a better
understanding on how pilots\' behavior and performance in the simulator
are affected by these limitations, and to determine the motion-cueing
requirements appropriate to the purposes of the simulation. It has been
demonstrated that motion cues can affect pilot-vehicle performance and
pilot behavior in ground-based simulators. However, whether motion cues
affect behavior and performance appears to be a function of pilot task,
vehicle dynamics, and cueing quality (of motion and other cues). The
experimental design also greatly affects the validity (whether the data
answer the research question) and reliability (whether the results can
be replicated) of a study. This paper is developing a systematic
approach to re-examine past studies in an effort to develop a
comprehensive understanding of the effects of motion in ground-based
flight simulators.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/aiaa451541c.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chung, William; Gerdes, Ron; LaForce, Soren

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Phase response requirements between cross-coupled motion axes
for handling qualities research simulators

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** San Diego, CA

**Date:** July 29-31

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Abstract:** An experiment was designed to study the effect of
discrepancies between cross-coupled motion axes responses and to
determine if phase response requirements for motion simulators is
necessary for handling qualities research. Since the pilot is generally
not located at the rotational center of a motion platform, this can
produce distorted cues in a motion based flight simulator. For
kinetically cross-coupled motion axes, such as roll and lateral,
coordinated translational commands are required in order to compensate
for induced linear accelerations caused by angular motion at the pilot
station. The effect of phase response discrepancies between the roll and
lateral cross-coupled motion axes was the focus of this experiment. A
stability derivative model, which represents a fully decoupled aircraft
response, was tailored to meet Level I rotorcraft handling qualities at
low speed. The Vertical Motion Simulator, a gimbaled motion system at
NASA Ames Research Center, provided the six degrees of freedom motion.
The roll and lateral motion dynamics were modified to produce specific
phase characteristics. This was required to study phase requirements
between the roll angular acceleration and lateral specific force. Two
low speed tasks, hover and side step, were used to evaluate the
vehicle\'s handling qualities under three motion configurations and two
visual delay configurations. The phase characteristics between the roll
and lateral motion axes as well as the phase characteristics of the
visual system were varied in the experiment. The test results indicated
significant reduction in pilot workload and improved performance when
the cross-coupled motion axes were in phase with each other and with the
visual responses. A mismatch of phase response in the cross-coupled
motion axes, up to 40 msec phase difference, led to increased pilot
workload and poorer pilot handling qualities ratings in most instances.
Due to a resulting large phase discrepancy between the visual and motion
cues, the results also suggest that visual delay compensation had little
or no effect on pilots\' handling qualities ratings under the given test
conditions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Chung, William; Wang, William Y.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Evaluation of simulator motion characteristics based on
AGARD-AR-144 procedures

**Journal:** Aerospace Simulation 1988

**Pages:** 177-188

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Simulation Programs,
SYRE, Post Office Box 81, Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** This paper presents the results of applying a set of
motion evaluation procedures based on performance criteria developed by
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Advisory Group for
Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) on the Vertical Motion
Simulator (VMS) at Ames Research Center. The criteria being evaluated
includes the describing function, operational limits and acceleration
noise. The procedures include the development of a real-time operating
system to generate the motion system drive commands and collect the
response. The data analysis reveals the describing function and
operational envelopes of the six motion axes, and the cross coupling
between the motion axes.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chung, W. W.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** A review of approaches to determine the effectiveness of
ground-based flight simulation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 14-17

**Keywords:** flight simulation, motion cueing, visual cueing,
man/machine interaction

**Abstract:** A review of the current understanding of how key
simulation cueing elements affect ground-based flight simulation has
been conducted. The objectives are to develop a broad assessment of
current approaches in determining simulator effectiveness and to
identify future research directions. The review covers the visual cues
and human/machine related topics. For visual cueing related issues, the
review focuses on visual transport delay, resolution, scene content, and
field-of-view. For human/machine interaction issues, the review focuses
on human psychophysical characteristics, pilot models, and motion cueing
criteria. Results and suggested future work from past investigations are
summarized. Additional recommendations are presented.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chung, William W.; Schroeder, Jeffery A.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Visual and roll-lateral motion cueing synchronization
requirements for motion-based flight simulations

**Conference Name:** American Helicopter Society 53rd Annual Forum

**Conference Location:** Virginia Beach, VA

**Date:** April 29-May 1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Abstract:** An investigation of flight simulation cueing
synchronization requirements for the visual, roll motion, and lateral
motion was conducted on the Vertical Motion Simulator (VMS) at NASA Ames
Research Center. The unique displacement capability of the VMS was
exploited by developing a piloted task such that the visual and motion
cues matched closely for a baseline configuration. Pilots performed a
lateral sidestep between two points 20 feet apart using a helicopter
model designed to have satisfactory handling qualities. Since the VMS
has in excess of 20 feet lateral travel, the task was simulated exactly.
That is, the motion and visual cues had a one-to-one correspondence.
Starting with the baseline simulation cueing configuration that had
synchronous visual, roll, and lateral cues, time delays of 40 and 80
msec were introduced into the visual, roll, and lateral axes in a
randomized matrix giving a total of 27 configurations. The baseline
configuration was developed based on the current FAA helicopter
simulator specifications for civil helicopter motion fidelity
requirements, which has little objective data for its support. Six
experienced test pilots from both government and industry rated all the
configurations. Objective and subjective data were taken that included
handling qualities ratings, motion fidelity ratings, and perceptions of
synchronization. Initial analysis of the data indicate support for
aspects of the current FAA specifications on civil helicopter motion
fidelity requirements, with some additional preconditions. Based upon a
statistical analysis of the data, recommendations are made for
permissible cueing delays and asynchronization.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chung, William W.; Schroeder, Jeffery A.; Robinson, Doug J.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** An initial evaluation of the effects of motion platform and
drive characteristics

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** New Orleans, LA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 11-13

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** William W. Chung and Jeffery A.
Schroeder: Aerospace Engineer, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field,
CA

Doug J. Robinson: Research and Development Engineer, Lockheed Martin
Skunk Works, Palmdale, CA

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** Six motion cueing configurations were developed to
investigate facility dependent effects on simulation fidelity. These
configurations were tested on a large-amplitude motion-based flight
simulator and, when possible, on a small amplitude hexapod flight
simulator. On the large amplitude device, one configuration had no
motion attenuation, and it served as the truth-case motion reference.
Five other configurations were developed to represent a continuum of
motion fidelity from high to low. Results from this investigation
indicate that only the one-to-one motion configuration consistently
reflected the predicted handling qualities ratings based on an existing
handling qualities specification. It was also noted that reductions in
motion fidelity can falsely improve handling qualities ratings.
Non-trivial differences were measured between the facilities, and those
differences are currently being investigated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chung, William W.; Sweet, Barbara T.; Kaiser, Mary K.;
Lewis, Emily

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Visual cueing effects investigation for a hover task

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Austin, Texas

**Publisher:** AIAA

**Date:** August 11-14

**Abstract:** In simulation, as in actual aircraft, pilots conduct their
missions according to perceived vehicle performance and spatial
orientation from out-the-window (OTW) information. Ground-based flight
simulations rely upon computer-generated OTW visual scenes. The realism
and fidelity of a specific OTW simulation therefore has a significant
impact on mission effectiveness. This study investigates effects of
three visual parameters of the computer-generated image system
(field-of-view, collimation, and resolution) on a disturbance-rejection
hovering task. Pilots\' performance and workload were studied under the
following conditions: collimated optics vs. non-collimated optics, wide
field-of-view (FOV) vs. narrow FOV, and higher resolution vs. lower
resolution. Subjects were instructed to maintain a station-keeping
position during disturbances while piloting an uncoupled four
degrees-of-freedom (DOF) helicopter model, which had a satisfactory
rate-command system in pitch and roll axes and ideal heading and
altitude hold. Display collimation and FOV were found to have
significant effects on pilots\' performance and their subjective
perception of visual cueing quality.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Chung, William W. Y.; Schroeder, Jeffery A.; Johnson, Walter
W.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Effects of vehicle bandwidth and visual spatial-frequency on
simulation cueing synchronization requirements

**Conference Name:** AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference

**Conference Location:** New Orleans, LA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett,
CA

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Abstract:** Results of a recent flight simulation study suggested
criteria for visual and motion cueing synchronization, but only for one
vehicle bandwidth and one visual scene. The purpose of the study
reported here was to determine if those synchronization criteria may be
generalized. In particular, a complete factorial design was used to
examine the flight simulation effects of the following five experimental
factors: visual time delay, roll motion time delay, lateral motion time
delay, vehicle bandwidth, and visual spatial frequency. Five
experimental test pilots completed the full experimental matrix. The
results show that the more limited set of synchronization criteria
generalize for the variations examined. That is, regardless of the
vehicle bandwidths or the visual cueing spatial frequencies examined,
the same synchronization criteria are applicable for the visual, roll,
and lateral cues. Thus, the results add further confidence to the
recently suggested criteria, which suggested three guidelines. First,
roll and lateral motion cues should be synchronized, but if they cannot
be, the asynchronization should be no more than 40 msec. Second, the
visual and roll motion cues should also be synchronized, but if they
cannot be, the asynchronization should also be no more than 40 msec. The
synchronized roll and lateral motion cues can be allowed to lag, but
should not lead the visual cues.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Civil Aviation Authority

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Safety Regulation Group safety plan

**City:** West Sussex, U.K.

**Institution:** CAA

**URL:** <http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid=978>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Loss of control

**Series Editor:** Safety Regulation Group

**Series Title:** Safety Regulation Group Safety Plan 2006

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** June 15

**Keywords:** loss of control, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Loss-of-Control is the only type of accident that is not
reducing in world-wide statistics. It most commonly occurs for
non-technical reasons such as pilot\'s flight handling (especially in
adverse weather), following a bird-strike or loading error that makes
the aircraft difficult to control, aircraft icing, contaminated runways,
or following a technical failure.

CAA action areas will include:

\- Loading Error

\- Flight Handling

\- Aircraft Icing

\- Contaminated Runways

\- Technical Failure

**URL:**
<http://www.caa.co.uk/printerdefault.aspx?catid=978&pagetype=90&pageid=6281>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Civil Aviation Training (CAT)

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Air Deccan certification for Mechtronix FFT

**Magazine:** Civil Aviation Training (CAT)

**Date:** February 21

**Type of Article:** Online New Alert

**Keywords:** Air Deccan, full flight trainer (FFT), ATR, Mechtronix,
dual certification

**Abstract:** Air Deccan has obtained dual certification for a Full
Flight Trainer (FFT) manufactured by Mechtronix Systems.

**Notes:** On July 6, 2007, the web page was no longer available.

**URL:**
<http://www.halldale.com/News.aspx?Action=-617781463&ID=2e8b2eea-0007-45bb-9d38-9ca904e12853>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Clark, Carl C.

**Year:** 1962

**Title:** Human control performance and tolerance under severe complex
wave form vibration and review of flight simulation

**Conference Name:** National Meeting on Manned Space Flight

**Conference Location:** St. Louis, MO

**Date:** April 30-May 2

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Manager, Life Sciences Department,
Martin Company, Baltimore 3, Maryland

**Number of Pages:** 176-194

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** CNN

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Concorde crash investigators focus on blown tire

**Series Editor:** CNN.com transcripts

**Series Title:** Saturday Morning News

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** October 19

**Description:** Transcript of news aired July 29, 2000 9:24 AM ET

**Keywords:** Air France Concorde accident, blown tires, upset recovery
training (URT)

**Abstract:** Debris from the wreckage of the Air France Concorde that
crashed Tuesday in Paris is being examined in high-tech labs.
Investigators know the jet blew a tire as it raced down the runway with
a fiery trail. Now they\'re wondering if that blowout sparked a chain of
events that resulted in a crash that killed 114 people.

**URL:** <http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0007/29/smn.09.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cohen, E.

**Year:** 1971

**Title:** How much motion is really needed in flight simulators?

**Conference Name:** Fourth International Simulation and Training
Conference

**Conference Location:** Atlanta, GA

**Publisher:** Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Link Div., The Singer Co.

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** flight simulator, motion cues, degree-of-freedom

**Abstract:** Although the need for motion on flight simulators used for
training is well accepted, there is a wide divergence of opinion on the
kind and amount of motion required. This paper reviews the requirements
for motion in each of the six degrees of freedom, and suggests the
extent of motion desirable in each, as well as ways to exploit given
motion system geometry.

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Cohen, J.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences

**City:** Hillsdale, NJ

**Publisher:** Erlbaum

**Number of Pages:** 1-552

**Edition:** 2

**Original Publication:** 1969

**Reprint Edition:** 1977

**Number of Pages:** 1-552

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Coiro, Domenico P.; De Marco, Agostino; Nicolosi, Fabrizio

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** A 6DOF flight simulation environment for general aviation
aircraft with control loading reproduction

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Coiro: Professor of Flight
Mechanics

De Marco: Assistant Professor

Nicolosi: Assistant Professor

University of Naples Frederico II, Department of Aerospace Engineering,
Naples, Italy

**Abstract:** This paper presents the main features of a
six-degree-of-freedom (6DOF) flight simulation laboratory operated by
the authors at the University of Naples. The aim of the flight simulator
is twofold: serving as a research tool for model characterization and
for the investigation of flying qualities of very-light and ultra-light
aircraft; and offering a training options to the pilots of such
airplanes. For these reasons the simulator cockpit has been conceived
and set up as a generic cabin of a general aviation aircraft.

The software suite that guides the various components of the system is
based mainly on the features of FlightGear, an open-source flight
simulation software. The simulation

of aircraft motion, the cockpit instrument panel and flight controls,
the outside scenery are all managed by a number of instances of
FlightGear. All FlightGear instances are

appropriately executed on different machines and communicate with each
other via net protocols.

Simulations are also supported by two other software modules. The first
one controls the 6DOF motion of the cockpit. The second module
implements a force reproduction

system on the cockpit controls. An overview of all these modules is
given in the paper, along with the discussion of the advantages and
potentialities given by the source code

accessibility and the high configurability of FlightGear.

The force feedback model is particularly important to the purposes that
this flight simulation facility has being designed for. To obtain an
enhanced realism in piloting efforts,

particular care has been taken to implement hinge moment equations in
the simulation software. The result is a reliable closed-loop
force-feedback system on all aircraft commands. Two useful and
noteworthy generalizations have been implemented in this context: the
effect of the mechanical linkage dynamics on the control surface motion
and the effects on the control displacement due to the mechanical
friction and to the presence of springs. The geometric, mass, inertia
characteristics of each control surface and the hinge moment
coefficients are managed by the control loading software. All the
details of this model are given in the paper.

**Author Address:** coiro@unina.it

agostino.demarco@unina.it

fabrizio.nicolosi@unina.it

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Colavita, F. B.

**Year:** 1974

**Title:** Human sensory dominance

**Journal:** Perception and Psychophysics

**Volume:** 16

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 409-412

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Pittsburgh

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** Human Ss matched an auditory and a visual stimulus for
subjective magnitude. Then each stimulus was used as a cue in a reaction
time task. On occasions when both stimuli were presented simultaneously,
Ss\' responding was seen to be dominated by the visual stimulus. Of
further interest was the finding that on some occasions of simultaneous
light-tone presentation Ss were unaware that the tone had been
presented. This apparent prepotency of the visual over the auditory
stimulus was seen to persist across a variety of experimental
conditions, which included giving Ss verbal instructions to respond to
the tone when both stimuli were presented simultaneously.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Collins, M. P.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The buzz about haptics: Zero-G research could lead to an
enhanced attitude reference

**Magazine:** AOPA Pilot

**Pages:** 117-124

**Date:** August

**Keywords:** haptics, zero-G, motion sickness, disorientation

**Abstract:** Kristy Stokke\'s long blond hair flows haphazardly and her
feet slowly slide above her head. The Massachusetts Institute of
Technology senior is struggling to conduct an experiment in zero-G
conditions. But Stokke is far away from MIT\'s campus labs. Far above
them, too, for that matter. She\'s working in NASA\'s KC-135
microgravity research aircraft, officially named Weightless Wonder but
better known as \"The Vomit Comet.\" High above the Gulf of Mexico, the
pilots of the four-engine jet follow a precise parabolic flight path,
making a series of 45-degree climbs and descents that alternately
subject the aircraft, its passengers, and their equipment to zero and
positive 2 Gs. Stokke is too busy to think about motion sickness, a
condition to which many of her fellow student researchers have
succumbed. Instead, she\'s focused on her search for the answer to one
question: Are there haptics in your future? An enthusiastic private
pilot, Stokke sought to combine her interest in general aviation with
the thesis that she had to complete as part of her undergraduate degree
in mechanical engineering. Concerned about how easily VFR pilots can
become disoriented when visual references are diminished, she
hypothesized that disorientation can be reduced\--and flight safety
increased\--by replacing the missing sensory cues. The result was
Aeronautical Orientation Research Through Haptics\--Study of Tactile
Attitude Recovery, dubbed Northstar.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Computer Multimedia Productions Corporation

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Proceedings and exhibits CD-rom

**Conference Name:** 9th International Training & Education Conference
(ITEC \'98)

**Conference Location:** Lausanne, Switzerland

**Date:** April 28-30

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Condom, Pierre

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Simulation and training on the move again

**Magazine:** Interavia

**Date:** April

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** flight safety, Boeing

**Abstract:** The formation\...of a new joint company by Boeing and
FlightSafety International to offer world airlines full training
services, coming after the acquisition of Reflectone by British
Aerospace to offer reliable training services to its military
customers - and especially to Hawk operators, are making observers think
that things may once again be on the move.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Conrad, B.; Schmidt, S. F.

**Year:** 1971

**Title:** A study of techniques for calculating motion drive signals
for flight simulators

**Institution:** Analytical Mechanics Associates, Inc.

**Pages:** 1-69

**Report Number:** NASA CR-114345

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Analytical Mechanics Associates,
Inc., Mountain View, CA

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 70

**Abstract:** (from [INTRODUCTION)]{.underline}

One of the challenging and unsolved problems in applications of
pilot-flight simulators is how the very restricted motion freedom of the
translational and rotational drive systems can \"best\" be used to
simulate realistic flying sensations. The problem is difficult to solve
because the constraints of the motion drive systems (position limits,
velocity limits, and acceleration limits) preclude duplication of the
body rates and forces on the pilot of the real aircraft except in a few
tasks like hovering, refueling, and formation flying. As a result, the
\"best\" motion is a compromise which attempts to provide the simulator
test pilot with those flight sensations and motion \"cues\" that he
needs while staying within the constraint barriers of the motion drive
systems. The lack of knowledge on pilot needs, and the lack of a
fundamental understanding of how such compromises in motion fidelity
degrade the usefulness of the simulation test results, make the problem
even more difficult.

In a previous study effort (Ref. 1), a number of empirical
\"rule-of-thumb\" solutions to the problem were reviewed and documented.
Also, a \"heuristic\" mathematical approach was given which tended to
\"explain\" the empirical solutions. This approach was used to develop
two promising washout circuits for the Ames All-Axis Motion Simulator.
In order to evaluate these circuits, a \"formation-type\" flying task
was conceived. In this task, the motion quality could be varied for
near-perfect reproduction of real flight to a fixed-base (no motion)
solution. The previous study effort terminated with the completion of an
experimental program in which several pilots flew the formation-flying
task for three different aircraft lateral handling characteristics with
one-to-one motion and fixed-based (no motion). The results of that
program showed that the task and simulated aircraft were such that
one-to-one motion was very important to the simulator test pilots. The
effect of motion was readily measured by rms calculations based on the
pilot\'s ability to hold a tight formation. Hence, it was believed that
the effects of washout circuit parameter variations (which affect the
quality of motion) could be measured and the parameters optimized in an
experimental investigation which used the formation-flying task.

The objectives of the study effort described in this report were as
follows:

1\. Develop an experimental test plan using the formation-flying task
for the validation and refinement of the washout circuits described in
Reference 1. The details of this plan are given in Section 2.

2\. Execute the test plan in conjugation with NASA scientists and test
pilots on the Ames simulation facilities. Some of the experimental
results obtained in these tests are given in Section 3.

3\. Analyze the experimental data in conjunction with NASA scientists,
using pilot model identification methods. Difficulties encountered with
these procedures are given in Section 4, along with a few preliminary
results.

4\. Develop FORTRAN IV washout programs for applications on the Ames
All-Axis Simulator. Two such programs are described in the Appendix.
Section 5 describes the use of these circuits.

5\. Develop a questionnaire-type log to assist NASA personnel in
documenting the experience obtained with the application of washout
circuits to operational simulations. This log is presented in Section 6.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Conrad, B.; Schmidt, S. F.; Douvillier, J. G.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** Washout circuit design for multi-degrees-of-freedom moving
base simulators

**Conference Name:** AIAA Visual and Motion Simulation Conference

**Conference Location:** Palo Alto, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** September 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bjorn Conrad and S. F. Schmidt:
Analytical Mechanics Associates, Mountain View, CA

J. G. Douvillier: NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Abstract:** Piloted, moving-base simulators generally contain
actuators and drive linkages with severe position, velocity, and/or
acceleration limits. These limits prevent the motion drive trains from
exactly reproducing the very general motion histories that may be solved
for an aircraft computer simulation. This paper presents a mathematical
framework for designing logic to accept motion-dependent parameters from
a simulation, attenuating them (\"washing them out\"), and generating
appropriately limited drive signals. This framework is sufficiently
general to encompass six-degrees-of-freedom simulators with large motion
capability. Emphasis is placed on preserving certain motion cue
relations (such as those that would be observed in coordinated flight).
Strategies for simulating side forces via tilts are shown. Finally,
several specific circuits are shown. These circuits have proven to be
readily adaptable to a variety of moving-base simulators.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cooper, George E.; Drinkwater, Fred J., III

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Pilot assessment aspects of simulation

**Conference Name:** Simulation

**Conference Location:** Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** March

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** pilot assessment, simulation, validation, visual displays,
pilot stress, motion

**Abstract:** This lead paper on the pilot assessment aspects of flight
simulation discusses in greater detail some of the problems introduced
in the AGARD Report 567, \"The Use of Pilot Rating in the Evaluation of
Aircraft Handling Qualities\" (1). The important function of a lead
paper on pilot assessment is to introduce the critical questions raised
by pilots so they can be examined and discussed with the aim of
developing solutions and improved understanding. Some answers are
proposed that may in themselves be controversial and stimulate further
discussions.

One major difficulty in the application and utilization of pilot
assessment in simulation is that there are no simple black and white
answers for many of our problems, and continuing communication between
pilots and engineers is essential. This is not so difficult to
understand when we realize that with simulation we are seeking answers
with only part of the tools for the job, and we are using the human
element, namely the pilot, to bridge the gap between simulation on one
hand, and the final flight application on the other. It is important,
therefore, that we involve the pilot as early as possible in developing
a piloted simulation program.

In order to bring out the pilot\'s viewpoint, we have reviewed common
pilot gripes and complaints arising from simulation experiences and
selected a number of questions or problems that we believe focus
discussion on areas of maximum interest and concern. We consider first
the apparent primary concern of pilots participating in simulation work,
and next the questions related to the pilots\' actual participation in
the planning and conduct of experiments, the simulation situation in
terms of the facility being used, and the analysis and reporting of
results.

**Notes:** Lead discussion by J. Pinet and Lt. C. A. Wheal, RN. Open
discussion also included.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Cooper, George E.; Harper, Robert P., Jr.

**Year:** 1969

**Title:** The use of pilot rating in the evaluation of aircraft
handling qualities

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** April

**Type:** Technical Note

**Report Number:** NASA TN D-5153

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Cooper: NASA Ames Research Center

Harper: Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory

**Number of Pages:** 52

**Abstract:** Pilot rating scales and their use in assessing aircraft
handling qualities are reviewed historically, and objections that have
been raised to limitations of earlier scales are considered in the
development of a revised scale. Terminology used in the evaluation of
handling qualities is reviewed and new definitions are proposed to
improve communication and international understanding. Of particular
significance is the new definition of handling qualities, which
emphasizes the importance of factors that influence the selection of a
rating other than stability and control characteristics.

The experimental use of pilot rating is discussed in detail, with
special attention devoted to (1) clarifying the difference between
mission and task, (2) identifying what the rating applies to, (3)
considering the pilot\'s assessment criteria, and (4) defining the
simulation situation. The important elements of the report are then
summarized in a suggested \"Briefing Guide,\" designed for guidance in
planning and executing handling qualities.

**Notes:** Some portions of this report:

\*Summary\--p. 1

\*Introduction\--pp. 1-2

\*Early Rating Scales\--pp. 7-8

\*Revised Pilot Rating Scale\--pp. 8-17

\*Pilot Assessment Considerations\--pp. 22-25

\*Simulation Situation\--pp. 25-29

\*Appendix B: Briefing Guide and Rating Information for Handling
Qualities Experiments\--pp.34-39

\*References\--p. 52

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cooper, J. C.; Rutherford, M. L.; McKinnon, G. M.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Digital control loading and motion: The final word?

**Conference Name:** Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation &
Education (I/ITSEC) Conference

**Conference Location:** Montreal

**Publisher:** CAE Electronics Ltd.

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Cooper: Group Leader, Control
Loading, CAE Electronics Ltd., Montreal, Canada

Rutherford: Manager, Systems Engineering, CAE Electronics Ltd.,
Montreal, Canada

McKinnon: Director, R & D, CAE Electronics Ltd., Montreal, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** This paper reviews the essential elements in effective
load unit design and introduces a novel approach to digital control
loading and motion with extensive performance and logistics benefits.
Performance of the digital system is superior to modern analog systems.
A 3-KHz iteration rate provides the ability to model non-linear
characteristics which are difficult to reproduce cost-effectively in an
analog model. Maintenance and sparing of the digital controller is
simplified by the use of a minimum number of different card types with
built-in automated diagnostics which locate failures at the board level.
Updates and maintenance adjustments are performed through user-friendly
software utilities, with rigid configuration control of the system\'s
state via software backups.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Corwin, William H.; Sandry-Garza, Diane L.; Biferno, Michael
H.; Boucek, George P., Jr.; Logan, Aileen L.; Jonsson, Jon E.; Metalis,
Sam A.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Assessment of crew workload measurement methods, techniques
and procedures. Volume I\--Process, methods, and results

**City:** Dayton, OH

**Institution:** Cockpit Integration Directorate, Wright Research and
Development Center, Air Force Systems Command, Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base

**Date:** September

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** WRDC-TR-89-7006 Volume I

**Number of Pages:** 237

**Keywords:** subjective measures, performance measures, physiological
measures

**Abstract:** This report summarizes the work conducted as part of an
FAA/U.S. Air Force sponsored contract (F33615-C-86-3600) \"The
Assessment of Crew Workload measurement Methods, Techniques, and
Procedures.\" The primary goal of the contract was to identify
assessment techniques which demonstrate evidence of validity and
reliability and are suitable as measures of flightcrew workload for
aircraft certification.

To use a workload assessment technique with confidence for the
certification of an aircraft flightdeck, the validity and reliability of
the technique must be well established. Validity is the capability of
the assessment technique to measure the abstract construct it is
proposed to measure. Reliability is the capability of the measure to
produce the same results with repeated testing.

A comprehensive literature review was conducted to identify workload
measures which have an empirical record of validity and reliability. All
candidate workload assessment techniques had to be applicable for
evaluating workload in an aircraft environment. Two workshops were
conducted to bring together experts in the workload assessment field to
determine candidate measures for simulation testing (aided by the
literature search), and make recommendations for testing in a high
fidelity simulation. Two separate simulation tests were conducted at the
Man Vehicle System Research Facility at NASA-Ames Research Center using
a Phase II B-727 motion-base simulator.

The process by which this contract was conducted allows us to make
factual statements regarding the validity and reliability of workload
measures. The findings of validity and reliability for the workload
measures tested are repeatable as demonstrated by the replication of
results in the second simulation study. The method employed in this
contract allows for an audit trail of the process by which an assessment
technique is determined to be valid and reliable. A summary of the steps
completed for this contract includes:

a\. Literature review and Fact Matrices

b\. Workshop to gather expert agreement

c\. Simulation testing

Workload measures which demonstrated evidence of validity and
reliability in simulation testing includes:

a\. In-flight and Post-flight subjective ratings (SWAT, NASA-TLX, and
Bedford rating scales)

b\. Heart rate, as measured by R-to-R wave interbeat Interval

c\. Control Input Activity for the wheel (aileron) and column (elevator)
during manual flight path control

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cowdrey, D. A.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Advanced visuals in mission simulators

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30-October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Group Leader - Visual Applications,
Singer Link-Miles Ltd, Dept 060, Churchill Industrial Estate, Lancing,
W. Sussex BN15 8UE, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** visual, mission simulator, image generator, display
systems, heat-mounted display, eye-tracked AOI

**Abstract:** Modern sophisticated full mission flight systems trainers
are capable of accurate representation of the actual aircraft in many
areas including handling, controls, systems, etc. The major area of
inadequacy to date has been the inability to produce a satisfactory
visual representation of the outside works. To produce an image to match
that of the pilot\'s field-of-view at the required resolution is beyond
the capabilities of conventional visual system technology. This paper
describes various alternative techniques developed at the Link Flight
Simulation Division of the Singer Company, based on an eye-enslaved
area-of-interest (AOI) concept

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Cowings, Patricia S.; Toscano, William B.; DeRoshia, Charles

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** An evaluation of the frequency and severity of motion
sickness incidences in personnel within the Command and Control Vehicle
(C2V)

**Date:** January

**Type:** Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** A-98-09480

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Cowings, DeRoshia: NASA Ames
Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

Toscano: University of California, Los Angeles, CA

**Number of Pages:** 28

**Keywords:** human performance, motion sickness, psychophysiology

**Abstract:** The purpose of this study was to assess the frequency and
severity of motion sickness in personnel during a field exercise in the
Command and Control Vehicle (C2V). This vehicle contains four
workstations where military personnel are expected to perform command
decisions in the field during combat conditions. Eight active duty
military men (U.S. Army) at the Yuma Proving Grounds in Arizona
participated in this study. All subjects were given baseline performance
tests while their physiological responses were monitored on the first
day. On the second day of their participation, subjects rode in the C2V
while their physiological responses and performance measures were
recorded. Self-reports of motion sickness were also recorded. Results
showed that only one subject experienced two incidences of emesis.
However, seven out of eight subjects reported other motion sickness
symptoms; most predominant was the report of drowsiness, which occurred
a total of 19 times. Changes in physiological responses were observed
relative to motion sickness symptoms reported and the different
environmental conditions (i.e., level, hills, gravel) during the field
exercise. Performance data showed an overall decrement during the C2V
exercise. These findings suggest that malaise and severe drowsiness can
potentially impact the operational efficiency of the C2V crew. It was
concluded that conflicting sensory information from the subject\'s
visual displays and movements of the vehicle during the field exercise
significantly contributed to motion sickness symptoms. It was
recommended that a second study be conducted to further evaluate the
impact of seat position or orientation and C2V experience on motion
sickness susceptibility. Further, it was recommended that an
investigation be performed on behavioral methods for improving crew
alertness, motivation, and performance and for reducing malaise.

**Notes:** Sponsoring organization: NASA

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Unpublished Work

**Author:** Crider, Dennis A.

**Year:** 2006

**Title of Work:** Training simulators and flight safety

**Pages:** 1-7

**Type of Work:** Paper

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Chief Technical Advisor, Vehicle
Simulation, National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, DC 20594

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** flight simulator training, safety recommendations,
negative training, flight envelope, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** (from first page of paper) The National Transportation
Safety Board has long recognized the importance of simulator training to
aviation safety and issued a simulator training safety recommendation in
1969, just 2 years after the Safety Board was created. At that time, the
Board recommended to the FAA that \"All maneuvers requiring simulated
engine(s) out operation of aircraft close to the ground be conducted in
simulator training devices where possible.\" This recommendation and
others since recognize the fundamental fact that some types of training
are safer to do in simulators where at most a crash results in a
simulator reset rather than broken bones and bent metal. In the
simulator, relatively uncommon but dangerous environmental factors, such
as airframe icing and some atmospheric motions like windshear and
aircraft wake encounters, are available at the touch of a button.

For example, pilots can routinely train through simulation of the 1985
Delta Airlines flight 191 Dallas/Fort Worth accident windshear.

Over the years, lessons learned from accident investigations have been
integrated into the simulator training syllabus and general flight
training simulator requirements. Windshear modeling and airframe icing
are, for example, included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
advisory circular (AC) 120-40B, Airplane Simulator Qualification. Other,
more recent accident investigative feedback has been provided for
incorporation into simulators through operational bulletins, specific
ACs, and other guidance.

Although flight training simulators are wonderful tools for providing
safer training and producing safer pilots, the Safety Board has on
occasion seen cases where modeling is unrealistic, resulting in negative
training. I believe that by requiring physics-based (that is, realistic)
modeling, the ICAO 9625 International Working Group can reduce if not
eliminate such negative simulator training in the future.

Presently, simulators are conformed and certified by comparing the
simulator response to control inputs recorded for a set of maneuvers to
the actual aircraft response to the same control inputs. These tests are
conducted at conditions well within the normal flight envelope. No
guidance presently exists on how to simulate and validate maneuvers
outside the normal flight envelope or on how to simulate such
occurrences as wake turbulence or icing encounters. The simulator
operator or manufacturer is free to model these conditions as it sees
fit. Unfortunately, the absence of requirements has caused some
problems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Criel, Todd M.; Wyatt, Fred V.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Sandia National Laboratories: Flight simulation facilities

**City:** Albuquerque, NM

**Institution:** Sandia National Laboratories

**Date:** May

**Report Number:** SAND87-2034 . UC-13

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Exploratory Systems Development
Division, Wyatt, Aerospace Projects Division

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Abstract:** Flight simulation computer facilities and motion simulator
facilities at Sandia National Laboratories include an AD-10, an AD-100
(both real time digital simulation computers), two AD-5s (analog
computers), a VAX 11/780 (a digital mainframe), a PDP 11/60 (a digital
computer), and a Carco S-450R-3/R three axis motion simulator. This
report describes the current equipment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Croft, John

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Inflight upset training puts muscle behind the book work

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Date:** August 26

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Buffalo, NY

**Keywords:** in-flight simulation, upset recovery training (URT)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Croft, John W.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Refuse-to-crash: NASA tackles loss of control

**Periodical Title:** Aerospace America

**Issue:** March

**Date Accessed:** June 15, 2007

**Keywords:** loss of control, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Technologies under study at NASA will alert pilots of loss
of control in time to take action---or take action for them.

**URL:**
<http://www.aiaa.org/aerospace/Article.cfm?issuetocid=322&ArchiveIssueID=36>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Cross, Kenneth D.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Training effectiveness assessment: Methodological problems
and issues

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date:** April

**Report Number:** NTIS No. N93-30684

**Keywords:** flight simulators, helicopters, pilot performance, pilot
training, training evaluation, economic factors, effectiveness

**Abstract:** The US military uses a large number of simulators to train
and sustain the flying skills of helicopter pilots. Despite the enormous
resources required to purchase, maintain, and use these simulators,
little effort has been expended in assessing their training
effectiveness. One reason for this is the lack of an evaluation
methodology that yields comprehensive and valid data at a practical
cost. Some of these methodological problems and issues that arise in
assessing simulator training effectiveness, as well as problems with the
classical transfer-of-learning paradigm were discussed.

**Notes:** In NASA/FAA simulator workshop p. 77-90.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Cross, Kenneth D.; Gainer, Charles A.

**Year:** 1984-1985

**Title:** An enumeration of research to determine the optimal design
and use of army flight training simulators

**City:** Fort Rucker, AL

**Institution:** Anacapa Sciences, Inc.

**Date:** October

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** ARI Technical Report 763

(performing organization report number) ASI479-066-85

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Anacapa Sciences, Inc, P.O. Box
489, Fort Rucker, AL 36362

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** U.S. Army Research Institute for
the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria,
VA 22333

**Keywords:** army flight simulator research requirements, helicopter
pilot training, transfer of training, backward transfer, flight
simulator fidelity requirements, training device characteristics, flying
skill acquisition, flying skill sustainment, training device
requirements, training effectiveness assessment

**Abstract:** This document lists and describes research the authors
judged necessary to determine the optimal design and use of Army flight
training simulators. Two major lines of research are described; the
first addresses the design fidelity issue. Specifically, research is
described that is judged necessary to determine the most cost- and
training-effective level of fidelity for four simulator components: the
visual system, the motion systems, the math models that determine the
handling qualities of the flight simulator, and the cockpit displays and
controls. The purpose of the second line of research is to determine how
best to use production simulators that have been or are soon to be
acquired by the Army. This line of research focuses primarily on the use
of production simulators for field unit aviators who have completed
institutional training and have been assigned to an operational field
unit. However, the second line of research addresses some issues
associated with the use of flight simulators for institutional training
at the U.S. Army Aviation Center received before the aviator's first
assignment to an operational unit.

This document was prepared to serve as a vehicle for initiating
meaningful dialogue among the agencies and personnel who share
responsibility for optimizing the benefits of the Army's Synthetic
Flight Training System (SFTS) program; it has not been officially
endorsed by any Army agency.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Cross, Kenneth D. ; Szabo, Sandra M. ; (Eds.)

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Human factors research in aircrew performance and training:
Final summary report

**City:** Fort Rucker, AL

**Institution:** ARI Field Unit

**Date:** November

**Type:** Final Summary Report

**Report Number:** ARI Research Note 86-94

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Anacapa Sciences, Inc., P.O. Box
489, Fort Rucker, AL 36362

**Number of Pages:** 214

**Keywords:** Army aviator training requirements: active duty aviators,
individual ready reserve aviators, National Guard aviators, reserve unit
aviators, flight surgeons; Army retention/attrition: separation
questionnaire, attrition causes, retention causes; retention of
helicopter flying skills; maintenance of flying skills: flying time
required, practice iteration required; Army aviator training: simulator,
aircraft, time, night, team, unit; Army aviator selection test
development/validation: aptitudes, abilities, task/ability analysis;
Army aviator performance measurement/evaluation: in simulators, in
aircraft, in training, in research, consensual decision making, aviation
resource management survey; Army helicopter workstation design: mission
analysis, task analysis, function allocation, workload prediction,
workload measurement, computer models, anthropometrics; helicopter
flight simulation: training, retraining, transfer of training, skill
maintenance, visual system, motion system, training support features,
design fidelity, workload validation; flight simulators for training:
simulator sickness; aviator peer evaluation; aviator safety: accident
prediction, flight proficiency; aviator training media: programs of
instruction, simulators, interactive videotapes, interactive videodiscs,
light attenuation filters, night vision goggles

**Abstract:** This report presents a summary of the work performed by
Anacapa Sciences, Inc. (ASI) for ARIARDA at Fort Rucker, Alabama, under
Contract No. MDA903-81-C-0504, \"Human Factors Research in Aircrew
Performance and Training.\" The report contains summary descriptions for
each of 29 projects on which ASI personnel worked during the period 1
September 1982 to 31 December 1985. Each summary description contains
(a) a background section that describes the rationale for the research
and the research objectives, (b) a research rationale for the research
and the research objectives, (c) a research approach section that
describes the tasks and activities required to fulfill the project
objectives, (d) a results section that describes the research findings,
and (e) a project status section that describes the work completed and
projections for future research, if any.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Crowell, James A.; Banks, Martin S.; Shenoy, Krishna V.;
Andersen, Richard A.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Visual self-motion perception during head turns

**Journal:** Nature Neuroscience

**Volume:** 1

**Pages:** 732-737

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Crowell, Shenoy, Andersen: Caltech
Division of Biology, Mail Code 216-76, 1200 E. California Blvd.,
Pasadena, California 91125, USA

Banks: U.C. Berkeley School of Optometry, 360 Minor Hall, Berkeley,
California, 94720-2020, USA

**Abstract:** Extra-retinal information is critical in the
interpretation of visual input during self-motion. Turning our eyes and
head to track objects displaces the retinal image but does not affect
our ability to navigate because we use extra-retinal information to
compensate for these displacements. We showed observers animated
displays depicting their forward motion through a scene. They perceived
the simulated self-motion accurately while smoothly shifting the gaze by
turning the head, but not when the same gaze shift was simulated in the
display; this indicates that the visual system also uses extra-retinal
information during head turns. Additional experiments compared
self-motion judgments during active and passive head turns, passive
rotations of the body and rotations of the body with head fixed in
space. We found that accurate perception during active head turns is
mediated by contributions from three extra-retinal cues: vestibular
canal stimulation, neck proprioception and an efference copy of the
motor command to turn the head.

**URL:** <http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v1/n8/pdf/nn1298_732.pdf>

**Author Address:** James Crowel: jim@vis.caltech.edu

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Cunningham, Kevin; Foster, John V.; Shah, Gautam H.;
Stewart, Eric C.; Rivers, Robert A.; Wilborn, James E.; Gato, William

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Simulation study of a commercial transport airplane during
stall and post-stall flight

**Conference Name:** 2004 World Aviation Congress

**Conference Location:** Reno, NV

**Publisher:** SAE International

**Date:** November 2-4

**Electronic Resource Number:** 2004-01-3100

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kevin Cunningham, John V. Foster,
Gautam H. Shah, Eric C. Stewart: NASA Langley Research Center

Robert A. Rivers: NASA Johnson Space Center

James E. Wilborn, William Gato: The Boeing Company

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** As part of NASA\'s Aviation Safety and Security Program, a
simulation study of a twin-jet transport aircraft crew training
simulation was conducted to address fidelity for upset or
loss-of-control flight conditions. Piloted simulation studies were
conducted to compare the baseline crew training simulation model with an
enhanced aerodynamic model that was developed for high-angle-of-attack
conditions. These studies were conducted in flaps-up configuration and
covered the approach-to-stall, stall and post-stall flight regimes.
Qualitative pilot comments and preliminary comparison with flight test
data indicate that the enhanced model is a significant improvement over
the baseline. Some of the significant unrepresentative characteristics
that are predicted by baseline crew training simulation for flight in
the post-stall regime have been identified. This paper presents
preliminary results of this simulation study and discusses key issues
regarding predicted flight dynamics characteristics during
loss-of-control flight conditions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Davies, D. P.

**Year:** 1975

**Title:** Approval of flight simulator flying qualities

**Journal:** Aeronautical Journal

**Volume:** 79

**Pages:** 281-297

**Date:** July

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Chief Test Pilot, CAA

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** (taken from 1. INTRODUCTION) Flight Simulation has made
good steady progress over the years, and is now being given significant
credit for its ability to reproduce aircraft flying qualities in a
device on the ground. However, the simulator flight world is tending to
claim too much credit for its present level of achievement. This talk is
an attempt to review the present state of the art against an accurate
comparison with aircraft flying qualities, to highlight the deficiencies
and to appeal to the users of simulators to consolidate their present
gains before proceeding further. This paper deals only with civil
fixed-wing transport aircraft above 20,000 kg maximum weight.

There are three parts:

*(i)* a brief statement of the approval procedures in the UK;

*(ii)* a review of the present level of simulator flying qualities;

*(iii)* some elementary advice to all involved in simulation.

In order to avoid my having to indulge in repeated supposition, let us
assume that the readers are all applicants for the approval of a flight
simulator so that I may enjoy the use of personal pronouns.

As my last introductory comment, I must admit that I know really very
little about flight simulators: the vocabulary alone for example baffles
me. However, this admission is not significant. I do know a good deal
about the flying qualities of contemporary airplanes and as the accurate
simulation of aircraft flying qualities is the target of the flight
simulator world then who better to discuss the subject than a specialist
in the end product? I sometimes feel that my ignorance is not a bad
thing anyway: if I knew a lot more of your difficulties, for example, it
might cause my natural sympathy and kindness to warp my judgment. A
measure of kindness is necessary otherwise the number of simulators
presently approved would be significantly lower. For the proof of this
last point read on.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** de Bruin, J.; Grant, P.R.; Mulder, M.; van Paassen, M.M.;
Zaal, P.M.T.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Pilot\'s use of heave cues in a pitch control task

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6895

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** de Bruin: MSc. student, Control and
Simulation Division, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University
of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, The Netherlands

Grant: Associate Professor, University of Toronto Institute for
Aerospace Studies

Mulder: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation Division, Faculty of
Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058,
2600 GB Delft, The Netherlands

van Paassen: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation Division,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O.
Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, The Netherlands

Zaal: PhD student, Control and Simulation Division, Faculty of Aerospace
Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB
Delft, The Netherlands

**Abstract:** This paper reports on a pitch control experiment performed
in the UTIAS Flight Research Simulator (FRS), investigating the effects
of pitch and heave motion on pilot performance and control effort in a
pitch attitude control task. Few pitch attitude control experiments have
been reported that investigate the influence of heave and pitch motion
on pitch control. Moreover, experimental results as reported in
literature, are in disagreement about the influence of heave motion on
pitch control. In this paper, the preliminary results of the experiment
are presented. Two types of heave motion cues are studied. The first is
a linear function of pitch rate, representing heave acceleration as a
result of aircraft lift, the second is a linear function of pitch
acceleration, representing heave acceleration as a result of the
rotating aircraft. A combined target tracking and disturbance rejection
task was performed with a compensatory display. The dependent measure
analysis shows a significant increase in performance when pitch motion
is added. An improvement in performance is visible for heave motion,
though not significant. No significant differences are found for the two
types of heave acceleration. Further in-depth analysis is currently
conducted, including pilot describing function analysis by
identification, and pilot model analysis.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** De Marco, Agostino

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** A brief history of aircraft flight simulation

**Book Title:** Appunti di Tecniche di Simulazione di Volo (Notes on
Flight Simulation Techniques)

**City:** Naples, Italy

**Publisher:** unpublished work

**Pages:** 2-1 - 2-37

**Chapter:** 2

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Agostino De Marco, PhD, Università
degli Studi di Napoli \"Federico II\" (University of Naples (Italy)
\"Federico II\"), Dipartimento di Progettazione Aeronautica (DPA)
(Department of Aerospace Engineering), Aircraft Design &
Aeroflightdynamics Group (ADAG)

**Keywords:** history, flight simulation, simulation techniques

**Abstract:** A complete account of the development of the technology of
flight simulation would not be narrow in scope despite its recent birth.
Flight simulation has made immediate use of advantages in technology
throughout a 75-year history and indeed, its demands have often
stimulated new developments in the supporting technologies.

The review presented here will focus on the evolution of technologies
for flight simulation with the aid of illustrations of devices which
best represent the major advancing steps.

The majority of flight simulation devices were built for training
purposes, although of course flight simulation includes machines built
for engineering and psychological research. Most of these latter are
simulators built for training non-piloting tasks of aircrews, such as
navigation, radio operation and gunnery, and are omitted here.

**Notes:** This appears to be an unpublished chapter of course notes
written in book form (used for teaching).

See also http://www.dpa.unina.it/demarco/, click on Teaching
Area/Tecniche di Simulazione di Volo for other chapters including:

1: An introduction to Flight Simulation

2: A Brief History of Aircraft Flight Simulation

3: Mathematical models

4: Flight Instruments

5: Navigation Systems (draft)

**URL:**
<http://www.dpa.unina.it/demarco/docs/app_tecniche_simulazione_volo_cap_2.pdf>

**Author Address:** Phone: +39 081 768 3323

Fax: +39 081 768 3622

E-mail: agodemar \_#at#\_ unina \_dot\_ it

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Dearing, M.; Schroeder, J.; Sweet, B.; Kaiser, M.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Effects of visual texture, grids, and platform motion on
unpowered helicopter landings

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Montreal, Quebec, Canada

**Date:** August 6-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** A simulation experiment examined how a range of visual and
platform motion characteristics affected a pilot\'s ability to perform
precise landings after a steep unpowered descent in a helicopter. The
visual characteristics were texture density and different sized
rectangular grids. The platform motion levels ranged from fixed-base to
extremely large motion. Seven experienced test pilots flew all 36 visual
and motion combinations, and their objective performance and subjective
opinions were collected. Texture affected all of the dependent measures;
however, the finest texture did not perform the best, which debunks a
common misperception that more texture is better. In contrast, grids
only affected pilot subjective opinion of speed and attitude cueing. As
more platform motion was added, touchdown sink rate improved, along with
pilot opinion of the motion fidelity.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** DeBerg, Oak H.; McFarland, Barry P.; Showalter, Thomas W.

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** The effect of simulator fidelity on engine failure training
in the KC-135 aircraft

**Conference Name:** AIAA Visual and Motion Simulation Conference

**Conference Location:** Dayton, OH

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** April 26-28

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Aeronautical Systems Division,
United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** Because of the dangers associated with engine failures
during takeoff of large multi-engine air-craft, flight simulators are
usually used to train pilots to recover from this failure. An assessment
of the effectiveness of this training was made using an engineering
flight simulator with KC-135A aircraft commanders as test subjects. The
available visual system and motion system cueing capabilities of the
engineering simulator were restricted to produce four combinations
representative of current training hardware: (a) visual system cues
only, (b) motion system cues only, (c) visual system and motion system
cues, and (d) no visual system and motion system cues. One subject group
was trained to recover from engine failure in each of these cueing
situations. All restrictions to the cueing of the engineering simulator
were then removed, and training effectiveness of the four candidate
systems was assessed by measuring pilot performance in the unrestricted
engineering simulator. Results were analyzed by a factorial analysis of
variance. Results indicate: (a) the superiority of training
effectiveness with simulator visual systems, (b) the enhancement of
training effectiveness by including a motion system in the training
simulator, and (c) the synergistic improvement in training using both
motion and visual systems together. This experiment is the first of a
series that will investigate simulation cueing effectiveness.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Dell, W.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The use of 3-D to improve auditory cues in aircraft

**Pages:** 1-101

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Computing Science,
University of Glasgow, Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow, G12 8QQ

**Number of Pages:** 102

**Abstract:** Auditory alarms are being used in many safety critical
environments such as hospitals, nuclear power stations and aircraft. At
present, these auditory alarms rarely make use of the fact that sound
can be processed to come from more than one direction. Looking at
aviation in particular, it is common for pilots to wear headphones that
support stereo sound, which means that taking advantage of this aspect
of audio is certainly feasible. Additionally, a 3D virtual acoustic
display was proposed by Wenzel \[1\] when there was insufficient
technology to test her assertions. However, with the release of DirectX
5.0, it is now practical to design and prototype auditory alarms that
make use of 3D audio. This project investigates the impact of using
spatialised alarms versus stereo and mono alarms. The effectiveness of
the three types of alarm are analyzed in terms of reaction time, error
rate, learnability, performance of primary task and workload measures.
The results from this experiment indicate that the technology for
supporting 3D audio is not sufficient to yield an advantage over its
alternatives.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Demuth, Jan; Helmreich, Bob; Lofaro, Ron; Smith, Kevin

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Crew resource management (CRM)

**Date:** September 20

**Type:** Advisory Circular Draft

**Report Number:** 120-51 Draft 2.4

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Demuth, Helmreich, Lofaro, Smith:
CRM/Los Integration Subcommittee, ATA/AQP Working Group

**Number of Pages:** 22

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** den Hollander, J. G.; Baarspul, M.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Measurement of motion quality of a moving base flight
simulator

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** den Hollander, Baarspul: Delft
University of Technology, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

**Notes:** Memorandum M-264. Referenced in Ruud Hosman\'s book,
*Pilot\'s perception and control of aircraft motions* (1996).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Denne, Phillip R.M.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Motion effects on driver training

**City:** Bournemouth, England

**Institution:** Denne Developments Ltd.

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Managing Director, Denne
Developments Ltd., Bournemouth. England

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** Driver training in a non-motion simulator does not teach
all the skills which are critical in the real world, because nobody
drives in direct response to visual feedback information. The
fast-response loop on which all trained reactions are based is a haptic
one which includes tactile feedback from the controls and from the
sensations of vehicle movement caused by control actions or by the
irregularities of the environment. It follows that no driver training
simulator is complete without well-designed motion and control-loading
systems. Recent developments allow these to be provided at an acceptable
cost.

**URL:** <http://www.advancedmotion.net/pdf/sim5.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Dennerlein, J. T.; Martin, D. B.; Hasser, C.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Force-feedback improves performance for steering and combined
steering-targeting tasks

**Conference Name:** Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems

**Date:** April 1-6

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Jack Tigh Dennerlein: Harvard
University, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA

David B. Martin: Harvard University & Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH

Christopher Hasser: Stanford University & Immersion Corporation, 2158
Paragon Drive, San Jose, CA

**Abstract:** The introduction of a force-feedback mouse, which provides
high fidelity tactile cues via force output, may represent a
long-awaited technological breakthrough in pointing device designs.
However, there have been few studies examining the benefits of
force-feedback for the desktop computer human interface. Ten adults
performed eighty steering tasks, where the participants moved the cursor
through a small tunnel with varying indices of difficulty using a
conventional and force-feedback mouse. For the force-feedback condition,
the mouse displayed force that pulled the cursor to the center of the
tunnel. The tasks required both horizontal and vertical screen movements
of the cursor. Movement times were on average 52 percent faster during
the force-feedback condition when compared to the conventional mouse.
Furthermore, for the conventional mouse vertical movements required more
time to complete than horizontal screen movements. Another ten adults
completed a combined steering and targeting task, where the participants
navigated through a tunnel and then clicked a small box at the end of
the tunnel. Again, force-feedback improved times to complete the task.
Although movement times were slower than \[sic\] the pure steering task,
the steering index of difficulty dominated the steering-targeting
relationship. These results further support that human computer
interfaces benefit from the additional sensory input of tactile cues to
the human user.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Der Bund (sda)

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Das Vertrauen verloren

**Newspaper:** Der Bund

**Issue Date:** April 15

**Keywords:** F/A-18, disorientation, upset recovery training (URT)

**Notes:** Swiss Army accident by older pilot.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Dichgans, J.; Brandt, Th.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Visual-vestibular interactions: Effects on self-motion
perception and postural control

**Editor:** Held, R.; Leibowitz, H. W.; Teuber, H.-L.

**Book Title:** Handbook of Sensory Physiology

**City:** Berlin

**Publisher:** Springer-Verlag

**Volume:** 8, Perception

**Pages:** 755-804

**Chapter:** 25

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Dieudonne, James E.; Parrish, Russell V.; Bardusch, Richard
E.

**Year:** 1972

**Title:** An actuator extension transformation for a motion simulator
and an inverse transformation applying Newton-Raphson\'s method

**City:** Washington, D.C.

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration

**Date:** November

**Type:** Technical Note

**Report Number:** NASA TN D-7067

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Keywords:** Motion simulator

Newton-Raphson method

Real-time simulation

**Abstract:** A set of equations which transform position and angular
orientation of the centroid of the payload platform of the
six-degree-of-freedom motion simulator at the Langley Research Center
into extensions of the simulator\'s actuators has been derived and is
based on a geometrical representation of the system. An iterative
scheme, Newton-Raphson\'s method, has been successfully used in a
real-time environment in the calculation of the position and angular
orientation of the centroid of the payload platform when the magnitude
of the actuator extensions is known. Sufficient accuracy is obtained by
using only one Newton-Raphson iteration per integration step of the
real-time environment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Dillard, A. E.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Validation of advanced flight simulators for human-factors
operational evaluation and training programs

**Pages:** 1-87

**Date:** September 12

**Type:** Draft

**Number of Pages:** 88

**Abstract:** (Scope) This document is meant to deal with the process of
validating advanced approved flight simulators as described in AC 120-40
for human-factors, procedural development, and operational evaluation
programs. There are other levels of simulation available, and all have
an appropriate application in the process of modeling, evaluating, and
analyzing a procedure or an operational application. The term
"Approved\" refers to the FAA\'s process of formally certifying, or
approving, simulators for use in approved training programs. Approved
simulators are all based on the use of actual aircraft databases derived
from flight test data and qualified pilot operators to ensure a high
fidelity operating environment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Dixon, Peter; Gabrys, Gareth

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Learning to operate complex devices: Effects of conceptual
and operational similarity

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 33

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 103-120

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Dixon: University of Alberta at
Edmonton

Gabrys: University of Pittsburgh, PA

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** In two experiments we investigated the effect of prior
knowledge of a given device on learning to operate a similar device. Two
kinds of similarity were investigated: conceptual similarity, in which
the underlying concepts of how the devices worked were the same, and
operational similarity, in which the organization and structure of the
operating system were the same. Experiment 1 used devices that were
always physically the same, regardless of how they were described and
the procedure used to operate them. Experiment 2 used devices that were
always physically different but required the same logical sequence of
steps. In both experiments there were substantial effects of operational
similarity, but no reliable effect of conceptual similarity. It was
concluded that prior experience with similar devices often helps because
similar devices have similar operating procedures, not because similar
devices work similarly.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Doll, T. J.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Synthesis of auditory localization cues for cockpit
applications

**Conference Name:** Human Factors Society 30th Annual Meeting

**Conference Location:** Dayton, OH

**Date:** September 29-October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Georgia Tech Research Institute,
Atlanta, GA

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** The long-term objective of this work is to develop
techniques for conveying accurate spatial information via audio signals
delivered to the listener through headphones. Specific objectives of the
first phase included the design, fabrication, and evaluation of an
apparatus for demonstrating simulated auditory localization (SAL). The
design of the SAL facility is described. An experimental test of the
psychological fidelity of the SAL facility is summarized. The results
show that the facility produces a high-fidelity simulation of normal,
unaided auditory localization.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Douvillier, Joseph G., Jr.; Turner, Howard L.; McLean, John
D.; Heinle, Donovan R.

**Year:** 1960

**Title:** Effects of flight simulator motion on pilots\' performance of
tracking tasks

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** February

**Type:** Technical Note

**Report Number:** NASA TN D-143

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 34

**Abstract:** The effect of motion of a flight simulator on pilots'
performance of a tracking task has been investigated by comparing the
air-to-air tracking performance of two pilots in flight, on a motionless
flight simulator, and on a flight simulator free to roll and to pitch.
Two different attack displays were used.

It was found in tracking a maneuvering target that: the results from the
moving flight simulator resembled the results from flight much more than
did those from the motionless simulator; and that in flight the
conventional circle-dot display was superior to a drone display. For
simpler tracking tasks it was not possible to detect these differences.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Draper, Mark

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Can your eyes make you sick? Investigating the relationship
between the vestibulo-ocular reflex and virtual reality

**Date:** April 29

**Type:** Technical report

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, vestibulo-ocular reflex, visual,
vestibular, tracking

**Abstract:** This paper discusses the nature of the vestibulo-ocular
reflex and its relationship to the tracking response of the eye.
Included is a simplistic descriptive model of these mechanisms.
Speculations are then made on the potential contributions of the visual
and vestibular systems in producing \"simulator sickness\" and in
particular the kinds of artifacts in virtual interfaces that may
contribute to this condition.

**Notes:** On 2/23/07, the web page was no longer available.

**URL:** <http://www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-96-3/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Driskell, Carl R.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Wide angle visual system developments

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Project Director, US Army Office of
Project Manager for Training Devices, Naval Training Equipment Center,
Orlando, FL 32813

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** wide angle visual system, scanned laser visual system,
focus, resolution, attitude control

**Abstract:** The US Army Project Manager for Training Devices has two
competing development programs designed to provide high resolution
tactical scenes over a wide field of view for pilot training. In the
first system, a laser beam scans the portion of a terrain model board to
be presented to the pilot. A matrix of light sensors collects the light
reflected from the model board. A composite video signal from the light
sensors modulates a laser beam in the display scanner which scans the
scene onto a spherical viewing screen. In the second system, an optical
probe picks up a 360-degree annular image of a terrain model board. The
annular image is scanned onto a radial array of charged coupled devices
which converts the annular display into video signals. The video signals
modulate the laser beams into an annular laser projector which scans the
scene through an annular projection lens onto a spherical viewing
screen. Both visual systems provide continuous seamless visual scenes
without color matching, edge matching or brightness matching problems
that arise in multiple window display systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** Dunlap, Joseph H.; Mangold, Susan J.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Leadership/followership: Recurrent training instructor manual

**Date:** February

**Type of Work:** Instructor Manual

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Dunlap: Western Michigan University

Mangold: Battelle Memorial Institute

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Duppen, M.; Zaal, P.M.T.; Mulder, M.; van Paassen, M.M.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Effects of motion on pilot behavior in target, disturbance
and combined tracking tasks

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6894

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Duppen: MSc. student

Zaal: Ph.D. Candidate,

Mulder: Associate Professor

van Paassen: Associate Professor

Control and Simulation Division, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft
University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, The Netherlands

**Abstract:** In vehicle control, pilots merge the input from multiple
sensory channels to produce the control input to the vehicle. In order
to separate different channels from a multi-channel pilot model with the
current identification techniques, multiple forcing functions need to be
introduced in a simulator experiment. Then, it is assumed that
"classical" target and disturbance tasks can be replicated by properly
downsizing the power of the disturbance and target forcing function
signals, respectively. It remains unclear, however, whether pilots adapt
their control strategy in these combined tasks, in particular in the
presence of motion. In order to analyze pilot behavioral adaptation, a
multi-channel Optimal Control Model is developed and a simulator
experiment is conducted. A range of combinations of forcing functions is
tested in a simulator experiment. However, no apparent change of pilot
behavior was found.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Dusterberry, John C.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Visual simulation requirements and hardware

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Research Assistant to the Director,
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** visual simulation requirements, hardware

**Abstract:** Requirements for any out-of-the-cockpit visual system can
easily lead to a set of system specifications which are clearly beyond
the visual scene that can be produced by current technology. Therefore,
the requirements of any proposed system must be assessed in light of the
expected simulated aircraft and missions, experiments on pilot response,
and available image generation and display hardware. A review is made of
some of the recent experiments, and the results are related to aircraft
and missions with particular emphasis on research and development
simulators. Recent visual simulation hardware is considered in light of
extending the range of applications of piloted aircraft simulators, and
a method of design approach is proposed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Dusterberry, John C.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Manned flight simulation: Challenge and response

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, UK

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30-October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Retired, NASA Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** flight simulation, control simulation, pilot training

**Abstract:** Early AGARD papers on manned flight simulation describe
the status of an emerging test technique and then offer suggestions of
the problems that should be solved to advance the technique and
predictions of the results obtained by its use. Later AGARD literature
is examined to determine how these challenges have been met, both in
ground-based and in-flight simulation and how AGARD has played an
important role in advancing the technique so that it is now an integral
part of the aerospace vehicle design process.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Edens, Eleana

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Air carrier training research review

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** May

**Number of Pages:** 33

**Notes:** Contains the Volpe Center project entitled, \"Pilot Training
and Evaluation: Airplane Simulation Human Factors.\"

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Edens, Eleana

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Air carrier training research review

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Date:** June

**Number of Pages:** 53

**Keywords:** crew training and assessment, instructor training,
Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT), Line-Oriented Evaluation (LOE)

**Abstract:** Although basic technical and Crew Resource Management
(CRM) concepts are widely accepted, much remains to be learned regarding
the appropriate methods for effective training and valid and reliable
assessment of training programs. The general research philosophy guiding
efforts to improve training and assessment is that research must
consider distinct segments of aviation training systems. Individuals
comprising the crew, instructors who train and evaluate crews in the
classroom, the simulator and on the line, as well as the management
culture responsible for the safety climate of the carriers should all be
considered. Additionally, this research must regard the variables
important to Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) and Line-Oriented
Evaluation (LOE) development, implementation and evaluation. Thus, this
research centers on (1) crew training and assessment, (2) instructor
training, (3) LOFT/LOE development strategies and (4) organizational and
systematic influences on pilot performance, including automation usage.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Eklund, J. Mikael; Korenberg, Michael J.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Simulation of aircraft pilot flight controls using nonlinear
system identification

**Journal:** Simulation

**Volume:** 75

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 72-81

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering at Queens University

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** aerospace system simulation, flight control systems, full
flight simulators, nonlinear system identification, parallel cascade
identification

**Abstract:** This paper is concerned with modeling of the front end of
an aircraft pilot flight control system\'s behavior using a nonlinear
system identification technique known as parallel cascade
identification. Using this technique, we are able to model a critical
part of a pilot flight control system with sufficient accuracy to meet
the objective test requirements of the U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration for certifying full flight simulators. Traditional
approaches to modeling such aircraft systems involve extensive
analytical studies of the design of the system, lengthy and detailed
empirical testing and recording of data from the physical system, and
then considerable analysis to fit parametric models to the data. The
approach presented in this paper virtually eliminates the need for
analysis of the system in question, significantly reduces the number of
signals that need to be recorded from the real aircraft flight control
system, and provides an extremely fast method of identifying the
mathematical model based on these data. Overall, the time and costs
associated with building an effective model are greatly reduced.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Ellerbroek, J.; Stroosma, O.; Mulder, M.; van Paassen, M.M.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Identification of the roles of yaw and sway motion in
helicopter yaw control tasks

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6800

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ellerbroek: Researcher, Control and
Simulation Division, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University
of Technology, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, the Netherlands

Stroosma: Researcher, Aerospace Engineering, SIMONA, Delft University of
Technology, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, the Netherlands

Mulder and van Paassen: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation
Division, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of
Technology, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, the Netherlands

**Abstract:** A set of experiments has been conducted to investigate the
relative effect of translational and rotational motion cues on pilot
performance. Two helicopter yaw control tasks were performed on the
SIMONA Research Simulator; a yaw capture task, and a target tracking
task with simulated turbulence. The yaw capture task was a repetition of
a task performed previously by Schroeder and Grant at two different
simulator facilities. Shaping filters and added delays were used to
match simulator characteristics with previous experiments. In contrast
to Schroeder and Grant\'s conclusions, results from the current study
show more equal contributions of yaw and sway motion on performance and
subjective simulator motion fidelity. Analyses of the different
vestibular cues using multi-loop pilot models, estimated from
measurement data from the target tracking task, also indicate comparable
utilization of the yaw and sway motion cues.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Emery, Cathy; Robin, Jerry; Knipling, Ronald; Finn, Ron;
Fieger, Stephen

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Research design: Validation of simulation technology in the
training, testing, and licensing of tractor-trailer drivers

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** FHWA-MC-99-060

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Science Applications International
Corporation, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, 6300 Georgetown
Pike, McLean, VA 22101

**Number of Pages:** 113

**Keywords:** driving simulator, truck driver training, heavy trucks,
commercial motor vehicles, tractor-trailers

**Abstract:** The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Office of Motor
Carrier Highway Safety (OMCHS) is conducting research to validate the
use of low-to mid-cost simulator for commercial driver training, testing
and licensing. The primary purpose of the study is to examine how
simulator technology, as compared to conventional methods, may
facilitate and enhance tractor-trailer driver performance. This report
details the proposed research design to conduct the empirical simulator
validation study.

The research design consists of three distinct parts. Part 1 addresses
the forward transfer of training for entry-level drivers. Part 2 is an
assessment of the advanced capabilities of the test simulator. Part 3 is
a longitudinal study of the drivers that have successfully completed
either the truck-based or simulator-based driver training program and
have gone on to earn their Commercial Drivers License.

A previous OMCHS report titled, \"Commercial Motor Vehicle Simulation
Technology To Improve Driver Training, Testing and Licensing Methods
Final Report - April 1996,\" evaluated truck driving simulators in the
United States and Europe. The report indicated that truck driving
simulation was sufficiently mature and recommended that FHWA validate
this technology. The Digitran SafeDrive 1000 was recommended as the test
bed for the follow-on validation study. A copy of the report can be
obtained by contacting the National Technical Information Service
(703-605-6000 or 1-800-553-6847) and referencing NTIS Publication Number
PB96-183405.

The validation study will commence in FY1999. It will start with a
reassessment of the commercial marketplace to assure the simulator
selected as the test bed for the study reflects the most up-to-date
information and best meets the needs of OMCHS.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Environmental Tectonics Corporation (ETC)

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Environmental Tectonics Corporation announces the development
of a tactical flight simulation centrifuge

**Volume:** 2006

**Issue:** Sept. 6

**Date Accessed:** December 13

**Keywords:** G Tactical Flight Simulator (G-FET II TFS), upset recovery
training (URT)

**Abstract:** Environmental Tectonics Corporation (Amex: ETC) today
announced its Sustained G Tactical Flight Simulator, the G-FET II TFS

**URL:** <http://www.etcusa.com/corp/pressreleases/2001/NR121301.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Environmental Tectonics Corporation (ETC)

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** ETC\'s centrifuge trains 20,000th pilot at Holloman AFB, NM

**Issue:** March 7

**Date Accessed:** October 25, 2005

**Keywords:** G-Induced Loss of Consciousness (G-LOC), High-G, unusual
attitudes, centrifuge, upset recovery training (URT)

**URL:** <http://www.etcusa.com/corp/pressreleases/2001/NR030701.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Erwin, Sandra I.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** \$65K flight simulator draws skepticism from military buyers

**Magazine:** National Defense Magazine

**Date:** November

**Type of Article:** Online Magazine Article

**Number of Pages:** 3

**URL:**
<http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/issues/2000/Nov/65K_Flight.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Erwin, Sandra I.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Navy fine-tuning acquisition strategy for flight simulators

**Magazine:** National Defense Magazine

**Volume:** 2006

**Issue Number:** Sept. 6

**Date:** November 2000

**Type of Article:** Online article

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** Recent investments by the U.S. Navy in flight training
technologies denote a focus on systems that are easy to use and to
transport to remote locations around the world, even on ships.

**URL:**
<http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/issues/2000/Nov/Navy_Fine-Tuning.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Erwin, Sandra I.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Aviation enthusiasts ponder: How good are PC simulators?

**Magazine:** National Defense Magazine

**Volume:** 2006

**Issue Number:** Sept. 6

**Type of Article:** Online article

**Number of Pages:** 3

**URL:**
<http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/issues/2001/Nov/Aviation_Enthusiasts.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Faconti, Victor

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The instructor/operator station: Where do we go from here?

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** The Boeing Company, Mesa, Arizona

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** The instructor/operator station (IOS) has undergone a
number of evolutionary changes since the use of flight simulators for
pilot training became commonplace. This evolution has been driven both
by the increasing role of the training simulator in providing an adjunct
to the real-world system as a training tool and the major advance in
enabling technologies. In 1979 I presented a paper to the RAeS
conference on \"Fifty Years of Flight Simulation\" and in that, I
outlined the development of instructor stations from the rudimentary
\"crabs\" crawling on paper maps to the most modern CRT-based system, at
that time, used on the B-52 Weapon System Trainer (WST). Since the
advances in technology have given us a better picture on CRTs (and now
LCDs) and several orders of magnitude increase in capabilities and
features.

In the meantime, flight training philosophy has itself undergone a
revolution in the approach to training methodology. Most major military
planners now think in terms of team training as opposed to individual or
even crew training. The civil aviation industry is looking at the
benefit of \"real-world\" training where other elements in the scenario
are other operators also training in the same problem. It is clear that
team training will be the standard in both military and civilian flight
simulator training as we move into the 21st century.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Title:** GPS air carrier training program

**Type:** Advisory Circular Draft

**Report Number:** 120-XX

**Keywords:** GPS navigation systems

**Notes:** As of 2/22/07, the web page was no longer available.

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/MainFrame?OpenFrameSet>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) 61\--Certification:
Pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors\--Subpart A\--General

**Series Editor:** Balloon Life

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 18

**Keywords:** FAR 61

**URL:**
<http://www.balloonlife.com/publications/balloon_life/9509/part61sa.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** SFAR No. 58

**Editor:** Spanitz, Jackie

**Book Title:** FAR Flight Crew; Federal Aviation Regulations; Parts 25,
63 & 121

**City:** Renton, WA

**Publisher:** Aviation Supplies and Academics, Inc. (ASA)

**Pages:** 208-212

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Call Number:** ASA-95-FAR-FC

ISBN 1-56027-206-6

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Assessment of PC-based aviation training devices

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Civil
Aeromedical Institute

**Date:** September

**Type:** FAA research report

**Report Number:** ARR161-6

**Number of Pages:** 6

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** FAA one level of safety commuter rule deadline marks safety
improvements, decline in accident rate

**Newspaper:** FAA News

**City:** Washington, DC

**Pages:** APA 44-97

**Issue Date:** March 21

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** commuter rule, safety standards

**Abstract:** The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) today announced
that the aviation industry has successfully implemented the Commuter
Rule which set new safety standards for scheduled airlines operating
aircraft with 10 passenger seats or more. This rule is the central
element in the Clinton Administration\'s single level of safety program
to hold all scheduled air carriers to the same high safety standards.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Authorization for use of personal computer-based aviation
training devices under the provisions of Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) Parts 61 and 141

**Series Title:** Flight Standards Information Bulletin (FSIB) for
General Aviation (FSGA)

**Institution:** FSGA

**Date:** May 26

**Report Number:** FSGA 98-02

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** Personal Computer-based Aviation Training Devices
(PCATDs), qualification and approval, guidelines

**Abstract:** This bulletin contains information and guidelines to
permit aviation safety inspectors (ASI) to authorize the use of personal
computer-based aviation training devices (PTCAD), qualified and approved
in accordance with Advisory Circular (AC) 61-126, Qualification and
Approval of Personal Computer-Based Aviation Training Devices, toward
satisfying the instrument rating flight training requirements of Title
14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts 61 and 141, under
the Administrator\'s authority for the approval of these devices under
section 61.4 (c).

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/aircraft_aviation/nsp/flight_training/qualification_process/media/fsga9802.txt>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Airworthiness Directive Boeing model 737 series airplanes

**Series Title:** Airworthiness Directive

**Report Number:** AD 2000-22-02 R1

**Keywords:** B737, rudder, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** This document corrects information in an existing
airworthiness directive (AD) that applies to all Boeing Model 737 series
airplanes. That AD supersedes AD 99-05-15, amendment 39-11063, to
require revising the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) procedure
in the existing AD to simplify the instructions for correcting a jammed
or restricted flight control condition. This document corrects the
format for certain AFM material described in that AD. This correction is
necessary to ensure that the flightcrew is aware of certain critical
recall items in the AFM procedure that are necessary to address a
condition involving a jammed or restricted rudder.

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAD.nsf/0/8F22812761F67328862569AB006EB9E5?OpenDocument>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** B737 uncommanded rudder

**Series Title:** Joint Flight Standards for Air Transportation (FSAT)
and General Aviation (FSGA)

**Document Number:** FSAT 00-16 and FSGA 00-09A

**Report Number:** AD 2000-22-02

**Keywords:** B737, rudder, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** (from 2. Background) A series of accidents and incidents
involving Boeing 737 airplanes brought the airplane's rudder system
under the scrutiny of the NTSB and other organizations involved in
aviation safety.

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/examiners_inspectors/8700/fsga/media/fsga0009.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** FAR-121-Appendix H to Part 121: Advanced simulation plan

**URL:**
<http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/MainFrame?OpenFrameSet>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** 14 CFR Part 1: Part 1\--Definitions and abbreviations

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Last Update Date:** January 1, 2002

**Number of Pages:** 18

**URL:** <http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_02/14cfr1_02.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Flight Standards Service (AFS)

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Last Update Date:** November 21, 2006

**Type of Medium:** Home page

**Abstract:** [Flight Standards Service]{.underline}

The Flight Standards Service promotes safe air transportation by setting
the standards for certification and oversight of airmen, air operators,
air agencies, and designees. We also promote safety of flight of civil
aircraft and air commerce by:

Accomplishing certification, inspection, surveillance, investigation,
and enforcement

Setting regulations and standards

Managing the system for registration of civil aircraft and all airmen
records

Flight Standards District Offices (FSDO)

Overview Video

Customer Satisfaction Industry Survey (CSIS)

[Address]{.underline}

Federal Aviation Administration

Flight Standards Service

Room 821

800 Independence Avenue, S.W.

Washington, DC 20591

Phone: (202) 267-8237

Fax: (202) 267-5230

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** 14 CFR Part 141- Pilot schools

**Publisher:** Federal Aviation Administration

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Last Update Date:** August 7, 2006

**Number of Pages:** 5

**URL:**
<http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=f4866fb822b1dbcc615562678afed80b&rgn=div5&view=text&node=14:3.0.1.1.2&idno=14>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year of Conference:** 2006

**Title:** The current status & future of voluntary flight safety
programs

**Conference** **Name:** Shared Visions in Aviation Safety Conference

**Conference** **Location:** Denver, CO

**Date:** April 18-20

**Abstract:** Topics / Speakers/Presenters:

1\. Threat & Error Management (TEM) and the Line Operations Safety Audit
(LOSA) James Klinect, Ph.D. Univ. of Texas, The LOSA Collaborative

2\. Using LOSA Data Capt. Dave Bair, Frontier Airlines

3\. How Alaska Uses LOSA Data Robert Graves, Alaska Airlines

4\. LOSA Capt. Bruce Tesmer, Continental Airlines

5\. Aviation Safety Action Program (ASAP) 101 Kevin Kelley, Aviation
Safety Inspector, Voluntary Safety Programs-AFS-230

6\. United Parcel Service ASAP Capt. Brendan Fahy, ASAP Coordinator,
UPS; Capt. Terry Kom, UPS Airlines; O. T. Blankenship, Aviation Safety
Inspector, Kentucky FSDO

7\. OSAP United Flight Attendant Safety Awareness Program Lessons
Learned Jack O\'Brien, Manager Flight Safety-Onboard, United Airlines

8\. Flight Operations Quality Assurance (FOQA) - Program Overview and
Technology Update Capt. Doug Diehl, Director, Flight Operations Safety,
Frontier Airlines

9\. Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) 101 Doug Farrow, Ph.D.,
Instructional Specialist, FAA; Ron Barry, Aviation Safety Inspector, FAA

10\. AQP Document Templates for Airlines Transitioning to AQP Ron Barry,
Aviation Safety Inspector, FAA Contact presenter directly for
information on presentation.

11\. Introduction to the Conference Tom Longridge, Ph.D., Manager,
Voluntary Safety Programs-AFS-230, FAA

12\. Aviation Safety Information Sharing Efforts Terry McVenes,
Executive Air Safety Chairman, Air Line Pilot Association

13\. FAA Shared Vision of Aviation Safety Mont Smith, Director, Safety,
Air Transport Association

14\. The Role of a Just Culture in Implementing Safety Management
Systems David Marx, President, Outcome Engineering

15\. Safety Management from the Field: A European Regulator Perspective
about Old & New Developments Stéphane DEHARVENGT, Head of Human Factors
Program and Safety Initiatives, DGAC-F/DAST/SEA

16\. ASAP Event Risk Analysis and ATOS Integration Frank Raymond,
Manager, ASAP Programs, Alaska Airlines

17\. Distributed National Airline Safety Archives Update Capt. Robert E.
Lynch, Director National Aviation Safety Archives, Battelle

18\. LOSA-Based Line Check Program Capt Bob Steider, B777 Assistant
Fleet Manager, Continental Airlines

19\. Recreation of an ASAP/ASRS Event for use in AQP Line Oriented
Evaluations Standardization and Crew Resource Management Facilitation
Roger Coleman, Manager, Human Factors and Safety Training, American
Airlines

20\. SNL Top Gun video Roger Coleman, Manager, Human Factors and Safety
Training, American Airlines

21\. Threat and Error Management as a Framework for ASAP Data Collection
Michelle Harper, University of Texas at Austin Human Factors Research
Project

22\. How to Train for Automation - Results from Research & Tips for
Application in the Field Florian Jentsch, U. of Central Florida; Deborah
Boehm-Davis, George Mason U.; Elizabeth Lyall, Research Integrations,
Inc.

23\. Steering Committee for Distance Learning - Draft AC and 8400.10
Handbook Recommendations OJ Treadway, Manager, Flight Training
Development, American Airlines

24\. IFQASys ASAP Overview and Demonstration David Neu, IFQASys Program
Manager, UTRS, Inc.; Arend van der Veen, IFQASys Team Member, UTRS, Inc.

25\. System Safety Integration with Voluntary Programs Jim Kent, System
Safety Manager, UPS

26\. An Integrated Model for Flight Operations Monitoring Capt. John
Scully, Line Assistance Mgr/Training & Flt Ops, Airbus

27\. FOQA - Examples of Good and Bad practice, from operators Large and
Small Dave Jesse, President, Flight Data Services Inc.

28\. ATS International Services to Airlines with a focus on Flight Data
Monitoring Services and Operations Manuals Dominique LECOMTE, Business
Development ATS International Groupe AEROCONSEIL 2

29\. QIT Aviation Safety Audit Manager - An affordable program to help
you implement IEP and LOSA audits Logan Luo, Senior Consultant, QIT
Consulting, Inc.

30\. The Need for Quality Aviation Safety Graduates: An Educational
Challenge Thomas R. Weitzel, Ed.D., Associate Professor, Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University

31\. Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS): An Update on Safety
Contributions Linda Connell, Director, Aviation Safety Reporting System,
NASA

32\. FOQA Review Board (FRB) - A New Concept Using a Collective Approach
to FDR Based Decision-Making Jean-Pierre Dagon, Director Corporate
Safety, AirTran Airways

33\. Web-based Voluntary Disclosure Reporting Program for Operators &
FAA Inspectors Scott Crosier, Aviation Safety Inspector, FAA

34\. System Safety: Industry Problems and Concerns Steven C. McNeely,
Manager, Internal Evaluations/Safety/ISO, Jet Solutions, LLC

35\. Safety Action Program in a Flight Attendant Environment Valerie
Walker, MEC Safety Vice-Chair, United, Association of Flight
Attendants-CWA; Helen Zienkievicz, Manager, Health, Safety and Security,
United Airlines

36\. Update on SMS and its Relationship to Voluntary Safety Programs Don
Arendt, Manager, Flight Standards Safety and Analysis Center (FSAIC),
FAA

37\. Integrating Safety Programs for Safety Action Chris Glaeser,
Director of Safety, Northwest Airlines

38\. Integrated Analysis in FOQA, ASAP, & AQP at Jet Blue Airways Tim
Tatem, FOQA Manager, JetBlue Airways

39\. The Air Traffic Organization - A Partner in Safety Management Paul
Erway, Air Traffic Organization, FAA

40\. Closing Remarks Tom Longridge, Ph.D., Manager, Voluntary Safety
Programs-AFS-230, FAA

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** FAA industry training standards (FITS)

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Last Update Date:** February 22, 2006

**Type of Medium:** Website

**Abstract:** (taken from Program Plan Executive Summary) The FITS
program is under the Safer Skies program and compliant with Challenge
2000 and OMB Circular A-119, Federal Participation in the Development
and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment
Activities. The FITS program is a collaboration of FAA, industry
(manufacturers, training providers, universities, insurance companies,
trade associations, etc) and the General Aviation Center of Excellence
which seeks an evolutionary approach to change that is responsive to the
pace of development in the general aviation community. The FITS program
will work to develop standards that comply with the flexibility of the
current rules, and regulations.

**URL:** <http://www.faa.gov/education_research/training/fits/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Fiorino, Frances

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Primary training-time for a proficiency check

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Volume:** 22/29

**Pages:** 100

**Date:** December

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Keywords:** training, experience level, pilot demand

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Fiorino, Frances

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Delta upset training founded on simplicity

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Volume:** 157

**Issue Number:** 9

**Date:** August 26

**Keywords:** pilots, pilotage, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Focuses on the upset recovery training of pilots at Delta
Air Lines. Objectives and principles of training; Definition of upset;
Procedures in upset recovery.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Fiorino, Frances

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Upset recovery aims for g-force realism

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Volume:** 157

**Issue Number:** 23

**Date:** December 2

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** New York

**Keywords:** air pilots, flight simulators, upset recovery training
(URT), g-force

**Abstract:** Reports on the introduction of the first phase of an upset
recovery training program that provides in-flight simulation training
opportunities to pilots. Core of the training program; Need for a
realistic upset recovery training program; Efforts to develop skill sets
related to understanding of angle of attacks; Kinds of upsets taught at
the training; Details on the basic and advanced level of training
sessions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Fiorino, Frances

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Fighting human error

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 47-49

**Date:** December 4

**Type of Article:** section on Simulation and Training

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** Training program targets \'small cracks in personal
airmanship armor\' that compromise safety.

**Notes:** Part of section on Simulation and Training. All articles in
this section include:

Fighting human error (F. Fiorino)

Retooling maintenance lessons (L. A. Tegtmeier)

Getting upset (E. H. Phillips)

A little competition (J. C. Anselmo)

Ready, VLJet, go (F. Fiorino)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Fiorino, Frances

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Ready, VLJet, go

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 54

**Date:** December 4

**Type of Article:** part of section on Simulation and Training

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Abstract:** Embraer, CAE to offer Phenom 100/300 training for flight
and ground crews.

**Notes:** Part of section on Simulation and Training. All articles in
this section include:

Fighting human error (F. Fiorino)

Retooling maintenance lessons (L. A. Tegtmeier)

Getting upset (E. H. Phillips)

A little competition (J. C. Anselmo)

Ready, VLJet, go (F. Fiorino)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Flach, John M.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Maintaining situation awareness when stalking cognition in
the wild

**Conference Name:** International Conference on Experimental Analysis
and Measurement of Situation Awareness

**Conference Location:** Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona,
FL

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Psychology Department, Wright State
University, Dayton, OH

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** situation awareness, confirmation bias, hindsight bias,
unified field theory

**Abstract:** The term \"situation awareness\" originated with tactical
fighter pilots as they attempted to articulate the difficulties of
managing the complex information processing demands of air combat. The
term more recently has been embraced by the human factors community to
define a domain of research whose goal is to study cognition as it
occurs in complex, dynamic work environments. Other examples include
modern medicine and chemical process control. It might also be argued
that *science* is a complex, dynamic work environment (although the time
constraints are much longer than even process control). If this is true,
then it might be useful to recursively apply the question of situation
awareness to the science of situation awareness. What traps in the
scientific enterprise might lead to loss of situation awareness? What
constitutes good situation awareness on the part of the scientist?

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Flach, John M.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Situation awareness: Proceed with caution

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 37

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 149-157

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Wright State University, Dayton,
Ohio

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Keywords:** situation awareness, phenomenon identification

**Abstract:** Situation awareness (SA) is a relatively new concept that
has captured the imagination of the human factors community. The new
concept it considered in the light of Benton J. Underwood\'s discussion
about psychological concepts. In particular the distinction between SA
as a phenomenon description (Level 2 concept) and SA as a causal agent
(Level 3 concept) is discussed. The argument that SA is valuable as a
phenomenon description draws attention to the intimate interactions
between human environment in determining meaning (or what matters) and
reflects an increased appreciation for the intimate coupling between
processing stages (e.g., perception, decision, and action) within
closed-loop systems. However, I caution against considering SA a causal
agent. When SA is considered to be an object within the cognitive agent,
there is danger of circular reasoning in which SA is presented as the
cause of itself. As a causal explanation, SA is a simple,
easy-to-understand wrong answer that, in the end, will be an obstacle to
research. As a phenomenon description, SA invites further research to
discover causal relationships between the design of human-machine
systems and the resulting performance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Flach, John M.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Situation awareness: In search of meaning

**Journal:** CSERIAC Gateway

**Volume:** 6

**Issue:** 6

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Wright State University,
jflach@desire.wright.edu

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** situation awareness, context independent situation global
assessment technique

**Abstract:** \"What a terrible struggle our field has had just to
overcome the nonsense syllable! Decades to discover the
\'meaningfulness\' of nonsense syllables, and decades more to finally
turn away from the seductions of this chimera. Instead of the
simplification that Ebbinghaus had hoped for, the nonsense syllable, for
generations of researchers, merely screened the central problems of
memory from inspection with the methods that Ebbinghaus had bequeathed
us.\" Kinstch (1985, p. 461)

\"\...results based on meaningless stimuli are themselves meaningless
when we attempt to understand how people learn and remember. This is the
issue of ecological validity again, saying in essence that our
traditional laboratory results do not apply to real-world situations
that involve memory for meaningful material.\" Ashcraft (1994, p. 210)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Flach, John M.; Hagen, Brent A.; Larish, John F.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Active regulation of altitude as a function of optical
texture

**Journal:** Perception and Psychophysics

**Volume:** 51

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 557-568

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** altitude, optical texture, optical splay

**Abstract:** Two empirical studies are reported that examine active
regulation of altitude as a function of the type of ground texture.
Three ground textures were examined: lines perpendicular to the
direction of motion, lines parallel to the direction of motion, and the
combination (i.e., square or checkerboard texture). Although subjects
only controlled altitude, disturbances were introduced on three axes:
vertical, lateral, and fore-aft. The results show a clear advantage for
texture parallel to the direction of motion. However, in considering
these results in the context of previous research on altitude control,
the argument is made that there is no compelling evidence that suggests
either parallel (splay) or perpendicular (density) texture is privileged
with regard to altitude control. Rather, the most effective display for
altitude control will be the one that best isolates the optical activity
associated with the changing altitude for the optical activity arising
from other sources of disturbance (such as forward locomotion). Such a
display will make it easier for the observer to distinguish and respond
specifically to the disturbances of altitude.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Flach, John M.; Riccio, Gary E.; McMillan, Grant R.; Warren,
Rik

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Psychophysical methods for equating performance between
alternative motion simulators

**Journal:** Ergonomics

**Volume:** 29

**Issue:** 11

**Pages:** 1423-1438

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Flach: University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Engineering Psychology Program

Riccio: Systems Research Laboratories, Inc., Dayton, OH

McMillan & Warren: Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** ALCOGS, RATS, motion simulators, roll-axis flight control
tasks, whole-body motion, g-cueing, dynamic seat, psychophysical
matching, magnitude estimation, tactile-kinesthetic cueing, motion,
simulation

**Abstract:** Psychophysical matching techniques were employed to equate
the subjective experience of motion on two roll-axis motion simulation
devices: the RATS, a whole-body motion environment, and the dynamic seat
sub-system of the ALCOGS, presenting motion cues through a moving
seat-pan. Two psychophysical techniques, cross-modality matching and
magnitude estimation, yielded similar results. These results indicated
that motion sensitivity increased with roll angular frequency for both
simulators. However, the rate of increase at high frequencies was
greater for the RATS than for the dynamic seat. These results were used
to design a filter for the dynamic seat which enhanced high-frequency
signal components. Tests in a roll-axis tracking task showed that
performance in a dynamic seat using this filter was both quantitatively
(in terms of r.m.s. error) and qualitatively (in terms of frequency
characteristics) similar to performance in the whole-body motion
environment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Fleishman, E. A.; Rich, S.

**Year:** 1963

**Title:** Role of kinesthetic and spatial-visual abilities in
perceptual-motor learning

**Journal:** Journal of Experimental Psychology

**Volume:** 66

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 6-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Yale University

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** \"kinesthetic sensitivity,\" proprioceptive cues,
exteroceptive (spatial-visual) cues, perceptual-motor learning

**Abstract:** Ss were administered a spatial test and a new measure of
\"kinesthetic sensitivity,\" and then received extended practice on a
Two-Hand Coordination (THC) task. The results confirm the hypothesis
that sensitivity to proprioceptive cues is more important later in
perceptual-motor learning while sensitivity to exteroceptive
(spatial-visual) are more critical earlier in learning. The study
extends previous work which showed that abilities which contribute to
learning early in practice may be different from those which facilitate
later learning.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Flight International

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** J41 crash probe focuses on training

**Magazine:** Flight International

**Pages:** 9

**Date:** January 19-25

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Abstract:** The J41, on United Express flight 6291 from Washington
DC\'s Dulles International Airport, with five passengers and three crew
aboard, crashed at 23.21 local time while on an autopilot-coupled
instrument-landing-system final approach to Port Columbus International
Airport in Columbus, Ohio.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Flight Research Training Center

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Upset recovery training study

**Last Update Date:** July, 2005

**Keywords:** Flight Research Training Center, loss-of-control, upset
recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** The Flight Research Training Center, established by the
Alliance for Flight Safety Research in Roswell, NM, focuses on improving
the safety of commercial air transportation in an effort to reduce the
Loss-of-Control accident rate. The Alliance is developing new pilot
training methods and technologies to teach pilots how to better cope
with upset events that can lead to a Loss-of-Control accident. The
primary goals of this program are to conduct research to optimize
In-Flight Simulation (IFS) based Upset Recovery Training (URT), such
that it meets the needs of the civilian aviation community; to design
and develop IFS technology and systems specifically for the URT role;
and ultimately, to have a beneficial impact on the Loss-of-Control
accident rate.

**URL:** <http://www.flightresearchtraining.org/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Flight Safety Foundation Editorial Staff

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** More than half of large commercial jet accidents in 2002
occurred during approach and landing

**Magazine:** Flight Safety Digest

**Volume:** 22

**Issue Number:** 7-8

**Date:** July-August

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), loss of control

**Abstract:** Loss of control was the category in which the most fatal
accidents occurred during the 1993-2002 period. Approach-and-landing
accidents were responsible for 10 of the year\'s 14 hull losses.

**Notes:** in issue Loss of Control: Returning from Beyond the Envelope

**URL:** <http://flightsafety.org/fsd/fsd_jul-aug03.pdf>

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Folk, Charles L.; Remington, Roger W.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** The structure of attentional control: Contingent attentional
control by apparent motion, abrupt onset, and color

**Journal:** Journal of Experimental Psychology

**Volume:** 20

**Pages:** 317-329

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Keywords:** spatial cueing, attentional capture, motion, abrupt onset,
color

**Abstract:** Five spatial cueing experiments tested two hypotheses
regarding attentional capture: (a) that attentional capture is
contingent on endogenous attentional control settings and (b) that
attentional control settings are limited to the distinction between
dynamic and static discontinuities (Folk, Remington, & Johnston, 1992).
In Experiments 1 and 2, apparent-motion precues produced significant
costs in performance for targets signaled by motion, but not for targets
signaled by color or abrupt onset. Experiment 3 established that this
pattern is not due to differences in the difficulty of target
discrimination. Experiments 4 and 5 revealed asymmetric capture effects
between abrupt onset and apparent motion related to stimulus salience.
The results support the hypotheses of Folk, et al. (1992) and suggest
that stimulus salience may also play a role in attentional capture.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Förstberg, J.; Andersson, E.; Ledin, T.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Influence of different conditions for tilt compensation on
symptoms of motion sickness in tilting trains

**Journal:** Brain Research Bulletin

**Volume:** 47

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 525-535

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Swedish National Road and Transport
Research Institute, Railway Systems, Linköping, Sweden

Royal Institute of Technology, Railway Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

Departments of ENT, University Hospital, Linköping, Sweden

**Keywords:** ride comfort, motion sickness, high-speed tilting trains

**Abstract:** Increased speeds of trains can be achieved by using
tilting trains that decrease the lateral acceleration experienced by
passengers on curves, thereby allowing trains to run typically 25-30%
faster on existing curved track and maintaining good ride comfort.
Unfortunately, motion sickness in tilting trains is a major problem for
some passengers. To investigate the incidence of motion sickness and the
extent to which different tilt compensation strategies influence its
occurrence, tests were conducted with a tilting train on a track with a
large number of curves. Eighty healthy volunteers were studied, selected
partly for their susceptibility. Three different cars were evaluated
during 3 test days, with each test ride lasting about 3 h. On four
occasions per test ride, the subjects answered a questionnaire
concerning activities during the ride, ride comfort, ability to work and
read, vegetative symptoms, fatigue, sleepiness, nausea and well-being.
Subjects\' estimation of average ride comfort and ability to work and
read was good in all conditions. However, 10% of the test subjects
reported various symptoms of motion sickness (SMS). A 55% degree of tilt
compensation of the lateral acceleration instead of the normal 70%
reduced the symptoms of motion sickness incidence (SMSI) by 25-40%. SMSI
correlated poorly with motion doses, which integrates vertical or
lateral acceleration but correlated well with roll acceleration motion
dose (r2 = 0.43, p \< 0.001). For women, riding backward (p \< 0.001)
minimized SMSI, but men were insensitive to direction. Future railway
design will have to optimize tilt systems by both minimizing motion
sickness and avoiding excessive lateral acceleration or jerk.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Foster, Frank; Randle, Robert

**Year of Workshop:** 1983

**Title:** Simulation

**Editor:** Lee, Alfred T.

**Workshop Name:** Flight Training Technology for Regional/Commuter
Airline Operation

**Workshop** **Location:** Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date of Workshop:** September 28-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Foster: Ransome Airlines

Randle: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Abstract:** (from first page) The simulation working group followed
the discussion items in the symposium program, to wit: what simulation
resources are available, what are the advantages, disadvantages, and
shortcomings of simulators, how can simulators be used in cockpit
resources management training (CRMT) by the small air carriers, and what
research is needed to further develop simulation technology and the
application of simulation in regional airline training programs? These
are wide ranging topics and the group was hard-pressed to focus their
discussion in view of the diversity of considerations that could and did
arise. They ranged from all the problems with simulator specification,
procurement, validation and use that have plagued the major air carriers
over several decades to new problems related to the large diversity of
aircraft, locale, and corporate size and operating style of the many
regional airlines.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Foster, John V.; Cunningham, Kevin; Fremaux, Charles M.;
Shah, Gautam H.; Stewart, Eric C.; Rivers, Robert A.; Wilborn, James E.;
Gato, William

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Dynamics modeling and simulation of large transport airplanes
in upset conditions

**Conference Name:** AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference
and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** San Francisco, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 15-18

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** John V. Foster, Kevin Cunningham,
Charles M. Fremaux, Gautam H. Shah, Eric C. Stewart: NASA Langley
Research Center, Hampton, VA

Robert A. Rivers: NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX

James E. Wilborn, William Gato: The Boeing Company, Seattle, WA

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** As part of NASA\'s Aviation Safety and Security Program,
research has been in progress to develop aerodynamic modeling methods
for simulations that accurately predict the flight dynamics
characteristics of large transport airplanes in upset conditions. The
motivation for this research stems from the recognition that simulation
is a vital tool for addressing loss-of-control accidents, including
applications to pilot training, accident reconstruction, and advanced
control system analysis. The ultimate goal of this effort is to
contribute to the reduction of the fatal accident rate due to
loss-of-control. Research activities have involved accident analyses,
wind tunnel testing, and piloted simulation. Results have shown that
significant improvements in simulation fidelity for upset conditions,
compared to current training simulations, can be achieved using
state-of-the-art wind tunnel testing and aerodynamic modeling methods.
This paper provides a summary of research completed to date and includes
discussion on key technical results, lessons learned, and future
research needs.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Frank, L. H.; Casali, J. G.; Wierwille, W. W.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Effects of visual display and motion system delays on
operator performance and uneasiness in a driving simulator

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 30

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 201-217

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Frank, Lawrence H.; Casali, John G.; Wierwille, Walter W.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Modeling operator control performance and well-being as a
function of simulator visual and motion systems transport delays

**Conference Name:** Motion Cues in Flight Simulation and Simulator
Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Frank: LCDR, MSC, USN, Ph.D., Head,
Human Factors and Operational Analysis Branch, Pacific Missile Test
Center, Point Mugu, CA 93042-5000

Casali: Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research,
Blacksburg, VA 24061

Wierwille: Ph.D., P.E., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations
Research, Blacksburg, VA 24061

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** visual and motion system transport delays, update
frequency, control performance, simulator sickness, visual lead

**Abstract:** The role of visual-motion coupling delays and cueing order
in operator performance and uneasiness was assessed in a driving
simulator by means of a response surface methodology central-composite
design. The most salient finding of the study was that visual delay
appears to be more disruptive to an individuals control performance and
well-being than is motion delay. Empirical multiple regression models
were derived to predict 10 reliable measures of simulator operator
driving performance and comfort. Principal components analysis of these
10 models decomposed the dependent measures into two significant models
which were labeled vestibular disruption and degraded performance.
Examination of the empirical models revealed that, for asynchronous
delay conditions, better performance and well-being were achieved when
visual system led the motion system. A secondary analysis of the tools
of subject gender and perceptual style on susceptibility to simulator
sickness revealed that neither of these independent variables was a
significant source of variance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Frasca International

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Frasca tells congress new flight training device may be
unsafe

**Volume:** 2007

**Issue:** Feb. 5

**Date Accessed:** November 10

**Number of Pages:** 3

**URL:** <http://www.avweb.com/other/fras9746.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Frasca, Rudy

**Year:** 1998 (?)

**Title:** PCATDs counterpoint

**Magazine:** Airport Business

**Date:** March

**Number of Pages:** 3

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Frasca, Rudolf A.

**Year of Workshop:** 1998

**Title:** PCATDs - A case for concern?

**Workshop Name:** RAeS Simulation Symposium

**Workshop** **Location:** London

**Publisher:** Frasca International, Inc.

**Date of Workshop:** May

**Type of Work:** Conference paper

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Keywords:** Personal Computer-Based Aviation Training Devices (PCATDs)

**Abstract:** The intent of this paper is to increase the level of
awareness within the industry about the concern of a significant number
of aviation training professionals regarding the FAA\'s Advisory
Circular AC 61-126 Qualification and Approval of Personal Computer-Based
Aviation Training Devices. This advisory circular allows hour-for-hour
flight time credit up to ten hours for the use of PCATDs in the training
of pilots for the Instrument Rating - Airplane. The author indicates the
FAA\'s decision to implement the advisory circular was based on special
interests and that the cited research in fact does not justify the
allowance of flight time credit.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Freeman, J. S.; Watson, G.; Papelis, Y. E.; Lin, T. C.;
Tayyab, A.; Romano, R. A.; Kuhl, J. G.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** The Iowa driving simulator: An implementation and application
overview

**Institution:** Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

**Date:** February

**Type:** SAE Technical Paper Series, No. 950174

**Report Number:** SAE Technical Paper Series, No. 950174

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Center for Computer-Aided Design,
208 Engineering Research Facility, The University of Iowa, Iowa City,
Iowa 52242-1000

**Keywords:** Iowa Driving Simulator (IDS)

**Abstract:** This paper presents an overview of the Iowa Driving
Simulator (IDS), including its implementation and experimental
applications. The Center for Computer--Aided Design (CCAD) at The
University of Iowa began developing the IDS in 1990 with primary funding
from the state of Iowa and the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).
The simulator utilizes a recently developed real--time multibody
dynamics formulation to create high fidelity, operator--in--the--loop
vehicle simulations, a large six--degree--of--freedom hexapod motion
base, wide field--of--view textured graphics with directional audio
sources, and several interchangeable, instrumented cabs to provide
realistic cueing feedback to the driver. Human factors issues currently
being investigated by IDS researchers include experimental studies for
the design and use of automated highway systems, usage of raised
pavement markers for lane edge--line delineation, IVHS collision warning
and roadway departure warning systems, advanced traveler information
systems, performance assessment of challenged drivers, verification of
driver performance in virtual environments, and more general issues of
simulator fidelity and perceived realism. Two applications of the IDS
are detailed: a study of Automated Highway Systems (AHS) and vehicle
virtual prototyping on a virtual proving ground.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Frigon, Jean-Yves; Delorme, Andre

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Roll, pitch, longitudinal and yaw vection visually induced by
optical flow in flight simulation conditions

**Journal:** Perceptual and Motor Skills

**Volume:** 74

**Pages:** 935-955

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Montreal

**Number of Pages:** 21

**Keywords:** vection, perceived self-motion, visual field

**Abstract:** The present experiment was undertaken to study the effect
of the addition of stimulation in the peripheral visual field on
perceived self-motion (vection). The parameters were axes of motion,
\"Central + Peripheral\" versus \"Central\" vision, frequencies of
sinusoidal motion (0.2 Hz to 1.0Hz), and amplitudes. Vection generally
increased with increased amplitudes and frequencies. In the \"Central +
Peripheral\" condition, there was an interaction between frequencies and
amplitudes. When stimuli were presented in \"Central\" vision only,
vection was generally higher. It has been concluded that, for vection,
the addition of visual stimulation in the periphery is more important at
low sinusoidal frequencies and high amplitudes; at higher frequencies,
this produces a decrease in vection probably attributable to an increase
in object motion perception.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Furness III, T. A.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** The super cockpit and its human factors challenges

**Conference Name:** Human Factors Society 30th Annual Meeting

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Armstrong Aerospace Medical
Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433-6573

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** super cockpit

**Abstract:** A revolutionary virtual crew station concept titled the
\"Super Cockpit\" is introduced with its applications and operational
advantages. Unique aspects of the virtual information portrayal and
interactive medium of the super cockpit are discussed leading to a need
for new areas of human factors research and engineering.

**URL:** <http://www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/m-86-1/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Garrood, Stuart; Reid, Lloyd D.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Pilot evaluations of augmented flight simulator motion

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 31

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 826-830

**Date:** July-August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Garrood: Graduate Student,
University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, Toronto, Ontario
M3H 5T6, Canada

Reid: Professor and Associate Director, Associate Fellow of AIAA,
University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, Toronto, Ontario
M3H 5T6, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** flight simulator motion

**Abstract:** In an earlier paper it was proposed that the
turbulence-induced motion of a flight simulator could be augmented
without affecting the visual and instrument displays. This may be
necessary if the simulator\'s washout filters severely restrict its
motion response to atmospheric turbulence. The present study has
implemented the proposed technique on the University of Toronto
Institute for Aerospace Studies flight research simulator, and carried
out pilot evaluations for both high-altitude and low-altitude operations
in the presence of atmospheric turbulence in a manner that is acceptable
to pilots. It was found that a simple second-order transfer function
representation of the aircraft is sufficient within the motion
augmentation channel. The resulting motions were judged to add to the
realism of the simulation and to compare favorably with other training
simulators.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Gawron, Valerie J.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Airplane upset training evaluation report

**City:** Buffalo, NY

**Institution:** Veridian Engineering, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA)

**Pages:** 1-536

**Date:** May

**Report Number:** NASA/CR 2002-211405

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Veridian Engineering, Buffalo, NY

**Number of Pages:** 536

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Airplane upset accidents are a leading factor in hull
losses and fatalities. This study compared five types of airplane-upset
training. Each group was composed of eight, non-military pilots flying
in their probationary year for airlines operating in the United States.
The first group, \"No aero/no upset,\" was made up of pilots without any
airplane upset training or aerobatic flight experience; the second
group, \"Aero/no upset,\" of pilots without any airplane-upset training
but with aerobatic experience; the third group, \"No aero/upset,\" of
pilots who had received airplane-upset training in both ground school
and in the simulator; the fourth group, \"Aero/upset,\" received the
same training as Group Three but in addition had aerobatic experience;
and the fifth group, \"In-Flight\" received in-flight airplane upset
training using an instrumented in-flight simulator. Recovery performance
indicated that clearly training works\--specifically, all 40 pilots
recovered from the windshear upset. However few pilots were trained or
understood the use of bank to change the direction of the lift vector to
recover from nose high upsets. Further, very few thought of, or used
differential thrust to recover from rudder or aileron induced roll
upsets. In addition, recovery from icing-induced stalls was inadequate.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Gawron, Valerie J.; Berman, Benjamin A.; Dismukes, R. Key;
Peer, Jeffrey H.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** New airline pilots may not receive sufficient training to
cope with airplane upsets

**Magazine:** Flight Safety Digest

**Volume:** 22

**Issue Number:** 7-8

**Date:** July-August

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** A study conducted for the U.S. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration says that, although pilots cannot be trained for
all imaginable scenarios, current airplane upset-recovery training might
be expanded to include more types of upset conditions.

**Notes:** in issue Loss of Control: Returning from Beyond the Envelope

**URL:** <http://flightsafety.org/fsd/fsd_jul-aug03.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Gebman, J. R.; Stanley, W. L.; Barbour, A. A.; Berg, R. T.;
Birkler, J. L.; Chaloupka, M. G.; Goeller, B. F.; Jamison, L. M.;
Kaplan, R. J.; Kirkwood, T. F.; Batten, C. L.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Assessing the benefits and costs of motion for C-17 flight
simulators

**Institution:** Rand Corporation

**Date:** June

**Report Number:** R-3276-AF

**Keywords:** flight simulator, motion, cost analysis, training

**Abstract:** A framework for assessing the benefits and costs of
incorporating a motion system in C-17 simulators is described. Three
alternatives of C-17 simulator type are considered: a no-motion system,
a system using combined hydraulic/pneumatic g-seats, and a system using
a six-degree-of-freedom (dof) motion platform. The report shows that the
motion platform alternative promises a large advantage over the other
alternatives in terms of the range of tasks it can train, and also
enjoys an advantage in terms of safety benefits, subjective
considerations such as crew and instructor confidence, and its potential
to reduce the risk of simulator sickness. It is estimated in the report
that the incremental cost associated with the procurement and operation
of the motion platform for 25 years is about 4% of the initial cost of
the simulators. The study concludes that the cost of the motion platform
simulator appears warranted when measured against potential improvements
in flight safety and warfighting capability that result from the much
greater training capability of the simulator.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** General Accounting Office (GAO)

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Human factors: FAA\'s guidance and oversight of pilot crew
resource management training can be improved

**City:** Washington, D.C.

**Institution:** General Accounting Office

**Date:** November

**Report Number:** GAO/RCED-98-7

**Number of Pages:** 23

**Abstract:** Previous studies of aviation safety have found that pilot
performance is a major contributor to airline accidents and incidents
(events that affect or could affect a flight\'s safety). Therefore,
training to improve pilots\' performance has been a primary effort to
improve airline safety. As a part of this effort, some airlines have
provided training in crew resource management (CRM) since the early
1980s, and the Federal aviation Administration (FAA) will require all
airlines to have implemented this training for pilots by March 1998. CRM
is an approach to improving pilot performance that focuses on better
coordination\--among members of the cockpit crew as well as among the
cockpit crew and flight attendants, dispatchers, and air traffic
controllers\--to handle routine and emergency situations.

Airlines can meet the CRM training requirement in one of two ways: (1)
by following FAA\'s traditional requirements for training pilots and
crew\--specified in part 121 of the federal aviation regulations\--or
(2) by instituting the Advanced Qualification Program (AQP), which
combines CRM training with technical training for pilots. Part 121
training requirements have been in place without significant
modification since the 1970s, and until 1990, all airlines had to meet
these requirements. Since 1990, FAA has offered airlines AQP training as
an alternative to traditional part 121 training, and eight major
airlines have chosen to train their pilots under AQP requirements.

This report responds to your request that we examine the role of airline
pilots\' performance in accidents and FAA\'s efforts to address any
inadequate performance. Specifically, we agreed to address the
following:

\(1\) What are the types and frequency of accidents in which an airline
pilots\' performance was cited as a contributing factor, including those
in which failure to use CRM principles was identified, and

\(2\) how adequate is FAA\'s guidance for and oversight of the
airlines\' implementation of pilots\' training for CRM? We limited our
review to the accidents and incidents experienced and training
implemented by the 10 major U.S. airlines\--those generating \$1 billion
or more in revenues annually.

**URL:** <http://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/rc98007.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** General Accounting Office (GAO)

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Aviation safety: Research supports limited use of personal
computer aviation training devices for pilots

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** United States General Accounting Office

**Date:** July 12

**Report Number:** GAO/RCED-99-143

**Number of Pages:** 46

**Abstract:** NO ABSTRACT - Discusses research that has been conducted
to support the use of personal computer training devices for pilots.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** George, Fred

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Upset recovery flight training

**Magazine:** Business & Commercial Aviation

**Date:** December

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Veridian Flight Research Group (a.k.a. Calspan) plans to
broaden the scope of its professional services to include upset training
for corporate pilots.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** George Mason University

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Developing and evaluating CRM procedures for a regional air
carrier: Phase I report

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Office of the
Chief Scientific and Technical Advisor for Human Factors

**Date:** May 30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** George Mason University, 4400
University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030-4444

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Federal Aviation Administration,
Office of the Chief Scientific and Technical Advisor for Human Factors,
AAR-100, 800 Independence Avenue, S.W.

**Keywords:** crew resource management, CRM, advanced qualification
program, AQP, line oriented evaluation, LOE, Atlantic Coast

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Gertner, Izidor C.; Wolberg, George; Geri, George A.; Kelly,
George R.; Pierce, Byron J.; Thomas, Melvin; Martin, Elizabeth L.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** A PC-based photographic-quality image generator for flight
simulation

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Gertner, Wolberg: City College of
New York (CUNY), Department of Computer Science, New York, NY 10031

Geri, Kelly: University of Dayton, Research Institute, Higley, AZ
85236-2020

Pierce, Thomas, Martin: Air Force, Armstrong Laboratory, Mesa, AZ 85206

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** PC-based, photographic-quality image generator, flight
simulation, multiple instruction multiple data, MIMD, rendering, Gouraud
shading, incremental texture mapping, filtering

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Gilbert, William P.; Nguyen, Luat T.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Use of piloted simulation for studies of fighter
departure/spin susceptibility

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Aeronautical Engineers, NASA
Langley Research Center, Mail Stop 355, Hampton, VA 23665

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** departure/spin susceptibility, stall

**Abstract:** The NASA-Langley Research Center has incorporated into its
stall-spin research program on military airplanes the use of piloted,
fixed-base simulation to complement the existing matrix of unique
research testing techniques. The piloted simulations of fighter
stall/departure flight dynamics are conducted at the Langley
Differential Maneuvering Simulator (DMS). This paper reviews the
objectives of the simulation research, presents the rationale underlying
the simulation methods and procedures used in the evaluation of airplane
characteristics, and discusses in detail the evaluation steps used to
assess fighter stall/departure characteristics. Simulation results are
presented to illustrate the flight dynamics phenomena dealt with.

The considerable experience accumulated in the conduct of piloted
stall/departure simulation indicates that simulation provides a
realistic evaluation of an airplane\'s maneuverability at high angles of
attack and an assessment of the departure and spin susceptibility of the
airplane. This realism is obtained by providing the pilot a complete
simulation of the airplane and control system which can be flown using a
realistic cockpit and visual display in simulations of demanding air
combat maneuvering tasks. The use of the piloted simulation methods and
procedures described in the paper have been found very effective in
identifying stability and control problem areas and in developing
automatic control concepts to alleviate many of these problems. A good
level of correlation between simulated flight dynamics and flight test
results has been obtained over many fighter configurations studied in
the simulator.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Gillingham, K.; Previc, Fred

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Spatial orientation in flight

**Institution:** Armstrong Laboratory, Crew Systems Directorate, Crew
Technology Division

**Date:** November

**Report Number:** AL-TR-1993-0022

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Crew Systems Directorate, Crew
Technology Division, 2504 D Drive, Suit 1, Brooks Air Force Base, TX
78235-5104

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Armstrong Laboratory, Crew
Systems Directorate, Crew Technology Division, 2504 D Drive, Suite 1,
Brooks Air Force Base, TX 78235-5104

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), motion sickness, pilot
vertigo, spatial disorientation, spatial orientation, vestibular
function, visual orientation

**Abstract:** Human spatial orientational mechanisms, and how those
mechanisms fail in flight, are discussed in detail in this comprehensive
review. Specific topics include: mechanics and associated physiologic
nomenclature; visual orientation; vestibular function and information
processing; other orientational senses; spatial disorientation,
including definitions, types, causes, examples, statistics, and methods
of preventing spatial disorientation mishaps; and the significance,
etiology, and therapy of motion sickness. Forty-four figures are
included, many illustrating vestibular anatomy and physiology, and
others depicting the more common visual and vestibular illusions in
flight.

**URL:**
<http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA279306>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Gillingham, Kent K.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** The spatial disorientation problem in the United States Air
Force

**Journal:** Journal of Vestibular Research

**Volume:** 2

**Pages:** 297-306

**Date:** August 4

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** MD, PhD; Flight Motion Effects
Branch, Crew Technology Division, Crew Systems Directorate, Armstrong
Laboratory, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas

**Keywords:** spatial disorientation, disorientation, spatial
orientation, pilot vertigo, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Spatial disorientation (SD) in flight wastes hundreds of
millions of dollars worth of defense capability annually and continues
to kill aircrew. SD results primarily from inadequacies of human visual
and vestibular sensory systems in the flying environment; but other
factors, such as task saturation and distraction, precipitate it. The
United States Air Force is conducting a three-pronged research and
development effort to solve the SD problem. We are attempting 1) to
elucidate further the mechanisms of visual and vestibular orientation
and disorientation, 2) to develop ground-based and inflight training
methods for demonstrating to pilots the potential for SD and the means
of coping with it, and 3) to conceive and evaluate new ways to display
flight control and performance information so that pilots can maintain
accurate spatial orientation.

**Author Address:** Kent K. Gillingham, MD, PhD, AL/CFTF, Brooks Air
Force Base, TX 78235-5000

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Gilliom, David C.; Spears, William D.; Demuth, H. Jan; Eddy,
Paul P.; Hanley, David E.; Holmbeck, Glenn E.; Fishburne, Robert P.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** A systematic determination of skill and simulator
requirements for airline transport pilot certification

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** Office of Flight Operations

**Date:** March

**Report Number:** DOT-TSC-FAA-85-1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Planning Systems International,
Inc., 200 Little Falls Street, Suite 104, Falls Church, VA 22406

**Number of Pages:** 254

**Keywords:** simulation requirements, pilot performance, cue analysis,
skill analysis, visual simulation, motion simulation, aircraft systems
simulation, pilot certification, FAA airman certification system

**Abstract:** This research report describes:

\(1\) the FAA\'s ATP airman certification system;

\(2\) needs of the system regarding simulator use;

\(3\) a systematic methodology for meeting these needs;

\(4\) application of the methodology;

\(5\) results of the study; and

\(6\) conclusions.

The methodology developed is Airman Certification Systems Development,
or ACSD. Application of ACSD entailed a systematic study of the airman
certification process. The study produced behaviorally defined
evaluation and training objectives; sensory cue and behavioral analyses
to support these objectives; and a statement of media requirements based
on the objectives and behavioral and cueing data. This report provides
comprehensive documentation of the results of the ACSD methodology as a
tool to analyze simulator use in FAA airline transport pilot
certification.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Gilmore, Tom

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Flying right seat on a PCATD

**Series Editor:** Flightgear

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** Feb. 5

**Type of Medium:** Online article

**URL:** <http://fgatd.sourceforge.net/nafi-PCATD.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Gleim Publications, Inc.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Advanced pilot training

**Publisher:** Gleim

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept 6.

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** instrument rating, commercial pilot certificate, flight
instructor certificate, ground instructor certificate, airline transport
pilot certificate

**Notes:** As of Sept. 6, 2006 the original web page was no longer
available, but other pilot training programs, books, etc. are described
at <http://www.gleim.com/aviation/pilot.php>.

**URL:**
[http:\\\\www.gleim.com/Aviation/AdvancedTraining.html](http://www.gleim.com/Aviation/AdvancedTraining.html)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Go, T. H. ; Bürki-Cohen, J.; Chung, W. W.; Schroeder, J.;
Saillant, G.; Jacobs, S.; Longridge, T.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** The effects of enhanced hexapod motion on airline pilot
recurrent training and evaluation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Austin, TX

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Author's Title and Affiliation:** Go: Aerospace Research Engineer,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA

Bürki-Cohen: P.I., Flight Deck Human Factors Program, U.S. Department of
Transportation/Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge,
MA

Chung: Aerospace Engineer, SAIC, Lexington Park, MD

Schroeder: Deputy Branch Chief, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

Saillant: Senior Software Engineer, Northrop Grumman Information
Technology, Moffett Field, CA

Jacobs: Engineering Psychology Student Fellow, U.S. Department of
Transportation/Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge,
MA

Longridge: Manager, Voluntary Safety Programs Branch, AFS-230, Federal
Aviation Administration, Washington, DC

**Abstract:** A quasi-transfer experiment tested the effect of simulator
motion on recurrent evaluation and training of airline pilots. Two
groups of twenty B747-400 pilots were randomly assigned to a flight
simulator with or without platform motion. In three phases, they flew
four maneuvers designed to reveal differences due to motion. In the
first phase, termed Evaluation, the two groups flew the maneuvers as
they would in a check ride. In the second phase, termed Training, the
two groups flew the maneuvers repetitively and were given feedback on
their performance. In the third phase, termed Quasi-Transfer, both
groups flew the tasks again, but both in the simulator with motion
(quasi-transfer instead of real transfer to the airplane). This was to
determine whether or not their previous training with or without motion
made any difference. Statistically significant effects of both motion
and the phase of experiment were found for all four maneuvers. Platform
motion was shown to make a difference in Evaluation, but was not found
to be of benefit in Training. Results of this study and the previous
hexapod motion research should assist the FAA in determining future
research directions in the effort to develop motion requirements for
today's airline evaluation and training needs.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/aiaa03.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Go, T.H.; Bürki-Cohen, J.; Soja, N.N.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The effect of simulator motion on pilot vehicle training and
evaluation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Date:** August 14-17

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Tiauw H. Go: Postdoctoral
Associate, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA

Judith Bürki-Cohen: Engineering Psychologist, Volpe Center, U.S.
Department of Transportation, Cambridge, MA

Nancy N. Soja: Consultant, experimental psychology, Brookline, MA

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** This study empirically examined the effect of simulator
platform motion on airline pilot recurrent training and evaluation. It
is driven by the need for sound scientific data on the relationship
between certain key modern device features and their effect on the
transfer of pilot performance and behavior to and from the respective
airplane. The experiment utilized an FAA qualified Level C simulator
with six-degree-of-freedom synergistic motion and a wide angle high
quality visual system. Experienced airline pilots were evaluated and
trained in the simulator, half of them with and the other half without
motion. Then the transfer of skills acquired by both groups during this
training was tested in the simulator with the motion system turned on as
a stand-in for the airplane (quasi-transfer). Every effort was made to
avoid deficiencies in the research design identified in a review of
prior studies, by measuring pilot simulation *and* response, testing
both maneuvers and pilots that are *diagnostic* of a need of motion,
avoiding pilot and instructor *bias*, and ensuring sufficient
statistical *power* to capture operationally relevant effects. The
results of the analyses as well as their implications are presented in
this paper.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/aiaadoc.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Go, T. H.; Ramnath, R. V.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Analysis of the two-degree-of-freedom wing rock in advanced
aircraft

**Journal:** Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics

**Volume:** 25

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 324-333

**Date:** March-April

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** The dynamics of wing rock on rigid aircraft having two
rotational degrees of freedom are analyzed. Nonlinear mathematical
models of the aircraft are developed for the purpose of the analysis.
The aerodynamic expressions contained in the models are built by putting
the appropriate aerodynamic data into the model. The nonlinear dynamics
are analyzed using a technique combining the multiple time scales
method, center manifold reduction principle, and bifurcation theory.
Analytical solutions are developed in parametric forms showing a
separation of the fast and slow dynamics. Such solutions have an
advantage over numerical solutions in that the important parameters and
their effects on wing rock characteristics, such as amplitude and
frequency, are easily seen in explicit functional relationships. An
excellent agreement between the analytical results and the numerical
simulations is demonstrated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Gotoh, T.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** Can the acoustic head-related transfer function explain every
phenomenon in sound localization?

**Editor:** Gatehouse, R. W.

**Book Title:** Localization of Sound: Theory and Applications

**City:** Groton, CT

**Publisher:** Amphora Press

**Pages:** 244-248

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Acoustic Research Laboratory,
Matsushita Electric Industrial Company, Limited, Osaka, Japan

**Number of Pages:** 5

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Government Accountability Office (GAO)

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Very light jets: Several factors could influence their effect
on the National Airspace System

**Institution:** United States Government Accountability Office

**Pages:** 1-43

**Date:** August

**Report Number:** GAO-07-1001

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Congress

**Abstract:** For several years, a number of aviation manufacturers have
been designing and testing very light jets, a type of small jet aircraft
equipped with advanced technologies and priced below other business
jets. Aviation forecasters predict that thousands of very light jets
will enter the National Airspace System (NAS) over the next two decades,
contributing to the overall growth of the general aviation fleet. While
some experts predict that very light jets will be used in ways that are
similar to current general aviation aircraft, others predict that they
will be used to expand the air taxi market to provide on-demand,
point-to-point air transportation. In 2006, the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) certified the first very light jets for flight.
This report identifies (1) current very light jet forecasts and what
factors could affect very light jet deliveries, (2) how increasing
numbers of very light jets might affect the capacity and safety of the
NAS, (3) how FAA is planning to accommodate the entry of very light jets
into the NAS, and (4) how very light jets might affect FAA's costs and
Airport and Airway Trust Fund revenues. To address these issues, GAO
reviewed relevant documents and interviewed agency officials and
aviation experts.

**URL:** <http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d071001.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Gower, Daniel W.; Kennedy, Robert S.; Lilienthal, Michael
G.; Fowlkes, Jennifer E.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Simulator sickness in U.S. Army and Navy fixed- and
rotary-wing flight simulators

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Gower: MAJ, Director, Biodynamics
Research Division, U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory, P.O. Box
577, Fort Rucker, AL 36362-5292

Kennedy: Ph.D., Facility Director, Essex Corporation, 1040 Woodcock
Road, Orlando, FL 32803

Lilienthal: LCDR, Branch Head, Training & Development Branch, Human
Factors Division, Naval Training Systems Center, Orlando, FL 32813-7100

Fowlkes: Ph.D., Staff Scientist, Essex Corporation, 1040 Woodcock Road,
Orlando, FL 32803

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, fixed wing, rotary wing, motion,
visual

**Abstract:** As technology has been developed to provide improved
visual and motion systems in operational flight trainers and weapon
tactics trainers there have been increasing reports of the occurrence of
simulator sickness. Simulator sickness here refers to one or more
symptoms which can occur while in a simulator, immediately postexposure,
or at some time later following exposure. Flight instructors have
complained that these symptoms interfere with simulator usage. Some
pilots have reports when driving following postexposure, they have had
to pull off the road and wait for symptoms to subside.
Instructor-operators have reported experiencing \"the room spinning\"
when they went to bed. More critical is the potential for inflight
problems due to prolonged physiological effects. As a result, flight
activities after simulator flight have been limited by some commands.

The U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory at Fort Rucker, Alabama
and the Naval Training Systems Center at Orlando, Florida have conducted
field surveys to document the extent of the simulator sickness problems
at operational fixed- and rotary-wing simulator sites. Data are pooled
from 10 different Navy flight simulators and the Army\'s AH-64 flight
simulator. The total number of surveys is approximately 1500, with the
number of subjects in each simulator type ranging from 28 to 280. The
simulator sickness incidence rates and the relative frequency of
specific symptoms are presented and correlation factors such as flight
experience, simulator experience, and flight mode are also represented.
Difficulties in assessing the duration of simulator sickness effects are
noted, and attempts are made to present the symptom duration for the
Army\'s AH-64 combat mission simulator (CMS). Unique to this CMS is its
use of the helmet display unit (HDU) in conjunction with other visuals
in the simulator.

The combined Army and Navy simulator sickness database is an ongoing
attempt to relate symptoms to specific equipment features, simulator
instructional techniques, training procedures, and trainee
characteristics. The study reinforces the need for continued research
related to system design, training methods, and crew rest guidelines
between simulator and actual flight.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Grant, Peter R.; Reid, Lloyd D.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Motion washout filter tuning: Rules and requirements

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 34

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 145-151

**Date:** March-April

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Toronto

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** Current motion-drive algorithms have a number of
coefficients that are selected to tune the motion of the simulator.
Little attention has been given to the process of selecting the most
appropriate coefficient values. Final tuning is best accomplished using
experienced evaluation pilots to provide feedback to a washout filter
expert who adjusts the coefficients in an attempt to satisfy the pilot.
This paper presents the development of a tuning paradigm and the
capturing of such within an expert system. The focus of this development
is the University of Toronto classical algorithm, but the results are
relevant to alternative classical and similarly structured adaptive
algorithms. This paper provides the groundwork required to develop the
tuning paradigm. The necessity of this subjective tuning process is
defended. Motion cueing error sources within the classical algorithm are
revealed, and coefficient adjustments that reduce the errors are
presented.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Grant, Peter R.; Yam, Bonnie; Hosman, Ruud; Schroeder,
Jeffery A.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Effect of simulator motion on pilot behavior and perception

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 43

**Issue:** 6

**Date:** November-December

**Original Publication:** AIAA 2005-6304, AIAA Modeling and Simulation
Technologies Conference and Exhibit, San Francisco, CA, August 15-18,
2005.

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Grant: Assistant Professor,
University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, Toronto, Ontario
M3H 5T6, Canada

Yam: Simulation Developer, Atlantis Systems International, 1 Kenview
Boulevard, Brampton, Ontario L6T 5E6, Canada

Hosman: Director, AMS Consult, 2645 Delfgauw, The Netherlands

Schroeder: Chief (Acting), Aviation Systems Division, NASA Ames Research
Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Abstract:** A set of experiments were conducted on the University of
Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies flight research simulator to
determine the effects of translational and yaw motion on pilot
performance, workload, fidelity, pilot compensation, and motion
perception for three helicopter yaw control tasks. The three control
tasks were a yaw capture, a disturbance rejection task, and a tracking
task. The yaw capture experiment was a duplication of an experiment
previously run at a different simulator facility. The results of the yaw
capture task were in general agreement with the previous study with the
exception that, in the current study, yaw motion had a larger impact on
pilot performance than the previous study. The current study found that
translational motion improves performance and increases fidelity for all
three tasks. Yaw motion increased performance for the yaw capture and
disturbance rejection tasks. Translational motion generally improved
fidelity and was easier to detect than yaw motion for all three tasks.
Finally, if translational motion was present, the addition of yaw motion
usually provided little additional benefit to performance, workload,
compensation, or fidelity for all three tasks.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Grantham, William D.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Comparison of flying qualities derived from in-flight and
ground-based simulators for a jet-transport airplane for the approach
and landing pilot tasks

**City:** Hampton, VA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Langley Research Center

**Date:** December

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** NASA TP-2962

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Langley Research Center, Hampton,
VA

**Number of Pages:** 31

**Keywords:** flying qualities, in-flight simulators, ground-based
simulators, pilot performance, approach and landing

**Abstract:** The primary objective of this paper was to provide
information to the flight controls/flying qualities engineer that will
assist him in determining the incremental flying qualities and/or
pilot-performance differences that may be expected between results
obtained via ground-based simulation (and, in particular, the
six-degree-of-freedom Langley Visual/Motion Simulator (VMS)) and flight
tests. Pilot opinion and performance parameters derived from a
ground-based simulator and an in-flight simulator are compared for a
jet-transport airplane having 31 different longitudinal dynamic response
characteristics. The primary pilot tasks were the approach and landing
tasks with emphasis on the landing-flare task. The results indicate
that, in general, flying qualities results obtained from the
ground-based simulator may be considered conservative\--especially when
the pilot task requires tight pilot control as during the landing flare.
The one exception to this, according to the present study, was that the
pilots were more tolerant of large time delays in the airplane response
on the ground-based simulator. The results also indicated that the
ground-based simulator (particularly the Langley VMS) is not adequate
for assessing pilot/vehicle performance capabilities (i.e., the sink
rate performance for the landing-flare task when the pilot has little
depth/height perception from the outside scene presentation).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Green, Mavis F.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Aviation instruction through flight simulation: Enhancing
pilot decision-making skills

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University, Daytona Beach, FL

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** Information was collected form collegiate aviation
programs to answer the research question: What type(s) of learning best
explain how learners are socialized to aviation through the use of
simulation technology? This is important because the use of appropriate
educational strategies in training devices could provide ways to enhance
pilot judgment as well as increase technical skills. Data from this
study showed confusion and inconsistency on the parts of instructors
implementing this instruction. Risk perception is identified as an
important element in choosing instructional strategies. Cognitive
apprenticeship is explored as an appropriate type of learning in
high-risk fields.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Green, Steven

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Ab-initio simulation in the 21st century

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Head of Training, BAE Systems
Flight Training (Europe) S.L., Jerez, Spain

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** Despite the development in manned flight in the 20th
century, flight simulation is still in its infancy. This paper reviews
the future simulator contribution to ab-initio airline pilot training.

It will ask if zero flight time training will be a practical proposition
in the next century and examines areas which can be successfully
exploited by low-cost high-fidelity training devices. It will also
address the impact of new technologies such as virtual reality and
helmet-mounted displays.

Given the correct learning and operating environment, it is the view of
the author that zero flight time training will be possible. It probably
is today, but practicalities preclude it.

Simulation increases the objectivity of both flight training and
assessment. Helmet-mounted technology and virtual reality will reduce
dependence on complex electro-mechanical devices. Such training will
require Airline and Regulator to co-operate actively and contribute,
whilst Flight Training Organizations (FTOs) will develop innovative
solutions to evaluate trainees\' capacity, decision-making processes and
hand/eye coordination.

Currently, the cost-effective utilization of an FFS (Full Flight
Simulator) is beyond most FTOs, but innovation with PC Technology will
provide solutions. For example, a partnership between an FTO and a
company specializing in low-cost PC-based simulation to meet Joint
Aviation Authorities (JAA) requirements will be discussed.

The paper will also look at trials of helmet-mounted displays and their
application to flight training, the value of motion *versus* visual, and
the need for programmable machines rather than type-specific FFS.

Finally, real-time ATC/traffic environment will be interfaced with the
training device.

Training must be more effective, safer and cheaper than current
practice. A challenge in a conservative industry working on the
traditional basis that a good scare is worth more to man than advice.
However, there will be enthusiasm from industry for a better and cheaper
product, which understands that \"experience is not what happens to a
man, but what a man does with what happens to him.\"

Pilots can be trained as crew-people; the piston/jet interface removed
and Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Company Operating Philosophies
introduced from the beginning. Much of the instruction will actually be
delivered by Computer Based Training. Safety will be enhanced in
training because there will be no physical risk from technical or human
malfunction, the trainee passing directly into a supervised multi-crew
environment.

Training effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and learning transfer
effectiveness will be enhanced. Controlled evaluation will take place in
a partnership of FTOs, Regulators and Industry. Ab-initio flight
training in simulated devices will focus on providing experience about
making decisions. It is this new approach which will really contribute
to flight safety in the next century.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Griffin, M. J.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Physical characteristics of stimuli provoking motion sickness

**Series Editor:** (AGARD), Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development

**Series Title:** Motion Sickness: Significance in Aerospace Operations
and Prophylaxis

**Pages:** 3-1 - 3-32

**Type:** Paper from AGARD Lecture Series 175

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Factors Research Unit,
Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton,
Southampton, S09 5NH England

**Number of Pages:** 33

**Abstract:** The physical characteristics of motion stimuli responsible
for motion sickness are reviewed in two parts. The provocative stimuli
are categorized and their nauseogenic properties discussed qualitatively
in terms of the sensory conflict theory of motion sickness. Quantitative
information available from experimental studies with specific types of
motion is then summarized. The motions of the body considered in this
review include translational oscillation, swing motions, rotation about
a vertical axis, rotation about an off-vertical axis, rotational
oscillation and cross-coupled (i.e. coriolis) stimulation. Conditions
producing visually-induced motion sickness are also summarized.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Thesis

**Author:** Groen, Eric

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Orientation to gravity: Oculomotor and perceptual responses
in man

**City:** Utrecht, The Netherlands

**University:** Utrecht University

**Advisor:** Prof. Dr. W.A. van de Grind, Universiteit Utrecht; Dr. B.
de Graaf, TNO Technische Menskunde

**Thesis Type:** Ph.D.

**Keywords:** human perception, spatial orientation

**Abstract:** This thesis concerns aspects of human spatial orientation,
in particular the orientation with respect to gravity.

[Summary]{.underline}

Chapter 1: In this chapter a new and automatic method was described to
determine ocular torsion (OT) from digitized video images
(Video-oculography). We developed this method based on the tracking of
iris patterns. Instead of quantifying OT by means of cross-correlation
of circular iris samples, which is commonly applied, this new method
automatically selects and recovers a set of 36 significant patterns in
the iris by a technique of template matching. Each relocated landmark
results in a single estimate of the torsion angle. A robust algorithm
estimates OT from this total set of individually determined torsion
angles, thereby largely correcting for errors which may arise as due to
misjudgments of the rotation center. In a prepared set of images of an
artificial eye the new method reproduced OT with an accuracy of 0.1º. In
a sample of 256 images of human eyes, a practical reliability of 0.25º
was achieved.

Chapter 2: The objective of this experiment was to assess evidence for
vestibular adaptation to prolonged hypergravity in human subjects as to
substantiate previously described effects, such as postural imbalance
and motion sickness (Sickness Induced by Centrifugation, SIC). We
measured the ocular torsion response in eleven subjects during static
and dynamic body tilt, once before and once after an one-hour centrifuge
run of +3Gx. The OT response to static tilt (in the range of 0 to 57º to
either side) showed a 10% decrease, suggesting a reduced otolith gain.
The otolith-canal interaction was examined by comparing the dynamic OT
response to sinusoidal body roll (frequency of 0.25 Hz and amplitude of
25º) about an earth-horizontal rotation axis (stimulation of both
otoliths and canals) and about an earth-vertical rotation axis
(stimulation of canals). After centrifugation, the gain of the slow
component velocity increased in both conditions in all but four
subjects, who showed a decrease in the supine condition (but not in the
upright condition). These four subjects developed symptoms of SIC, so
that the different behavior of their SCV gain was likely due to a
declined state of alertness which specifically may have occurred in the
supine condition. In addition to the OT data, the horizontal VOR was
measured in response to a velocity step rotation about the vertical yaw
axis. The mean gain of the horizontal VOR was unaffected by
centrifugation, but the dominant time constant was significantly
reduced. Because the time constant of the horizontal VOR is centrally
controlled by the velocity storage mechanism, this result provides
evidence for vestibular adaptation at a central leve**l.**

Chapter 3: In the experiment of Chapter 2 the dynamic OT response (or
torsional VOR) was measured to study possible effects of centrifugation
on the canal-otolith interaction. However, the response did not show a
clear otolith contribution. Supposedly, the stimulus frequency of 0.25
Hz had been too high to reveal an otolith component. The response was
therefore studied in more detail at a wider frequency range. The ocular
torsion response was examined during passive sinusoidal body roll in
five human subjects. To separate the otolith organ and semicircular
canal contributions, again the axis of rotation was varied between
earth-horizontal and earth-vertical. At a fixed amplitude of 25°, the
stimulus frequency was varied from 0.05 to 0.4 Hz. Additionally, at a
fixed frequency of 0.2 Hz, the response was also measured at the
amplitudes of 12.5° and 50°. The results showed that the gain and phase
of the slow component velocity (SCV) did not depend on stimulus
amplitude, indicating a linear response. Contribution of the otoliths
affected the ocular torsion response in three different ways. First, the
gain of the SCV was slightly but consistently higher during
earth-horizontal rotation than during earth-vertical rotation. In the
supine orientation the average gain increased from 0.10 to 0.26. In the
upright orientation the average gain increased from 0.14 to 0.37. Second
and more substantially, modulation of the otolith inputs improved the
response dynamics by reducing the phase lead at frequencies up to 0.2
Hz. Third, the nystagmus showed considerably less anti-compensatory
saccades in upright conditions than in supine conditions, even though
the SCV gain was lower in the latter. As a consequence, the average
excursion of torsional eye position was highest during earth-horizontal
rotation. This effect was observed in the entire frequency range. Thus,
the otoliths did not only control the torsional VOR at low stimulus
frequencies by keeping the slow component in phase with head motion, but
also in a wider frequency range by modulating the saccadic behavior as
to increase the excursion range of torsional eye position. We conclude
that, during head tilt, the primary concern of the otolith-oculomotor
system is to stabilize eye position in space, rather than to prevent
retinal blur. This confirms that tilt otolith-induced ocular responses
subserve spatial orientation.

Chapter 4: This chapter describes a study on the effectiveness of a
highly polarized visual environment to induce sensations of self-motion
and self-tilt in a stationary observer. The subjects were immersed in an
8 foot cubic room which could be fully rotated about an earth-horizontal
axis. The interior of the room was filled with common visual features
such as a door, a window, and a great variety of objects which indicated
up and down (visual polarity). When the room was tilted about the roll
axis of an erect observer it produced illusory self-tilt by virtue of
its visual polarity alone. Although the effect was larger than is known
from the literature, the experienced self-tilt did not linearly increase
with room tilt. At higher angles of room tilt (80 and 120º) the judgment
of verticality became more variable and depended less on the visual
scene. The room induced complete self-rotation in more than 80% of the
cases when it was rotated at constant velocity about a stationary
subject in various body positions. This strong effect was attributed to
both its motion and its visual polarity.

Chapter 5: This chapter describes a study on the visual-vestibular
interaction in the judgment of the body orientation relative to gravity.
Illusory self-tilt and self-motion (vection) produced by rotation of a
full-field non-polarized visual scene about the subject's roll axis was
measured as a function of the presence or absence of actual rotation of
the subject during visual acceleration. Subject rotation was at two
levels of acceleration and with or without a delay between initial
rotation and subsequent return (washout) to the vertical position. In
one set of conditions, visual motion and self-motion were in opposite
directions (concordant) \[sic\] and in another set they were in the same
direction (discordant) \[sic\]. For concordant motion the main effect of
body rotation was to reduce the time taken by the subject to indicate
self-rotation. The magnitude of self-tilt was increased by actual body
tilt as could be expected from addition of the perceived actual body
tilt and illusory body tilt induced by visual rotation. This effect of
augmented body tilt did not persist after the body was returned to the
vertical. The magnitude of vection was not influenced by body rotation
and washout. For discordant motion of the body and the visual scene,
subjects were confused and their responses were very variable. This
suggests a non-linear visual-vestibular interaction, in which perceived
self-tilt and self-motion are strongly determined by visual inputs,
except for discordant accelerations of the body and the visual
surroundings. Then the perception is determined by the vestibular
inputs.

**Notes:** In book form

**URL:** <http://www.desc.med.vu.nl/Publications/Thesis/Groen/Groen.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Groen, E. L.; Bles, W.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Pitch tilt as motion cue for the simulation of linear
horizontal acceleration

**City:** Soesterberg, The Netherlands

**Institution:** TNO Human Factors Research Institute

**Date:** April 26

**Type:** TNO-report

**Report Number:** TM-99-B005

**Number of Pages:** 25

**Abstract:** In the present study we examined to which extent pitch
motion may be used as motion cue to passive linear fore aft motion. In
total, 15 subjects had to judge the simulation of sinusoidal motion
profiles at four different frequencies between 0.04 and 0.33 Hz, and at
three different amplitudes of visual acceleration (0.44, 0.88 and 1.76
m/s^2^). Psychometric curves were calculated in order to determine: 1)
at which minimum tilt amplitude the simulation was perceived as
veridical in more than 50% of the cases, and 2) the maximum tilt
amplitude at which tilting was perceived as rotation in more than 50% of
the cases. The results show that at all frequencies proprioceptive
stimulation improved the motion sensation. The minimally required pitch
amplitude showed a negative relationship with the log stimulus frequency
and depended on the visually simulated displacement. In addition, the
detection threshold for rotation depended on the tilt rate, and was
remarkably increased by the linear visual stimulus. As a consequence,
the optimum tilt range narrowed toward higher frequencies. In
conclusion, pitch tilt can be used effectively as motion cue to
simulated fore aft motion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Groen, Eric. L; Clari, Mario S. V. Valenti; Hosman, Ruud J.
A. W.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Evaluation of perceived motion during a simulated takeoff run

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 38

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 600-606

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** TNO Human Factors, 3769 ZG
Soesterberg, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** The range of motion stimuli that produce realistic
sensations of longitudinal acceleration during a simulated takeoff run
in a research simulator are presented. In all conditions, the visually
simulated motion profile consisted of a step acceleration of 0.35g. The
gain of the translational (surge) and tilt-coordination channel (pitch)
were systematically varied. The linear travel of the motion platform was
kept constant by covarying the bandwidth with the gain of the high-pass
surge filter. Rate and acceleration limit of tilt coordination were
fixed at 0.052 rad/s and 0.052 rad/s\^2, respectively. Using a
two-alternative-forced-choice paradigm, seven experienced pilots judged
their motion perception as pilots non-flying. Based on their subjective
response, psychometric curves were constructed. Pilots\' judgments were
negatively influenced by any perceived discontinuity between the initial
surge stimulus and the sustained pitch stimulus. The range of realistic
motion parameters was centered around a gain of 0.2 and natural
frequency of 0.73 rad/s for the surge filter and a gain of 0.6 for the
low-pass pitch filter. Remarkably, unity gains were rejected as too
powerful. Therefore, it is concluded that, for the typical hexapod
platform, the takeoff maneuver can be more effectively simulated by
providing less than the full mathematical model acceleration.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Groen, Eric L.; Hosman, Ruud J.A.W.; Dominicus, Jacco W.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Motion fidelity during a simulated takeoff

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Austin, Texas

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 11-14

**Electronic Resource Number**: AIAA 2003-5680

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** In this psychophysical study, seven airline pilots
reported on their perceived self-motion in response to variations of
motion filter gains during a simulated takeoff. Each pilot participated
both as pilot flying and pilot non-flying. In order to vary the gains of
the simulated linear acceleration and the rotation independently, a
"direct pitch" filter was used. Simulator pitch tilt was applied to
simulate the low-pass filtered acceleration, whereas unfiltered pitch
motion was used to simulate the rotation. The study took place in a four
degrees-of-freedom research flight simulator. Subjective data showed
that the perception of longitudinal acceleration was determined by the
tilt-coordination. On average, pilots flying preferred larger
tilt-coordination gains than pilots non-flying. Motion perception during
rotation depended completely on the simulator pitch rate, which also
determined the perceived attitude in the subsequent climb. No
interactions were found between the effects of the tilt-coordination and
the rotation. Objective simulator data showed that the aircraft control
improved with increasing gain of the simulated rotation. We conclude
that during the simulation of the takeoff maneuver of transport aircraft
high gains (≥0.75) for the tilt coordination and rotation filters should
be applied to support pilots' perception and control behavior.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Guckenberger, Dutch; Guckenberger, Liz; Luongo, Frank;
Stanney, Kay; Sepulveda, Jose

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Above-real-time training and the hyper-time algorithm

**Journal:** Dr. Dobb\'s Journal

**Pages:** 52-60

**Date:** April

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** D. Guckenberger: Senior Software
Engineer, ECC International

L. Guckenberger: Research Associate, University of Central Florida

Stanney, Sepulveda: Associate Professors, University of Central Florida,
Industrial Engineering Department

Luongo: Software Engineer, ECC International

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** The hyper-time algorithm lets you alter the flow of
\`simulated time\' to benefit users\--slower than real time can be used
for novice users, while faster than real time can be used for experts or
persons \`time surfing\' over uninteresting portions of information.
Applying the algorithm to \`Above-Real-Time Training\' also improves
human performance, increases retention and training-device
effectiveness, and decreases strength.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Guedry, Fred E.; Benson, Alan J.

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** Coriolis Cross-Coupling Effects: Disorienting and Nauseogenic
or Not?

**City:** Pensacola, FL

**Institution:** Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory

**Report Number:** NAMRL-1231

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Guedry: Naval Aeropsace Medical
Research Laboratory

Benson: RAF Institute of Aviation Medicine, Farmborugh, England

**Keywords:** disorientation, motion sickness, Coriolis effects,
vestibular stimulation

**Abstract:** Nausea, vomiting, and disorientation are sometimes
produced by head movements during turning maneuvers in aircraft. These
responses are usually attributed to Coriolis cross-coupling stimulation
of the vestibular system, although it has been indicated recently that
many turning maneuvers in aircraft have insufficient angular velocity to
generate such effects. The purpose of the study was to further
distinguish conditions in which Coriolis cross-coupling effects are
disorienting and nauseogenic from conditions in which they are neither
disorienting nor nauseogenic.

When head tilts are executed during angular acceleration which commences
a turn, vestibular stimulation is neither disorienting nor nauseogenic.
During constant speed turns and during deceleration which stops such
turns, Coriolis cross-coupling effects can be disorienting and
nauseogenic if the angular velocity of the turning vehicle is of
sufficient magnitude at the time the head movement is made.

**URL:**
<http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA036899>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Guedry, Fred E. Jr.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Technical evaluation report

**Conference Name:** Motion Cues in Flight Simulation and Simulator
Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29-October 2

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** M.S., Ph.D., Chief Scientist, Naval
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Pensacola, FL

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, motion sickness, simulator
after-effects, simulator design trends, simulator training

**Abstract:** The proceedings include seven papers, ensuing discussions
of the papers, and a Round Table Discussion from the Symposium sponsored
by AGARD Aerospace Medical Panel held in Brussels, Belgium, on September
28 to October 2, 1987. The frequency of reports of undesirable effects
associated with simulator training has increased to offset the higher
costs and risks of conducting training in the complex modern aircraft.
Review of current and anticipated future trends in simulator design
features suggests that additional problems will arise if research on the
etiology of simulator-induced motion sickness and other unwanted
simulator effects is insufficient to counteract problems before they
arise. The objective of this symposium was to examine simulator-induced
effects, their optimal implications, and their etiology in order to
develop ideas for reducing undesired effects. The papers in this
symposium address present and anticipated trends in simulator design, a
theoretical viewpoint underlying many of the studies of simulator
effects, characteristics of simulators associated with undesired
effects, surveys of simulator-induced effects, models for the design and
evaluation of simulators, and perceptual and neuropsychological
functions fundamental to the understanding of simulation. These papers
and the accompanying discussion provide a summary of information
obtained in recent years on simulation, and guidelines for direction of
future research.

**URL:** <http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA202492>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Gum, D. R.; Albery, W. B.

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** Time-delay problems encountered in integrating the advanced
simulator for undergraduate pilot training

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 14

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 327-332

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Gum and Albery: Air Force Human
Resources Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** An advanced Computer Image Generation (CIG) visual system
has been integrated with an advanced Flight Training Research Simulator.
The integration design was the first developed for integrating a CIG
visual system with a sophisticated flight simulator. There was much
concern for the unique CIG system transport delay, and techniques were
developed which proved to be quite successful in compensating for the
majority of this delay. However, not enough concern was given to
previously unrecognized and unreported excessive motion system delays
which were encountered during final integrated system tests. The
integration scheme and the impact of iteration rates, visual and motion
system delays, and delay compensation on visual and motion cue
coordination as perceived by pilots are presented.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Gundry, John

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** Man and motion cues

**Conference Name:** Third Flight Simulation Symposium

**Conference Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** April

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** R.A.F. Institute of Aviation
Medicine, Farnborough, Hants.

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Abstract:** No abstract.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Guo, Liwen; Cardullo, Frank M.; Houck, Jacob A.; Kelley, Lon
C.; Wolters, Thomas

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** New predictive filters for compensating the transport delay
on a flight simulator

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Providence, RI

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 16-19

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Guo: PhD Candidate, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, State University of New York at Binghamton,
Binghamton, NY

Cardullo: Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, State
University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY

Houck: Assistant Branch Head, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA

Kelly: Software Engineer, Unisys Corp., Hampton, VA

Wolters: Computer Engineer, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** transport delay, delay compensation, lead/lag filter,
McFarland filter, Sobiski/Cardullo filter

**Abstract:** The problems of transport delay in a flight simulator,
such as its sources and effects, are reviewed. Then their effects on a
pilot-in-the-loop control system are investigated with simulations.
Three current prominent delay compensators\--the lead/lag filter,
McFarland filter, and the Sobiski/Cardullo filter were analyzed and
compared. This paper introduces two novel delay compensation
techniques\--an adaptive predictor using the Kalman estimator and a
state space predictive filter using a reference aerodynamic model.
Application of these two new compensators on recorded data from NASA
Langley Research Center Visual Motion Simulator show that they achieve
better compensation over the current ones.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Guo, Liwen; Cardullo, Frank M.; Houck, Jacob A.; Kelly, Lon
C.; Wolters, Thomas E.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** A comprehensive study of three delay compensation algorithms
for flight simulators

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** San Francisco, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 15-18

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Guo: Postdoctoral researcher,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, State University of New York at
Binghamton, Binghamton

Cardullo: Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, State
University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton

Houck: Branch Head, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA

Kelly: Software Engineer, Unisys Corp., Hampton, VA

Wolters: Computer Engineer, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Keywords:** time delay, delay compensation, compensation algorithms,
McFarland filter, Adaptive predictor, State Space predictor

**Abstract:** This paper summarizes a comprehensive study of three
predictors used for compensating the transport delay in a flight
simulator; The McFarland, Adaptive and State Space Predictors. The paper
presents proof that the stochastic approximation algorithm can achieve
the best compensation among all four adaptive predictors, and
intensively investigates the relationship between the state predictor\'s
compensation quality and its reference model. Piloted simulation tests
show that the adaptive predictor and state space predictor can achieve
better compensation of transport delay than the McFarland predictor.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Guo, L.; Cardullo, F. M.; Telban, R. J.; Houck, J. A.;
Kelley, L. C.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** The results of a simulator study to determine the effects on
pilot performance of two different motion cueing algorithms and various
delays, compensated and uncompensated

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Austin, TX

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 11-14

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Liwen Guo, Frank M. Cardullo,
Robert J. Telban: Department of Mechanical Engineering, State University
of New York, Binghamton, NY

Jacob A. Houck: Manager, Cockpit Motion Facility, Associate Fellow, NASA
Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA

Lon C. Kelly: Unisys Corp., Hampton, VA

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** A study was conducted employing the Visual Motion
Simulator (VMS) at the NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia.
This study compared two motion cueing algorithms, the NASA adaptive
algorithm and a new optimal control based algorithm. Also, the study
included the effects of transport delays and the compensation thereof.
The delay compensation algorithm employed is one developed by Richard
McFarland at NASA Ames Research Center. This paper reports on the
analyses of the results of analyzing the experimental data collected
from preliminary simulation tests. This series of tests was conducted to
evaluate the protocols and the methodology of data analysis in
preparation for more comprehensive tests which will be conducted during
the spring of 2003. Therefore only three pilots were used. Nevertheless
some useful results were obtained.

The experimental conditions involved three maneuvers; a straight-in
approach with a rotating wind vector, an offset approach with turbulence
and gust, and a takeoff with and without an engine failure shortly after
liftoff. For each of the maneuvers the two motion conditions were
combined with four delay conditions (0, 50, 100 & 200 ms), with and
without compensation.

Discrete time domain data of different variables were recorded and the
Cooper-Harper Ratings (CHR) of simulator handling qualities were logged
from the debriefing of the pilots who "flew" the simulator for the
experiments. These two categories of data, allow both objective and
quasi-objective evaluation, of the human controllers' performance. Power
Spectral Density (PSD), an approach in the frequency domain was adopted
for the analysis of the objective data. The PSD of the operator control
behavior is an excellent indicator of operator workload. Among the
analyses employing the PSD are the integral of the PSD over selected
intervals and the analysis determining the frequency at which the peaks
of the PSD occur.

From the analyses of the power spectral density, the total PSD of roll
stick and pitch stick control in the 0 to 1 Hz range is slightly smaller
when the optimal motion cueing algorithm is used in the straight-in
approach and the offset approach. There is no noticeable difference of
the total PSD of the pedal between the adaptive and the optimal motion
cueing algorithms. When time delay is inserted, the total PSD of the
roll stick, pitch stick and pedal control increases in the 0 to 1 Hz
range, and increases significantly in the 0.17 to 0.4 Hz portion of the
spectrum. Time delay also moves the highest peak of the PSD of the roll
stick to a higher frequency area. Compensation reduces the total PSD,
increased by the time delay, especially in the 0 to 0.4 Hz range. It
also shifts the highest peak of PSD back to relatively lower
frequencies. The paper will present details of the analysis including
graphical representations of the results.

From the analyses of Cooper-Harper ratings, the optimal motion cueing
algorithm shows better performance over the adaptive algorithm. The CHR
does not increase when a time delay of up to 100 ms is presented. The
mean CHR across all pilots in the straight-in approach and offset
approach increases when compensation is applied, and the handling
qualities rating becomes worse with compensation as delay increases. The
compensation brings the mean CHR down only in the takeoff maneuver.

The paper describes the motion cueing algorithms used as well as the
details of the manner in which the delays were inserted. The McFarland
compensation algorithm will also be described.

**URL:**
<http://library-dspace.larc.nasa.gov/dspace/jsp/bitstream/2002/12425/1/NASA-aiaa-2003-5676.pdf>

● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hall, J. R.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Motion versus visual cues in piloted flight simulation

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Flight Systems Department, Royal
Aircraft Establishment, Bedford, Bedfordshire, UK

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** motion, vision cues, roll, surge, peripheral

**Abstract:** In the ground based simulation of piloted flight the
provision of \"adequate\" cues to the pilot is essential for both
training and the successful evaluation of handling and ride qualities.
Realistic motion cues are particularly difficult to provide and attempts
to justify other techniques are frequently made in order to provide the
pilot with, subjectively at least, a realistic handling task. This paper
presents two examples to show that motion cues can be vital even when
\"adequate\" alternative visual cues are available. The first shows that
practical, low gain, roll motion cues are better than nominally perfect
peripheral vision cues for controlling a vehicle with an unstable dutch
roll mode and the second that motion can be vital even for developing
items such as head-up displays for which it might not at first sight
seem necessary.

This paper concludes that for the prediction and evaluation of handling
qualities using a piloted flight simulator it is not always sufficient
for the pilot to achieve a similar performance in the simulator as in
flight; it is also necessary that he should adopt the same control
strategy. To achieve this it is often essential to provide the pilot
with motion cues as no substitute in these circumstances has yet been
found.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Hall, J. R.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** The need for platform motion in modern piloted flight
training simulators

**City:** Bedford, UK

**Institution:** Royal Aerospace Establishment

**Date:** October

**Type:** Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** Tech Memo FM 35

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** platform motion, motion cueing, training simulators,
(flight simulators, human factors engineering, flight simulations, Great
Britain)

**Abstract:** This paper discusses motion cueing in piloted flight
training simulators, and presents the factors that must be taken into
account when assessing the need for, and benefits of, a motion platform
so that informed decisions can be taken as to its training value. These
factors include the role of the simulator, the handling qualities of the
vehicle concerned, the tasks the pilot is required to fly, the
performance he is expected to achieve and whether training
considerations require him to use a similar control strategy and control
activity in the simulator as in the aircraft.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hamann, S.; Waldraff, W.; Finsterwalder, R.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Development of a simulator audio system based on COTS sound
synthesis software

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Providence, RI

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 16-19

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of the Federal Armed
Forces Munich, 85577 Neubiberg, Germany

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** Early 2003 started the development of a simulator audio
system as part of the project \"MASTER\" at the \"University of the
Federal Armed Forces Munich\", Germany. The primary objective of this
project is the realization of a modular vehicle simulator for
educational and research purposes. In literature it has been shown, that
there is a need for realistic communication simulations in aircrew
training. Therefore, apart from the simulation of typical aircraft
related noises, realistic communication simulation was taken as a
requirement for the audio system development. Investigations have shown
that only a few specialized software products for simulator audio
systems are available on the market. A view beyond the simulator market
indicates that all the required functionality it also covered by COTS
sound sampling and synthesis software used in the music industry. The
advantage of this market is that it has more users, which results in
further developed software products and lower software prices. Based on
a list of requirements, the COTS software \"REAKTOR 4\" from Native
Instruments was selected to be the basis of the audio system
development. With this software it is possible to set up large audio
models by hierarchical block diagrams. Therefore, a variety of function
blocks is provided by a block library. These functions include
audio/control inputs and outputs, frequency and amplitude controlled
samplers, oscillators, filters, shapers and mixers, as well as basic
mathematical operators and event handling. In order to control the audio
system application at a high control rate and with low latency the
standardized OSC interface is used. Latency problems were avoided by
using ASIO 2.0 standard for interfacing audio software and audio
hardware. This enables the usage of COTS audio hardware. The described
approach was used to realize a simulator audio system that meets all
requirements for a professional training simulator.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Hamilton, K.; Kantor, L.; Heslegrave, R.; Magee, L.; Hendy,
K.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Simulator induced sickness in the CP-140 (Aurora) Flight Deck
Simulator

**City:** Downsview, Ontario

**Institution:** Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine

**Date:** May

**Type:** Research Report

**Report Number:** DCIEM No 89-RR-32

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, ataxia, postural control, workload

**Abstract:** Training on modern flight simulators can lead to a
condition referred to as simulator induced sickness (SIS) which is
characterized by nausea, dizziness and postural instability. It is
believed that SIS results from exposure to conflicting sensory
information. The present report examined the incidence, severity and
duration of SIS as a function of flight experience and aircrew position
(pilot/copilot) in 16 aircrew following training on the CP-140 (Aurora)
Flight Deck Simulator at Canadian Forces Base Greenwood. The dependent
measures included symptomatology and postural stability. In addition,
measures of workload were taken to examine the contribution of the high
task demands generally associated with simulator training to the
development of SIS symptomatology. The results indicated that over 50%
of tested aircrew experienced increases in symptom frequency following
simulator training with the most commonly reported symptoms being mild
mental fatigue, physical fatigue, eye strain and after sensations of
motion. This increase in symptom frequency was unaffected by either
flight experience or aircrew position and symptoms dissipated, for the
most part, after a few hours. No changes in postural stability were
observed. The workload results confirmed that the simulator imposed high
task demands on the aircrew. Furthermore, the workload results were
consistent with the pattern of symptoms observed, suggesting that
factors other than sensory conflict may be involved in the development
of symptomatology following simulator exposure. Future investigations
should attempt to identify these factors so that SIS can be managed more
effectively.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hampton, Steve; Gibb, Gerald D.; Kirton, Tom; Phipps, John;
Wise, John

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** An evaluation of reduced motion-based simulator use during
initial training for MD-88 crews

**Conference Name:** The Eighth International Aviation Psychology
Symposium

**Conference Location:** Columbus, OH

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University, Daytona Beach, FL 32114-3900

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** MD-88, motion-based simulator

**Abstract:** To evaluate the training capabilities of a level 6 flight
training device twenty-four pilots from Embry-Riddle were trained at
Delta Airlines. Twelve of the pilots received the same flight training,
except that the first five periods of training were flown in a level 6
flight training device with a visual system. No significant differences
were noted in the performance of the pilots during a flight check
conducted by APDs, and observed by independent check pilots from
Embry-Riddle.

It is hoped that the results from the study will be used in part to
justify further investigation into the capabilities of flight training
devices, and whether or not they can be more effectively used during
pilot training by both major, and regional airline operators. Because
both the initial, and the operating costs of a full flight simulator are
significantly higher than that of a flight training device, considerable
savings may be possible to operators.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hanson, Terry

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** FOQA and ASAP

**Journal:** Safety Mind

**Volume:** 47

**Pages:** 5, 47-48

**Number of Pages:** 3

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Harper, Robert; Cooper, George

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Handling qualities and pilot evaluation

**Conference Name:** AHS, ASEE, Aircraft Design Systems and Operations
Meeting

**Conference Location:** San Diego, CA

**Date:** October 31- November 2

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 1984-2442

**Abstract:** \[Introduction\] The handling qualities of airplanes have
been a subject of considerable interest and concern throughout the
history of piloted flight. The Wright Brothers were successful in
achieving the first powered flight in large measure because they
provided adequate flying qualities for the task at hand. As they became
capable of flights of longer duration, they altered the handling
qualities of their flying machine to improve piloting performance and to
accomplish the expanded tasks. They maintained, throughout, a balance
between the amount of stability (or instability) of their airplane in
flight and the pilot's ability to control its movements; they achieved a
balance among the airplane's stability, the airplane's controllability,
and the pilot's capability.

"Handling qualities" represent the integrated value of those and other
factors and are defined as "those qualities or characteristics of an
aircraft that govern the ease and precision with which a pilot is able
to perform the tasks required in support of an aircraft role" \[Cooper &
Harper, 1969\]. From this definition, it is clear that handling quality
is characteristic of the combined performance of the pilot and vehicle
acting together as a system in support of an aircraft role. As our
industry has matured in the 82 years since the first powered flight, the
performance, size, and range of application of the airplane have grown
by leaps and bounds. Only the human pilot has remained relatively
constant in the system.

In the beginning, the challenge was to find the vehicle which, when
combined with the inexperienced pilot-candidate, could become airborne,
fly in a straight line, and land safely. Longer flights required turns,
and ultimately there were additional tasks to be performed. As greater
performance capability was achieved, the airplane was flown over
increasingly greater ranges of altitude and speed, and the diversity of
tasks increased. The continuing challenge was---and still is---to
determine what characteristics an airplane should have so that its role
can be achieved in the hands of a relatively constant pilot.

This challenge has been difficult to answer; the problem is that the
quality of handling is intimately linked to the dynamic response
characteristics of the airplane and human pilot acting together to
perform a task. Since the pilot is difficult to describe analytically
with accuracy, we have had to resort to experiments in order to
experience the real system dynamics.

A further problem is in the evaluation process, the judging of
differences in handling qualities. One would expect to instrument the
aircraft, measure the accuracy of task performance, and separate good
from bad in that way. The human pilot, however, is adaptive to different
airplanes; he compensates as best he can by altering his control usage
for differences among airplanes as necessary to accomplish the task.
This compensatory capability makes task performance relatively
insensitive to differences among airplanes, but at the same time,
heightens the pilot's awareness of the differences by altering the total
workload required to achieve the desired task performance.

The airplane designer, then, is presented with a formidable task. He
must design an airplane to be of good dynamic quality when operated by
an adaptive controller who resists analytic description. Experience---if
carefully documented and tracked---is helpful, but the rapidly changing
technology of flight (and the nomadic nature of the industry engineers)
causes at least some part of each new aircraft development to break new
ground.

It is the purpose of this paper to examine this subject of handling
qualities, defining first the dynamic system and discussing its
constituent elements. Next, some historical perspective is introduced to
illustrate that the quest for good handling has continued to be a
challenge of substantial proportions from the Wright Brothers' beginning
to the present day. The most modern methods of evaluating handling
qualities place heavy emphasis on simulation and evaluation through
experiment. The techniques, practice, and consideradons in the use of
pilot evaluation are reviewed; recommendations are made which the
authors believe would improve the quality of the evaluation data and the
understanding of the pilot-vehicle system.

**URL:**
[http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/RCplane%20USYD/Documentation/HCooper.pdf](http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/RCplane USYD/Documentation/HCooper.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Harris, L. R.; Jenkin, M.; Zikovitz, D.; Redlick, F.; Jaekl,
P.; Jasiobedzka, U.; Jenkin, H.; Allison, R. S.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Simulating self motion I: Cues for the perception of motion

**Journal:** Virtual Reality

**Volume:** 6

**Pages:** 75-85

**Type of Article:** Draft version? from 12/15/01

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Center for Vision Research

York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3:

L.R. Harris: Departments of Psychology and Biology

M. Jenkin, U. Jasiobedzka, and R.S. Allison: Department of Computer
Science

D. Zikovitz and F. Redlick: Department of Biology

P. Jaekl and H. Jenkin: Department of Psychology

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** When people move there are many visual and non-visual cues
that can inform them about their movement. Simulating self motion in a
virtual-reality environment thus needs to take these non-visual cues
into account in addition to the normal high-quality visual display. Here
we examine the contribution of visual and non-visual cues to our
perception of self-motion. The perceived distance of self motion can be
estimated from the visual flow field, physical forces or the act of
moving. On its own, passive visual motion is a very effective cue to
self motion, and evokes a perception of self motion that is related to
the actual motion in a way that varies with acceleration. Passive
physical motion turns out to be a particularly potent self motion cue:
not only does it evoke an exaggerated sensation of motion, but it also
tends to dominate other cues.

**URL:**
[http://www.cse.yorku.ca/\~jenkin/papers/2002/vr1.pdf#search=%22Simulating%20self%20motion%20I%3A%20Cues%20for%20the%20perception%20of%20motion%22](http://www.cse.yorku.ca/~jenkin/papers/2002/vr1.pdf#search=)

**Author Address:** Michael Jenkin: jenkin@cs.yorku.ca

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Hart, Daniel C.; Mitchell, David G.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** A simulation investigation of motion cueing and visual time
delay effects on two helicopter tasks

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** April

**Type:** NASA Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** 110385

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Hart: Aeroflightdynamics
Directorate, U.S. Army Aviation and Troop Command

Mitchell: Hoh Aeronautics Inc., Lomita California

**Number of Pages:** 76

**Keywords:** simulation, simulation fidelity, visual delay, motion
cueing, helicopter, handling qualities, simulator validation

**Abstract:** A piloted simulation study was performed on the NASA Ames
Research Center\'s Vertical Motion Simulator to investigate motion and
visual cueing fidelity for helicopter handling qualities research. A
stability derivative mathematical model represented the helicopter
dynamics. The piloting tasks were a precision hover and a sidestep. The
first objective was to define a rationale for configuring the motion
high-pass filters to yield the most realistic results for handling
qualities experiments. Two principal quantities were varied: (1) the
gain between the math model acceleration and commanded motion
acceleration, and (2) the high-pass filter natural frequency motion
configuration in the sidestep task over a high gain/high natural
frequency motion configuration. The second objective was to investigate
the effects of reducing the visual time delay. Compensation of the
visual delays was preferred in a majority of the hover cases, but no
consensus resulted in the sidestep task.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Hart, Sandra G.; Staveland, Lowell E.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of
empirical and theoretical research

**Editor:** Hancock, P.; Meshkati, N.

**Book Title:** Human Mental Workload

**City:** North Holland B.V.

**Pages:** 139-183

**ISBN:** 0-444-70388-8

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Hart: Aerospace Human Factors
Research Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

Staveland: San Jose State University, San Jose, CA

**Number of Pages:** 45

**Abstract:** The results of a multi-year research program to identify
the factors associated with variations in subjective workload within and
between different types of tasks are reviewed. Subjective evaluations of
10 workload-related factors were obtained from 16 different experiments.
The experimental tasks included simple cognitive and manual control
tasks, complex laboratory and supervisory control tasks, and aircraft
simulation. Task-, behavior-, and subject-related correlates of
subjective workload experiences varied as a function of difficulty
manipulations within experiments, different sources of workload between
experiments, and individual differences in workload definitions. A
multi-dimensional rating scale is proposed in which information about
the magnitude and sources of six workload-related factors are combined
to derive a sensitive and reliable estimate of workload.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Hass, Michael W.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** The influence of stroboscopic auditory stimuli on visual
apparent motion perception

**City:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

**Institution:** Armstrong Laboratory (United States Air Force)

**Date:** November

**Report Number:** AL/CF-TR-1995-0142

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Crew Systems Directorate, Human
Engineering Division, 2255 H Street, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7022

**Keywords:** visual perception, auditory perception, intersensory
perception, manual operation, control attention

**Abstract:** The influence of moving auditory stimuli on visual
apparent motion perception was empirically investigated. The experiments
investigated perceptual organization of visual stimuli driven by
inter-stimulus interval (ISI) and angular extent in the presence of
moving and non-moving auditory stimuli. Characteristics of, and
refinements to, a new model of visual-auditory apparent motion
perception are described. Dynamic characteristics of an auditory
localizer, which was used in a large portion of this work, were
evaluated to assess the ability to generalize the experimental results
to others conditions.

Influence characteristics of contemporaneous moving auditory stimuli on
angular-extent-driven and ISA-driven visual perceptions were found to be
cognitive in nature, small in magnitude, susceptible to perceptual
hysteresis, and existed only when the visual-based perception was
ambiguous. The small auditory influence over visual apparent motion
perception was found to affect performance of a complex task, that task
being tracking of an intermittent visual-auditory target, relative to
tracking of an intermittent visual-only target. The auditory influence
was affected by characteristics of the target movements and caused a
reduction in the power spectral density of correlated and non-correlated
tracking error between 0.1Hz and 0.5Hz.

**URL:**
<http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA327724>

**Access Date:** August 16, 2007

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hayes, M. J. D.; Langlois, R. G.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Atlas: A novel kinematic architecture for six DOF motion
platforms

**Journal:** CSME Transactions, Special Edition

**Volume:** 29

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 701-709

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6 Canada

**Keywords:** Atlas, motion platform, history

**Abstract:** Conventional training simulators commonly use the hexapod
configuration to provide motion cues. While widely used, studies have
shown that hexapods are incapable of producing the range of motion
required to achieve *high fidelity* simulation required in many
applications. This paper presents an overview of the Atlas platform: a
novel six DOF motion platform architecture. Orienting is decoupled from
positioning, and unlimited rotations are possible about every axis of
the mechanism. The decoupling is accomplished by fixing a three DOF
spherical orienting device, called the Atlas sphere, on a gantry with
three linear axes. The key to the design is three omni-directional
wheels in an equilateral arrangement, which impart angular motions to a
sphere, thereby providing rotational actuation. The omni-wheels and
their castor rollers provide virtually friction-free motion parallel to
each omni-wheel rotation axis creating the possibility for unconstrained
rotational motion. Since the Atlas sphere rests on these omni-wheels,
there are no joints or levers constraining its motion, allowing full
360˚ motion about all axes. The motivation, architecture, and potential
applications for this motion platform are described.

**Notes:** Brief section on the history of flight simulator motion.

**URL:**
<http://www.mae.carleton.ca/~jhayes/Papers/HayesLanglois_rev2.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hecht, David; Reiner, Miriam; Halevy, Gad

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Multimodal virtual environments: Response times, attention,
and presence

**Journal:** Presence

**Volume:** 15

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 515-523

**Date:** October

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Hecht: Technion --- Israel
Institute of Technology, Department of Education in Technology and
Science, Haifi, Israel; University of Haifi, Haifi, Israel

Reiner and Halevy: Technion --- Israel Institute of Technology,
Department of Education in Technology and Science, Haifa, Israel.

**Abstract:** Multimodal virtual environments (VE) succeed better than
single-sensory technologies in creating a sense of presence. We
hypothesize that the underlying cognitive mechanism is related to a
faster mental processing of multimodal events. Comparing simple
detection times of unimodal (auditory, visual, and haptic) events, with
bimodal and trimodal combinations, we show that mental processing times
are in the following order: unimodal \> bimodal \> trimodal. Given this
processing-speed advantage, multimodal VE users start their cognitive
process faster, thus, in a similar exposure time they can pay attention
to more informative cues and subtle details in the environment and
integrate them creatively. This richer, more complete and coherent
experience may contribute to an enhanced sense of presence.

**Author Address:** davidh@tx.technion.ac.il

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Heffley, Robert K.; Clement, Warren F.; Ringland, Robert F.;
Jewell, Wayne F.; Jex, Henry R.; McRuer, Duane T.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Determination of motion and visual system requirements for
flight training simulators

**City:** Fort Rucker, AL

**Institution:** Systems Technology, Inc.

**Date:** August

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** 546

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of the Army

**Keywords:** training simulators, pilot training, transfer of training,
flight training, flight simulation, training devices, simulation,
simulator fidelity, army aircraft, army training, visual perception,
motion perception

**Abstract:** Fidelity requirements for Army flight training simulators
are explored using a manual control theory approach. The first step is
to define \"simulator fidelity\" in operational terms which provide a
basis for each of the subsequent steps. This definition is accompanied
by a taxonomy of measurable fidelity parameters. The next step, also of
a preparatory nature, is the analysis of Army flight training missions.
It describes how specific flight tasks and piloting techniques can be
cast in terms compatible with feedback control theory. Pilot modeling
techniques are then discussed, first in terms of pilot control and then
in terms of pilot perception. Next, armed with compatible descriptions
of fidelity, the training context, and pilot behavior, a procedure is
described for studying visual and motion stimuli. It is found, however,
that there are serious gaps in the experimental data base; and this
precludes the systematic execution of this procedure. Because of the
lack of data, it is not possible to accomplish fully the original
objectives and, therefore, a formal bookkeeping scheme is outlined to
guide the investigation of fidelity requirements. Conclusions and
recommendations are then drawn. As aids to the reader, an executive
summary and glossary of terms are provided.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Heinrich, Sven P.; Renkl, Anette E.H.; Bach, Michael

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Pattern specificity of human visual motion processing

**Journal:** Vision Research

**Volume:** 45

**Pages:** 2137-2143

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Elektrophysiologisches Labor,
Univ.-Augenklinik Freiburg, Killianstr. 5, 79106 Freiburg, Germany

**Keywords:** motion processing, pattern, adaptation, cortex, human, VEP

**Abstract:** Visual motion processing is strongly susceptible to
adaptation. A variety of patterns have been used as stimuli in previous
studies. Three of these, namely random dots, barcode-like gratings, and
sinusoidal gratings, were compared in the present study using
motion-onset visual evoked potentials (VEPs). We assessed the effects of
the adaptation pattern and the test pattern to which the VEP is
recorded. Furthermore, we evaluated the interaction between both, i.e.
whether differences between adaptation and test pattern affect the
response. Isodirectional and antidirectional adaptation were used to
differentiate between the actual motion adaptation and associated
flicker adaptation. Motion adaptation was almost 2.5-fold stronger (p \<
0.01) if the same rather than different pattern types were used for both
adaptation and test. This implies that separate neural populations are
involved, suggesting the presence of pattern-tuned motion mechanisms.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Heintzman, Richard J.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Determination of force cueing requirements for tactical
combat flight training devices

**Institution:** SIMTEC Inc.

**Date:** February

**Report Number:** ASC-TR-97-5001

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** SIMTEC, Inc., 10364 Battleview
Parkway, Manassas, VA 20109-2338

**Keywords:** force cueing, motion simulation, g-seat, g-suit, flight
simulation

**Abstract:** This report documents the study which covered many
considerations relating to force cueing in a simulator, including its
effect on pilot behavior and performance and how cues may relate to
different flight tasks and the performance of force cueing devices. The
study also included a review of the evolution of platform motion
systems, other force cueing devices and past force cueing research.
Finally, an attempt is made to define a procedure to objectively
determine the need for force cueing and its value as part of a ground
based combat flight training system.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Heintzman, Richard J.; Middendorf, Matthew; Basinger, James
D.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Development and validation of a method of evaluating the
effectiveness of fighter aircraft simulation force cueing devices

**Institution:** SIMTEC Inc.

Middendorf Scientific Services Inc.

**Date:** May

**Report Number:** ASC-TR-2000-5001

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Heintzman: SIMTEC Inc. 10364
Battleview Parkway, Manassas, VA 20109-2338

Middendorf: Middendorf Scientific Services Inc., 227 East Main Street,
Medway, OH 45341

Basinger: ASC/YW

**Keywords:** Force cueing, motion simulation, g-seat, dynamic seat,
g-suit, flight simulation

**Abstract:** The report describes the development of a method for
conducting force cueing evaluations for fighter aircraft simulators. The
report includes a description of a Trial Force-Eval that was conducted
to validate the evaluation method. This method includes both procedures
and criteria for evaluation the effectiveness of various force cueing
devices, such as platform motion systems, dynamic seats, etc., for
tactical mission simulation. The Trial Force-Eval included a dynamic
seat, actuation of the pilot\'s anti-g suit and Combat Edge. Supporting
the Trial Force-Eval was a simplified fighter cockpit with F-15C
dynamics, a limited field-of-view rear projection screen display and an
Evans and Sutherland 4530 Image Generator. The report includes the
results of the Trial Force-Eval that indicates that the force cueing
devices contributed to the improvement of pilots\' control behavior,
performance and subjective opinion of the force cueing devices.

**URL:** <http://www.virtualsimulation.com/reports/a99xxxx.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Helmreich, Robert L.; Merritt, Ashleigh C.; Wilhelm, John A.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** The evolution of crew resource management training in
commercial aviation

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 9

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 19-32

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** The University of Texas at Austin,
Department of Psychology, Aerospace Crew Research Project

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Keywords:** crew resource management training, commercial aviation,
cockpit, error management approach

**Abstract:** In this study, we describe changes in the nature of Crew
Resource Management (CRM) training in commercial aviation, including its
shift from cockpit to crew resource management. Validation of the impact
of CRM is discussed. Limitations of CRM, including lack of
cross-cultural generality are considered. An overarching framework that
stresses error management to increase acceptance of CRM concepts is
presented. The error management approach defines behavioral strategies
taught in CRM as error countermeasures that are employed to avoid error,
to trap errors committed, and to mitigate the consequences of error.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Henderson, S.; Donderi, D. C.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Peripheral motion contrast sensitivity and older drivers\'
detection failure accident risk

**Conference Name:** 3rd International Driving Symposium on Human
Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Steven Henderson: Transportation
Safety Board of Canada, Hull, Quebec

Don C. Donderi: McGill University, Montreal, Quebec

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** Eighteen older drivers (66 to 88 years old) and their
passengers both reported on the drivers\' performance using
questionnaires that elicited responses related to attention and to speed
and accuracy of object motion perception. The measure of reported
perceptual loss was an equally weighted combination of standardized
responses from the 17-item driver questionnaire and the 11-item
passenger questionnaire. Peripheral stationary and drifting contrast
sensitivity was determined for 0.4 cycles per degree sine wave gratings
at fifteen degrees eccentricity. The temporal two-alternative forced
choice staircase procedure consisted of randomly interleaved left and
right visual field presentations.

The correlation between log~10~ motion contrast sensitivity and reported
perceptual loss was -.63 (p\<.01), between age and perceptual loss was
.56 (p\<.05), and between age and log~10~ motion contrast sensitivity
was -.54 (p\<.05). The partial correlation between log~10~ motion
sensitivity and reported perceptual loss, independent of age, was -.47
(p=.054. We concluded that some age-related driving performance deficits
are associated with reduced sensitivity in the visual periphery.

Peripheral motion contrast sensitivity was discussed in relation to
\"useful field of view\" (UFOV) measures of visual function, and offered
as a primary deficit of high risk drivers with Alzheimer\'s disease.

This research was conducted at McGill University in partial fulfillment
of the doctoral thesis requirement of the first author. Please note also
that road safety is outside the mandate of the Transportation Safety
Board of Canada.

**URL:**
<http://ppc.uiowa.edu/driving-assessment/2005/final/papers/07_SteveHendersonformat.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hendy, K. C.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Situation awareness and workload: Birds of a feather?

**Conference Name:** Situation Awareness: Limitations and Enhancements
in the Aviation Environment

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-28

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Defence and Civil Institute of
Environmental Medicine, PO Box 2000, North York, Ontario, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** situation awareness, workload, situation awareness metric,
performance, internal representation, mental model, perceptual control
theory, measurement of workload, cognitive compatibility

**Abstract:** In this paper it is argued that an hierarchical
information processing model, with a basis in perceptual control theory,
provides the necessary framework for interpreting a large, unfocused
empirical literature on the topics of workload and situation(al)
awareness (SA). The fundamental importance of situation awareness will
emerge in considering the role of the mental model in providing the
reference signal for a closed loop perceptual control system. It will be
asserted that those aspects of the mental model generally covered by the
SA rubric result from high level information processing activity that
requires spare capacity to service. Increasing time pressure (workload)
reduced the capacity available for this activity. An experiment in the
application of a workload scale (NASA TLX) and a situation awareness
metric (SART) to a simulated air traffic control environment is cited.
It will be shown that the situation awareness scale taps largely into
the workload side of the equation rather than the SA side. Implications
for the measurement of SA will be drawn.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hess, Ronald A.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Prediction of pilot opinion ratings using an optimal pilot
model

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 19

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 459-475

**Date:** October

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** A brief review of some of the more pertinent applications
of analytical pilot models to the prediction of aircraft handling
qualities is undertaken. The relative ease with which multiloop piloting
tasks can be modeled via the optimal control formulation makes the use
of optimal pilot models particularly attractive for handling qualities
research. To this end, a rating hypothesis is introduced which relates
the numerical pilot opinion rating assigned to a particular vehicle and
task to the numerical value of the index of performance resulting from
an optimal pilot modeling procedure as applied to that vehicle and task.
This hypothesis is tested using data from piloted simulation and is
shown to be reasonable. An example concerning a helicopter landing
approach is introduced to outline the predictive capability of the
rating hypothesis in multiaxis piloting tasks.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hess, Ronald A.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Theory for aircraft handling qualities based upon a
structural pilot model

**Journal:** Journal of Guidance, Control, And Dynamics

**Volume:** 12

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 792-797

**Date:** November

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of California, Davis

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** A theory for describing the manner in which aircraft
dynamic characteristics determine pilot opinion ratings of aircraft
handling qualities is discussed. The theory centers upon the role of
pilot rate feedback in continuous tracking. A structural model of the
human pilot is used to quantify the amount of rate feedback the pilot is
required to use in the control of an aircraft in a specific task. Using
the model, 35 vehicle configurations that have been evaluated in manned
simulation are analyzed. The tasks range from simple single axis,
single-loop pitch attitude tracking to precision hover and landing
approach, in which control of both vehicle position and attitude are
required. The manner in which control system sensitivity affect pilot
opinion rating is also investigated. The rate feedback theory is
supported by the results of the model-based analyses, where it is shown
that the mean square value of the rate feedback signal in the model
correlates with the pilot opinion ratings obtained from experiment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hess, Ronald A.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Model for human use of motion cues in vehicular control

**Journal:** Journal of Guidance, Control, And Dynamics

**Volume:** 13

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 476-482

**Date:** May

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of California, Davis

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** A feedback model for human use of motion cues in tracking
and regulation tasks is offered. The motion cue model is developed as a
single extension of a structural model of the human pilot, although
other equivalent dynamic representations of the pilot could be used in
place of the structural model. In the structural model, it is
hypothesized that proprioceptive cues and an internal representation of
the vehicle dynamics allow the human to create compensation
characteristics that are appropriate for the dynamics of the particular
vehicle being controlled. It is shown that an additional loop closure
involving motion feedback can improve pilot/vehicle dynamics by
decreasing high-frequency phase lags in the effective open-loop system
transfer function. Data from a roll-attitude tracking/regulation task
conducted on a moving base simulator are used to verify the modeling
approach.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hess, R. A.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Modeling the effects of display quality upon human pilot
dynamics and perceived vehicle handling qualities

**Journal:** IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics

**Volume:** 25

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 338-344

**Date:** February

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** display quality, human pilot dynamics, perceived vehicle
handling qualities, closed loop systems, visual scene quality, minimum
separable acuity, VCR, visual cue ratio, closed loop tracking with
degraded displays, model parameters

**Abstract:** A model-based technique addressing the effect of display
or visual scene quality upon human pilot dynamics is introduced. The
technique builds upon a methodology proposed for the preliminary
assessment of flight simulator fidelity which uses a structural model of
the human pilot. This model is incorporated in what is termed the
primary control loop(s) for the task at hand. It is shown that the
measured effects of degradations in display quality upon human pilot
dynamics can be modeled by simple reductions in the gains associated
with error and proprioceptive signals in the structural model. A control
theoretic rationale for these gain reductions is presented. The effect
of display quality upon perceived handling qualities is discussed and
demonstrated in a simple example. Although the research had its genesis
in flight simulator fidelity studies, the modeling procedure is
applicable to any continuous control task involving degraded visual
conditions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hess, R. A.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Unified theory for aircraft handling qualities and adverse
aircraft-pilot coupling

**Journal:** Journal of Guidance, Control, And Dynamics

**Volume:** 20

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 1141-1148

**Date:** November

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of California, Davis

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** A unified theory for aircraft handling qualities and
adverse aircraft-pilot coupling or pilot-induced oscillations is
introduced. The theory is based on a structural model of the human
pilot. A methodology is presented for the prediction of 1) handling
qualities levels, 2) pilot-induced oscillation rating levels, and 3) a
frequency range in which pilot-induced oscillations are likely to occur.
Although the dynamics of the force-feel system of the cockpit inceptor
is included, the methodology will not account for effects attributable
to control sensitivity and is limited to single-axis tasks and, at
present, to linear vehicle models. The theory is derived from the
feedback topology of the structural model and an examination of flight
test results for 32 aircraft configurations simulated by the U.S. Air
Force/CALSPAN NT-33A and Total In-Flight Simulator variable stability
aircraft. An extension to nonlinear vehicle dynamics such as that
encountered with actuator saturation is discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Hess, R. A.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Aircraft dynamics and control

**Editor:** Webster, J.

**Book Title:** Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering

**Publisher:** John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

**Pages:** 1-29

**Number of Pages:** 30

**Abstract:** *Aircraft dynamics* refers to the equations that describe
how an aircraft responds to the forces and moments that act upon it.
*Aircraft control* refers to the availability to move an aircraft along
a desired trajectory in three-dimensional space at some desired speed.
The subject is approached here in three parts. First, the equations that
describe the motion of a rigid aircraft in a moving (nonquiescent) air
mass are presented and discussed. Second, the applicability of these
equations is demonstrated, and the topic of control synthesis is
introduced through a simple control design example. The example requires
only control synthesis techniques covered in a typical undergraduate
engineering course on the subject and represents what has been termed a
*classical* approach to aircraft control. Implementation of the
resulting control system on a digital computer is discussed, and a
simulation of the flight control system is presented. Third, *modern*
control design approaches are discussed that involve control synthesis
techniques more advanced than that of the design example. Pertinent
concepts and definitions are introduced throughout.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Hess, Ronald A.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Pilot control

**Editor:** Tsang, Pamela S.; Vidulich, Michael A.

**Book Title:** Principles and Practice of Aviation Psychology

**City:** Mahwah, NJ

**Publisher:** Erlbaum

**Chapter:** 8

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of California

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hess, R. A.; Malsbury, T.; Atencio, A. Jr.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Flight simulator fidelity assessment in a rotorcraft lateral
translation maneuver

**Journal:** Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics

**Volume:** 16

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 79-85

**Date:** January-February

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Hess and Malsbury: University of
California

Atencio: NASA Ames Research Center

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** A model-based methodology for assessing flight simulator
fidelity in closed-loop fashion is exercised in analyzing a rotorcraft
low-altitude maneuver for which flight test and simulation results were
available. The addition of a handling qualities sensitivity function to
a previously developed model-based assessment criteria allows an
analytical comparison of both performance and handling qualities between
simulation and flight test. Model predictions regarding the existence of
simulator fidelity problems are corroborated by experiment. The modeling
approach is used to assess analytically the effects of modifying
simulator characteristics on simulator fidelity.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hess, R. A.; Siwakosit, W.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Assessment of flight simulator fidelity in multiaxis tasks
including visual cue quality

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 38

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 607-614

**Date:** July-August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of California, Davis

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** A technique for analytical assessment of flight simulator
fidelity is presented as an extension of a methodology previously
introduced in the literature. The assessment is based on a computer
simulation of the pilot and vehicle and is inherently task dependent. A
simple model of visual cue quality is introduced that is based on the
classical concept of human operator visual remnant. The complete
assessment procedure now includes proprioceptive, vestibular, and visual
cue modeling. Inverse dynamic analysis is employed that allows the use
of compensatory models of the human pilot in multiaxis tasks. The
methodology is exercised by considering a simple rotorcraft lateral and
vertical repositioning task in which visual and motion cue quality is
varied.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Hettinger, L. J.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Illusory self-motion in virtual environments

**Editor:** Stanney, K. M.

**Book Title:** Handbook of Virtual Environments

**City:** Mahwah, NJ

**Publisher:** Lawrence Erlbaum

**Pages:** 471-491

**Chapter:** 23

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Logicon Technical Services, Inc. 57
Myrick Lane, Harvard, MA 01451

**Author Address:** lhettinger@logicon.com

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Heusmann, Jim

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Glossary of modeling and simulation (M&S) terms

**Publisher:** Department of Defense

United States of America

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** Feb. 5

**Last Update Date:** August 29, 1995

**Type of Medium:** Draft

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** DMSO POC

**Number of Pages:** 82

**URL:** <http://home.earthlink.net/~gwhite2/glossary.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Hinson, David R.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Draft B-737 recommendations

**Date Accessed:** October 15

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, DC 20591

National Transportation Safety Board

**Notes:** From the October 15, 1995 Public Meeting on B-737 Safety
Recommendations

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hodgkinson, J.; Rossitto, K. F.; Kendall, E. R.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** The use and effectiveness of piloted simulation in transport
aircraft research and development

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation Effectiveness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** October 14

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Douglas Aircraft Company, 3855
Lakewood Boulevard, Long Beach, CA 90846

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** transport aircraft, motion

**Abstract:** Simulation requirements for military and for commercial
transport aircraft are contrasted. The special problems introduced by
active control are discussed with reference to earlier fighter data.
Transport simulator experiments to explore these problems are described.

**Notes:** Published in February 1992

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Hoh, Roger H.; Baillie, Stewart W.; Morgan, J. M.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Flight investigation of the tradeoffs between augmentation
and displays for NOE flight in low visibility

**City:** Cherry Hill, NJ

**Institution:** American Helicopter Society

**Date:** October 13

**Report Number:** 414

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Hoh: Systems Technology, Inc.,
Hawthorne, CA

Baillie, Morgan: National Aeronautical Establishment, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Keywords:** NOE flight, visual cues, nap-of-the-earth, field of view,
Cooper-Harper ratings

**Abstract:** The missions proposed for the next generation helicopter
involve requirements to operate in essentially zero visibility in the
nap-of-the-earth (NOE) environment. Such operations will require the use
of pilot vision aids, which gives rise to the question of the
interaction of such displays and the required aircraft handling
qualities. This research was conducted to: 1) investigate the required
visual cueing for low speed and hover, and 2) determine if an increase
in stabilization can effectively be used to compensate for the loss of
essential cues. Two flight test experiments were conducted using a
conventional helicopter, and a variable stability helicopter, as well as
electronically fogged lenses and night vision goggles with daylight
training filters. The primary conclusion regarding the essential cues
for hover was that fine-grained texture (microtexture) was more
important than large discrete objects (macrotexture) or field of view.
The use of attitude was a way to make up for display deficiencies.
However, a corresponding loss of agility occurred with the tested
attitude command/attitude hold system resulting in unfavorable pilot
comments. Hence, the favorable control display tradeoff must be
interpreted in the context that the best solution would be to improve
the vision aid. Such an improvement would require an increase in the
visible microtexture, an advancement in display technology which is
unlikely to be available in the foreseeable future. Therefore, a
criterion was developed to systematically evaluate display quality and
the associated upgrade in required stabilization as a function of
increasingly degraded visual cues.

**Notes:** National Specialists\' Meeting on Flight Controls and
Avionics.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Holt, Robert W.; Boehm-Davis, Deborah A.; Ikomi, Philip A.;
Hansberger, Jeffrey T.; Beaubien, J. Matthew; Incalcaterra, Kara A.;
Seamster, Thomas L.; Hamman, William; Schultz, Kim

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** CRM procedures and crew performance\--Executive summary of
advanced crew resource management (ACRM) evaluation

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Holt, Boehm-Davis, Ikomi,
Hansberger, Beaubien, Incalcaterra: George Mason University

Seamster: Cognitive & Human Factors

Hamman: Captain, United Airlines

Schultz: Captain, Atlantic Coast Airlines

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** CRM procedures, crew performance

**Abstract:** A three-year research effort to determine the
effectiveness of a proceduralized Crew Resource Management system
(ACRM). George Mason University worked with a regional and a major
carrier in determining that this approach to CRM does enhance crew
performance and, by inference, increases safe operations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hopkins, Charles O.

**Year:** 1975

**Title:** How much should you pay for that box?

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 17

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 533-541

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign

**Keywords:** cost, motion systems

**Abstract:** Some claimed cost, safety, efficiency, and effectiveness
advantages of aircraft simulators for training are equivocal.
Effectiveness of simulator training depends mostly upon the training
procedures. Other factors alleged to influence the effectiveness of
simulators vary in their demonstrated importance. These are considered
in the contexts of physical simulation vs. psychological simulation,
simulator fidelity and motivation, and pilot acceptance. One of the more
costly areas of engineering development to increase fidelity of physical
simulation is motion systems. No experimental evidence is available to
show that simulator motion enhances transfer of training. Cost
effectiveness has not been demonstrated for many interesting and
attractive features that are standard trimmings on flight training
simulators. The acquisition of simulators costing several times as much
to own and operate as their counterpart airplanes may produce a backlash
that will set back the desirable use of cost-effective simulators in
reasonable research and training programs.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Horattas, C. G.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Gravitational-cueing system: An enhancement of aircraft
flight simulation

**Journal:** Transportation Research Record: Air Service, Airport
Access, and Future Technology

**ISSN:** 803

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** gravitational-cueing system, aircraft flight simulation

**Abstract:** This paper describes a man-machine interface that is used
in aircraft trainers to create artificial acceleration cues, which are
perceived by the pilot as the cues produced by real environmental
effects. This interface, designated as the gravitational cueing
(g-cueing) system, translates acceleration components generated in an
aerodynamic math model into cues that creates sensations experienced in
a real aircraft. The g-cueing system is a microprocessor controlled,
hydraulically and pneumatically actuated, stand-alone system that can
enhance the realism of the simulated flight environment.

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, Ruud

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Are criteria for motion cueing and time delays possible?

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Portland, OR

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Director, Aerospace Man-Machine
Systems Consulting, Wielengahof 46, 2625 LK Delft, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** In spite of a continuing development of flight simulation
over the past thirty years, there are still some areas where flight
simulation is not a one to one replacement of real flight and can not
completely fulfill the reasonable and objective requirements. To fulfill
these needs, the proper feedback of effective motion cues seem \[sic\]
to encounter two significant shortcomings, resulting from a lack of full
understanding of (a) the impact of motion cueing on the pilot\'s
behavior and (b) the requirements for motion cueing in the specific
training application.

During the past twenty years, research projects on pilot motion
perception and manual control have been performed in the Netherlands at
the Delft University of Technology, the National Aerospace Laboratory,
NLR, and the TNO Institute for Human Factors. The results have not only
improved the knowledge on pilot\'s aircraft motion perception and
control, but also initiated a reconsideration of motion feedback in
flight simulation. Full flight simulation is meant to integrate the
pilot\'s skill-based, rule-based and knowledge-based behavior in his
control of the total aircraft system. Distinguishing the contribution of
motion feedback to these three levels of behavior provides the tool to
discriminate the impact of motion feedback on these levels of the
resulting pilot behavior. Based on this discrimination, a review of
motion system requirements, and washout filter design and optimization,
subject to the training goal, becomes possible. The paper reviews the
major results of the motion perception research, explains the
discrimination of motion cues based on the three levels of behavior, and
shows the impact on motion-base drive algorithm design. The significance
of simulation-induced delays on compensatory manual control is shown,
underscoring the value of such research in objectively defining future
simulator requirements.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, Ruud; Advani, Sunjoo; Haeck, Nils

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Integrated design of flight simulator motion cueing systems

**Conference Name:** Developments in Simulator Systems - Integration and
Effectiveness

**Conference Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 8-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ruud Hosman: Director, Aerospace
Man-Machine Systems Consulting, Deft, The Netherlands

Sunjoo Advani: Director, Simulation & Training, Aircraft development &
Systems Engineering B.V., Hoofdorp, The Netherlands

Nils Haeck: Mathematics and Motion Control Specialist, Hellevoetsluis,
The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** A forward design process applicable to the specification
of flight simulator cueing systems is presented in this paper. This
process is based on the analysis of the pilot-vehicle control loop by
using a pilot model incorporating both visual and vestibular feedback,
and the aircraft dynamics. After substituting the model for the
simulated aircraft, the analysis tools are used to adjust the washout
filter parameters with the goal of restoring pilot control behavior.
This process allows the specification of the motion cueing algorithm.
Then, based on flight files representative for the operational flight
envelope, the required motion system space is determined. The
motion-base geometry is established based on practical limitations as
well as criteria for the stability of the platform with respected to
singular conditions. With this process the characteristics of the
aircraft, the tasks to be simulated, and the missions themselves are
taken into account in defining the simulator motion cueing system.

**URL:**
<http://www.simdesign.nl/pubs/integrated_design_of_flight_simulator_motion_cueing_system.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, Ruud; Hammon, Bill; Lehman, Chris; Pelchat, Yvan;
Schroeder, Jeff

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Summary of the panel discussion on motion cueing requirements

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Montreal, Quebec

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 6-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Hosman - AMS Consult

Hamman - United Airlines

Lehman - Civil Aviation Training Magazine

Pelchat - CAE Electronics Ltd.

Schroeder - NASA Ames Research Center

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** During the 2000 AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference a panel discussion on motion cueing requirements was held.
Representatives from the airline industry, the simulator manufacturers,
and the research community introduced the discussion topic by expressing
their point of view. The audience of around 40 attendees actively took
part in the discussion. When talking about motion cueing criteria the
main question is not if motion cueing is necessary for simulation.
Although motion cueing is required for full flight simulators, this
question was still an open question during the panel discussion. Looking
back at the session, the more fundamental questions when and why motion
feedback is necessary were not raised and answered directly. The aim of
pilot training is to assure proficiency, and proficiency is more than
the manual skill to handle the aircraft. To what extent motion
contributes to a pilot\'s training and his proficiency is more complex
than long has been understood. Motion contributes to a pilot\'s control
behavior and his visual-vestibular perception of the aircraft\'s motion.
The aircraft\'s handling characteristics, the particular maneuvers and
pilot\'s skill-based manual control behavior determine if the motion
feedback is essential in simulator training. The requirements for full
simulators primarily ask for physical characteristics of the motion
system and a subjective judgment of the motion cues. Both the
manufacturers and the research community ask for more decisive
requirements for motion cueing in the future. A more integrated approach
to the requirements for the motion system and the motion cueing
algorithms, both in relation to the simulation objective, seem more
effective. The paper reviews the introductions and the discussion.
Although the approach from the airline industry, the simulator
manufacturers, and the research community representatives were quite
different, the summary of the session gives a broad view of what the
different disciplines and the audience considered important.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Hosman, Ruud J. A. W.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Pilot\'s perception and control of aircraft motions

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Publisher:** Delft University Press

**ISBN:** ISBN: 90-407-1384-7

NUGI: 841

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology

**Keywords:** motion perception, simulation, control behavior

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, Ruud J. A. W.; Mulder, Max; Theunissen, Erik

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Perception of flight information from EFIS displays

**Conference Name:** IFAC Symposium on Analysis, Design and Evaluation
of Man-Machine Systems

**Conference Location:** Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, P.O. Box 5058, 2600GB Delft, The
Netherlands

Theunissen: Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, P.O. Box 5031, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** displays, man/machine interface, human factors, cognitive
systems

**Abstract:** Pilot's perception of variables presented on the
Electronic Flight Instrument System, EFIS, has been investigated. A
stimulus response technique has been used to determine the accuracy and
speed of the perception process. By varying the exposure time of the
stimuli, it has been shown that the perception of the variable magnitude
is faster and more accurate than the perception of the first derivative
or rate of that variable. Results of experiments on roll and pitch
attitude perception, the influence of scale division, and the perception
of the indicated airspeed are shown.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Roggekamp, R. P. G. M.; Van der Vaart,
J. C.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Contribution of vestibular system output to motion perception

**Conference Name:** Twenty-Third Annual Conference on Manual Control

**Conference Location:** Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Abstract:** The influence of motion cues on pilot's control behavior
in actual and simulated flight has been studied for many years Results
of these studies show that under certain conditions addition of cockpit
motion improves pilot's tracking performance.

At the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering of the Delft University of
Technology pilot's perception of the aircraft motion from visual and
vestibular motion cues has been investigated in more detail. The results
of an experiment using a second order system step response as a roll
input to the subjects showed a much faster subject response when
presented to the subject using simulator cockpit motion compared to the
presentation of the stimulus on the artificial horizon.

To analyze the background of this faster response a more detailed
analysis of the influence of the vestibular system dynamics on its
output compared to the stimulus was necessary. In the literature the
vestibular system output due to input angular acceleration is normally
related to input angular rate. Such a comparison showed that the
vestibular output also leads the stimulus roll rate which seemed to
confirm the experimental findings. It turned out that the lead time of
the vestibular output relative to the angular rate is strongly dependent
on the bandwidth of the input stimulus. With decreasing stimulus
bandwidth the lead of the vestibular output increases.

A stimulus response experiment was performed using a second order step
response as input signal. Three values of the own frequency ω~0~ (0.65,
1 and 2 rad/sec) of the second order system were used. The difference in
subject's response time due to the vestibular and visual stimulation
increased as was expected with decreasing own frequency ω~0~ of the
stimulus generating second order system. It is concluded that the
vestibular system decreases the time needed to perceive the aircraft
motion by 150 msec or more which has a beneficial effect on pilot's
performance and control behavior.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, Ruud J. A. W.; Van der Steen, Han F. A. M.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** False cue detection thresholds in flight simulation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Monterey, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** In this paper a new experimental method is presented for
the design of motion filters, based on simple concepts using a multi
sensory perception model.

We will present the results of recent research on the perception
thresholds for differences in the visual and vestibular cues as
determined by using a sled as well as a research flight simulator for
linear motions (surge and heave). These differences will be called
*false cues.* Peripheral visual cues are modulated relative to the
vestibular cues to determine the threshold values. The thresholds turn
out to be dependent on velocity magnitude. The no-motion ranges turn out
to be so large that they are useful in simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Vestibular models and threshold of motion perception: Results
of a test in a flight simulator

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Institution:** Department of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University

**Report Number:** LR-265

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Effects of vestibular and visual motion perception on control
task performance

**Conference Name:** First Annual Conference on Manual Control and
Decision-Making

**Conference Location:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Department of Aerospace Engineering

**Number of Pages:** 27

**Keywords:** compensatory tracking tasks, visual motion, vestibular
motion

**Abstract:** The influence of visual and vestibular motion perception
on pilot's behavior in a control task has aroused many discussions
during the last decades which have not yet come to an end. This
influence is of direct relevance to the modeling of pilot control
behavior and to flight simulation.

Results of experiments in this field as reported in the literature
appeared to be somewhat different from the experience gained in the
research flight simulator of the Department of Aerospace Engineering of
the Delft University of Technology. The aim of the experiment described
in the present paper was to obtain a data base on pilot's behavior using
central and peripheral visual and motion cues.

In a following task (or compensatory tracking task) and in a disturbance
task (both roll tasks) using a double integrator as the controlled
element, all possible combinations of central visual, peripheral visual
and vestibular motion cues were presented to the subjects.

The results show significant influence of the peripheral visual and
vestibular cues on subject's performance and dynamic behavior in both
control tasks.

**Notes:** Same as Acta Psychologica article from same year.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Effects of vestibular and visual motion perception on task
performance

**Journal:** Acta Psychologica

**Issue:** 48

**Pages:** 271-287

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology, The
Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Keywords:** vestibular, visual motion perception, task performance,
motion base simulator

**Abstract:** The effects of foveal and peripheral visual as well as
vestibular cues on performance and control behavior of subjects in two
different roll control tasks were studied in a moving base flight
simulator with low noise motion characteristics.

Two different roll control tasks were used, one being a following task
(or compensatory tracking task) where a displayed random signal was to
be tracked, the other being a disturbance task in which a random signal
perturbed the controlled system and the roll angle was kept at zero.

Consistent improvement in controller performance was found after adding
visual peripheral or vestibular (motion) cues to the basic configuration
consisting of a central CRT display. Control behavior, as expressed by
controller transfer functions, was also markedly influenced by the
addition of these extra motion cues, the changes in control behavior
being dependent on the types of control task. Some possible causes for
this dependence are also discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** Accuracy of visually perceived roll angle and roll rate using
an artificial horizon and peripheral displays

**Conference Name:** Second European Conference on Manual Control and
Decision-Making

**Conference Location:** Bonn

**Date:** June 2-4

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS, Delft, The
Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 18

**Abstract:** In a series of computer-controlled tests, subjects were
required to make accurate and fast estimates of roll attitude or roll
rate presented at short intervals on a central CRT-display (artificial
horizon). The influence of exposure time and, in the case of the roll
rate perception task the influence of the presence of displays in the
peripheral field of vision, were investigated.

It appeared that roll attitude perception is more accurate and can be
accomplished at much shorter exposure times than roll rate perception.
Moreover the reaction time for roll attitude perception is about 0.1 sec
shorter than for roll rate perception using the central display.
Peripheral displays showed to improve roll rate perception and to
decrease reaction time.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1983

**Title:** Perception of roll rate from an artificial horizon and
peripheral displays

**Conference Name:** Nineteenth Annual Conference on Manual Control

**Conference Location:** Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA

**Date:** May 23-25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Department of Aerospace Engineering

**Number of Pages:** 23

**Abstract:** It was shown earlier that peripheral side displays can
help to improve the performance of subjects in tracking tasks. The work
reported in the present report was undertaken to find out whether this
improvement was due to an increase in 'arousal level', a more accurate
or a faster perception of roll rate.

The experiment described investigates the perception accuracy of roll
rate by subjects from a central CRT-display (simulated artificial
horizon), peripheral side displays (moving checkerboard pattern) and
both displays combined. Discrete values of roll rate were presented to
the subjects during exposure times between 0.1 and 0.8 second.

Immediately after stimulus exposure the displays were either plainly
blanked or masked by a dithering line on the central display or
dithering of the checkerboard pattern on the peripheral displays.

Results show that the roll rate perception process from peripheral
displays is more accurate and up to 0.1 second faster than from the
central display. Masking shows to have a different influence on the
central visual perception than on the peripheral visual perception.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Accuracy of system step response roll magnitude estimation
from central and peripheral visual displays and simulator cockpit motion

**Conference Name:** Conference on Manual Control

**Conference Location:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Date:** June 12-14

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Kluyverweg 1 - 2629 HS, Delft, The
Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Abstract:** The present experiment is an extension of work done in
previous years, at Delft University, on the accuracy and temporal
properties of visual roll attitude and roll rate perception.

In earlier perception tasks, discrete stimuli of roll attitude were
presented on a central artificial horizon type display. Roll rate rests
were done with the same display and with peripheral visual field
displays showing moving checkerboard patterns.

From tracking tasks in a flight simulator it was found that cockpit
motion improved tracking accuracy and the present experiment was
designed to assess the improvements of perception due to cockpit motion.

As it is not possible to present and to manipulate discrete motion
stimuli in a moving cockpit just as in the case of visual stimuli alone,
a different setup had to be chosen in which dynamic system step
responses of roll angle were the stimuli to be presented.

After the onset of the motion, subjects were to make accurate and quick
estimates of the final magnitude of the roll angle step response by
pressing the appropriate button of a keyboard device. The differing
time-histories of roll angle, roll rate and roll acceleration caused by
a step response will stimulate the different perception processes
related the central visual field, peripheral visual field and vestibular
organs in different, yet exactly known ways.

Experiments with either of the visual displays or cockpit motion and
some combinations of these were run to assess the roles of the different
perception processes.

Results show that the differences in response time are much more
pronounced than the differences in perception accuracy.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Visual-vestibular interaction in pilot\'s perception of
aircraft or simulator motion

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** The importance of man\'s vestibular organs in perceiving
cockpit motion in an aircraft or a simulator is nowadays hardly
questioned, as witnessed by the present widespread use of
six-degrees-of-freedom motion systems for flight simulators. Still more
advantage could be gained from the use of moving base simulators.

In order to illustrate this, the paper reviews research on control
behavior and performance of subjects in target following and disturbance
tasks. By using results of work by authors and others, the importance of
peripheral visual and vestibular motion perception in tasks that require
inner-loop stabilization, is emphasized. Results of stimulus response
experiments, especially designed to gather insight in central and
peripheral visual and vestibular perception of motion are summarized and
used to explain findings of tracking experiments.

It is concluded that peripheral visual and cockpit motion cues are of
paramount importance in actual or simulated manual aircraft control and
that, in simulation, the compensation for simulator motion system
dynamics, computing time-delays and motion control laws deserve much
more attention.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Hosman, R. J. A. W.; Van der Vaart, J. C.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Visual-vestibular interaction in pilot\'s perception of
aircraft or simulator motion

**Editor:** Baarspul, M.; Mulder, J. A.

**Book Title:** Essays in Stability and Control

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Publisher:** Delft University of Technology

**Abstract:** The importance of man's vestibular organs in perceiving
cockpit motion in an aircraft or a simulator is nowadays hardly
questioned, as witnessed by the present widespread use of
six-degrees-of-freedom motion systems for flight simulators. Still more
advantage could be gained from the use of moving base simulators.

In order to illustrate this, the paper reviews research on control
behavior and performance of subjects in target following and disturbance
tasks. By using results of work by the authors and by others, the
importance of peripheral visual and vestibular motion perception in
tasks that require inner loop stabilization, is emphasized. Results of
stimulus response visual and vestibular perception of motion are
summarized and used to explain findings of tracking experiments.

It is concluded that peripheral visual and cockpit motion cues are of
paramount importance in actual or simulated manual aircraft control and
that, in simulation, the compensation for simulator motion system
dynamics, computing time-delays and motion control lows deserve much
more attention.

**Notes:** See Hosman & Van der Vart 1988, above.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Howard, I. P.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** The perception of posture, self motion, and the visual
vertical

**Editor:** Boff, K.; Kaufman, L.; Thomas, J.

**Book Title:** Handbook of Perception and Human Performance: Sensory
Processes and Perception

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** John Wiley and Sons

**Volume:** 1

**Number of Volumes:** 2

**Pages:** 18-27

**Edition:** 1

**Original Publication:** Human Spatial Orientation

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Howard, I. P.; Cheung, B.; Landolt, J.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Influence of vection axis and body posture on
visually-induced self-rotation and tilt

**Book Title:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**City:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Pages:** 15-1 - 15-8

**ISBN:** AGARD-CP-433

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Howard, Cheung: York University,
Institute for Space and Terrestrial Science, Human Performance
Laboratory, North York, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3

Landolt: DCIEM, 1133 Sheppard Ave. North York, Ontario, Canada, M3M 3B9

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** vection axis, motion cues, posture, visually induced tilt

**Abstract:** Yaw vection is induced by a scene rotating about the
spinal axis (z axis), pitch vection by a scene rotating about an axis in
the mid-frontal plane (y axis) and roll vection by a scene rotating
about an axis parallel to the line of sight (x-axis ). Each of these
axes can be vertical or horizontal, making six conditions in all, of
which only four have been studied previously. We studied vection and
illusory body tilt under all six conditions, with a full rotating field,
reduced somesthetic cues and in a situation in which body rotation could
occur. Yaw vection around a vertical axis was strongest. Forward pitch
vection was stronger than backward pitch vection. Contrary to previous
reports, for most subjects backward illusory tilt was much stronger than
forward illusory tilt. Two subjects experienced 360° body rotation in
the horizontal-pitch condition. The direction of pitch axis asymmetry
was found to be consistent and not related to the asymmetry of vertical
optokinetic nystagmus.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Howard, I. P.; Ohmi, M.; Simpson, W.; Landolt, J. P.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Vection and the spatial disposition of competing moving
displays

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Howard, Ohmi, Simpson: York
University, Institute of Space and Terrestrial Science, Human
Performance Laboratory, North York, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3

Landolt: DCIEM, 1133 Sheppard Ave. North York, Ontario, Canada, M3M 3B9

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** vection, moving displays, visual displays

**Abstract:** In Experiment 1, we investigated the relative
effectiveness of two superimposed displays in generating circularvection
as a function of (i) the separation in depth between them, (ii) their
perceived relative differences, and (iii) which display was in the plane
of focus. Circularvection was found to be governed by the display that
was perceived more distant even when it was actually nearer. Vection was
not affected by whether the near or far display was in the plane of
focus, nor by which display was fixated or pursued by the eyes. In
Experiment 2, we asked whether the generally held belief that vection is
induced most effectively by peripheral stimuli is due to an artifactual
effect of perceived distance. The experiment assessed the separate
contributions of foreground-background and central-peripheral placement
of competing displays. It was found that both factors contribute in an
interactive way to the experience of vection. In Experiment 3, we
investigated how linear forward vection induced by looming visual
display is affected by the near-far relationships of competing displays.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Howells, P.B.; Siksik, D.N.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Applications and future trends in synthetic environments for
military training systems

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** CAE Electronics, Ltd., St-Laurent,
Quebec, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** This paper gives details of the new generation of
simulators that have been built. These simulators use Synthetic
Environments to increase training capacity. In recent years, the trend
has shifted markedly from the synthetic environment that merely provided
a threat lay down to a synthetic environment that provides support for
collaborative training. In this new role, the synthetic environment
complements training through computer generated entities that maneuver
and behave as manned counterparts. The example systems presented in this
paper cover a broad spectrum of applications that encompass air, land
and sea domains.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Huang, J. K.; Young, L. R.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Influence of visual and motion cues on manual lateral
stabilization

**Journal:** Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine (ASEM)

**Volume:** 58

**Issue:** 12

**Pages:** 1197-1204

**Date:** December

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Huang: Old Dominion University,
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Norfolk, VA

Young: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Man Vehicle Laboratory,
Cambridge, MA

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** visual and motion cues, manual lateral stabilization,
visual influence

**Abstract:** The ability of humans to detect and control their own
lateral acceleration was measured by means of a closed-loop nulling
task. Wide-field moving visual cues enhanced the operator\'s performance
in nulling self-motion, especially at lower frequencies. Even visual
cues, fixed relative to the operator, resulted in performance
improvement relative to self-motion nulling in the dark. Describing
function (frequency response) data was obtained for random acceleration
conditions consisting of the visual field fixed relative to the
laboratory, fixed relative to the subject, and in the dark. The
describing function data was corrected for the dynamics of operator
manual control strategy. The resulting frequency responses were used to
develop a linear model of self-motion detection which required a lead
term of 1.5 rad⋅s^-1^ to be added to the existing model in order to
match the higher sensitivity at higher frequencies.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Huddleston, H. F.; Rolfe, J. S.

**Year:** 1971

**Title:** Behavioral factors influencing the use of flight simulators
for training

**Journal:** Applied Ergonomics

**Volume:** 2

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 141-148

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The case for using flight simulators as a training aid is
propounded, and the drawbacks of training entirely in flight are listed.
Transfer of learning from the simulated to real-life situation is
discussed with relevant examples. A diagram illustrating the relative
cost of using different types of simulator is given, and recent research
is discussed. Finally, the attitude and influence of the organization to
simulator, trainee and instructor is described.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Hughes, D.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Airbus training center uses advanced techniques

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 66-67

**Date:** July 26

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Abstract:** Airbus Industries continues to refine its automated
cockpit training to take advantage of new technology and the latest crew
resource management techniques.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Hughes, D.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** NASA glass cockpit study finds improved training

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 63-65

**Date:** July 26

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** A NASA study of Continental Airlines pilots\' transition
into glass cockpit aircraft show that training has been vastly improved
for automated aircraft even though pilots continue to make programming
and mode awareness errors in operating computer-driven systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th
annual meeting

**Conference Name:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th Annual
Meeting

**Conference Location:** San Francisco, CA

**Publisher:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

**Date:** October 16-20

**Notes:** See program for contents:
http://www.hfes.org/web/HFESMeetings/2006AMprogram2.pdf

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Human Performance Center (HPC)

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Cockpit and Crew Resource Management (CRM): Trends and
Research

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** Feb. 5

**Keywords:** crew resource management training

**Abstract:** Crew Resource Management (CRM) training addresses the
interactions of aviation team members and how those interactions affect
the safety and effectiveness of the aircrew\'s mission.

**Notes:** Links include: Hardware and Software Issues; Benefits, Risks,
Costs; Development Issues; Applications; WWW Related Sites; References

**URL:** <https://www.spider.hpc.navy.mil/index.cfm?RID=APP_OT_1000131>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Human Systems Information Analysis Center (Human Systems
IAC)

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Spatial disorientation

**Periodical Title:** Human Systems ICA Gateway

**Volume:** XII

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 1-16

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), spatial disorientation

**Abstract:** Special Issue includes:

\"Spatial Disorientation Research\" - Introduction by Major Todd Heinle

Glossary of Spatial Disorientation Terms and Spatial Disorientation
Acronyms

\"Measuring the Head Tilt Illusion During Sustained Acceleration\" by
Tamara L. Chelette, Ph.D., P.E. (AFRL/HEPA)

\"Canadian Approach to Spatial Disorientation Training\" by Dr. Bob
Cheung (Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine)

\"Spatial Disorientation, Geographic Disorientation, Loss of Situation
Awareness, and Controlled Flight into Terrain\" by Bill Ercoline
(Veridian Engineering) and Fred Previc (Northrup Grumman Information
Technology)

\"Advanced Display Technologies: What Have We Lost? by James W. Meehan
(Defence Science and Technology Organization)

\"Desdemona: Advanced Disorientation Trainer\" by Dr. Willem Bles (TNO
Human Factors)

**URL:** <http://www.hsiiac.org/pdf/gw_xii_3.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Humlie, Matt; Naumann, Leroy; Goldsmith, Timothy E.;
Johnson, Peter J.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Some statistical considerations in assessing pre-training
maneuver evaluations

**Pages:** 1-5

**Date:** July 30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Humlie, Naumann: Delta Air Lines

Goldsmith, Johnson: University of New Mexico

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** pre-training maneuver

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Iacobucci, D.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** From the editor: On p-values

**Journal:** Journal of Consumer Research

**Volume:** 32

**Issue:** 1

**Date:** June

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** null hypothesis testing, statistics

**Abstract:** Periodically, social scientists debate the strengths ands
weaknesses of hypothesis testing (for which researchers pose the
question, e.g., \"Are my group means the same or different?\") compared
with effects estimation (motivated by the question, \"How large is the
difference between my group means?\"). As is often the case, the extreme
positions are clear but they approach ideology, and a moderate stance
seems the more constructive prescription.

The testing of null hypotheses affords researchers many advantages
(Abelson 1997; Cortina and Dunlap 1997; Frick 1996; Greenwald et al.
1996; Hagen 1997; Harris 1997; Mulaik, Raju, and Harshman 1997). Of
primary importance, the test of a null hypothesis is conducted in the
context of a simple decision rule and provides a dichotomous outcome
(Greenwald et al. 1996, 177). While critics would argue that hypothesis
tests provide less information compared to alternative techniques,
supporters argue that the binary decisions nevertheless enable scholarly
progress and theory testing, which \"requires nothing more than a binary
decision about the relation between two variables\" (Chow 1988, 105;
Wainer 1999).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** IATA Flight Simulator Working Group

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Simulated air and ground traffic environment for flight
training

**Date:** June

**Type:** Revision 2

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** International Air Transport Association (IATA)

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Flight simulator design and performance data requirements

**City:** Montreal

**Edition:** 4th

**ISBN:** ISBN 92-9035-532-8

**Keywords:** configuration and design data, simulation modeling data,
flight test validation and proof of match data aerodynamics and flight
controls

**Abstract:** Lists all specific data types which must be tested and
collected in flight simulation, covering aerodynamics, propulsion,
ground handling, weight and moments of inertia, fuel, electrical power,
ECS, hydraulics, instruments, sound and vibration.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Manual of criteria for the qualification of flight simulators

**Institution:** International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

**Report Number:** 9625-AN/938

**Number of Pages:** 53

**Keywords:** levels of simulator qualification, international test
guide, types of evaluations, evaluators handbook

**Abstract:** This manual establishes performance and documentation
requirements for the evaluation of airplane flight simulators used for
training and checking of flight crew members. These test standards and
methods of compliance were derived from extensive experience of
regulatory authorities and industry.

The manual is intended to provide the means for a State civil authority
to qualify a flight simulator, subsequent to a request by an applicant,
through initial and recurrent evaluations of the flight simulator.
Further, the manual is intended to provide the means for the civil
aviation authorities of other states to accept the qualifications
granted by the state which conducted the initial and recurrent
evaluation of the flight simulator, without repetitive reevaluations,
when considering the approval of the use of that flight simulator from
their own state.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** IRADIS

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** History \[of flight training and simulation\]

**Last Update Date:** September 20, 2006

**Notes:** Contents:

Early History

Instrument Flight Training

World War II

Electronic Flight Simulation

Digital Simulators

References

**URL:** <http://www.iradis.org/education/history/early_history>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Jacobs, John W.; Prince, Carolyn; Hays, Robert T.; Salas,
Eduardo

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** A meta-analysis of the flight simulator training research

**City:** Orlando, FL

**Institution:** Naval Training Systems Center

**Pages:** 1-122

**Date:** August

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** NAVTRASYSCEN TR 89-006

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Naval Training Systems Center Human
Factors Division, 12350 Research Parkway, Orlando, FL 32826-3224

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Office of Naval Technology

**Number of Pages:** 122

**Keywords:** meta-analysis, flight simulation, training effectiveness,
training system design

**Abstract:** A meta-analysis of flight simulation research was
conducted to identify important characteristics associated with the
effectiveness of simulator training. A total of 247 articles, research
reports, and technical reports were located, of which 26 had sufficient
information for statistical meta-analysis; 19 involved jet pilot
training and 7 involved helicopter pilot training. The major finding was
that the use of simulators consistently produced improvements in
training for jets (relative to aircraft training only). No conclusion
about simulator effectiveness for helicopter training could be made due
to the small number of experiments available for this analysis. Use of
motion cueing added little to the training environment for jets, and may
have even detracted from the training for some tasks. For helicopters,
the effects of motion cueing were not able to be analyzed because of an
insufficient number of experiments. Conclusions concerning the benefits
of motion cueing for both types of aircraft were considered highly
tentative due to methods used when conducting motion-related
experiments. In general, training outcomes appear to be influenced by
the type of task and the amount and type of training. An agenda for
future research is provided.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Jacobs, R. S.

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** Simulator cockpit motion and the transfer of initial flight
training

**City:** Urbana-Champaign, IL

**Institution:** Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Air Force
Systems Command, United States Air Force

**Date:** June

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** ARL-76-8/AFOSR-76-4

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Aviation Research Laboratory, Institute of Aviation

**Number of Pages:** 79

**Keywords:** transfer of training, flight training, simulator motion,
transfer effectiveness, cost effectiveness, flight simulators, human
factors

**Abstract:** Transfer of flight training from a Singer-Link GAT-2
training simulator, modified to approximate a counterpart Piper Cherokee
Arrow airplane, was measured for independent groups of nine flight-naive
subjects, each trained in one of three simulator cockpit motion
conditions: normal washout motion in bank with sustained pitch angles,
washout banking motion in which the direction of motion relative to that
of the simulated airplane was randomly reversed 50% of the time as the
cab passed through a wings-level attitude, and a fixed-base condition.
Subjects received predetermined fixed amounts of practice in the
simulator on each of 11 flight maneuvers drawn from the Private Pilot
flight curriculum. Transfer of performance measures, including flight
time and trials to FAA performance criteria and total errors made in the
process, showed reliable transfer for all groups with differential
transfer effects and cost effectiveness implications depending upon the
type of simulator motion. An aptitude estimator measure and the analysis
of covariance technique provided increased discrimination among groups
in the presence of considerable individual variation in performance
within treatment conditions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Jagacinski, Richard J.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** A qualitative look at feedback control theory as a style of
describing behavior

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 19

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 331-347

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ohio State University, Department
of Psychology, Columbus, OH

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** The present paper reviews several ways feedback control
theory has been used to describe tracking behavior and several
qualitative experimental techniques. These techniques require only
ordinal-level measurement and may aid any researcher investigating
behavior whose temporal patterning is critical and which involves fairly
continuous changes over time. One possible application in the area of
stuttering behavior is presented in detail to show how these techniques
can provide useful insights and hypotheses. Other suggested areas of
application include the behavior of human social groups, motivational
behavior, and emotional behavior.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Jaspers, Henrik

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Restoring and operating historical aviation trainers

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation 1929-2029: A Centennial
Perspective

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 26-27

**Abstract:** The paper describes a collection of aviation trainers
covering a period of twenty years. In brief the development of the
techniques applied in aviation trainers from 1937 to 1950 is discussed.
A summary is given of the problems of restoring. The altitude systems of
the C-3, the C-8 and the C-11 are dealt with in brief, giving an insight
in the rapidly increasing complexity over a period of ten years. The
importance of giving demonstrations with aviation trainers in public
museums is emphasized as a way of educating and amusing the visitors.
This could best be done by (retired) pilots. "Flying" a trainer with the
hood closed following the instructions of the instructor gives a very
special emotion, almost like traveling in time. The paper ends with the
hope that somewhere in the world a well known aviation museum will
establish a section dedicated to the history of flight simulation.

**URL:** <http://home.wanadoo.nl/hjaspers000/>

**Author Address:** henrikjaspers@hotmail.com; P.O. BOX 57, 4854 ZH
Bavel, The Netherlands

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Jenkin, Heather L.; Zacher, James E.; Oman, Charles M.;
Harris, Laurence R.

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Effect of field of view on a visual reorientation illusion:
Does the levitation illusion depend on the view scene or the scene
viewed?

**Presentation Event:** 2007 Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular
Organs in Space Exploration

**Event Location:** The Netherlands

**Date:** June 7-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Heather Jenkin, James Zacher,
Laurence Harris: Centre for Vision Research, York University

Charles Oman: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

**Keywords:** reorientation illusion, disorientation, upset recovery
training (URT)

**URL:**
[http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session%2004%20Spatial%20Orientation/04_07_Jenkin.pdf](http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session 04 Spatial Orientation/04_07_Jenkin.pdf)

**Author Address:** Jenkin: hjenkin@yorku.ca

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Jentsch, Florian; Bowers, Clint A.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Evidence for the validity of PC-based simulations in studying
aircrew coordination

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 8

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 243-260

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Psychology,
University of Central Florida, Orlando

**Number of Pages:** 18

**Keywords:** PC-based simulations, aircrew coordination, validity,
physical validity, convergent validity, discriminate validity, and
construct validity

**Abstract:** Recently, advances in computer technology have allowed the
use of PC-based simulations for a variety of aviation training and
research purposes. One area in particular where PC-based simulations
have been used extensively is the study of aircrew coordination. Yet,
there have always been lingering questions about the validity of these
simulations. Critics have argued that most PC-based simulations are
derived from video games and that gaming cannot substitute for actual
work tasks. Also, the low physical fidelity of these devices has been
cited as a potential threat to validity. By reviewing a number of
aircrew studies conducted over the past 10 years and by presenting new
experimental results, this article provides evidence for the validity of
using PC-based simulations. Additionally, this article provides a set of
guidelines that can be used by practitioners to increase the validity of
their simulations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Jentsch, F. G.; Rehfeld, S. A.; Harper, M. E.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Software: STATISTICA Power Analysis module

**Journal:** Ergonomics in Design

**Volume:** 10

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 28-30

**Date:** Summer

**Type of Article:** Review of software

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** In this review, we focus on a recently improved power
analysis module in a popular statistical application, the STATISTICA
Power Analysis module. After providing basic information about the
program, we focus on the utility and usability of the module. We
conclude with a brief example from the literature and the Power Analysis
module.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Jeppesen

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Aviation fundamentals

**Publisher:** Jeppesen Aviation Training Products

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Jex, Henry R.; Jewell, Wayne F.; Megdaleno, Raymond E.

**Year:** 1979

**Title:** Effects of various lateral-beam washouts on pilot tracking
and opinion in the \"Lamar\" simulator

**City:** Hawthorne, CA

**Institution:** Systems Technology, Inc

**Pages:** 244-266

**Type:** Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory Technical Report

**Report Number:** AFFDL-TR-79-3134

**Abstract:** A series of moving-base flight simulator experiments was
performed using roll and sway motions of the Large Amplitude Multimode
Aerospace Research Simulator (LAMARS) of Flight Dynamics Lab WPAFB, OH.
The objectives were to:

a\) Tie in the roll-only results of the 4 experienced pilots used here
with previous results (Ref.1) for 4 well-trained nonpilot subjects.

b\) Investigate effects of various lateral-beam-motion \"wash-out\"
filters designed to keep the lateral sway within the +- 10ft or LAMARS
travel.

The high-pass washouts on lateral beam travel (y beam) were of the
general form: (See report for formula)

The basic task was to follow an evasive (randomly rolling) target while
suppressing gust disturbances (Ref.1). A two-independent-input technique
produced behavioral data (describing functions) and performance data
(error and control scores), which revealed how pilots used the visual
and motion cues. Subjective data was also gathered on the tracking task
as well as on limited \"sidestep\" maneuvers.

The main results show: excellent tie-in with prior roll-only experiments
with non-pilot subjects; most tracking performance and behavioral
parameters were not significantly affected by various degree of sway
washout: pilot commentary became more consistent and adverse as the
spurious side-force peaks exceeded about 0.1 G y; specific problems were
mapped vs. y and Ky.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** JIL Information Systems

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Aviation performance measurement system: Flight crew training
and management support function

**City:** Washington, D.C.

**Institution:** JIL Information Systems, Inc.

**Date:** September 30

**Number of Pages:** 103

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** JISC Technologies Applications Programme (JTAP)

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** JTAP Project 305 Human factors aspects of virtual design
environments in education

**Institution:** JISC Technologies Applications Programme (JTAP)

**Pages:** 1-151

**Date:** February

**Type:** Final Report

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Advanced VR Research Center,
Loughborough University

**Abstract:** (taken from 1. Executive Summary)

1.1 Introductory Remarks

This project has concentrated on the human factors issues of interactive
virtual design environments. As more and more use is made of 3D design
systems (covering CAD and Virtual Design Environments) in higher
education establishments there has been an urgent need to understand the
complex human-computer aspects of these systems. Apart from the human
factors in the use of these tools there is a requirement to understand
the implications that may arise when these systems are used in teaching
or educational contexts. The results from the study will be extremely
important to anyone intending to use these systems for supporting
education. Virtual design environments have evolved considerably during
the life-span of the project and will revolutionize engineering design
by enabling virtual prototyping to be undertaken earlier in the design
process. Depending upon the application, immersive or non-immersive VR
technologies may be employed. In educational terms, the advantage with
virtual prototyping lies with the ability to interact with complex high
fidelity 3D engineering data. In this context, the major feature is the
ability of the student or designer to interact with the data in an
intuitive manner. However, this presents a number of human factors
issues that need to be resolved such as required fidelity of
representation. Current interaction devices have been devised for 2D
interaction and do not lend themselves to 3D applications. This can
create additional difficulties when teaching students the use of 3D
tools. The student should be able to interact with the virtual
environment in a natural manner. Beyond this the student should be able
to enter, view and manipulate their virtual designs as though they were
in a real design environment, which would otherwise prove difficult or
costly and yet is a requisite part of their learning. The ability to do
this will profoundly enhance the educational methods and learning
experience of such experimentation. The primary objective of the project
has been to determine the key human factors aspects of these virtual
design environments. Guidance on optimal human factors design principles
has been reported in the context of virtual design environments for
educational purposes.

**URL:** <http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/jtap-048.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Johnson, C. W.; Dell, W.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Limitations of 3D audio to improve auditory cues in aircraft
cockpits

**Conference Name:** International Systems Safety Conference

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Computing Science,
University of Glasgow, Scotland, G12 9QQ

**Keywords:** accident reporting, media, causal analysis, accident
investigation

**Abstract:** Several organizations, including the FAA and NASA, have
sponsored research projects into the use of spatialized audio as a means
of improving warnings in commercial aircraft. Other research groups,
including the Australian Defence Science and Technology Organization,
have explored the use of these techniques within military aviation. A
common factor across all of this work is an apparent enthusiasm for the
potential benefits of this technology. In contrast, this paper describes
the problems that were encountered when attempting to derive empirical
evidence for the benefits of 3D auditory cues in aircraft cockpits.
Benefits were identified for the stereo presentation of auditory
information but it was far harder to demonstrate any additional support
for the use of more sophisticated techniques. The second half of this
paper extends our investigation beyond the laboratory to examine
pragmatic barriers that frustrate the introduction of this technology.
These range from the problems of integrating cockpit warning systems
through to an apparent confusion in the recommended practices for
headphone use in Europe and North America.

**URL:** <http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~johnson/papers/ISSC2003/3daudio.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Johnson, D.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Visibility modeling for a landing simulator with special
reference to low visibility

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Farnborough, Hampshire, England

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** landing simulator, visual simulation

**Abstract:** When a simulator is used to demonstrate or investigate the
effects of restricted visibility on a pilot\'s ability to land an
aircraft it is important that the visual sequence displayed is as
realistic as possible.

In this paper the characteristics of the visual world by day and by
night are described. In particular the topics of contrast, the apparent
horizon and the perception of the lights are considered.

A brief account is also given of the characteristics of some of the more
commonly encountered fogs whose effects could usefully be represented in
simulating low visibility conditions. These include shallow fogs and
those with marked vertical density gradients.

Various ways of simulating the outside world in general are briefly
described and discussed in relation to fog and vision.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Johnson, David M.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Introduction to and review of simulator sickness research

**Institution:** U.S. Army Research Institute

**Date:** April

**Report Number:** Research Report 1832

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** U.S. Army Research Institute,
Rotary Wing Aviation Research Unit

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, motion sickness, flight simulation,
flight simulators, flight training, helicopter training, motion sickness
theory, simulator sickness theory, sensory conflict theory, postural
instability theory

**Abstract:** This report reviews, and explains the research literature
pertaining to simulator sickness. Simulator sickness is a form of motion
sickness. Consequently, motion sickness is reviewed also. Special
emphasis is given to simulator-based flight training\--especially
helicopter flight training. This review includes the sensory basis of
the perception of motion, the terminology of motion sickness and
simulator sickness, a selected history of these research fields,
sickness signs and symptoms, measurement issues, incidence of sickness,
residual aftereffects, adaptation to a novel motion environment,
susceptibility factors, performance issues, training issues, safety
issues, treatment, theory, guidelines for simulator-based flight
training, and suggestions for further research. The sensory conflict
theory and the postural instability theory are described insofar as they
relate to motion sickness and to simulator sickness. The effect of
simulator sickness on training effectiveness, if any, remains a subject
of future applied research.

**URL:**
[http://www.hqda.army.mil/ari/pdf/RR%201832.pdf](http://www.hqda.army.mil/ari/pdf/RR 1832.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Johnson, David M.; Stewart, John E. II

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Utility of a Personal Computer Aviation Training Device for
helicopter flight training

**Institution:** U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and
Social Sciences

**Date:** February

**Type:** Research Report

**Report Number:** 1787

**Number of Pages:** 47

**Keywords:** flight training, simulation, aircrew training programs,
helicopter training

**Abstract:** Personal Computer Aviation Training Devices (PCATDs) have
recently been shown to support beginning flight training both in the
private sector and the military. These positive results are for
fixed-wing aircraft only. The purpose of this research was to
investigate which tasks from Initial Entry Rotary Wing (IERW) training
could be supported by PCATD. A utility evaluation was performed. Sixteen
aviators, representing both highly experienced and student helicopter
pilots, evaluated the ability of a commercial PCATD to support IERW.
Seventy-one tasks were selected from Primary and Instrument Flight
Training. Aviators performed each task one or more times in the PCATD
before rating it on a four-point scale. Additional data were also
collected. Results showed remarkable agreement between the experienced
aviators and the students. The device was judged as best able to support
Instrument Flight Training, especially tasks involving radio navigation.
Tasks from Primary Flight Training, especially tasks requiring hovering,
were judged as less well supported. The most frequently stated positive
comment was that the device would be of value in supporting the training
of instrument procedures. The three most frequently cited criticisms of
the device concerned narrow field of view, poor visual cues to depth,
and inability to hover.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Johnson, Glen

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Near miss spurs new pilot training

**Publisher:** Mercury News

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** As Flight 863 lifted off the runway for its 14-hour,
25-minute journey, it was hit with one of the most practiced airplane
emergencies, a failed engine. The plane\'s right inboard engine, one of
four mounted on the wings, stalled. The co-pilot, who was flying the
plane, correctly responded by shutting it down. Because it was
overpowered on the left, the plane started to turn to the right. The
correct response would have been stepping on the left rudder pedal,
which would straighten the nose. Instead the pilot turned the control
wheel to the left. That deployed panels on the plane\'s wing, reducing
its lift, which led the plane towards San Bruno Mountain. Fortunately,
the plane did clear the mountain.

**Notes:** On September 6, 2006 the original web page was no longer
accessible.

**URL:**
<http://forums.sjmercury.com/nation/nationwire/docs/2569731.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Johnson, Peder J.; Goldsmith, Timothy E.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** The importance of quality data in evaluating aircrew
performance

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Pages:** 1-37

**Date:** May

**Type:** Technical Report

**Number of Pages:** 37

**Abstract:** The primary goal of this chapter is to describe a set of
methods and procedures that will enhance the quality of the data to
assess aircrew performance. The two fundamental properties of quality
data are reliability and validity. This section begins with a formal
discussion of these two ideas, including a description of the statistics
used to estimate reliability. After giving a formal treatment of
reliability and validity we next discuss these concepts in the context
of aircrew performance assessment. Here our discussion will be concerned
with the three primary factors that influence the overall quality of
data. The first is the observer or evaluator who must make the judgments
or ratings of the observed performance. The second is the measuring
instrument (e.g., a Line-Oriented Evaluation \[LOE\] grade sheet) that
is used to collect data. The third factor is the host of parameters that
comprise the assessment situation (e.g., a calibration session). As a
brief aside it is important to understand that the assessment situation
is often not the same situation under which assessments are normally
conducted. For example, in a calibration session the evaluators will
observe and judge a video of a crew flying an LOE as opposed to judging
an LOE simulated flight. This is necessary because in order to estimate
reliability every evaluator must observe the identical crew performance.
The video is necessary because it would pose some obvious logistical
problems to arrange for 20 or more evaluators to observe an actual LOE
in the simulator. Returning to the central point of discussion, when we
refer to the parameters of the assessment situation, it must be
understood that they are not always the same as the conditions under
which these types of observations are normally made.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Johnson, W. W.; Kaiser, M. K.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Perspective imagery in synthetic scenes used to control and
guide aircraft during landing and taxi: Some issues and concerns

**Conference Name:** SPIE Conference on Synthetic Vision for Vehicle
Guidance and Control

**Conference Location:** Orlando, FL

**Publisher:** International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames research center, Flight
Management and Human Factors Division, Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** synthetic vision, cockpit displays, perspective displays,
display conformality, human factors

**Abstract:** Perspective synthetic displays that supplement, or
supplant, the optical windows traditionally used for guidance and
control of aircraft are accompanied by potentially significant human
factors problems related to the optical geometric conformality of the
display. Such geometric conformality is broken when optical features are
not in the location they would be if directly viewed through a window.
This often occurs when the scene is relayed or generated from a location
different from the pilot\'s eyepoint. However, assuming no large
visual/vestibular effects, a pilot can often learn to use such a display
very effectively. Important problems may arise, however, when display
accuracy or consistency is compromised, and this can usually be related
to geometrical discrepancies between how the synthetic visual scene
behaves and how the visual scene through a window behaves. In addition
to these issues, this paper examines the potentially critical problem of
the disorientation that can arise when both a synthetic display and a
real window are present in a flight deck, and no consistent visual
interpretation is available.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Johnson, Walter W.; Schroeder, Jeffery A.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Visual-motion cueing in the control of altitude

**Conference Name:** 1995 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man,
and Cybernetics

**Conference Location:** Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

**Date:** October

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Mail
Stop 262-3, Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** The Vertical Motion Simulator at the NASA Ames Research
Center was used to examine how platform motion and visual level of
detail (LOD) cueing affected altitude repositioning and vertical rate
control in two tasks utilizing a simulated AH-64 Apache helicopter. The
LOD manipulation caused optical density to change across altitudes by a
small, moderate, or large amount. The platform motion manipulation
resulted in platform motion being either present, and 1:1 (full), or
totally absent. Both small optical density changes and platform motion
improved altitude judgments in the altitude repositioning task, while
platform motion improved performance in a vertical rate control task.
These findings show that 1) vertical platform motion mitigates the
tendency of pilots to mistake optical flow rate (angular visual speed)
as proportional to vehicle speed during altitude change, and contributes
to the perception of movement amplitude; and 2) maintaining nearly
constant optical density across altitudes improves altitude judgments.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Johnston, D. E.; Aponso, B. L.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Design considerations of manipulator and feel system
characteristics in roll tracking

**Series Editor:** Division, NASA Scientific and Technical Information

**Institution:** Systems Technology, Inc.

**Pages:** 1-227

**Type:** NASA Contractor Report

**Report Number:** NASA CR-4111

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Systems Technology, Inc.,
Hawthorne, CA

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), Washington, DC 20546

**Number of Pages:** 228

**Keywords:** arm (anatomy,) control sticks, control systems design,
controllers, design analysis, flight characteristics, flight control,
man machine systems manipulators, neurophysiology, pilot performance,
roll, sensorimotor performance, touch, tracking (position), human
reactions, rates (per time), simulation, time lag

**Abstract:** A fixed-base simulation was performed to identify and
quantify interactions between the pilot\'s hand arm neuromuscular
subsystem and such control system features of typical modern fighter
aircraft roll rate command mechanizations as (1) force versus
displacement sensing side-stick type manipulator, (2) feel force
displacement gradient, (3) feel system versus command prefilter dynamic
lag, and (4) flight control system effective time delay. The experiment
encompassed some 48 manipulator filter aircraft configurations.
Displacement side-stick experiment results are given and compared with
the previous force sidestick experiment results. Attention is focused on
control bandwidth, excitement (peaking) of the neuromuscular mode, feel
force displacement gradient effects, time delay effects, etc. Section 5
is devoted to experiments with a center-stick in which force versus
displacement sensing, feel system lag, and command prefilter lag
influences on tracking performance and pilot preference are
investigated.

**URL:**
<http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=170264&id=1&qs=N%3D4294819006>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Unpublished Manuscript

**Author:** Johnston, Neil

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Simulation and training: Perspectives on theory and practice

**City:** Dublin, Ireland

**Institution:** Aerospace Psychology Research Group, Trinity College

**Date:** August

**Number of Pages:** 27

**Abstract:** Fundamental to the design of effective simulation and
training is some understanding as to the nature of human learning. This
paper suggests that the conventional simulation and pilot training
wisdom is based upon deficient models of learning. The paper is in two
parts; Part 1 broadly considers theory, while Part 2 looks to the
implications for simulation and training. Given that the favored
approach to training is derived from a combination of newly developing
training principles, philosophical and theoretical aspects are
considered in Part 1. Ideas and perspectives from research into
Naturalistic Decision Making, Human Expertise, Cognitive Task Analysis,
Situated Learning and Phenomenology are also reviewed. In Part 2
preliminary conclusions are drawn and implications for simulation and
training practice are discussed, including criteria for \"low fidelity\"
simulation techniques. The overall objective of the paper is to
contribute to the task of building a new foundation for the design and
implementation of training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Joint Aviation Authorities

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** JAR-FCL 1 - Flight Crew Licensing (Airplane)

**Series Title:** Joint Aviation Requirement

**City:** Hoofddorp, Netherlands

**Institution:** JAA

**Document Number:** 09/44-1/06-L598

**Date:** December 1

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Joint Safety Analysis Team (JSAT)

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Approach and landing

**Institution:** JSAT

**Date:** September 10

**Number of Pages:** 188

**Abstract:** \[first paragraph of Executive Summary\] In the summer of
1998, the Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) chartered the Approach
and Landing Joint Safety Analysis Team (JSAT) to review and analyze data
for the purpose of developing and recommending interventions that will
enhance commercial aviation safety during the approach and landing phase
of flight by 2007. The JSAT's data included publicly available source
information, accident reports, and other approach and landing studies.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Jones, Edward R.; Hennessy, Robert T.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Human factors aspects of simulation

**City:** Washington, DC

**Publisher:** National Academy Press

**Number of Pages:** 147

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Junker, A. M.; Price, D.

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** Comparison between a peripheral display and motion
information on human tracking about the roll axis

**Conference Name:** AIAA Visual and Motion Simulation Conference

**Conference Location:** Dayton, OH

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** April 26-28

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Junker: Aerospace Medical Research
Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

Price: Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, OH

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** A comparative study of the effects of peripheral display
information and motion cue information on roll axis tracking was
performed. It has been shown that similar motion information improves
tracking performance for some roll axis tracking tasks. For the motion
case the cues available consisted of angular acceleration or velocity
and linear acceleration. The peripheral display was driven by plant roll
rate giving the human operator angular velocity information only. The
same input forcing function and plant dynamics were used for the motion
case and the peripheral display case so that the comparison could be
made. The tracking results indicate an equivalent improvement in
performance for both cases suggesting that angular velocity information
was the principal motion component used by the human controller. The
results also suggest that peripheral displays can be used to enhance
tracking in much the same way as motion cues for tracking performance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Kaemph, George L.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Development of integrated measures of cockpit resource
management and technical performance for the advanced qualification
program

**Date:** June 1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ph.D., Klein Associates Inc.,
Fairborn, OH

**Keywords:** Crew resource management, CRM, Advanced Qualification
Program, AQP, performance measures, knowledge elicitation techniques

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Kaemph, George L.; Cross, Kenneth D.; Blackwell, Joan N.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Backward transfer and skill acquisition in the AH-1 flight
and weapons simulator

**City:** Fort Rucker, AL

**Institution:** Anacapa Sciences, Inc.

**Date:** August

**Type:** Interim

**Report Number:** ARI (monitoring organization) Research Report 1537

Anacapa Sciences (performing organization) 690-312-88

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kaempf, Cross: Anacapa Sciences,
Inc., P.O. Box 489, Fort Rucker, AL 36362

Blackwell: U.S. Army Research Institute Aviation, Research and
Development Activity

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Army Research Institute Aviation
Research and Development Activity, Fort Rucker, AL 36362

**Number of Pages:** 48+

**Keywords:** flight simulation, skill acquisition, aircrew training,
helicopter, training effectiveness, pilot performance, backward
transfer, transfer of training

**Abstract:** Two experiments were conducted, one to investigate the
backward transfer of flight skills to the AH-1 Flight and Weapons
Simulator (AH1FWS) and another to investigate the acquisition of flight
skills in the AH1FWS on selected maneuvers. In the backward transfer
research, 16 AH-1 instructor pilots (IPs) from the AH-1 Aircrew
Qualification Course were administered checkrides in the AH1FWS and the
AH-1F aircraft. Comparison of the performance data from the two
checkrides indicates that, while proficient on the maneuvers in the
AH-1F, all IPs performed poorly in the AH1FWS. The IPs attributed their
difficulties in the AH1FWS to deficiencies in the visual system and the
handling and response characteristics of the flight controls. In the
skill acquisition research, four groups of 10 operational aviators
received training in the AH1FWS. Each group received training on a
different set of five maneuvers. The training comprised 10 practice
trials for each maneuver. Subjects received no feedback on trials 1-3;
IPs provided instruction on trials 4-10. Mean performance ratings did
not reach a satisfactory level of proficiency within the 10 practice
trials for 17 of the 20 maneuvers investigated. Furthermore, the
backward transfer data obtained during the skill acquisition research
were consistent with similar data collected in a previous study.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Kaemph, George L.; Klinger, David W.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Integrated measurement of crew resource management and
technical flying skills

**City:** Fairborn, OH

**Institution:** Klein Associates

**Date:** August

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/RD-93/26

DOT-VNTSC-FAA-93-6

**Number of Pages:** 113

**Keywords:** human factors, evaluation, cockpit resource management,
CRM, line oriented flight training

**Abstract:** This report presents the findings of a study designed with
two objectives: to produce a prototype performance measurement
instrument (PMI) that integrates the assessment of Crew Resource
Management (CRM) and technical flying skills and to investigate the
suitability of the Critical Decision method (CDM) for eliciting expert
information concerning performance measurement. The work was funded by
the FAA in support of the Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) and
conducted in cooperation with a major U.S. carrier. The researchers used
CDM to identify critical components of performance assessment for
specific flight tasks and developed a prototype PMI. The instrument
contains two sections for each task. One section allows an evaluator to
record significant pilot and crew behaviors observed; the second section
allows the evaluator to provide a subjective assessment of pilot and
crew proficiency. The researchers pretested the instrument and made
revisions based on recommendations from experienced instructors. The
researchers then evaluated the PMI with eight instructors observing a
total of 16 different flight crews in recurrent training, performing a
standard Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) scenario in a flight
simulator. The instructors reliably and accurately employed the PMI to
assess performance of the crew and the individual pilot. The authors
recommended that AQP developers use Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA)
techniques to develop training programs for cognitive and team tasks.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Kaiser, M. K.; Schroeder, J. A.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Flights of fancy: The art and science of flight simulation

**Editor:** Tsang, P.; Vidulich, M.

**Book Title:** Principles and Practice of Aviation Psychology

**City:** Mahwah, NJ

**Publisher:** LEA

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Kapralos, B.; Zikovitz, D.; Jenkin, M.; Harris, L. R.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Auditory cues in the perception of self motion

**Date:** October 17

**Type:** PowerPoint presentation

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** York University, North York
Ontario, Canada

Kapralos: Department of Computer Science, Center for Vision Research

Zikovitz: Department of Biology, Center for Vision Research

Jenkin: Department of Computer Science, Center for Vision Research

Harris: Department of Biology, Department of Psychology, Center for
Vision Research

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Karlins, Marvin; Koh, Freddie; McCully, Len; Chan, C.T.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Cockpit resource management videos

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Karlins - Professor of Management,
University of South Florida

Koh - Assistant Director of Flight Operations, Singapore Airlines

McCully - Assistant Director of Flight Operations, Singapore Airlines

Chan - Deputy of Chief Pilot, Singapore Airlines

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kemeny, A.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Simulation and perception

**Conference Name:** Driving Simulation Conference

**Conference Location:** Paris, France

**Date:** July

**Abstract:** (Taken from 1. Introduction) A driving simulator consists
of a vehicle and an engine of sensory stimuli producing the virtual
environment. This virtual environment acts onto the driver at both
perceptional and cognitive levels. Perceptional cueing is mainly visual,
auditory and kinesthetic. Cognitive processes allow the driver to better
sense the environment, infrastructure (horizontal and vertical road
signs) and traffic, by performing driving tasks using these information,
both perceptional and cognitive. Due to the human sensibility to cueing
incoherence and sensory conflicts, especially regarding the perception
of motion, it is essential to respect the characteristics of human
perception systems. In the following, we shall review the influence of
visual, vestibular, muscular and musculo-articular receptors on the
characteristics of visual and kinesthetic rendering systems to take into
account.

**URL:** <http://www.experts.renault.com/DSC99/papers/INTROVA.PDF>

**Author Address:** andras.kemeny@renault.fr

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kemmerling, Paul T., Jr.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Dynamic characteristics of flight simulator motion systems

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kemmerling: Lt. Col., USAF,
Director, Equipment Engineering, Deputy for Engineering, Aeronautical
Systems Division, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Keywords:** motion

**Abstract:** Recognition is made of the complete lack of substantive
data on the quality of motion produced by multiple degree of freedom
aircraft simulator motion systems, and efforts made to produced this way
are discussed. Working Group #07 of the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD
has been given the charter to identify and define the pertinent physical
characteristics of flight simulator motion systems, establish procedures
for their measurement and prepare a report of their findings. The seven
main characteristics identified by the Group are outlined, and efforts
by several of the members to apply the characteristic techniques in
laboratory measurements are discussed. Acknowledgment is made of the
difficulties in establishing universally workable definitions and
techniques for cataloging motion characteristics, and alternatives are
suggested. The conclusion is reached that a taxonomy of motion
characteristics is a valuable asset in determining the optional use of
currently available motion systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kennedy, R. S.; Berbaum, G. O.; Allgood, G. O.; Lane, N. E.;
Lilienthal, M. G.; Baltzley, D. R.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Etiological significance of equipment features and pilot
history in simulator sickness

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kennedy, Berbaum, Lane & Baltzley:
Essex Corporation, 1040 Woodcock Road, Suite 227, Orlando, FL 32803

Allgood: Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc., P.O. Box X, Oak Ridge, TN
37831

Lilienthal: Naval Training Systems Center, Human Factors Division (711),
Orlando, FL 32813-7100

**Number of Pages:** 22

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, etiological factors, visual, motion,
vestibular

**Abstract:** The U.S. Navy has conducted a survey in 10 flight trainers
where motion experience questionnaires and performance tests were
administered to pilots before and after some 1200 separate exposures.
From these measures on pilots, several findings emerge: a) specific
histories of motion sickness were predictive of simulator sickness
symptomology; b) postural equilibrium was degraded after hops in some
simulators; c) self-reports of motion sickness symptomatology revealed
three major symptom clusters: gastrointestinal, visual and vestibular;
d) certain pilot experiences in simulators and aircraft were related to
severity of symptoms experienced; e) simulator sickness incident varied
from 10-60%; f) substantial perceptual adaptation occurs over a series
of hops; g) in two moving base flight trainers motion sickness incidence
appeared to be related to the amount of acceleration (energy)
experienced in frequency ranges around 0.2 Hz.

The findings are discussed in the context of sensory conflict theory and
recommendations are made for simulator design criteria. Suggestions are
made for how to relate simulator and equipment configuration to the
separate symptom clusters as an aid to diagnosis of specific problems
within particular simulators. We believe this holds promise in
diagnosing simulator equipment problems (e.g. alignment, inertial motion
profile, cue asynchrony) since different symptom clusters may be related
to different equipment features.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Kennedy, Robert S.; Berbaum, Kevin S.; Lilienthal, Michael
G.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Human operator discomfort in virtual reality systems:
Simulator sickness\--causes and cures

**Editor:** Kumar, Shrawan

**Book Title:** Advances in industrial ergonomics and safety

**City:** Washington, DC

**Publisher:** Taylor and Francis

**Volume:** IV

**Pages:** 1227 -1234

**Number of Pages:** 8

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Kennedy, Robert S.; Fowlkes, Jennifer E.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Simulator sickness is polygenic and polysymptomatic:
Implications for research

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 2

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 23-38

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, polygenic, polysymptomatic

**Abstract:** The usefulness of visually based flight simulators for
training may be compromised by the phenomenon of simulator sickness.
Although a significant problem, design specifications for alleviation of
simulator sickness have not yet been produced. The problems researchers
face in this area are multiple: (a) Simulator sickness is polygenic,
rendering experimental isolation of variables ineffective; (b) simulator
sickness is polysymptomatic, which must be reflected in measurements of
the human response; and (c) there are statistical limitations including
limited sample sizes, adaptation over flights, small effect sizes, and
large individual differences. These problems render certain research and
engineering strategies more effective than others. Our conclusions,
based on analysis of a large data base and statistical power
calculations, suggest that improved simulator-design criteria can best
be studied in \"field experiments\" in which large sample sizes permit
the relatively small effects of several different simulator-equipment
features to be isolated, contrasted, and revealed.

**URL:** <http://www.leaonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15327108ijap0201_2>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kennedy, Robert S.; Jones, Marshall B.; Lilienthal, Michael
G.; Harm, Deborah L.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Profile analysis of after-effects experiences during exposure
to several virtual reality environments

**Conference Name:** 76th Aerospace Medical Panel Meeting on Virtual
Interfaces Research and Applications

**Conference Location:** Lisbon, Portugal

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Kennedy, Robert S.; Lane, Norman E.; Berbaum, Kevin S.;
Lilienthal, Michael G.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Simulator Sickness Questionnaire: An enhanced method for
quantifying simulator sickness

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology

**Volume:** 3

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 203-220

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kennedy and Lane: Essex
Corporation, Orlando, FL

Berbaum: University of Iowa

Lilienthal: U.S. Navy, Washington, DC

**Keywords:** simulator sickness

**Abstract:** Simulator sickness (SS) in high-fidelity visual simulators
is a byproduct of modern simulation technology. Although it involves
symptoms similar to those of motion-induced sickness (MS), SS tends to
be less severe, to be of lower incidence, and to originate from elements
of visual display and visuo-vestibular interaction atypical of
conditions that induce MS. Most studies of SS to date index severity
with some variant of the Pensacola Motion Sickness Questionnaire (MSQ).
The MSQ has several deficiencies as an instrument for measuring SS. Some
symptoms included in the scoring of MS are irrelevant for SS, and
several are misleading. Also, the configural approach of MSQ is not
readily adaptable to computer administration and scoring. This article
describes the development of a Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ),
derived from the MSQ using a series of factor analyses, and illustrates
its use in monitoring simulator performance with data from a
computerized SSQ survey of 3,691 simulator hops. The database used for
development included more than 1,100 MSQs, representing data from 10
Navy simulators. The SSQ provides straightforward computer or manual
scoring, increased power to identify \"problem\" simulators, and
improved diagnostic capability.

**URL:** <http://www.leaonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15327108ijap0303_3>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kennedy, Robert S.; Lilienthal, Michael G.; Fowlkes,
Jennifer E.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** What needs doing about simulator sickness?

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** New Orleans, LA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kennedy: Essex Corporation,
Orlando, FL

Lilienthal: Naval Air Systems Command, Washington, DC

Fowlkes: Essex Corporation, Orlando, FL (Dr. Fowlkes is now located at
Engineering and Economics Research, Inc., Orlando, FL)

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, virtual environment technology

**Abstract:** The usefulness of simulators may be compromised by a
phenomenon know as simulator sickness. Until research determines how to
design simulators that produce no or acceptably low incidence of
sickness, there are at least two issues which require attention: (1)
simulator monitoring techniques to identify when simulation systems
begin to produce unacceptably high levels of sickness, and (2)
identification of crewmembers who are at risk for simulator-induced
posteffects. This paper describes the development and implementation of
a free-standing device that utilizes human output (i.e., symptomatology)
to address two questions: (1) is the simulator sick? and (2) is the
crewmember sick? The first question is a systems engineering question
and pertains to quality assurance testing of simulators. The incidence
of simulator sickness symptomatology can be tracked over time for a
given simulator using a "quality control" model to detect shifts in
calibration or other gradually emerging problems. The second question
pertains to biomedical evaluation; crewmembers who exhibit extreme
reactions during simulator training are at risk for posteffects and need
to be identified so they can be warned with regard to post-training
activities. A fielded prototype system has demonstrated that such a
system can have: (1) sensitivity to factors which may be expected to
affect systems performance, (2) economy in terms of cost and crewmember
time, (3) high reliability, and (4) good user acceptance. The profile of
the symptomatology holds promise for identifying and targeting the
equipment features which, when fixed, will alleviate the problem. A
recommendation is made that a technical data base be assembled from a
series of field experiments where "naturally occurring" changes to the
equipment be monitored "pre," "per," and "post" modification in very
large samples (\>100) of pilot exposures.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Keselman, H. J.; Algina, J.; Kowalchuck, R. K.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** The analysis of repeated measures designs: A review

**Journal:** British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology

**Volume:** 54

**Pages:** 1-20

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** H. J. Keselman: University of
Manitoba, Canada

James Algina: University of Florida

Rhonda K. Kowalchuck: University of Manitoba, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 21

**Abstract:** Repeated measures ANOVA can refer to many different types
of analysis. Specifically, this vague term can refer to conventional
tests of significance, one of three univariate solutions with adjusted
degrees of freedom, two different types of multivariate statistic, or
approaches that combine univariate and multivariate tests. Accordingly,
it is argued that, by only reporting probability values and referring to
statistical analyses as repeated measures ANOVA, authors convey neither
the type of analysis that was used nor the validity of the reported
probability value, since each of these approaches has its own strengths
and weaknesses. The various approaches are presented with a discussion
of their strengths and weaknesses, and recommendations are made
regarding the \'best\' choice of analysis. Additional topics discussed
include analyses for missing data and tests of linear contrasts.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Thesis

**Author:** Kesserwan, Nader

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Flight Simulation

**Academic Department:** School of Computer Science

**City:** Montreal, Canada

**University:** McGill University

**Degree:** M.Sc.

**Date:** March

**Abstract:** Simulation is the technique by which a physical system can
be represented mathematically by a computer program for the solution of
a problem. This technique of problem solving is used when it is not
feasible due to time, cost, or safety to conduct specific tests using
the actual physical system, such as an aircraft. A mathematical model is
developed for the physical system using knowledge of the physical laws
describing the problem. This model is then programmed on the computer to
generate the problem solution. The digital computer program represents a
discrete approximation of the real world system which is usually
continuous. My contribution to this work involves searching and
collecting information, studying a case about environmental simulation,
implementing a miscellaneous function that is used by pilots during
their training on a flight simulator, presenting the history of flight
simulation, writing the conclusion and raising questions at the end. In
my opinion, raising questions and pointing out problems is as important
as finding answers and solutions.

**URL:**
<http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape7/PQDD_0018/MQ55071.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Key, David L.; Odneal, Billy L.; Sinacori, John B.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Mission environment simulation for Army rotorcraft
development-requirements and capabilities

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Aeromechanics Laboratory, U.S. Army
Aviation R&D Command, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Keywords:** rotorcraft, vertical motion system, turbulence, ground
effect, motion requirements, visual requirements

**Notes:** The rich and varied detail visible in terrain flight must be
presented by a wide field-of-view system with much detail and high
resolution. The rotary-wing R and D simulator must have great
versatility for easy change of cab configurations and the capability to
accommodate a two or three man crew. Basic specifications for an
adequate visual display were developed and are compared with current and
forecasted techniques for image generation and presentation. Results of
a study performed to determine the feasibility of meeting these
requirements using the current technology of TV camera-model image
generation and projected display are discussed and an assessment of the
possibility that computer generated imagery can achieve the desired
level of detail is presented.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kiefer, Dennis A; Calvert, Jeffrey F.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Developmental evaluation of a centrifuge flight simulator as
an enhanced maneuverability flying qualities tool

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Hilton Head Island, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 24-26

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Air Vehicle and Crew Systems
Technology Department, Naval Air Warfare Center, Aircraft Division,
Warminster, PA

**Number of Pages:** 22

**Keywords:** centrifuge flight simulator, flying qualities tool,
dynamic flight simulator, ground-based, enhanced maneuverability, light
weight cockpit, g-bias function, motion fidelity

**Abstract:** Significant improvements in high angle of attack
aerodynamics, flight control systems and the use of thrust vectoring is
providing current and anticipated aircraft with enhanced
maneuverability. These aircraft generate unusual rates and accelerations
which will severely affect pilot spatial orientation and situational
awareness during air combat maneuvering. The developing technology of
centrifuge flight simulation offers the prospect of ground-based flying
qualities and human factors testing in this same environment.

Centrifuge flight simulation technology, as implemented on the Dynamic
Flight Simulator, has shown its value with F-14 flat spin and mishap
investigations, preliminary enhanced fighter maneuverability studies,
and physiological investigations in a realistic flight environment.
Recent and current efforts are to expand this role for potential use as
an enhanced maneuverability simulation tool. Specifically targeted for
evaluation is the ability to perform piloted analyses of critical
displays during high angle of attack enhanced maneuvering tasks.

Improvements have been made to the Dynamic Flight Simulator motion base
control and actuator quality, cockpit displays, data collection
capability, and compatible tactical aircraft models. The evaluation
involved analyzing improvements to motion fidelity and demonstrating the
potential for addressing a broader class of aircraft research,
development, test and evaluation issues. Limitations are separated into
those inherent to the technology and those dependent on the Dynamic
Flight Simulator implementation. Tradeoffs between control method and
mission applications are shown.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Killgore, James I.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** The planes that never leave the ground

**Journal:** American Heritage of Invention and Technology

**Volume:** 4

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 56-63

**Number of Pages:** 8

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Kingston, Paul; Peters, Tom; Lehman, Chris; Boothe, Edward
M.; Gibb, Gerald D.; Hampton, Steven; Wise, John A.; Wolf, John

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** The real training value of FTDs in an airline training
program

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kingston: IVEX

Peters: Captain, Delta Airlines

Lehman: Atlantis Aerospace Corporation

Boothe: Consultant, Flight Simulation and Training

Gibb, Hampton, Wise, Wolf: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** flight training devices, FTD, air carriers

**Abstract:** The use of Flight Training Devices (FTD) in air carrier
and other approved training programs has not become widespread. Most air
carrier operators still prefer simulator programs using Level C or D
simulators. An analysis has indicated that the most cost effective
program would utilize an FTD for a significant portion of a conventional
airline training program. A demonstration project to validate the
conclusion of the analysis was conducted at the Delta Air Lines Training
Center. Groups of pilots from Delta Air Lines and from Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University were trained using both the conventional all
simulator curriculum and a curriculum in which a Level 6 FTD with a
visual system was substituted for a significant portion of the training.
Performance measures were obtained using simulator generated data,
evaluations conducted by Aircrew Program Designees (APDs) and
independent check pilots from Embry-Riddle. The results from standard
type-rating check rides indicate that comparatively few significant
differences still exist between the two training curricula. The results
indicate that FTDs properly integrated with a simulator in an approved
training program can produce pilot performance similar to those obtained
from an all-simulator program. Further efforts should be expended to
investigate assignment of training tasks to the appropriate level
device. Since the initial and operating costs of a full flight simulator
are significantly higher than that of an FTD, these efforts would be
warranted.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Klauer, Ken M.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Examining the concept of total fidelity flight simulation

**Journal:** CSERIAC Gateway

**Volume:** 8

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 13 -15

**Number of Pages:** 3

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Klein, R. M.; Posner, M. I.

**Year:** 1974

**Title:** Attention to visual and kinesthetic components of skills

**Journal:** Brain Research

**Volume:** 71

**Pages:** 401-411

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Oregon, Psychology
Department

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** The performance of skilled movements gives rise to several
sources of feedback. It is important to determine whether and at what
level these cues are used. This article considers their use at the
highest level of conscious control. Several experimental techniques are
outlined to investigate the role of attention on the processing of
visual and kinesthetic cues during the acquisition, initiation, and
control of movements.

The mere presence of a visual pattern disrupts the acquisition,
initiation and control of a kinesthetic pattern, while the presence of a
kinesthetic pattern does not affect the acquisition of a visual pattern
unless the subject is forced to attend the kinesthetic information. In
the acquisition of simple movements, kinesthetic cues seem to be ignored
when visual cues are present, even though this delays initiation. These
results support the view that vision dominates kinesthesis at the level
of central attention.

Attentional mechanisms are involved in the initiation and control of
discreet movements. Within the context of a continuous tracking task
anticipated corrections appear to demand more attention than those which
are not anticipated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Kleiss, James

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Visual scene properties relevant for simulating low-altitude
flight: A Multidimensional scaling approach

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 37

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 711-734

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Dayton Research
Institute, Dayton, OH

**Number of Pages:** 24

**Abstract:** In the present experiments I sought to identify the
properties of visual scenes relevant for simulating low-altitude flight.
The approach was first to identify the relevant properties of real-world
scenes. The stimuli were videotape segments or still photographs of
real-world scenes exhibiting a variety of scene properties. Ratings of
similarity between stimulus pairs were submitted to multidimensional
scaling analyses. Results using videotape segments provided consistent
evidence for two relevant scene properties: variation in terrain shape
and variation in object size or spacing. Results using still photographs
were less interpretable, supporting the argument that motion information
is important. Results suggest that designers of flight simulator visual
scenes should focus specifically on rendering elements of terrain shape
and objects in scenes.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Kleiss, James A.; Hubbard, David C.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Effects of three types of flight simulator visual scene
detail on detection of altitude change

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 35

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 653-671

**Date:** December

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kleiss & Hubbard: University of
Dayton Research Institute

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Abstract:** The effects of three types of flight simulator visual
scene detail on detection of altitude change were evaluated in three
experiments. Across all experiments and with a variety of tasks and
display conditions, speed and accuracy of detecting altitude change
improved with increases in the density of vertical objects in scenes.
Adding detail to individual objects to increase their natural appearance
produced no consistent effects on performance. In experiment 3 complex
texture distributed globally on terrain surfaces improved detection of
altitude change but did not alleviate the need for high object density.
These results indicate that available computer image generator
processing capacity would be used more effectively by increasing the
density of objects in scenes, rather than by increasing in the
complexity and detail of individual objects. Complex texture is used
more effectively when distributed globally on terrain surfaces, rather
than when allocated to individual objects.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Kline, R. B.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Beyond significance testing: Reforming data analysis methods
in behavioral research

**City:** Washington, DC

**Publisher:** American Psychological Association (APA)

**Number of Pages:** 325

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Associate Professor of Psychology,
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 325

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Klyde, D. H.; Mitchell, D. G.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Handling qualities demonstration maneuvers for fixed wing
aircraft Vol. I: Maneuver development process

**City:** Hawthorne, CA

**Institution:** Systems Technology, Inc.

**Pages:** 1-193

**Date:** September

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** 1310-1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** David H. Klyde: Systems Technology,
Inc.

David G. Mitchell: Hoh Aeronautics, Inc.

**Keywords:** handling qualities, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** I. INTRODUCTION

This report documents the results of a Phase II Small Business
Innovation Research (SBIR) contract to develop and evaluate a set of
demonstration maneuvers for the evaluation of fixed wing aircraft
handling qualities. Systems Technology, Inc. (STI) and principle
subcontractor Hoh Aeronautics, Inc. (HAI) conducted the work for the Air
Force Dynamics Directorate at Wright Laboratory. The significant
aircraft handling qualities research of the past 25 to 30 years was
reviewed and relevant flight test maneuvers were compiled and
categorized. By applying a mission-oriented approach, the maneuvers were
categorized by required levels of precision and aggressiveness. A
preliminary demonstration maneuver set was assembled with existing,
refined, and newly defined maneuvers. Flight test evaluations with
experienced test pilots were then used to verify that a maneuver could
be flown as intended, to revise maneuver descriptions and handling
qualities performance requirements, and to assess operational relevance.
Some maneuver evaluations were also conducted with ground-based
simulators when relevant flight test opportunities did not exist. The
results of these evaluations were used to assemble a final maneuver
catalog. Maneuvers that were found to emphasize aircraft performance
rather than handling qualities were removed from the final set. The
resulting catalog is referred to as \"final\" only in relation to this
research effort. Following in the footsteps of previous aircraft
handling qualities research, the maneuver catalog is considered a living
document and therefore further revisions and additions are expected as
new research is conducted.

The overall program objective was to develop a catalog of demonstration
maneuvers that may be used to evaluate:

-All aircraft types (military and civil) and mission tasks;

-Modern flight control systems;

-The effect of advanced displays and vision aids on handling qualities;
and

-Multiple-axis handling qualities.

The maneuvers will provide a check of handling qualities beyond the
quantitative criteria of the military flying qualities standard,
MIL-STD-1797 (Ref. 1). A primary benefit of a formalized set of
repeatable, measurable, and well-constrained demonstration maneuvers is
that they may be used from the initial design stages to
post-developmental testing of an aircraft. Because the demonstration
maneuvers are mission-oriented, they provide an essential link between
operational requirements and the design process. Background material is
provided in Part II.

The first step of this program was to define a catalog of proposed
demonstration maneuvers. During the SBIR Phase I effort (Appendix C of
Ref. 2), potential maneuvers were identified from an extensive
literature search of relevant handling qualities flight test and
simulator evaluations. This effort along with the development of
numerous new maneuvers was continued as the initial Phase II task. This
process is documented in Part III.

The next step of this program was to evaluate as many of the maneuvers
as possible in a flight test environment. Funding was provided by the
USAF to evaluate the Standard Evaluation Maneuver Set (STEMS) on the
NASA F/A-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle (HARV) as part of this program.
McDonnell Douglass Aerospace had previously developed the STEMS (Ref. 3)
for the USAF Flight Dynamics Directorate through piloted simulation.
Details of the two-phase HARV flight test program are published in Ref.
4 and summarized herein. Unfortunately, further direct funding for
flight test of other demonstration maneuvers was not available. Thus,
efforts were made to evaluate additional maneuvers as part of existing
USAF, NASA, and United States Navy (USN) flight test programs. In the
end, 18 maneuvers of the 36 present in the final version of the maneuver
catalog were evaluated in flight. Additional maneuver evaluations were
conducted via piloted simulation. The results of these evaluations are
presented in Part IV, while details of the individual flight test and
simulator programs are provided in the appendices to this report.

The last step was to assemble the revised maneuvers into a final version
of the maneuver catalog (Part V of this report). The authors, of course,
anticipate and encourage refinements and additions to the catalog as new
research is conducted. To facilitate the use of the catalog, Part V has
been published as a separate report volume.

This volume of the report concludes in Part VI with a program summary
and recommendations for further research.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Klyde, D. H.; Mitchell, D. G.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Handling qualities demonstration maneuvers for fixed wing
aircraft Vol. II: Maneuver catalog

**City:** Hawthorne, CA

**Institution:** Systems Technology, Inc.

**Pages:** 1-95

**Date:** September

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** 1310-1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** David H. Klyde: Systems Technology,
Inc.

David G. Mitchell: Hoh Aeronautics, Inc.

**Keywords:** handling qualities, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** (A. Introduction)

This report documents the results of a Phase II Small Business
Innovation Research (SBIR) contract to develop and evaluate a set of
demonstration maneuvers for the evaluation of fixed wing aircraft
handling qualities. Systems Technology, Inc. (STI) and principle
subcontractor Hoh Aeronautics, Inc. (HAI) conducted the work for the Air
Force Dynamics Directorate at Wright Laboratory. The significant
aircraft handling qualities research of the past 25 to 30 years was
reviewed and relevant flight test maneuvers were compiled and
categorized. By applying a mission-oriented approach, the maneuvers were
categorized by required levels of precision and aggressiveness. A
preliminary demonstration maneuver set was assembled with existing,
refined, and newly defined maneuvers. Flight test evaluations with
experienced test pilots were then used to verify that a maneuver could
be flown as intended, to revise maneuver descriptions and handling
qualities performance requirements, and to assess operational relevance.
Some maneuver evaluations were also conducted with ground-based
simulators when relevant flight test opportunities did not exist. The
results of these evaluations were used to assemble a final maneuver
catalog. Maneuvers that were found to emphasize aircraft performance
rather than handling qualities were removed from the final set. The
resulting catalog is referred to as \"final\" only in relation to this
research effort. Following in the footsteps of previous aircraft
handling qualities research, the maneuver catalog is considered a living
document and therefore further revisions and additions are expected as
new research is conducted.

The overall program objective was to develop a catalog of demonstration
maneuvers that may be used to evaluate:

-All aircraft types (military and civil) and mission tasks;

-Modern flight control systems;

-The effect of advanced displays and vision aids on handling qualities;
and

-Multiple-axis handling qualities.

In addition the maneuvers will provide a check of handling qualities
beyond the quantitative criteria of the military flying qualities
standard, MIL-STD-1797A (Ref. 1). A primary benefit of a formalized set
of repeatable, measurable, and well-constrained demonstration maneuvers
is that they may be used from the initial design stages to
post-developmental testing of an aircraft. Because the demonstration
maneuvers are mission-oriented, they provide an essential link between
operational requirements and the design process. Volume I of this report
provides relevant background material, a discussion of the issues
influencing the development of candidate maneuvers, results of specific
flight test and piloted simulation evaluations, and a program summary
and recommendations.

This report volume presents a set of handling qualities demonstration
maneuvers that were developed to be included in a future revision to
MIL-STD-1797A. These are *handling qualities* evaluation maneuvers, and
are not intended to dictate aircraft performance. Rather they should be
adjusted to include the full performance range of the aircraft. They are
also not specifically aimed toward assessment of susceptibility to
pilot-induced oscillations (PIO); other work is currently ongoing for
this purpose. This is why the familiar Handling Qualities During
Tracking (HQDT) task, for example, that requires the pilot to track a
target as tightly as possible, is not included. Other air-to-air
tracking tasks with defined performance requirements, however, are
included in this set of maneuvers.

The desired and adequate performance requirements of the demonstration
maneuvers catalog presented herein were developed specifically for use
with the familiar Cooper-Harper Handling Qualities Rating Scale (Ref.
2). In addition, the maneuvers were assembled with the expectation that
PIO ratings would also be taken, or at the least PIO susceptibility
would be included in the pilot evaluation process. For this reason
explicit desired and adequate performance requirements regarding PIO and
\"bobble\" were not included in the maneuver descriptions. The
susceptibility of an aircraft configuration to undesired or divergent
oscillations should, therefore, be considered implicit requirements and
always be accounted for in the pilot\'s ratings and comments.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Knotts, Louis H.; Bailey, Randall E.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Ground simulator requirements based on in-flight simulation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Atlanta, GA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** September 7-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Knotts: Principal Engineer, Member
AIAA, Calspan Advanced Technology Center, Buffalo, NY

Bailey: Senior Engineer, Calspan Advanced Technology Center, Buffalo, NY

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** ground simulator requirements, in-flight simulation,
NT-33A, piloting tasking, pilot-induced oscillations, time delays, upset
recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Several recent NT-33A in-flight simulation projects have
addressed issues relevant to ground simulator fidelity. During two of
these studies a comparison was made of handling qualities for several
aircraft configurations when flown in the NT-33A compared to the same
configurations flown in a ground simulator. Piloting tasks consisted of
visual landings and head-up display tracking tasks. During one of these
studies systematic variation of added time delay was made for several
generic types of aircraft in the flight as well as the ground simulator
environment. Observations were made concerning the effects of piloting
task, simulator motion, and time delay on aircraft handling qualities. A
third study consisted of an in-flight investigation into the effects of
feel system dynamics and time delay on lateral handling qualities. It
was found that low frequency artificial feel systems can significantly
degrade handling qualities. The findings of this study can be applied to
control loader requirements for ground simulators. A common theme of the
generic simulation studies performed in the NT-33A is that calibration
and documentation is an essential step in the set-up of a simulation.
This is true not only for simulation of aircraft dynamics, but also for
other characteristics which may affect handling qualities such as time
delay and control stick characteristics.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kochan, Janeen A.; Priest, James E.; Moskal, Mike

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Human factors of upset recovery training

**Conference Name:** 17th Annual European Aviation Safety Seminar

**Conference Location:** Warsaw, Poland

**Publisher:** Flight Safety Foundation

European Regions Airline Association

**Date:** March 14-16

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kochan and Moskal: Calspan-UB
Research Center, Inc.

Priest: Calspan

**Keywords:** loss-of-control, unexpected events, upset recovery
training (URT)

**Abstract:** Loss-of-control in flight was the largest category of
fatal U.S. commercial air carrier accidents between 1994 and 2003.
Loss-of-control accidents were also the leading cause of general
aviation accidents in the U.S. in 2003 and these accidents have been on
the constant increase for all categories of flight in the U.S. for the
past 25 years. Statistics from aviation accidents and incidents from
around the world echo the same theme. In response to this issue, the
Flight Research Training Center was established in 2002, in cooperation
with the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, to provide specific
training for pilots dealing with \"upset events\" that could lead to
loss-of-control. This multi-faceted Upset Recovery Training (URT)
program includes other types of aircraft. This paper will discuss (a) a
model representing the cognitive process of surprise, (b) how an
unexpected event can escalate to a loss-of-control situation, and (c) an
upset recovery training program which addresses specific aspects of the
model critical to a pilot\'s successful response to an unexpected event.
Relevant loss-of-control accidents from around the world will be
reviewed and practical applications of upset recovery techniques will be
presented with a focus on human factors aspects of the unexpected.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Kocks, Kathleen

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Training overview: Filling the \'qualifications gap\'

**Magazine:** Aviation Today

**Volume:** December

**Date:** December

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** Rotor & Wing\'s recent polling of the helicopter training
industry reveals progress in training new commercial pilots, but some
disturbing trends suggest that the industry faces serious challenges.

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Kolasinski, E. M.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Prediction of simulator sickness in a virtual environment

**Number of Pages:** 5

**URL:**
<http://www.hitl.washington.edu/research/knowledge_base/virtual-worlds/kolasinski/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Kolasinski, Eugenia M.; Goldberg, Stephen L.; Hiller, Jack
H.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Simulator sickness in virtual environments

**City:** Alexandria, VA

**Institution:** United States Army Research Institute for the
Behavioral and Social Sciences

**Date:** May

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** Technical Report 1027

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kolasinski: U.S. Army Research
Institute

Goldberg: Chief, Simulator Systems Research Unit

Hiller: Director, Training Systems Research Division

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** U.S. Army Research Institute for
the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria,
VA 22333-5600

**Number of Pages:** 48

**Abstract:** [Requirement]{.underline}

The Army has made a substantial commitment to Distributed Interactive
Simulation (DIS) and the electronic battlefield for training, concept
development, and test and evaluation. The current DIS training
system\--Simulation Networking (SIMNET)\--and the next generation
system\--the Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT)\--provide effective
training for soldiers fighting from vehicles, but are unable to do the
same for individual dismounted soldiers. Virtual Environment (VE)
technology has the potential to provide Individual Combat Simulations
(ICS) for the electronic battlefield. However, initial research in the
use of VE technology indicates that some participants experience
simulator sickness\--a pattern of symptoms including nausea, headaches,
and disorientation. This has implications for both training
effectiveness and safety. This report is the first step in the
identification of ways to reduce the occurrence and severity of these
symptoms.

[Procedure]{.underline}

Since the research literature of simulator sickness in VEs is very
limited, the literature on sickness in other types of simulators and, to
a lesser extent, the literature on the related phenomenon of motion
sickness were reviewed. The factors believed to affect the duration and
severity of simulator sickness were organized into three groups:
simulator factors, task factors, and individual factors.

[Findings]{.underline}

Although there is debate as to the exact cause or causes of simulator
sickness, a primary suspected cause is inconsistent information about
body orientation and motion received by the different senses, known as
the cue conflict theory. For example, the visual system may perceive
that the body is moving rapidly, while the vestibular system perceives
that the body is stationary. Inconsistent, non-natural information
within a single sense has also been prominent among suggested causes.

Although a large contingent of researchers believe the cue conflict
theory explains simulator sickness, an alternative theory was reviewed
as well. Forty factors shown or believed to influence the occurrence or
severity of simulator sickness were identified. Future research is
proposed.

[Utilization of Findings]{.underline}

This literature search provides a framework that can be used to conduct
future research to reduce the occurrence of simulator sickness in
virtual environments. In addition, it has directly influenced the
approach being used in technical advisory service provided to
Headquarters, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, to reduce
simulator sickness in combat vehicle trainers.

**URL:**
<http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA295861&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Komoda, Masaki; Kawahata, Nagakatsu; Tsukano, Yukichi; Ono,
Takatsugu

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** VSRA In-flight simulator\--Its evaluation and applications

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Atlanta, GA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** September 7-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Komoda: Tokyo Metropolitan
Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Kawahata: Nihon University, Chiba, Japan

Tsukano and Ono: National Aerospace Laboratory, Tokyo, Japan

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** The paper describes an in-flight simulator named VSRA
(Variable Stability and Response Airplane), in some detail. The VSRA
system is designed based upon an explicit model following theory. Only
linearized dynamics are assumed. Discussed are technical difficulties
which are pertinent to the VSRA systems and have been overcome to
achieve good model following capabilities. Two examples of VSRA\'s
application to studying problems concerning to man-machine dynamic
systems are included to show that the VSRA is a mandatory device to some
classes of flight mechanical problems. The one is related to evaluating
a newly proposed mode-decoupling (named Relaxed Static and Speed
Stability - RSS^2^) system, and the other is to investigate pilot\'s
capability for detecting failures in control systems assuming an
aircraft accident.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Koonce, J. M.

**Year:** 1974

**Title:** Effects of ground-based aircraft simulator motion conditions
upon prediction of pilot proficiency. Part II

**City:** Savoy, Illinois

**Institution:** University of Illinois

**Date:** April

**Report Number:** AFOSR-TR-74-1292

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois, Savoy, IL

**Number of Pages:** 213

**Keywords:** performance prediction, pilot training, flight simulator
motion

**Abstract:** Three groups of thirty pilots with multi-engine and
instrument ratings performed a simulated flight mission in a General
Aviation Trainer - 2 (GAT-2) on each of two days. The experimental
conditions for the groups differed in terms of GAT-2 motion (Group
I\--no motion; Group II\--sustained linear, scaled-down analog motion;
Group III\--washout motion). Each group of pilots then flew the same
mission in a light twin-engine aircraft representative of the class of
aircraft simulated by the GAT-2. The experimental design was a two
factor mixed design (groups by days) with repeated measures on one
factor (groups).

The mission consisted of five maneuvers representative of those usually
performed under instrument flight rules (IFR) without visual reference
to the outside world and five maneuvers usually performed with outside
visual contact under visual flight rules (VFR). In the simulator, all of
the maneuvers were performed without outside visual reference.

Two trained observers, one of whom was also the safety pilot for the
mission, recorded pilot performance on each mission in a specially
designed booklet. The order of assignment of observers to the mission
permitted recording of a pilot's performance on two successive missions
by the same observer and two independent observers.

The results indicated that the proficiency of aircraft pilots can be
predicted to a high degree from ground-based simulator performance
measures. Of the three simulator motion conditions used greater
prediction of operator performance from a simulator to flight can be
obtained using sustained cockpit motion than by using washout motion or
no motion. There was no significant difference between the predictive
validities of performance with no motion and washout motion.

The experiment demonstrated that very high observer-observer
reliabilities (r = .771 to .971) on the same mission can be obtained by
recording performance on scales that are well defined and easy to
follow, descriptive of the maneuver and behavior being recorded, and not
too demanding upon the person doing the recording of performance. The
performance measures taken in the simulator tended to be more reliable
than those taken in the aircraft because of the elimination of degrading
environmental factors and the reduction of safety oriented duties
frequently imposed upon safety observers.

Simulator motion tends to increase subject acceptability of the device,
lower performance error scores, and reduce the workload on the subjects
and observers through the aiding effects of the motion onset cues. But
the differential effects of motion on two performance trials in the
simulator do not transfer to performance in flight. In the prediction of
operator performance in flight the magnitude of the error scores
resulting with the use of one motion system as opposed to another is not
as important as the stability of the subjects' performances from one day
to the next. Increasing the fidelity of the simulator motion system may
bring much of the variability of flight into the simulated environment
which was used to escape the variability of the operational environment.

The recorded pilot performance measures correlated very highly with the
observers' overall subjective ratings of the missions (r = .726 to
.878). The observers' overall ratings correlated slightly higher with
performance on instrument flight maneuvers than with performance on
visual flight maneuvers. Other possible indices of pilot proficiency,
such as the amount of multi-engine land, instrument or total flight time
logged in the past six months, did not correlate very well with mission
performance scores, in fact they correlated about as well as age.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Koonce, Jefferson M.; Bramble, William J., Jr.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Personal computer-based flight training devices

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 8

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 277-292

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Koonce: University of Central
Florida, Center for Applied Human Factors in Aviation, Orlando

Bramble: Flight Safety International, Daytona Beach, Florida

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** personal computer aviation training devices (PCATDs),
aviation pilot training, flight simulator development, simulator
training, fidelity

**Abstract:** This article reviews the role of personal computer
aviation training devices in general aviation pilot training. A brief
history of flight simulator development is provided, accompanied by a
sampling of early research on the effectiveness of simulator training.
PCATDs are described along with their more common interface devices.
Next, an examination of the use of PC-based flight simulators in formal
and informal flight training programs reveals some of the recent data
validating their use. Special emphasis is paid to the use of PC-based
flight simulators for the instruction of novices in how to fly and the
training of pilots in the performance of instrument flight maneuvers.
Then, the role fidelity plays in producing transfer from PC-based
training devices is addressed. Finally, a case is made for researchers
to provide the kind of data that regulatory agencies should use in
determining the standards for certification of PCATDs in flight training
programs. Finally, suggestions are made for improvement of future
PC-based flight training devices.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Korn, Jonathan; Kleinman, David L.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** Modeling lateral acceleration effects on pilot performance

**Conference Name:** Ames Research Center 16th Annual Conference on
Manual Control

**Conference Location:** Storrs, CT

**Publisher:** University of Connecticut, Department of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Connecticut,
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Storrs, CT
06268

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** Attendant to the direct side force maneuver of a Vectored
Force Fighter is the transverse acceleration imposed on the pilot. This
lateral acceleration(Gy), when combined with a positive Gz stress, is a
potential source of pilot tracking performance impairment. A research
effort to investigate these performance decrements includes experimental
as well as analytical pilot performance modeling using the Optimal
Control Model.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Korteling, J. E.; Sluimer, R. R.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** A critical review of validation methods for the
man-in-the-loop simulators

**Institution:** TNO Human Factors Research Institute

**Pages:** 1-31

**Date:** March 16

**Type:** TNO-report

**Report Number:** TNO-report TM-99-A023

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** TNO Human Factors Research
Institute, Kampweg 5, 3769 DE Soesterberg

**Number of Pages:** 32

**Abstract:** This review examines the methodological concepts,
paradigms and pitfalls related to validation- and fidelity studies of
man-in-the-loop simulators. A distinction is made between validation
methods for training simulators and for research simulators. Validation
methods for training simulator are applied in experiments which assess
effects of simulator variables (e.g. resolution of display, cue
augmentation, moving base characteristics) on the effectiveness of a
simulator as a training device. Validation methods for research
simulators are applied in experiments which assess the effects of
simulator variables on the effectiveness of a simulator as a research
tool. The review is particularly focused on the various artifacts that
may affect the outcome of such validation experiments. The artifacts are
separately described for each single validation method. It will be
demonstrate that validation of simulators is a very complicated matter
and prone to various methodological flaws and confounding factors. After
the discussion of the common methods including their advantages and
disadvantages the following recommendations for future research are
given:

1\. Terminology in the field of simulator research is ambiguous. It is
advised to standardize terms, which will lead to more comprehensible
communication among researchers.

2\. Validity is not a single, independent attribute. The term validity
in simulator research only makes senses if related to functional aspects
of simulators, such as the purpose of the simulator (training, research)
and the tasks and training methods involved. This will reduce the amount
of overgeneralizations that are now encountered too frequently.

3\. Always take face validity into consideration. If people do not
believe in the simulator they are not very likely to use it properly.

4\. Apply more than one method in simulator validity study. Combination
of e.g. objective with subjective methods reduces the risk of erroneous
conclusions and combines the benefits of both kinds of methods.

5\. Aim more research at creating task-specific formulas, which relate
physical simulator variables to psycho-physical and human performance
variables. This will reduce the need to measure human task performance
in simulator validation studies.

6\. Always allocate substantial effort to find a practical method that
still compares simulator performance with on-the-job performance by
subjects. A relatively simple and practical method is proposed to assess
the effectiveness of a driving simulator training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Kozac, J. J.; Hancock, P. A. ; Arthur, E. J.; Chrysler, S.
T.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Transfer of training from virtual reality

**Journal:** Ergonomics

**Volume:** 36

**Pages:** 777-784

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kraft, Conrad L.; Shaffer, Larry W.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Visual criteria for out of the cockpit visual scenes

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kraft: Ph.D., Crew Systems, Boeing
Aerospace Company, Seattle, WA

Shaffer: Systems Engineering, General Electric Company, Daytona Beach,
FL

**Number of Pages:** 18

**Keywords:** visual resolution, cockpit visual scenes, field of view,
virtual image display

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kricke, K. Dieter; Quellmann, Wilfried

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Use of a virtual cockpit for the development of a future
transport aircraft

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation Effectiveness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** October 14

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kricke: Dr-Ing., Deutsche Airbus,
Kreetslag 10, P O Box 95 01 09, 2103 Hamburg 95, Germany

Quellmann: Dipl.-Ing., Deutsche Airbus, Kreetslag 10, P O Box 95 01 09,
2103 Hamburg 95, Germany

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** virtual cockpit, transport aircraft

**Abstract:** This paper describes a development tool called \"Virtual
Cockpit\" which is used at Deutsche Airbus.

The following aspects are discussed:

· A comparison of civil and military transport aircraft developments
shows a significant gap on the military tactical transport side during
the last 30 years. Therefore, it seems beneficial to consider a \"dual
use\" of well proven \"civil technologies\" for military applications.

· Specific military transport missions require aircraft capabilities,
some of which are quite new and therefore challenging for transport
aircraft (e.g. low-level flight profiles in night and poor-visibility
conditions). This demonstration of the feasibility and an evaluation of
technical solutions imply the need for suitable development tools.

· The Virtual Cockpit is explained in terms of its components
(hardware/software), features and capabilities. A major field of
investigation in this contest is the aircraft systems\' central control
and monitoring.

**Notes:** Published in February 1992.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Krois, P.; Ahlstrom, U.; Bürki-Cohen, J.; Jentsch, F.;
Kanki, B.G.; Lyall, B.; Manning, C.; King, R.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Business case for civil aviation human factors

**Conference Name:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th Annual
Meeting

**Conference Location:** San Francisco, CA

**Date:** October 16-20

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Panel Organizer: Paul Krois,
Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C.

Panelists: Ulf Ahlstrom, FAA Technical Center, Atlantic City Airport,
NJ; Judith Bürki-Cohen, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center,
Cambridge, MA; Florian Jentsch, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
FL; Barbara Kanki, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA; Beth
Lyall, Research Integrations, Inc., Tempe, AZ; Carol Manning and Ray
King, FAA Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, Oklahoma City, OK

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** We examined how human factors research and engineering in
addressing flight deck and air traffic control issues improves safety
and provides tangible cost savings and cost avoidance for Federal
Aviation Administration sponsors and industry. The agency spends a
limited percentage of its annual budget on research and prioritizes
these investments to ensure the best return. This research cuts across a
range of human factors considerations spanning selection of applicants
for air traffic controller jobs, flight simulator fidelity, generation
of scenarios used in pilot training, a new evaluation tool for flight
deck certification, design of flight deck operating documents, and
design of an air traffic controller information display aid.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Kurts, David; Gainer, Charles

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** The use of a dedicated testbed to evaluate simulator training
effectiveness

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Piloted
Simulation Effectiveness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** October 14

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kurts: Manager, Tactical Systems,
CAE Electronics Ltd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Gainer: Chief, Army Research Institute, Aviation Research and
Development Activity, Fort Rucker, AL

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Keywords:** testbed, training effectiveness, SCTB, visual

**Abstract:** The Simulator Complexity Test Bed (SCTB) is being produced
for the U.S. Army Research Institute Aviation Research and Development
Activity (ARIARDA) at Fort Rucker, Alabama to specifically address the
question of the level of simulation fidelity required to ensure adequate
transfer of training in a tactical helicopter simulator environment.
This paper presents the objectives of the SCTB, the hardware and
software architecture designed to facilitate these goals and presents
examples of some typical research that will be conducted. The simulator
is based in the Apache AH-64A attack helicopter using aircraft parts and
simulated avionics to provide a realistic replica of the pilot and
copilot gunner stations.

**Notes:** Published in February 1992.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** L-3 Communications\' Link Simulation & Training Division

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Link Simulation & Training: Setting the standard for over 75
years

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** July 9

**Last Update Date:** January 18, 2006

**Keywords:** Edwin Link, Link trainer, history

**Abstract:** In today\'s world of acquisitions and consolidations,
organizational history can become blurred and sometimes forgotten. At
L-3 Communications\' Link Simulation & Training division, however, we
point with pride to a heritage that dates back to several successful
organizations that in recent years have been merged into one of the
world\'s foremost training and simulation companies.

The Link name has been associated with training excellence for 75 years.
Below are a few of the historical highlights of the beginning of flight
simulation and the Link organization.

**URL:** <http://www.link.com/history.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Ladkin, Peter B.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** The crash of AA587: A Guide

**Institution:** RVS Group, University of Bielefeld

**Pages:** 1-25

**Date:** November 18

**Report Number:** RVS-RR-04-03

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** RVS Group, University of Bielefeld

**Number of Pages:** 25

**Keywords:** American Airlines flight 587, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Abstract:** This note considers some of the technical and
sociotechnical aspects of the accident uncovered by the three-year
investigation.

**URL:**
<http://www.rvs.uni-bielefeld.de/publications/Reports/CrashOfAA587.pdf>

**Author Address:** ladkin@ rvs.uni.bielefeld.de

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Lahiri, Arnab

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Importance of spatial sound cues in simulators

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** San Diego, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** July 29-31

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Staff Systems Engineer, NATCO,
Eagan, MN

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Abstract:** Flight simulators attempt to replicate an environment
conducive to aircrew training. The designated level of the simulation is
a \[sic\] directly dependent on the resultant fidelity towards realism.
This fidelity has been the key factor that has enabled progression in
transfer of training both in procedures and methods. Amongst the many
different cues available sound plays a very important role in a
simulator training scenario. With upcoming regulations governing the
fidelity of flight simulators, the status of simulated sound has been
further elevated. Sufficient emphasis has, however, not been replaced on
the spatial aspects and effects of sound. Sound cues, especially in the
cockpit, does \[sic\] not only alert to a single or a series of events
but also attempt to provide various information regarding the source(s).
Use of modern sound recording techniques can be easily utilized along
with multiple sound gathering elements to obtain the kind and quality of
sound data needed. These sounds can then be duplicated in a
multi-channel environment for closer spatial simulation. Testing would
involve the use of similar setups, though in a much simpler form which
would also ensure repeatability. Simpler setups would reduce cost and
time involved as well. It is necessary to justify such fidelity which
would ultimately ensure not only enhanced simulation to further training
requirements but reasonable methods of maintaining the integrity of the
standards of the sound as well.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Lahiri, A.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Significance of a qualitative handing assessment approach
towards motion system requirements for flight simulators

**Institution:** National Simulator Program (NSP), Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA)

**Date:** July 18

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Simulator Program, Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), Atlanta, GA

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** Progress drives regulation and regulation drives progress.
The aircraft is a classic example where one aspect is constantly trying
to push the other to be a step ahead.

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/aircraft_aviation/nsp/research/media/Arnab_Lahiri.rtf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lambo, Roger

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Panel to review relevance of flight crew licensing and
training standards

**Journal:** ICAO Journal

**Volume:** 8

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** ICAO Secretariat

**Abstract:** ICAO flight crew licensing and training standards have
served international aviation well in their present format for over half
a century, but now need to be re-examined in light of significant
changes in aircraft and training technology.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Landsberg, Bruce

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Safety pilot: Meet the PCATD

**Series Editor:** Landsberg, Bruce

**Publisher:** Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA)

**Access Year:** 2006

**Access Date:** Sept. 6

**Number of Pages:** 4

**URL:** <http://www.aopa.org/asf/asfarticles/sp9707.html#bio>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Landsberg, Bruce

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Safety pilot: A boot in the posterior

**Periodical Title:** AOPA Pilot

**Issue:** January

**Date Accessed:** October 16, 2006

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Executive Director, Aircraft Owners
and Pilots Association (AOPA) Air Safety Foundation

**Keywords:** American Airlines flight 587, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Abstract:** (first paragraph) It\'s exceedingly rare to have an
aircraft come apart, especially when it is flown within the design
envelope. So there was great surprise and consternation when American
Flight 587, an Airbus 300, shed its vertical stabilizer and rudder while
flying well below maneuvering speed (VA). It would be understandable if
the jet started shedding pieces at high speed after a robust control
deflection, but we\'ve all been told that if the aircraft is below VA,
it will stall before bad things happen. What are the implications for
pilots of light aircraft?

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Larish, John F.; Flach, John M.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Sources of optical information useful for perception of speed
of rectilinear self-motion

**Journal:** Journal of Experimental Psychology

**Volume:** 16

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 295-302

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** optical information, rectilinear self-motion, optical edge
rate, global optical flow rate

**Abstract:** Magnitude judgments of the speed of self-motion were
examined. The principal independent variables were edge rate, global
optical flow rate, and the type of texture (grid or dot). Results
indicated that edge rate and global optical flow rate had additive
effects on magnitude judgments, with edge rate accounting for a larger
portion of the variance. Effects were independent of texture type.
Secondary variables examined were viewing condition and task load.
Attempts were made to control the availability of flatness cues.
Evidence indicates that the effectiveness of global optical flow rate
varied with the control of flatness cues. A secondary running auditory
Sternberg task was used to prevent edge counting; the presence of this
task did not reduce the effect of edge rate. These results replicate and
extend previous work by D. H. Owen and colleagues.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Larsen, William E.

**Year of Workshop:** 1991

**Title:** Proceedings of the NASA/FAA helicopter simulator workshop

**Workshop Name:** NASA/FAA helicopter simulator workshop

**Workshop** **Location:** Biltmore Hotel, Santa Clara, California

**Publisher:** United States Department Of Commerce, National Technical
Information Service

**Attendees:** Boothe, Edward M.; Birnbach, Richard A.; Longridge,
Thomas M.; Hwoschinksy, Peter V.; Treichel, Curt; McGowan, Greg; Golden,
Gerald; Hampson, Brian; Payne, Barry; McIntosh, John; Cross, Kenneth D.;
Adams, Richard J.; Dohme, Jack; Du Val, Ronald; Tischler, Mark B.; Key,
David; Lewis, Major William D.; Schrage, D.P.; Prasad, J.V.R.; Wolfe,
Major Daniel; Adams, Ronald J.; Johnson, Walter W.; Lombardo, David A.;
Cook, Edward D.; McGowen, Greg J.

**Date of Workshop:** April 23-26

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Federal Aviation Administration,
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

U.S. Department Of Commerce, National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA 22161

**Number of Pages:** 192

**Keywords:** cockpit, simulators, helicopters, standards, training
simulators, military technology, NASA programs, research and development

**Abstract:** A workshop was convened by the FAA and NASA for the
purpose of providing a forum at which leading designers, manufacturers,
and users of helicopter simulators would initiate and participate in a
development process that would facilitate the formulation of
qualification standards by the regulator agency. Formal papers were
presented, special topics were discussed in breakout sessions, and a
draft FAA advisory circular defining specifications for helicopter
simulators was presented and discussed. A working group of volunteers
was formed to work with the National Simulator Program Office to develop
a final version of the circular. The workshop attracted 90 individuals
from a constituency of simulator manufacturers, training organizations,
the military, civil regulators, research scientists, and five foreign
counties. A great amount of information was generated and recorded
verbatim. This information is presented herein within the limits of
accuracy inherent in recording, transcribing and editing spoken
technical material.

**Notes:** Contents:

Helicopter Simulator Standards (Edward M. Boothe)

Helicopter Simulation: An Aircrew Training and Qualification Perspective
(Richard A. Birnbach and Thomas M. Longridge)

Rotorcraft Master Plan (Peter V. Hwoschinksy)

Simulators for Corporate Pilot Training and Evaluation (Curt Treichel)

Training Effectiveness Assessment: Where Are We? (Greg McGowan)

Current Training: Where Are We? (Gerald Golden)

Helicopter Simulator Qualification (Brian Hampson)

Helicopter Simulation: Making It Work (Barry Payne)

Helicopter Training Simulators: Key Market Factors (John McIntosh)

Training Effectiveness Assessment: Methodological Problems and Issues
(Kenneth D. Cross)

Progress Through Precedent: Going Where No Helicopter Simulator Has Gone
Before (Richard J. Adams)

Transfer of Training and Simulator Qualification or Myth and Folklore in
Helicopter Simulation (Jack Dohme)

Validation and Upgrading of Physically Based Mathematical Models (Ronald
Du Val)

Frequency-Response Techniques for Documentation and Improvement of
Rotorcraft Simulators (Mark B. Tischler)

Bandwidth and SIMDUCE as Simulator Fidelity Criteria (David Key)

Methodological Development for Evaluation of Selective-Fidelity
Rotorcraft Simulation (Major William D. Lewis, D.P. Schrage, J.V.R.
Prasad, and Major Daniel Wolfe)

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Session Presentation Discussions:

Session A: Training: Limits, Allowances, and Future (Ronald J. Adams)

Session B: Scene Content and Simulator Training Effectiveness (Walter W.
Johnson)

Session C: Low-Cost Training Alternatives: Part- and Full-Task Trainers
(David A. Lombardo)

Session D: Dynamic Response and Engineering Fidelity in Simulation
(Edward D. Cook)

Session E: Current Training: Where Are We? (Greg J. McGowen)

Session F: Aero Modeling (Ronald W. Du Val)

**URL:**
<http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930021484_1993021484.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Larsen, William E.; Randle, Robert J.; Popish, Lloyd N.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Vertical flight training: An overview of training and flight
simulator technology with emphasis on rotary-wing requirements

**Series Editor:** NASA

**Number of Pages:** 325

**Label:** NASA Reference Publication 1373

DOT/FAA/CT-94/83

**Keywords:** vertical flight training, rotary-wing requirements, flight
simulators, simulation validation, training schools, training
requirements, cockpit motion, visual space perception

**Notes:** Contents:

Foreword - xi

Acknowledgements - xiii

Introduction - xv

1\) An Overview of the Vertical Flight Industry: The Source of Training
Requirements - 1

By John D. McIntosh and Lloyd N. Popish

2\) Training and Training Schools: Meeting Current Requirements - 15

By Noel G. Preston

3\) Training Systems Design and Development - 30

By Owen M. Lee and Carmen E. Asencio-Lee

4\) Transfer of Training and Cost-Effectiveness - 61

By Daniel P. Westra and Gavan Lintern

5\) The Military Quest for Flight Training Effectiveness - 87

By Jack Dohme

6\) Alternative Training Systems - 131

By David A. Lombardo

7\) Training Devices Manufacturing - 146

By John Carlton and Stephen Francis

8\) Simulator Aero Model Implementation - 178

By Thomas S. Alderete

9\) Simulation Validation in the Frequency Domain - 203

By Jeff A. Schroeder, Mark B. Tischler, Douglas C. Watson and Michele M.
Eshow

10\) Visual Space Perception in Flight Simulators - 256

By Robert J. Randle, Jr. and John Sinacori

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Latham, Roy

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Achieving consistent colors and textures in visual simulation

**City:** Mountain View, CA

**Institution:** Computer Graphics Systems Development Corporation

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Computer Graphics Systems
Development Corporation, Mountain View, CA 94043-2330

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** color, texture, visual simulation, color cataloging

**Notes:** Regarding simulators in general.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Laughery, K. Ronald

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Human operator modeling: A new technology for addressing
human factors during design

**Conference Name:** IEEE 1984 National Aerospace and Electronics
Conference

**Conference Location:** Dayton, Ohio

**Date:** May 21-25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Micro Analysis and Design, Boulder,
CO

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** Tools now exist which will allow human factors engineers
to estimate human performance in systems early in system design. Human
Factors engineers can now develop computer models and conduct
experiments on human performance long before any type of prototype is
available. This paper addresses four questions; 1) when should computer
models of operator performance be used, 2) what are the available
technologies, 3) what are some of the recent advancements in one of
these technologies, and 4) what steps are involved in building a model
of human operator performance in a system.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Lavitt, Michael O.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Mobile Beach 1900 simulator brings training to pilots

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Date:** October 27

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** mobile simulator, Techniflite, Skyway Airlines, Paul Ray,
portable simulator

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lawther, A.; Griffin, M. J.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Motion sickness and motion characteristics of vessels at sea

**Journal:** Ergonomics

**Volume:** 31

**Issue:** 10

**Pages:** 1373-1394

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Factors Research Unit,
Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton,
Southampton, S09 5NH England

**Number of Pages:** 22

**Keywords:** seasickness, motion illness, vomiting, ship motion

**Abstract:** Measurements of vessel motion and consequent seasickness
amongst passengers have been made on six ships, two hovercraft and a
hydrofoil. Data are presented for 20029 passengers surveyed on 114
voyages involving 370 hours of motion recordings. Vomiting incidence and
illness rating were found to be linearly related to the root-mean-square
magnitude of the vertical z-axis acceleration. Sickness increased with
increasing duration of exposure and a measure of motion \"dose\" is
examined as a convenient way of combining the variables of stimulus
magnitude and duration. High frequency motion in hovercraft at about 0
multiplied by 6 Hz was found to be less provoking of sickness than
similar magnitudes at lower frequencies. Motion in axes other than the
vertical correlated less highly with sickness, although there was some
intercorrelation between axes. The results presented enable predictions
to be made of seasickness occurrence in marine vessels and other forms
of transport where low frequency vertical oscillations are encountered.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lawther, A.; Griffin, M. J.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** A survey of the occurrence of motion sickness amongst
passengers at sea

**Journal:** Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine (ASEM)

**Volume:** 59

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 399-406

**Date:** May

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Factors Research Unit,
Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, The University, Southampton,
England

**Abstract:** A questionnaire survey of motion sickness occurrence on
board passenger ferries has been conducted. Data were collected from
20,029 passengers on 114 voyages on 9 vessels: 6 ships, 2 hovercraft,
and 1 jetfoil. Information was obtained about feelings of illness, the
occurrence of vomiting, the taking of anti-seasickness tablets, the
consumption of alcoholic drinks, regularity of travel by sea, age, and
sex. Overall, 7% of passengers reported vomiting at some time during the
journey, 21% said they felt \"slightly unwell,\" 4% felt \"quite ill,\"
and a further 4% felt \"absolutely dreadful.\" Both vomiting incidence
and illness rating were greater in females than in males, and there was
a slight decrease in sickness occurrence with increasing age. The
incidence of vomiting was related to the taking of tablets and the
drinking of alcohol; there were also some interaction effects with other
variables. Anecdotal information from passengers is reported and
consideration is given to the effects of environmental variables.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Lawver, Jim; Lee, Alfred T.

**Year of Workshop:** 1983

**Title:** Low cost training aids and devices

**Editor:** Lee, Alfred T.

**Workshop Name:** Flight Training Technology for Regional/Commuter
Airline Operation

**Workshop** **Location:** Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date of Workshop:** September 28-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Lawver: Scientific Airlines

Lee: NASA

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Learmount, David

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Training & recruitment: Raising the bar

**Magazine:** Flight International

**Date:** November 21

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** type rating training, recurrent training, low-cost
training, ATR, flight training device (FTD), full flight trainer (FFT)

**Abstract:** Advanced type and recurrent training is so expensive that
pilots do not get enough of it to hone all their skills. But does it
have to be that way?

**URL:**
<http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2006/11/21/210637/training-recruitment-raising-the-bar.html>

<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/Flight_International_Nov_20061.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Lee, Alfred T.

**Year of Workshop:** 1983

**Title:** Low-cost training technology

**Editor:** Lee, Alfred T.; Lauber, John K.

**Workshop Name:** Flight Training Technology for Regional/Commuter
Airline Operation

**Workshop** **Location:** Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date of Workshop:** September 28-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA 94035

**Abstract:** (from first page) You\'re going to hear a great deal in
this workshop about technology and air crew training. I\'d like to use
this opportunity to point out some important differences between
training technology on the one hand and the technology of flight
simulation on the other. I will also describe two relatively inexpensive
training systems in order to demonstrate how low-cost technology when
properly applied can meet training needs. Finally, I would like to
discuss the potential impact of new cockpit technology on training and,
I think, some innovative approaches that are being tried to solve these
problems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Lee, Alfred T.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Flight simulation: Virtual environments in aviation

**City:** Burlington, VT

**Publisher:** Ashgate

**Number of Pages:** 137

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Beta Research, Inc. Los Gatos, USA

**Number of Pages:** 137

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Lee, Alfred T.; Bussolari, Steven R.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Flight simulator requirements for airline transport training:
An evaluation of motion system design alternatives

**Conference Name:** IEE Second International Conference on Simulators

**Conference Location:** University of Warwick, United Kingdom

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lee, Alfred T.; Bussolari, Steven R.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Flight simulator platform motion and air transport pilot
training

**Journal:** Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine

**Volume:** 60

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 136-140

**Date:** February 1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Lee: M.A., Ph.D., NASA Ames
Research Center

Bussolari: M.S., Ph.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** (jbc) keywords-flight simulator, platform motion, air
transport pilot, training

**Abstract:** The influence of flight simulator platform motion on pilot
training and performance was examined in two studies utilizing a
B-727-200 aircraft simulator. The simulator, located at Ames Research
Center, is certified by the FAA for upgrade and transition training in
air carrier operations. Subjective ratings and objective performance of
experienced B-727 pilots did not reveal any reliable effects of wide
variations in platform motion design. Motion platform variations did
affect the control behavior of pilots with no prior heavy aircraft
flying experience. The effect was limited, however, to pitch attitude
control inputs during the early phase of landing training. Implications
for the definition of platform motion requirements in air transport
training are discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Lee, Alfred T.; Lauber, John K.

**Year of Workshop:** 1983

**Title:** Regional airline association/NASA workshop proceedings

**Workshop Name:** Flight Training Technology for Regional/Commuter
Airline Operation

**Workshop** **Location:** Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date of Workshop:** September 28-30

**Number of Pages:** 263

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Lee, W-S.; Kim, J-H.; Cho, J-H.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Development of a driving simulator

**Institution:** Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Automotive
Engineering, Kookmin University, 861-1 Chungnung-dong, Sungbuk-gu,
Seoul, 136-702, Korea

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** driving simulator, real-time vehicle simulation,
visual/audio system, motion system, control force loading system, system
integration

**Abstract:** Driving simulators are used effectively for vehicle system
development, human factor study, and other purposes by enabling to
reproduce actual driving conditions in a safe and tightly controlled
environment. This paper describes a driving simulator developed for
design and evaluation of full-scale driving simulators and for
driver-vehicle interaction study. The simulator consists of a real-time
vehicle simulation system, a visual and audio system, a motion system, a
control force loading system, and an experiment console. The real-time
vehicle simulation system supervises overall operation of the simulator
and also simulates dynamic motion of realistic vehicle models in
real-time. The economical visual system generates high fidelity driving
scenes that are displayed on a screen by a projector. The motion system
generates realistic motion cue using a six degree-of-freedom Stewart
platform driven hydraulically. The control force loading system acts as
an interface between a driver and the simulator. The experiment console
monitors the status of the simulator in operation and also collects and
manages experimental data.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Leibowitz, H. W.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Recent advances in our understanding of peripheral vision and
some implications

**Conference Name:** Human Factors Society 30th Annual Meeting

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Pennsylvania State university,
University Park, PA

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** The characteristics of peripheral vision and its relation
to object recognition and spatial orientation functions are reviewed in
the light of recent developments. Implications of these findings and
their relevance to some selected human engineering problems are
discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Levison, William; Baron, Sheldon; Kleinman, David

**Year:** 1969

**Title:** A model for human controller remnant

**Journal:** IEEE Transactions on Man-Machine Systems

**Volume:** MMS-10

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 101-108

**Date:** December

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** IEEE Members

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** A model for human controller remnant is postulated in
which remnant is considered to arise from an equivalent observation
noise vector whose components are linearly independent white noise
processes. Extensive analysis of data obtained from simple manual
control systems verifies that this model structure holds over a wide
range of input amplitudes and bandwidths, vehicle dynamics, and display
locations. When the display is viewed foveally, the component noise
processes are proportional to the variances of the displayed quantities.
This constant of proportionality is independent of input parameters and
of vehicle dynamics.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Levison, William H.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Effects of whole-body motion simulation on flight skill
development

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** Bolling Air Force Base, Air Force Office of Scientific
Research

**Date:** October

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** AFOSR-TR-82-006

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., 10
Moulton Street, Cambridge, MA 02238

**Keywords:** human operator technology, human operator modeling,
learning, optimal control model, parameter identification, motion cueing

**Abstract:** Progress was made toward the development of models for
piloting skill acquisition. The following tasks were accomplished: (1)
design of an experiment to study visual and motion cue integration in a
multi-axis control task; (2) enhancement of the optimal control pilot
model; (3) further development of a scheme for automatic identification
and significance testing of \"pilot-rated\" model parameters; (4)
analysis of control strategy development; (5) study of the relationship
between task structure and pilot response limitations; (6) test of a
multiplicative motor noise model; and (7) a brief literature search on
adaptive control and identification algorithms for potential application
to models for control-strategy development.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Levison, William H.; Junker, Andrew M.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** A model for the pilot\'s use of motion cues in roll-axis
tracking tasks

**City:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

**Institution:** Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Aerospace
Medical Division, Air Force Systems Command

**Date:** June

**Type:** Interim Scientific Report

**Report Number:** AMRL-TR-77-40

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.,
Cambridge, MA 02138

**Number of Pages:** 76

**Keywords:** human operator technology, human operator modeling,
motion, optimal control model

**Abstract:** An experimental and analytical study was undertaken
jointly by the Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory and Bolt Beranek
and Newman Inc. to test a model for the pilot\'s use of motion cues in
roll-axis tracking tasks. Simulated target-following and
disturbance-regulation tasks were explored with subjects using
visual-only and combined visual and motion cues. The effects of motion
cues on task performance and pilot response behavior were appreciably
different for the two task configurations and were consistent with data
reported in earlier studies for similar task configurations.

The \"optimal-control\" model for pilot/vehicle systems provided a
task-independent framework for accounting for the pilot\'s use of motion
cues. Specifically, the availability of motion cues was modeled by
augmenting the set of perceptual variables to include position, rate,
acceleration, and acceleration-rate of the motion simulator; and results
were consistent with the hypothesis of attention-sharing between visual
and motion variables. This straightforward informational model allowed
accurate model predictions of the effects of motion cues on a variety of
response measures for both the target-following and
disturbance-regulation tasks.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Liao, J.; Milgram, P.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** On validating human performance simulation models

**Conference Name:** Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Industrial
Engineering, University of Toronto

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** This paper addresses some of the difficult and elusive
problems associated with validating human performance simulation models.
Simulation validity can be subclassified into input and validity,
structure validity and output validity. Of these, output validity is the
most objective and also the most important, because it determines
whether or not the purpose of the modeling effort can be met. In testing
for output validity analysis of variance alone is not sufficient for
validating human performance simulation models, as is often taken for
granted by many researchers. A more systematic approach is proposed and
its implications discussed. The approach is based on considering
analysis of variance in terms of the power of the test and a
predetermined level of acceptable differences between model and reality.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lind, Rick; Brenner, Marty

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Incorporating flight data into a robust aeroelastic model

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 35

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 470-477

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** Aeroelastic Model

**Abstract:** Stability analysis and control synthesis for
high-performance aircraft must account for errors in the aircraft model.
This paper introduces a method to update a theoretical model using
measured flight data. Variations between the flight data and model are
represented as uncertainty operators in a robust stability framework.
The structured singular value can directly account for these uncertainty
operators to compute stability margins robust to the associated
dynamical variations. This procedure is used to formulate an uncertain
model of an F/A-18 fighter aircraft and compute stability margins that
indicated the worst-case flutter conditions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Linklater, Amy; Slutz, Jeff

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Exploring the Larger Amplitude Multi-mode Aerospace Research
Simulator\'s motion drive algorithms

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6470

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Linklater: Associate Aerospace
Engineer, Air Vehicles Technology and Assessment Branch, Air Force
Research Laboratory, 2180 8th St. Building 145 Wright-Patterson, OH,
45433

Slutz: Senior Simulation Engineer, Protobox, Air Force Research
Laboratory, 2180 8th St. Building 145 Wright-Patterson, OH, 45433

**Abstract:** Over the past few years there has been continued interest
in using motion-based simulation to evaluate the flying and handling
qualities of future aircraft concepts. The Large Amplitude Multi-mode
Aerospace Research Simulator (LAMARS) has been utilized to reduce risk
for flight tests and test the constraints on new aircraft designs. The
LAMARS is a one of a kind, five-degree-of-freedom motion simulator
located in the Aerospace Vehicles Technology Assessment and Simulation
Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The simulator is driven
by software that was developed in 1974 when the system was originally
delivered to the Air Force Research Laboratory. This drive software is
composed of various combinations of linear filters designed to provide
onset cueing. One of the constraints on this motion drive algorithm was
the computer processing power available in the 1970s. With today\'s
processing powers the possibility to add \"intelligence\" to the drive
algorithms could further improve the onset cueing. Advances in control
theory may allow changes to the motion drive algorithm to be made which
could provide more realistic motion cueing. Several new options for the
motion drive algorithms are currently being researched. Nonlinear and
linear optimal control techniques are being investigated to see if cost
functions based on maximizing the true cues while minimizing the false
cues could be applied to motion cueing. Adaptive control algorithms
capable of dynamically adjusting filter parameters based on current
accelerations, velocities and positions to avoid hitting system limits
are being explored. Closed-loop algorithms utilizing feedback from a
calibrated pilot instrumentation package are being researched.
Algorithms based on \"smart washouts\" along with human perception
effects are also being considered. These new techniques will eventually
be compared to the current motion algorithm in a simulation study to try
and improve the motion cueing of LAMARS. This paper will discuss the
current motion drive algorithm in some detail and some of the newer
techniques being considered.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lintern, Gavan

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** An informational perspective on skill transfer in
human-machine systems

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 33

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 251-266

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois, Savoy, IL

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Abstract:** Differentiation of perceptual invariants is proposed as a
theoretical approach to explain skill transfer for control at the
human-machine interface. I propose that sensitivity to perceptual
invariants is enhanced during learning and that this sensitivity forms
the basis for transfer of skill from one task to another. The hypothesis
implies that detection and discrimination of critical features,
patterns, and dimensions of difference are important for learning and
for transfer. This account goes beyond other similarity conceptions of
transfer. To the extent that those conceptions are specific, they cannot
account for effects in which performance is better following training on
tasks that are less rather than more similar to the criterion task. In
essence, this is a theory about the central role of low-dimensional
informational patterns for control of behavior within a high-dimensional
environment, and about the adjustment of an actor\'s sensitivity to
changes in those low-dimensional patterns.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lintern, Gavan; Garrison, William

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Transfer effects of scene content and crosswind in landing
instruction

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 2

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 225-244

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Aviation Research Laboratory, Institute of Aviation

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Abstract:** Transfer of landing skills was tested from a high-detail
pictorial, low-detail pictorial, or symbolic scene and from a zero,
moderate, or high level of crosswind to a high-detail pictorial scene
and a moderate level of crosswind. There were significant differential
transfer effects as assessed by measures of accuracy and stability in
lateral control. Training with pictorial scenes (whether of high or low
detail) was superior to training with a symbolic scene, but there was no
general transfer advantage from training with high versus low scene
detail. Nor was there any general advantage of training with the
transfer level of crosswind. In contrast to the prediction of a
high-fidelity theory of transfer, the data show that values of crosswind
higher or lower than the transfer value can be advantageous in certain
circumstances.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Lintern, Gavan; Garrison, William

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Simulation for flight training

**Conference Name:** Flight and Ground Vehicle Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 22-26

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Aviation Research Laboratory

**Number of Pages:** 28

**Abstract:** The modern flight-training simulator is intended to
provide safe, economical and efficient instruction of flight control
skills. At issue is how a flight simulator can be designed to ensure the
satisfaction of those goals. One approach is to seek high fidelity; that
is to design and tune the simulator so the it mimics to the closest
possible extent the perceptual sensations of real flight. The pursuit of
high-fidelity can, however be a costly exercise. A more rational design
approach would be to ascertain what dimensions of a simulation impact
training effectiveness. Such an approach might result in the design of
systems that are less costly but equally effective. Cost effectiveness
of simulators may be improved by eliminating simulator features that do
not contribute to training effectiveness and by implementing special
instructional strategies that speed learning. The evidence in support of
both approaches is reviewed in these notes.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Lintern, G.; McMillan, G.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Transfer for flight simulation

**Book Title:** Aviation Instruction and Training

**Pages:** 130-162

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Charles River Analytics

**Number of Pages:** 33

**Keywords:** transfer, transfer experiment, visual displays,
proprioceptive motion cueing, system dynamics, skill transfer

**Abstract:** The modern flight-training simulator is intended to
provide a vehicle for safe, economical and efficient instruction of
flight control skills. At issue is how a flight simulator can be
designed to ensure the satisfaction of those goals. The normal design
approach is to seek high fidelity; that is to design and tune the
simulator so that it mimics to the closest possible extent the
perceptual sensations of real flight. The pursuit of high-fidelity can,
however, be a costly exercise. A more rational design approach would be
to evaluate what dimensions of these components impact training
effectiveness. Such an approach should result in the design of systems
that are less costly but equally effective.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lintern, Gavan; Roscoe, Stanley N.; Koonce, Jefferson M.;
Segal, Leon D.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Transfer of landing skills in beginning flight training

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 32

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 319-327

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Lintern, Koonce and Segal:
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Savoy, IL

Roscoe: Aviation Sciences, Las Cruces, NM

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** Beginning flight students from the University of Illinois
flight training program were given two sessions of landing practice in a
simulator with a computer-animated contact landing display before they
commenced intensive landing practice in the aircraft. For each
experimental student there was a control student, paired with the same
instructor, who received no landing practice in the simulator.
Experimental students required significantly fewer presolo landings in
the airplane than did the paired controls, representing a potential
savings of about 1.5 presolo flight hours per student. These data show
that pretraining with a moderately detailed, yet relatively inexpensive,
computer-animated landing display can offer worthwhile savings in flight
time. Some students were provided adaptive visual augmentation during
their simulator training, and there was evidence of incremental transfer
attributable to this instructional feature.

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lintern, Gavan; Roscoe, Stanley N.; Sivier, Jonathan E.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Display principles, control dynamics, and environmental
factors in pilot training and transfer

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 32

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 299-317

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Lintern, Sivier: University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Savoy, IL

Roscoe: Aviation Sciences, Las Cruces, NM

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Abstract:** Sixty-four flight-naive men were tested in a fractional
factorial, quasi-transfer experiment to examine the effects of four
display factors, one control response factor, and one environmental
factor on acquisition and transfer of aircraft landing skills. An
additional 12 trainees served as experimental controls. Transfer was
measured from each of 64 experimental training conditions to a criterion
condition with a conventional inside-out pictorial contact display,
normal simulator control dynamics, and a 5-knot crosswind. Transfer was
better following training with pictorial displays than with symbolic
displays, and with normal rather than reduced bank control order.
Interactions of crosswind with predictive augmentation and with bank
control order showed that for some conditions, transfer benefited from
training with predictive augmentation and from training without
crosswind.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lintern, Gavan; Taylor, Henry L.; Koonce, Jefferson M.;
Kaiser, Robert H.; Morrison, Gregory A.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Transfer and quasi-transfer effects of scene detail and
visual augmentation in landing training

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 7

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 149-169

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Lintern, Taylor, Kaiser, and
Morrison: University of Illinois, Institute of Aviation, Savoy, IL

Koonce: University of Central Florida, Orlando, Center for Applied Human
Factors in Aviation, FL

**Number of Pages:** 21

**Keywords:** transfer, quasi-transfer, scene detail, visual
augmentation, landing training

**Abstract:** Beginning flight students were taught landings in a flight
simulator with a visual landing display to examine the effects of scene
detail, visual augmented guidance, and number of landing training
trials. Some students were trained in a control condition with no visual
display. Transfer was assessed in the airplane in relation to the amount
of landing training required prior to release for solo. Training with a
low-detail scene was better for transfer than was training with a
moderate-detail scene. An interaction between scene detail and augmented
guidance showed that augmented guidance enhanced transfer when used in
training with a low-detail scene but degraded transfer when used in
training with a moderate-detail scene. The data also show that both
visual and nonvisual training in the simulator build skills that enhance
transfer.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Loftus, J.; Grant, P.R.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Motion simulation of flexible aircraft

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6475

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Loftus: MASc student,

Grant: Professor

Vehicle Dynamics and Simulation Division, University of Toronto
Institute for Aerospace Studies, Toronto, Ontario, M5T 2B6, Canada

**Abstract:** This study investigates new methods for improving motion
simulation of flexible aircraft. In particular, the work concentrates on
improving the accuracy of flexible aircraft motion simulation by
splitting motion signals into their oscillating and non-oscillating
components. The non-oscillating component of the motion signals is
processed through the conventional motion drive algorithm (MDA), while
the oscillating component of the motion signals bypass the MDA and the
distortions it causes. Five different methods for separating the motion
signals are investigated. Each method is implemented for a Rockwell B1
Bomber flexible aircraft model, and the UTIAS Classical Motion Drive
Algorithm utilizing the CW2 coefficients. The fuselage-flexing
separation method is recommended for aircraft of relatively high natural
structural frequencies, and the force contribution separation method is
recommended for aircraft with low natural structural frequencies.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Long, Chris

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** New training philosophy at Airbus

**Magazine:** Civil Aviation Training (CAT)

**Issue Number:** 1

**Pages:** 21-22

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** Airbus, maintenance training, learning theory

**Abstract:** The advent of the Airbus A380 has spurred development in a
whole range of disciplines, not least in maintenance training
methodologies.

**URL:** <http://cat.texterity.com/cat/2006-1/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Longridge, Thomas; Bürki-Cohen, Judith; Go, Tiauw H.;
Kendra, Andrew J

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Simulator fidelity considerations for training and evaluation
of today\'s airline pilots

**Conference Name:** The 11th International Symposium on Aviation
Psychology

**Conference Location:** Columbus, OH

**Date:** March 5-8

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** Regulatory changes in response to today\'s airline pilot
training and evaluation needs push the twin issues of effectiveness and
affordability of flight simulators for use by U.S. airlines to the
forefront. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is sponsoring two
research programs with high pay-off potential in this area, namely,
platform motion and realistic radio communications. This paper describes
the rationale and the initial results of this work.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/isap-2001.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Longridge, Thomas; Ray, Paul; Boothe, Edward; Bürki-Cohen,
Judith

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Initiative towards more affordable flight simulators for U.S.
commuter airline training

**Conference Name:** Training: Lowering the Cost, Maintaining the
Fidelity

**Conference Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 15-16

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Longridge: Manager, Advanced
Qualification Program, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
Washington, DC

Ray: Manager, National Simulator Program, Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), Washington, DC

Boothe: Consultant, Flight Simulation and Training, Atlanta, GA

Bürki-Cohen: Engineering Psychologist, Volpe National Transportation
Systems Center, Department of Transportation, Cambridge, MA

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** Recent regulatory action, coupled to a policy of
encouraging commuter airlines to conduct all pilot training and checking
activities in ground based equipment, has created an impetus to consider
how best to ameliorate the conditions which have discouraged the use of
such equipment for pilot recurrent training by commuter airlines in the
United States. This paper compares the relative merits of permitting
additional recurrent training credit for enhanced flight training
devices versus revising the qualification standards for Level B full
flight simulators to achieve enhanced affordability. The current status
of an ongoing Level B flight simulator qualification standards review,
results to date, and future plans, including plans for the development
of a comprehensive applied research program, are discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Longridge, Thomas; Thomas, Mel; Fernie, Andrew ; Williams,
Terry; Wetzel, Paul

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Design of an eye slaved area of interest system for the
simulator complexity testbed

**Conference Name:** Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation &
Education (I/ITSEC) Conference

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Longridge: U.S. Army Research
Institute, Aviation R&D Activity, Fort Rucker, AL

Thomas: U.S. Air Force Human Resources Lab, Operations Division,
Williams AFB, AZ

Fernie, Williams: CAE Electronics, Ltd, Montreal, Canada

Wetzel: University of Dayton Research Institute, Higley, AZ

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** The Simulator Complexity Testbed (SCTB) is a highly
modular flight simulator for experimental research focused on US Army
Aviation advanced rotary wing combat. A major component in the
development of the helmet mounted fiber optic display media for this
device is an eye slaved area-of-interest (AOI). In order to provide for
an accurate, reliable, and robust helmet mounted eye tracker to support
proper system operation, the engineering development of competing eye
tracking designs was initiated under a cooperative US Army/US Air
Force/Canadian cost shared development program. This paper describes the
overall design of the SCTB eye slaved, servo driven optical system and
discusses the issues involved in its development.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Longridge, Thomas M.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Flight simulator training effectiveness research in U. S.
Army aviation

**Conference Name:** The Acquisition and Use of Flight Simulation
Technology in Aviation Training: International Three Day Conference

**Conference Location:** London?

**Date:** April 27-29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Army Research Institute, Aviation
Research & Development Activity (ARIARDA), Fort Rucker, AL

**Number of Pages:** 35

**Keywords:** flight simulator training effectiveness, cost
effectiveness

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Loose, Rainer; Probst, Thomas

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Velocity not acceleration of self-motion mediates
vestibular-visual interaction

**Journal:** Perception

**Volume:** 30

**Pages:** 511-518

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Loose: Institute of Experimental
Psychology, University of Regensburg, D 93040 Regensburg, Germany

Probst: Institute of Psychology, Technical University of Aachen, D 52056
Aachen, Germany

**Abstract:** We investigated the influence of vestibular stimulation
with different angular accelerations and velocities on the perception of
visual motion detection. Constant accelerations resulting in different
angular velocities and constant angular velocities obtained at different
accelerations were combined in twenty healthy subjects. Random-dot
kinematograms with coherently moving pixels and randomly moving pixels
were used as visual stimuli during whole-body rotations. The smallest
percentage of coherently moving pixels leading to a clear perception of
motion detection was taken as the perception threshold. Perception
thresholds significantly increased with increasing angular velocity.
Increased acceleration, however, had no significant effect on the
perception thresholds. We conclude that the achieved angular velocity,
and not acceleration, is the predominant factor in the processing of
vestibular-visual interaction.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Lowther, Kathy; Ware, Colin

**Year of Conference:** 1996

**Title:** Vection with large screen 3D imagery

**Conference** **Name:** CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems

**Conference** **Location:** Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

**Publisher:** Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Faculty of Computer Sciences,
University of New Brunswick, P.O. Box 4400, Fredericton, New Brunswick,
Canada E3B 5A3

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** vection, virtual environments

**Abstract:** Vection is the illusory impression of self motion that can
be obtained when an observer views a large screen display containing a
rotating or translating pattern. To aid in our construction of an
interactive large screen interface to virtual 3D environments, we
conducted studies to determine the factors which induce a sense of
vection. We found that having a foreground frame and a stereo display
increased vection. If subjects moved when the display was being observed
then vection decreased. However, if the perspective was coupled to their
head position while they moved then vection was restored.

**URL:**
<http://acm.org/sigchi/chi96/proceedings/shortpap/Lowther/lk_txt.htm>

**Author Address:** kathy@omg.unb.ca

cware@unb.ca

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lu, Z-L.; Sperling, G.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Contrast gain control in first- and second-order motion
platform

**Journal:** Journal of the Operational Society of America

**Volume:** 13

**Issue:** 12

**Pages:** 2305-2318

**Date:** December

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Zhong-Lin Lu: Department of
Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089

George Sperling: Human Informational Processing Laboratory, Department
of Cognitive Sciences and Institute for Mathematical Behavioral
Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Abstract:** A novel pedestal-plus-test paradigm is used to determine
the nonlinear gain-control properties for the first-order (luminance)
and the second-order (texture-contrast) motion systems, that is, how
these systems\' responses to motion stimuli are reduced by pedestals and
other masking stimuli. Motion-direction thresholds were measured for
test stimuli consisting of drifting luminance and
texture-contrast-modulation stimuli superimposed on pedestals of various
amplitudes. (A pedestal is a static sine-wave grating of the same type
and same spatial frequency as the moving test grating.) It was found
that first-order motion-direction thresholds are unaffected by small
pedestals, but at pedestal contrasts above 1-2% (5-10x pedestal
threshold), motion thresholds increase proportionally to pedestal
amplitude (a Weber law). For the first-order stimuli, pedestal masking
is specific to the spatial frequency of the test. On the other hand,
motion-direction thresholds for texture-contrast stimuli are independent
of pedestal amplitude (no gain control whatever) throughout the
accessible pedestal amplitude range (from 0 to 40%). However, when
*baseline carrier* contrast increases (with constant *pedestal
modulation* amplitude), motion thresholds increase, showing that gain
control in second-order motion is determined not by the modulator (as in
first-order motion) but by the carrier. Note that baseline contrast of
the carrier is inherently independent of spatial frequency of the
modulator. The drastically different gain-control properties of the two
motion systems and prior observations of motion masking and motion
saturation are all encompassed in a functional theory. The stimulus
inputs to both first- and second-order motion process are normalized by
feedforward, shunting gain control. The different properties arise
because the modulator is used to control the first-order gain and the
carrier is used to control the second-order gain.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Lu, Zhong-Lin; Sperling, George

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Three-systems theory of human visual motion perception:
Review and update

**Journal:** Journal of the Optical Society of America

**Volume:** 18

**Issue:** 9

**Pages:** 2332-2370

**Date:** September

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Lu: Laboratory of Brain Processes,
Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, California 90089-1061

Sperling: Human Information Processing Laboratory, Departments of
Cognitive Sciences and Neurobiology and Behavior, and Institute of
Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Irvine,
Irvine, California 92697

**Keywords:** vision, color, visual optics, motion detection

**Abstract:** Lu and Sperling \[Vision Res. 35, 2697 (1995)\] proposed
that human visual motion perception is served by three separate motion
systems: a first-order system that responds to moving luminance
patterns, a second-order system that responds to moving modulations of
feature types---stimuli in which the expected luminance is the same
everywhere but an area of higher contrast or of flicker moves, and a
third-order system that computes the motion of marked locations in a
''salience map,'' that is, a neural representation of visual space in
which the locations of important visual features (''figure'') are marked
and ''ground'' is unmarked. Subsequently, there have been some strongly
confirmatory reports: different gain-control mechanisms for first- and
second-order motion, selective impairment of first- versus second-
and/or third-order motion by different brain injuries, and the
classification of new third-order motions, e.g., isoluminant chromatic
motion. Various procedures have successfully discriminated between
second- and third-order motion (when first-order motion is excluded):
dual tasks, second-order reversed phi, motion competition, and selective
adaptation. Meanwhile, eight apparent contradictions to the
three-systems theory have been proposed. A review and reanalysis here of
the new evidence, pro and con, resolves the challenges and yields a more
clearly defined and significantly strengthened theory.

**URL:** <http://lobes.usc.edu/Journals/JOSAA01LuSperling.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Luijt, Ralph S.; Van de Moesdijk, Gerrit A.J.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Some considerations for the definition of motion cue
validation tests

**Conference Name:** European Forum on Matching Technology to Training
Requirements

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society

**Date:** May

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Lusk, Steven L.; Martin, Cynthia D.; Whiteley, James D.;
Johnson, William V.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Time delay compensation using peripheral visual cues in an
aircraft simulator

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Atlanta, GA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** September 7-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Lusk : Logicon Technical Services
Inc.

Martin : University of Dayton Research Institute

Whiteley : Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory

Johnson : Systems Research Laboratories, Inc.

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The effects of simulator time delays on performance,
control behavior and transfer of training were investigated using
supplementary peripheral visual cueing. A disturbance-regulation task
was used in which subjects were instructed to maintain a particular
heading and altitude in the presence of pseudo-random wind gusts. The
experiment took place in a fixed-base simulator with fighter-type
dynamics. Delays used for the primary visual display were 67 and 300 ms.
The peripheral horizon displays were either matched to the primary
display, mismatched, or not present at all. Respectively, the four
combinations of primary and peripheral display delays investigated were:
(1) 67 ms/ 67 ms, (2) 300 ms/ 67 ms, (3) 300 ms/ 300 ms, and (4) 300 ms/
no peripheral display. Subjects trained in one of these four conditions
for 50 trials. At the end of training, subjects in the matched, minimal
delay condition (67 ms/ 67 ms) maintained heading significantly better
(p\<.05) than subjects in each of the other three conditions. Thus,
delayed primary cues did degrade performance. However, subjects with
delayed primary cues and matched or mismatched peripheral cues
(conditions 2 and 3) did not perform significantly better than subjects
with delayed primary cues and no peripheral display (condition 4). This
suggests that supplementary peripheral cueing, matched or mismatched,
was not able to adequately compensate for the unresponsiveness of the
simulated aircraft. There were no significant differences among the
groups at transfer (trial 51).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Macchiarella, Nickolas D.; Arban, Pamela K.; Doherty, Shawn
M.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Transfer of training from flight training devices to flight
for ab-initio pilots

**Journal:** International Journal of Applied Aviation Studies

**Volume:** 6

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 299-314

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** transfer of training (ToT), ab-initio training, flight
training device (FTD)

**Abstract:** The application of flight simulation to meet pilot
training needs continues to evolve. Flight simulations built with
powerful and inexpensive computers are making high fidelity simulation
available as a medium for training ab-initio pilots at Pilot Schools and
Training Centers. The researchers conducted an 18-month study that
applied an experimental flight-training curriculum comprised of 60%
flight training device (FTD) flight and 40% airplane flight to certify
Private Pilots under Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 142. The
results from the research provided data to ascertain the effective
transfer for each flight-training task. Ab-initio student pilots
practiced each task to standard in an FTD prior to training in an actual
airplane. The researchers measured a significant degree of effective
transfer for the majority of flight tasks examined.

**URL:**
[http://www.journal.faa.gov/pdfs%20and%20native%20files/finalIJAAS%20FAL-2006%20for%20web.pdf](http://www.journal.faa.gov/pdfs and native files/finalIJAAS FAL-2006 for web.pdf)

**Author Address:** Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, 600 S. Clyde
Morris Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32114-3900

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Mack, A.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Perceptual aspects of motion in the frontal plane

**Editor:** Boff, K.; Kaufman, L.; Thomas, J.

**Book Title:** Handbook of Perception and Human Performance: Sensory
Processes and Perception

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** John Wiley and Sons

**Volume:** 1

**Number of Volumes:** 2

**Pages:** 117-126

**Edition:** 1

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Maeda, Fumiko; Kanai, Ryota; Shimojo, Shinsuke

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Changing pitch induced visual motion illusion

**Periodical Title:** Current Biology

**Volume:** 14

**Issue:** 23

**Pages:** 990-991

**Date Accessed:** July 20, 2007

**URL (needs to be pasted):**
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6VRT-4F13RF4-6-5&_cdi=6243&_user=645219&_coverDate=12%2F14%2F2004&_sk=%23TOC%236243%232004%23999859976%23540567%23FLA%23display%23Volume_14,_Issue_23,_Pages_2076-2167_(14_December_2004)%23tagged%23Volume%23first%3D14%23Issue%23first%3D23%23Pages%23first%3D2076%23last%3D2167%23date%23(14_December_2004)%23&view=c&_gw=y&wchp=dGLbVzz-zSkWz&md5=2538a386146e43df537cdbd3d47e4532&ie=/sdarticle.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Magee, L. E.; Kantor, L.; Sweeney, D. M. C.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Simulator induced sickness among Hercules aircrew

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Defence and Civil Institute of
Environment Medicine, 1133 Sheppard Ave. West, Downsview, Ontario, M3M
3B9 Canada

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** simulator induced sickness, Hercules aircrew, motion,
vision, symptoms

**Abstract:** The purposes of this study were to investigate the
incidence, severity and time course of simulator sickness among pilots
and flight engineers training on a C-130H(Hercules) flight simulator,
and to assess the influence of flight experience on susceptibility.
Evidence of simulator sickness was collected by questionnaire, tests of
balance, and observation. The questionnaires were completed at the
conclusion of a four-hour training session and 20 hours later. The
balance tests were performed immediately prior and immediately following
the training session. Overt signs of pallor, sweating, drowsiness and
visual nystagmus were also recorded at these times. Thirty-five of the
42 aircrew (i.e. 83 %) tested reported characteristic symptoms of
simulator sickness. The most prevalent were eyestrain, mental and
physical fatigue, and after-sensations of motion. Some effects persisted
following simulator training for many hours although most were not
severe. Few had delayed onset. Although eleven subjects (26%) reported
loss of balance at the end of the training session, performance on the
balance tests improved; this suggests a practice effect which masks
ataxia. With the exception of occasional nystagmus, no overt signs of
simulator sickness were evident. The relationship between aircraft
experience, both general and type-specific, and diagnostic scores based
on symptoms were examined. There was no evidence to indicate that
experience influenced susceptibility to simulator sickness.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Manville, P.; Whybray, E. D.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Low budget simulation in weapons aiming

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Royal Aircraft Establishment

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** low budget simulation, weapons aiming

**Abstract:** For a number of years the Flight Systems Department at RAE
Farnborough has been effectively operating and developing a low budget
research simulator, designed to explore aiming sequences, accuracies and
real time usage in air-to-ground weapon delivery from low altitude.

Work completed has shown the value of this basic facility in providing
fundamental data for assessment purposes and for the optimization of
pilots' tasks.

As a result, the simulator has been expanded to permit the aiming
sequences of air-to-air combat and air-to-ground designators to be
evaluated.

The description of the techniques and equipment employed illustrate how
accuracy and fidelity can be achieved within modest resources.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Martin, Edward

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Motion and force simulation systems I: Whole-body motion
simulation

**Conference Name:** The Fifteenth Annual Flight and Ground Vehicle
Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 11-15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

**Number of Pages:** 50

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Thesis

**Author:** Martin, Edward Albert

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** The influence of tactual seat-motion cues on training and
performance in a roll-axis compensatory tracking task setting

**Academic Department:** Department of Biomedical Engineering

**University:** Ohio State University

**Thesis Type:** Dissertation

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** B.S., M.S. (EE)

**Keywords:** seat-motion cues, roll-axis compensatory tracking

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Martin, Edward A.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** An investigation regarding the use of a dynamic seat-pan
display for training and as a device for communicating roll-axis motion
information

**Conference Name:** Third Symposium on Aviation Psychology

**Conference Location:** Aviation Psychology Laboratory, Ohio State
University, Columbus

**Date:** April 22-25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** U.S. Air Force, Aeronautical
Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** dynamic seat-pan, roll-axis motion, DSS, dynamic seat
system, RATS, roll-axis tracking simulator

**Abstract:** This paper describes a research program conducted to
determine the feasibility of providing useful angular onset-motion
information via a broad-area tactual seat-pan display. The experiment
was designed to permit the evaluation of the utility of the display as a
training device as well as its efficacy for imparting motion
information. The results indicate that\--with proper attention given the
drive law\--the tactual display can elicit both performance and control
behavior indistinguishable from that observed in a whole-body motion
environment. Unfortunately, the training transfer results were not so
encouraging. These indicated that the seat-pan display as used in this
study was not adequate for training naive subjects to properly interpret
and use the motion information available in a whole-body motion
environment.

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Martin, Edward A.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Motion and force simulation systems I: Whole-body motion
simulators

**Conference Name:** 15th Annual Flight and Ground Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 11-15

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Martin, Edward A.

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Guidance for development of a flight simulator specification

**City:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

**Institution:** Air Force Research Laboratory

**Report Number:** AFRL-HE-WP-SR-2007-0002

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** AFRL/HECS

Cognitive Systems Branch

2255 H street, Bldg 248

Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7022

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Air Force Material Command

Air Force Research Laboratory

Human Effectiveness Directorate

Warfighter Interface Division

Cognitive Systems Branch

Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7022

**Keywords:** engineering specification, flight simulator specification
guidance

**Abstract:** A long-standing problem in the acquisition of flight
simulators has been the clear communication of requirements through the
specification process. There are numerous reasons for this, including
obfuscation by technical jargon, fragmentation of requirements within a
specification, and a human inclination to adopt 'cut and paste'
approaches which may reflect the requirements of a precedent system more
than those of the current system. In an attempt to address these
problems, this document was developed as basis for a tool in the form of
a generic flight simulator specification that will guide specification
development for a diverse range of flight simulator applications. Each
generic specification paragraph includes recommendations and rationale
for specification language, verification, and options. Guidance reflects
the requirements established by civil regulatory agencies---such as the
International Civil Aviation Organization's criteria for the
qualification of flight simulators---as well as those unique
requirements related to military applications. This generic guidance
specification is embodied in a software format that makes it relatively
easy to use---so as to encourage its use. When it is used, the documents
produced will reflect the high degree of standardization imposed by this
guidance specification. It will provide a clear alternative to
less-disciplined cut-and-paste approaches. Standardized format and
vocabulary will help avoid misplaced information and inconsistent
interpretations. Localization and integration of requirements will
minimize conflicts.

**URL:**
[http://www.aiaa.org/Participate/Uploads/Flight%20Simulator%20Specification%20%282007%29%2Edoc](http://www.aiaa.org/Participate/Uploads/Flight Simulator Specification (2007).doc)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Martin, Edward A.; Brett, Bryan E.; Hoagland, David G.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Tools for including realistic representations of operator
performance in DoD constructive simulations

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Portland, Oregon

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Martin - Crew System Interface
Division Airforce Research Laboratory

Brett - Science Application International Company

Hoagland - Crew System Interface Division Airforce Research Laboratory

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** Military weapon systems are normally built to satisfy a
set of requirements levied by the warfighter. All these weapon systems
are manned in some sense, yet tools for quantifying the effectiveness
with which a crewstation must support operator performance are lacking.
Analysts and decision-makers need a means to readily model and
understand the effects of human performance on total weapon system
effectiveness when translating operational requirements into system
requirements. This paper discusses the research and demonstration
activities being conducted by the Combat Automation Requirements Testbed
(CART) Program within the Air Force Research Laboratory / Human
Effectiveness Directorate. CART will demonstrate how human-in-the-loop
and constructive operator models and data can be integrated with
Simulation-Based Acquisition activities for the purpose of defining
crewstation requirements. Utilizing the Army\'s IMPRINT
human-performance modeling environment, CART will provide High Level
Architecture (HLA) interfaces that enable human-performance models to
interact with constructive models of systems. A second extension will
incorporate the ability to represent the goal-oriented nature of human
performance. Modelers and analysts will be able to define operator goal
states and priorities that dynamically drive task network models based
on changing states and events in simulated military environments.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Martin, Edward A.; Osgood, Robert K.; McMillan, Grant R.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** The dynamic seat as an onset cueing device

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Monterey, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 17-19

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Martin: Ph.D., ASD/ENETA,
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-6503

Osgood: Ph.D., Systems Research Laboratories, Dayton, OH 45440

McMillan: Ph.D., AAMRL/HEF, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-6503

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** dynamic seat, offset cueing device, g-seats, ALCOGS, RATS

**Abstract:** The research described in this paper deals with an
evaluation of advanced dynamic seats as an alternative to platform
motion simulation. The dynamic seat has been shown to be an effective
device for providing task-critical onset motion information, provided
that proper attention is given to the drive laws. Its value as a
training device remains equivocal, however; additional research is
required to address this training issue.

It is difficult to extrapolate the benefit derived from dynamic seat
cueing in laboratory tracking tasks to the operational task environment.
An evaluation of the dynamic seat within the context of a more
operationally-realistic task environment is necessary. The task chosen
for this evaluation is aerial refueling. This paper discusses a brief
series of experiments initiated to develop the drive laws for additional
angular and linear degrees-of-freedom that become necessary with a
multi-axis control task like aerial refueling.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Martin, Elizabeth L.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Training effectiveness of platform motion: Review of motion
research involving the advanced simulator for pilot training and the
simulator for air-to-air combat

**City:** Brooks Air Force Base, TX

**Institution:** Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

**Date:** February

**Type:** Final Report

**Report Number:** AFHRL-TR-79-51

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Operations Training Division,
Williams Air Force Base, AZ 85224

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Air Force Human Resources
Laboratory, Brooks Air Force Base, TX 78235

**Number of Pages:** 29

**Keywords:** platform motion, transfer of training, training
effectiveness, flight simulator, flying training, Advanced Simulator for
Pilot Training (ASPT), Simulator for Air-to-Air Combat (SAAC), motion
simulation

**Abstract:** This report presents a summary review of the
transfer-of-training studies conducted by the Operations Training
Division of the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory investigating the
training effectiveness of six-degrees-of-freedom platform motion cueing.
A total of six studies are reviewed. Of the six studies, five were
conducted on the Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT) located at
Williams AFB and one on the Simulator for Air-to-Air Combat (SAAC)
located at Luke AFB. Tasks investigated included basic and advanced
contact, instruments, basic fighter maneuvers, and conventional weapons
delivery. The review of each study contains a statement of objectives, a
summary of the method and results, a data excerpt representative of the
findings, and a critique. The report also contains a description of the
research strategy from which the studies were derived, a discussion of
transfer-of-training methodology, and a discussion of the relationship
between the results of these six studies and research findings from
other agencies or facilities. Implications for future research are
discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Mathews, R. H.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Manned air combat simulation: A tool for design, development
and evaluation for modern fighter weapon systems and training of
aircrews

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Chief, Flight Simulation, Flight
Simulation Department, McDonnell Aircraft Company, A Division of
McDonnell Douglas Corporation

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** manned air combat, simulation, aircrew training

**Abstract:** Manned Aircraft combat simulation has matured into a major
element in modern fighter aircraft design and development. The
simulation fidelity now available allows meaningful training to be
accomplished such that U.S. Government is now procuring an Air Combat
Maneuvering Simulator (ACMS) for fighter tactics training. This paper
describes the contributions of manned air combat simulation to the F-15
fighter weapon systems from design concept through successful
introduction to squadron service. Specific examples are given of
airframe avionics, and integrated systems simulation support in the
design and development process. A comparison of flight simulation
results in several test programs included in air combat maneuvering is
presented. Additionally, a description is presented of the Air Combat
Maneuvering Simulator (ACMS Device 2E6) being provided to the U.S. Navy
for air combat training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Matthews, N. O.; Martin, C. A.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** The development and evaluation of a \"g\" seat for a high
performance military aircraft training simulator

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Cranfield Institute of Technology,
Cranfield, Bedford, England, MK43 OAL

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** g -seats

**Abstract:** Early \'g\' seats fitted in British Military training
simulators had been unsatisfactory in that they produced incorrect and,
in some cases, negative cues to the pilots and, in addition, were
incapable of providing simulated steady \'g\' cues.

The program of development work described in this paper will cover the
examination of the original type of seat and attempts to improve its
performance leading to the design of a completely new concept in
simulator \'g\' seats. The philosophy behind the changes in the design
will be considered and the implementation of these in terms of hardware
will be described.

Tests of the prototype model of the new seat have been carried out in
conjunction with a 3-axis motion system of improved performance
characteristics at Cranfield Institute of Technology and the results of
evaluations by a number of service test pilots and pilots will be
described.

The seat has now been accepted for installation in a service training
simulator for the next generation of high performance aircraft.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Matton, Joseph S.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Principles and technologies for reengineering pilot training

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** San Diego, CA

**Date:** July 29-31

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** Computer hardware and software technology has advanced far
more rapidly than principles for guiding its application to aviation
training. Technological capabilities will not increase the effectiveness
or efficiency of training unless the structure and processes of current
training programs are changed, and the specific potentialities of
information technology are matched to student learning needs.
Reengineering principles have been successful for increasing efficiency
and productivity within business and industry and can be applied to the
task of integrating new technologies within existing training programs.
When combined with well-established findings of learning and training
research, the reengineering of pilot training processes can successfully
tap the power of new technologies to produce overall improvements in
pilot training.

Computer hardware and software technology has advanced far more rapidly
than principles for guiding its application to aviation training. For
example, we are now able to simulate many types of flight environments
with a great deal of accuracy and realism and record the actions,
decisions, and behavior of pilots and aircrew in real time, but these
new capabilities do not guarantee effective training. Part of the
problem is due to older training models and strategies that were
produced for a different type of economy with different constraints and
limitations. Misconceptions and overgeneralizations of psychological
principles of learning and educational research have also resulted in
suboptimal training technology. Technologies, applied research, and
reengineering principles should be combined to provide for a robust
integration of technology rather than simply embellishing or automating
parts of the existing training program.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Mayrhofer, Michael; Langwallner, Bernhard; Schlüsselberger,
Richard; Bles, Willem; Wentink, Mark

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** An innovative optimal control approach for the next
generation simulator motion platform DESDEMONA

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6474

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mayrhofer: Project Manager,
Research and Development, AMST Systemtechnik GmbH,
Lamprechtshausenerstrasse, P.O. Box 3, 5282 Ranshofen, Austria

Langwallner: Researcher, Research and Development, AMST Systemtechnik
GmbH, Lamprechtshausenerstrasse, P.O. Box 3, 5282 Ranshofen, Austria

Schlüsselberger: CEO, AMST Systemtechnik GmbH,
Lamprechtshausenerstrasse, P.O. Box 3, 5282 Ranshofen, Austria

Bles and Wentink: Project Manager, Human Factors, TNO, Kampweg 5, 3769
ZG Soesterberg, the Netherlands

**Abstract:** The very unique and novel motion platform DESDEMONA was
taken into start-up operation early this year. The next generation
motion platform allows 6-DoF movement combined with the capability of
producing sustained g-forces. These features make the simulator
extremely valuable for future flight simulation applications as well as
for disorientation research and training. In order to use the equipment
for different kinds of applications advanced motion filters have been
developed. The success of Desdemona will strongly be dominated by the
quality of these motion filters. In our approach efficient numerical
optimization techniques are applied to gain control laws for given real
acceleration profiles. Additionally human perception models can be
applied and included in the optimization sequence. Two results are
discussed within this paper. The first result concerns the possible
improvement of 3-DoF human centrifuge profiles, when using 6-DoF
Desdemona capability. The second one deals with real measured car
driving data (left turn on intersection) and also includes a motion
perception model. Basically, the feasibility of this approach can be
confirmed and the results are promising.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** McCabe, Mark D.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** A low cost PC-based aviation training device for IFR flight
simulation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** New Orleans, LA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 11-13

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA-1997-3514

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** This paper describes the Jeppesen Sanderson FS-200 IFR
Flight Training System. The FS-200 is an example of a new class of
synthetic flight training device, the Personal Computer-Based Aviation
Training Device (PCATD). Recent studies of PCATD training effectiveness
show that these devices can aid teaching of instrument flight tasks at
decreased cost. Qualification requirements for PCATDs and limits for
authorized use of PCATDs are contained in FAA Advisory Circular (AC)
61-126. The qualification requirements of AC 61-126 and their influences
on the FS-200 PCATD design are discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Edited Book

**Editor:** McCauley, Michael E.

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Research issues in simulator sickness

**Series Title:** Research Issues in Simulator Sickness: Proceedings of
a Workshop

**City:** Washington, DC

**Publisher:** National Academy Press

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Naval Postgraduate School,
Monterey, CA

Committee on Human Factors, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences
and Education, National Research Council

**Keywords:** motion sickness, sensory conflict, human factors research,
vestibular, vision

**Abstract:** Simulator sickness, with symptoms similar to motion
sickness, occurs frequently in military and civilian flight trainers.
Simulator sickness appears to be independent of whether a fixed base or
moving base simulator is used. Methods for amelioration are described as
well as recommendations for future research to develop countermeasures.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** McCauley, Michael E.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Do Army helicopter training simulators need motion bases?

**Institution:** U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and
Social Sciences

**Pages:** 1-42

**Date:** February

**Report Number:** Technical Report 1176

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Naval Postgraduate School,
Operations Research Department, 1411 Cunningham Road, Room 213,
Monterey, CA 93943

**Number of Pages:** 42

**Keywords:** flight simulation, flight simulators, flight training,
helicopter simulators, simulator motion, Perceptual Control Theory,
transfer of training

**Abstract:** This report reviews the arguments and the evidence
regarding the need for simulator motion bases in training helicopter
pilots. It discusses flight simulators, perceptual fidelity, history of
motion bases, disturbance versus maneuver motion, human motion
sensation, and reviews the empirical evidence for the training
effectiveness of motion bases. The section on training effectiveness
reviews research from relevant sources, including: Military helicopter,
military transport, commercial airlines, general aviation, fighter, and
attack aircraft. In addition the author describes a Perceptual Control
Theory approach to determining the information requirements for
simulator-based training. The author concludes that there is a
substantial body of data to support the training effectiveness of flight
simulation in general; that there is virtually no evidence to support
the training effectiveness of motion platforms; that motion contributes
to in-simulator performance, particularly for experienced pilots; that
motion cues may be beneficial for flight training in unstable aircraft
and in tasks involving disturbance cues, although the evidence is weak;
and that motion, noise, and vibration contribute to the realism of the
simulation and, therefore, strongly influence the acceptance of a
simulator by the pilot community. There is no reliable evidence that a
motion base prevents simulator sickness. Instructional design is more
important than physical fidelity for training effectiveness.

**URL:**
<http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA444549&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf>

**Access Date:** July 27, 2007

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** McCauley, Michael E.; Hettinger, Lawrence J.; Sharkey,
Thomas J.; Sinacori, John B.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** The effects of simulator visual-motion asynchrony on
simulator induced sickness

**Institution:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** McCauley, Hettinger & Sharkey:
Monterey Technologies, Inc., Carmel, CA

Sinacori: John B. Sinacori Associates, Pebble Beach, CA

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** simulator visual-motion asynchrony, simulator induced
sickness, vertical motion simulator

**Abstract:** A program of experimental research on simulator induced
sickness is in progress at the Army Crew Station Branch and the
Development Branch at NASA Ames Research Center. The first of a series
of studies investigated the relationship between dynamics implied by the
visual system and delivered by the motion base. Forty-eight Army
rotorcraft pilots flew the NASA Vertical Motion Simulator (VMS) in four
consecutive 10-minute segments of increasing maneuverability while
assigned to one of four conditions of motion. Simulator sickness was
found in all motion conditions. It increased with exposure time and
maneuvering level. Differences between the four motion conditions were
not statistically significant given the individual differences in
susceptibility.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** McCauley, M. E.; Sharkey, T. J.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Cybersickness: Perception of self-motion in virtual
environments

**Journal:** Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments

**Volume:** 1

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 311-318

**ISSN:** 1054-7460

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Monterey Technologies, Inc., Cary,
North Carolina 27511

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** Human perceptual systems have evolved to provide accurate
information about orientation and movement through the environment.
However, these systems have been challenged in the past century by
modern transportation devices and will be further challenged by visual
environments (VEs) and teleoperator systems. Illusory self-motion within
a VE (\"cyberspace\") will be entertaining and instructive, but for many
users it will result in motion sickness (\"cybersickness\"). Sensory
conflict theory and the poison hypothesis provide an unproven
theoretical foundation for understanding the phenomenon. Although no
single solution is likely, the problem can be contained by a combination
of engineering design, equipment calibration, and exposure management.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** McDaniel, W. C.; Scott, P. G.; Browning, R. F.

**Year:** 1983

**Title:** Contribution of platform motion simulation in SH-3 helicopter
pilot training

**City:** Orlando, FL

**Institution:** Department of the Navy, Training Analysis and
Evaluation Group

**Report Number:** Technical Report 153

**Keywords:** flight training, motion, operational effectiveness,
platforms, flight simulators, fighter aircraft, military aircraft,
skills, training devices, performance (human), performance
(engineering), pilots, teaching methods, regression analysis,
helicopters, proficiency, learning, job analysis, structural
engineering, transfer of training

**Abstract:** A number of simulation features have been incorporated
into military flight simulators in the belief that they add to the
realism and, therefore, increase the training value (e.g., G-suit and
G-seat simulation, visual dimming to simulate Gs). Motion simulation has
been in this category; however, transfer of training studies have
generally yielded inconclusive answers or lack of positive training
value of motion for both multi-engine and fighter/attack simulators. Few
studies have addressed the contribution of motion simulation to the
training of helicopter pilots. This is the second in a series of four
studies designed to assess the training effectiveness of the Device
2F64C, SH-3 helicopter flight simulator. The overall program is
concerned with evaluating the training effectiveness of the device in
various configurations. The present study was concerned with: assessing
the contribution of motion simulation to the training of helicopter
fleet replacement pilots; assessing the engineering fidelity of the
motion platform concurrent with the study to insure that it was
performing to design specifications; and identifying variables that are
predictive of training success in fleet replacement training
environment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** McGregor, D. M.

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Some factors influencing the choice of a simulator

**Conference Name:** Simulation

**Conference Location:** Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** March

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aeronautical
Establishment, National Research Council of Canada

**Number of Pages:** 31

**Keywords:** hardware, pilot tasks, motion, field-of-view, visual
illustration,

**Abstract:** This paper outlines some of the means by which the pilot
derives motion information during flight and attempts to highlight some
of the areas in which specific simulator characteristics are required to
obtain valid results.

Discussions of several shortcomings of present hardware that must be
overcome before specific tasks, such as low altitude, low speed
maneuvering flight, can be simulated adequately and the difficulties of
achieving a thorough understanding of the man-machine system, necessary
before the simulator with just the right degree of complexity can be
selected with the confidence, are presented.

**Notes:** Lead Discussion by J.T. Gallagher and open discussion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** McIntyre, H. M.; Roberts, M. E. C.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Simulated visual scenes - Which are the critical cues?

**Conference Name:** AGARD FVP Symposium on \"Flight Simulation \--
Where are the Challenges?\"

**Conference Location:** Braunschweig, Germany

**Publisher:** NASA Technical reports

**Date:** May 22-25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Thomson Training & Simulation Ltd,
West Sussex, RH10 2RL, UK

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** Research has shown that pilots can expect information from
relatively impoverished visual scenes. However, performance of a variety
of simulated flight tasks improves with greater scene complexity.
Simulator visual systems cannot replicate the real world. Further, it is
not possible to optimize visual system performance in all areas
simultaneously. Some improvements in flight simulator visual cueing will
come inevitably, as technology advances. Others present a research
challenge, particularly where the likely effects of missing,
contradictory or distorted information are not fully understood. These
include:

The luminance dynamic range of the display; this is far less than that
encountered in reality. Relative luminances between objects cannot be
maintained. Luminance variations with range will therefore be distorted.
Maintaining accurate color ratios at low luminances is also difficult.
By careful mapping, detection ranges could be adjusted to be nominally
accurate under specific conditions but not continuously accurate. The
implications need to be considered carefully.

The simulation of night scenes, with some illuminated areas may require
the simultaneous mixing of 2 or 3 models in the same scene, creating
unusual data base management demands. This requires further
investigation.

Distance judgments may be observed to be inaccurate in the simulator. To
prevent this leading to degraded simulator performance and deficiencies
in training it may be possible to compensate for the absence of some
cues by enhancing the effect of others. Further investigation is
required to establish whether such compensation is truly possible, to
what degree it enhances simulator effectiveness and to identify
associated costs.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** McKenna, J. T.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** United, Pratt target simulator shortfalls

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 64-65

**Date:** May 24

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), United 747

**Abstract:** Heeding a study\'s call for high priority action, the
companies plan to improve simulator fidelity.

Simulators today do not portray engine malfunctions accurately.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** McLane, R. C.; Wierwille, W. W.

**Year:** 1975

**Title:** The influence of motion and audio cues on driver performance
in an automobile simulator

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 14

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 488-501

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Virginia Polytechnic institute and
State University, Blacksburg, VA

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Abstract:** A highway driving simulator with a computer-generated
visual display, physical motion cues of roll, yaw, and lateral
translation, and velocity-dependent sound/vibration cues was used to
investigate the influence of these cues on driver performance.

Forty-eight student subjects were randomly allocated to six experimental
groups. Each group of eight subjects experienced a unique combination of
the motion and audio cues. The control group received a full simulation
condition while each of the remaining five groups performed with certain
combinations of motion and sound deleted. Each driver generated nine
minutes of continuous data from which five performance measures were
derived. Results indicate that the performance of yaw, lateral, and
velocity deviation are significantly affected by the deletion of cues.
In support of the hypothesis that driver performance is augmented by the
addition of motion cues, statistically significant negative correlations
were obtained between the number of motion cues present and the measures
of yaw and lateral deviation. With respect to motion and audio cues,
recommendations are made regarding simulator design criteria.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** McMillan, Grant R.; Cardullo, Frank M.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** System integration

**Conference Name:** Thirteenth Annual Flight and Ground Vehicle
Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Publisher:** Office of Continuing Education, Watson School of
Engineering, State University of New York

**Date:** January 13-17

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** McMillan: Armstrong Laboratory

Cardullo: State University of New York at Binghamton

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Office of Continuing Education,
Watson School of Engineering, State University of New York

Binghamton, New York, Phone: (607) 777-2154, Fax: (607) 777-4411

**Number of Pages:** 132

**Abstract:** These notes address the issues of cue integration and
synchronization in terms of their effects on human sensation, perception
and performance. Before exploring these issues, let us define a few
terms. Sensation is usually defined as the process of converting or
transducing physical energy into neural impulses. The energies being
transformed may arise externally (e.g., light quanta) or from within the
person (e.g., feedback from joint motion). Perception is typically
defined as the organization of these stimuli into meaningful patterns.
In the vast majority of cases the resulting percept is stable and in
direct correspondence with the state of the observer and the
environment. Perceptual theorists have argued that stability is
maintained because the critical sensory elements do not vary from
situation to situation.

This leads to the integration and synchronization problem. What happens
when all of the critical elements are not present? What happens when the
critical sensory elements are not presented in the correct temporal
sequence? As suggested above, the stability of the perceptual process
will be affected. The observed effects may range from a complete absence
of the desired percept, to a delayed or weak percept, or in extreme
cases to severe psychological and physical discomfort. This is not meant
to imply that successful simulation requires reproduction of all the
physical energies produced by actual flight. Rather most perceptual
theorists maintain that the critical sensory events are some subset of
the real-world stimuli, or are some higher-order pattern or relationship
among the stimuli. Regardless, the key elements must be included
(integration) and the critical spatial and temporal relationships must
be maintained (synchronization).

The term cue is more troublesome to define, because of its wide variety
of uses. Some use the term to mean a stimulus or stimuli which elicit(s)
a percept. Others us the term to mean a stimulus or stimuli which
elicit(s) a specific action, or provides specific information. However,
all of these uses are an attempt to name the critical stimulus elements
or patterns that must be included in the simulation. While the precise
definitions of the terms are not critical, the sensory and perceptual
processes the terms describe are. Human perception is a highly tuned and
integrated process that has evolved and developed to respond to specific
patterns when certain events occur in the environment. When these
relationships are violated, perception is degraded.

The remainder of this paper provides an overview of the integration and
synchronization issues in flight simulation. Sources of integration and
synchronization errors are identified. Typical effects of these errors
on pilot training and performance are discussed. Finally, means
available to minimize the errors are reviewed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** McMillan, Grant R.; Cardullo, Frank M.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Integration and synchronization as perceptual issues

**Conference Name:** The Fifteenth Annual Flight and Ground Vehicle
Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 11-15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** McMillan: Armstrong Laboratory

Cardullo: State University of New York at Binghamton

**Number of Pages:** 56

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** McMillan, Grant R.; Martin, Edward A.; Flach, John M.;
Riccio, Gary E.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Advanced dynamic seats: An alternative to platform motion?

**Conference Name:** Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation &
Education (I/ITSEC) Conference

**Conference Location:** Orlando, FL

**Date:** November

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** McMillan: Armstrong Aerospace
Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433

Martin: Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
OH 45433

Flach: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Aviation Research
Laboratory, IL 61874

Riccio: Systems Research Laboratories, Inc., Dayton, OH 45440

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** advanced dynamic seats, platform motion, g-seats, RATS,
roll-axis training simulator, advanced low cost g-cueing system, ALCOGS

**Abstract:** The experiment program described in this paper is
investigating advanced dynamic seats (g-seats) as an alternative to
platform motion systems. The studies have quantified the effects of
dynamic seat cueing on the performance of a roll-axis turbulence
regulation task, and on transfer of training to a whole-body motion
simulator. The studies have clearly demonstrated that the dynamic seat
can elicit tracking performance and manual control behavior equivalent
to that observed in whole body motion. To date, significant transfer of
training from the dynamic seat to whole-body motion has only been
observed with pilot subjects. Techniques to achieve the same training
benefit with naive trainees are being pursued.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** McQuillan, F.; Ure, R.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Use of simulation to prove military worth of advanced
platform technologies

**Conference Name:** AIAA/AHS Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** Hilton Head Island, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 24-26

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** CAE Electronics Ltd., St. Laurent,
Quebec, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** advanced platform technologies, simulation, scenario
analysis, database management

**Abstract:** Spiraling costs in the development and evaluation of new
military aircraft are forcing many agencies to look to simulation as a
mechanism for advanced platform evaluation.

This paper describes a simulation facility being developed at CAE
Electronics Ltd. to support a study of advanced VTOL concepts being
conducted by the US army.

The facility allows researchers and engineers to evaluate the
effectiveness of aircraft in performing selected missions. It provides a
user-definable, high fidelity threat environment with terrain
interaction. The experimenter can specify all attributes of the various
player and tactical scenario in a flexible and user-friendly manner. A
data recording capability is available to log mission results for
off-line analysis.

For the more promising airframes identified, a real-time piloted
simulation is anticipated as the next phase of this project.

**Notes:** Published in 1992.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** McRuer, D.

**Year:** 1980

**Title:** Human dynamics in man-machine systems

**Journal:** Automatica

**Volume:** 16

**Pages:** 237-253

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Systems Technology, Inc., 13766
South Hawthorne Boulevard, Hawthorne, CA 90250, USA

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Keywords:** adaptive systems, bang-bang control, biocontrol, crossover
model, human dynamics, man-machine systems, optimal systems,
physiological models, structural isomorphic model

**Abstract:** The dynamic behavior of human operators in manual control
systems has long served as a compelling target for control theory
explanations. While many theoretical attempts have been found wanting,
some classical and modern control theory concepts have proved useful in
practice. In this paper some human dynamic properties are outlined to
illustrate the variety of human behavior, and some suitable theoretical
treatments are summarized. Time-optimal control theory is used to
characterize one form of human behavior. Other behavioral aspects are
quantified by the two predominant models in current use\--a structurally
isomorphic cause-effect model and an algorithmic model utilizing
linear-quadratic-Gaussian optimal control. Many of the procedures
developed to achieve practical utility for these models have parallels
useful for automatic control as well.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** McRuer, Duane T.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Pilot modeling

**Series Editor:** (AGARD), Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development

**Series Title:** AGARD Lecture Series No. 157: Advances in Flying
Qualities

**City:** Hawthorne, CA

**Institution:** Systems Technology, Inc.

**Pages:** 2-1 - 2-30

**Report Number:** AGARD-LS-157

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** President, Systems Technology,
Inc., 13766 S. Hawthorne Blvd., Hawthorne, CA 90250

**Number of Pages:** 31

**Abstract:** This paper begins with a description of pilot control
behavior in general. This is followed by emphasizing the essential
features of pilot dynamics for closed-loop control of aircraft. The
crossover model is presented as the simplest and most useful model for
structural-isomorphic form which accounts for some human subsystems as
well as the total input-output behavior; and an algorithmic optimal
control model which attempts to mimic the pilot\'s total response only.
Both full and divided attention conditions are treated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** McRuer, Duane T.; Allen, R. Wade; Weir, David H.; Klein,
Richard H.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** New results in driver steering control models

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 19

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 381-397

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Systems Technology, Inc.,
Hawthorne, CA

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** The dynamic control properties of drivers and
driver/vehicle systems in steering operations have been widely
investigated. This paper presents a short review of the combined
compensatory, pursuit, and precognitive features needed to describe the
total properties of the driver as a controller. Specific combinations of
these features are associated with particular driving maneuvers. Some
recent results are presented to confirm previous hypotheses and more
completely quantify the models.

The driver-organized system structure for regulation control is reviewed
with emphasis on the loops closed and adjustments made by the driver in
compensating for vehicle dynamic changes. Pursuit structures are given
which describe steering control with preview and as one explanation for
lane change maneuvers. Precognitive behavior is then presented as the
most skilled mode utilized in rapid lane changes and other
well-practiced maneuvers including obstacle avoidance. For all three
categories of control, full-scale or simulator data are presented as
indications of model verification.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** McRuer, Duane T.; Jex, Henry R.

**Year:** 1967

**Title:** A review of quasi-linear pilot models

**Journal:** IEEE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics

**Volume:** 8

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 231-249

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Abstract:** During the past several years, an analytical theory of
manual control of vehicles has been in development and has emerged as a
useful engineering tool for the explanation of past test results and
prediction of new phenomena. An essential feature of this theory is the
use of quasi-linear analytical models for the human pilot wherein the
models\' form and parameters are adapted to the task variables involved
in the particular pilot-vehicle situation.

This paper summarizes the current state of these models; experimental
data and equations of describing function models for compensatory,
pursuit, periodic, and multiloop control situations; the effects of task
variables on some of the model parameters; some data on \"remnant\"; and
the relationship of handling qualities ratings to the model parameters.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** McRuer, Duane T.; Krendel, Ezra S.

**Year:** 1974

**Title:** Mathematical models of human pilot behavior

**City:** France

**Institution:** NATO Advisory Group For Aerospace Research &
Development

**Date:** January

**Report Number:** AGARDograph No. 188

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** McRuer: President and Technical
Director, Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, CA

Krendel: Professor of Operations Research, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA

**Number of Pages:** 72

**Keywords:** human pilot behavior, stability, control, display system,
flying qualities, quasi-linear models, single-loop system configuration,
multi-loop system configuration, Successive Organization of Perception
(SOP) theory

**Abstract:** The use of mathematical models of the human pilot in
analyses of the pilot/vehicle system has brought a new dimension to the
engineering treatment of flying qualities, stability and control,
pilot/vehicle integration, and display system considerations. As an
introduction to such models, elementary concepts and specific examples
are used to set the stage for a step-by-step development of what is
known about the human pilot as a dynamic control component. In the
process, quasi-linear models for single-loop systems with visual stimuli
and multiloop systems with visual stimuli are presented and then
extended to cover multiloop, multi-modality situations. Empirical
connections between the pilot dynamics and pilot ratings are also
considered.

Some of the most important nonlinear features of human pilot behavior in
adapting to changes in the character of the stimuli are described and
tied to the quasi-linear models via the Successive Organization of
Perception (SOP) theory, which is reviewed and elaborated. Dual-mode
control models needed to describe the pilot\'s behavior in response to
sudden transients are presented, along with pursuit and compensatory
elements of the SOP continuum.

The current status of mathematical pilot models is shown to cover
random, random-appearing, and transient inputs for single- and
multi-loop system configurations. An extensive bibliography of
applications and a summary of analysis problems which have been
addressed is included, as is a short general status summary and critique
of existing models in the form of a listing of shortcomings and problem
areas.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Mecham, Michael

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Cathay refines approach to simulator training

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 35, 37

**Date:** January 17

**Number of Pages:** 2

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Mecham, Michael

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** MD-11 introduction prompts JAL maintenance review

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 36-37

**Date:** January 24

**Number of Pages:** 2

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Mechtronix Systems Inc. (MSI)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Air Deccan to take delivery of an Ascent ATR 42/72 Full
Flight Trainer from Aerosim-Mechtronix

**Periodical Title:** Asia Pacific Airline Training Symposium (APATS)

**Date Accessed:** February 21

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mechtronix, Montreal

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** ATR 42-500, ATR 72-500, turboprop, FFT, Air Deccan,
Mechtronix

**Abstract:** The Avions de Transport Regional (ATR) Training Centre has
purchased an Ascent Full Flight Trainer (FFT) for the ATR 42/72 family
of aircraft for use by Air Deccan. The FFT will be easily
re-configurable between the following configurations: ATR 42-300, ATR
42-500, ATR 72-200, ATR 72-500.

**URL:**
<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/022106air_deccan_atr_4272_fft_en.pdf>
(English)

<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/022106air_deccan_atr_4272_fft_fr.pdf>
(French)

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Mechtronix Systems Inc. (MSI)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** ATR Training Center gets dual certification for its first
Mechtronix Ascent ATR 42-300 Full Flight Trainer

**Date Accessed:** January 25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mechtronix, Montreal, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** ATR 42-500, ATR 72-500, turboprop, Mechtronix, Full Flight
Trainer (FFT)

**Abstract:** Mechtronix\'s ATR 42/72 Ascent Full Flight Trainer (FFT)
has received the dual qualification of FNPT II MCC and FTD Level 2 under
JAR-STD 3A and 2A, respectively, on December 15, 2005 at Toulouse based
ATR Training Center (ATC). JAR-STD 2A Level 2 is the highest level FTD
qualification under JAA and corresponds to FAA Level 6 FTD.

**URL:**
<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/DoubleCertificationen.pdf>
(English)

<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/DoubleCertification_fr.pdf>
(French)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Mechtronix Systems Inc. (MSI)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Skyblue Aviation orders ATR 42/72 Ascent Full Flight Trainer
from Mechtronix

**Date Accessed:** August 2, 2006

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mechtronix, Montreal, Canada

Skyblue Aviation, UK

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** ATR 42, ATR 72, turboprop, Full Flight Trainer (FFT),
Skyblue Aviation, Mechtronix

**Abstract:** UK TRTO cites simulator\'s quality performance, low
purchase price and affordable operating costs as key factors in
selection of Mechtronix Systems, a fast growing worldwide provider of
flight training equipment.

**URL:**
<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/SKYBLUEAVIATION_press_release_010806_XHjv.pdf>
(English)

<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/SKYBLUEAVIATION_press_release_010806_XHjv1.pdf>
(French)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Mechtronix Systems Inc. (MSI); ATR Training Center

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Aerosim-Mechtronix integrated training architecture in motion
at ATR

**Date Accessed:** December 15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mechtronix, Montreal, Canada

ATR, Toulouse, France

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** ATR 42, ATR 72, turboprop, Full Flight Trainer (FFT), ATR,
Mechtronix

**Abstract:** After an extensive evaluation process, ATR has recently
selected Aerosim-Mechtronix / Claris team to supply a complete family of
training tools for the ATR 42/72. The order includes: an Ascent Full
Flight Trainer, an Aerosim Virtual Flight Deck, and two Aerosim Virtual
Procedure Trainers to be based at the ATR Training Center (ATC) in
Toulouse, France.

**URL:**
<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/ATR_Announcement_151204_ATR.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Merfeld, Daniel M.; Young, Laurence R.; Oman, Charles M.;
Shelhamer, Mark J.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** A multidimensional model of the effect of gravity on the
spatial orientation of the monkey

**Journal:** Journal of Vestibular Research

**Volume:** 3

**Pages:** 141-161

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Merfeld, Young, Oman: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Man-Vehicle Laboratory, Cambridge, MA

Shelhamer: Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD

**Number of Pages:** 21

**Keywords:** spatial orientation, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** A \"sensory conflict\" model of spatial orientation was
developed. This mathematical model was based on concepts derived from
observer theory, optimal observer theory, and the mathematical
properties of coordinate rotations. The primary hypothesis is that the
central nervous system of the squirrel monkey incorporates information
about body dynamics and sensory dynamics to develop an internal model.
The output of this central model (expected sensory afference) is
compared to the actual sensory afference, with the difference defined as
\"sensory conflict.\" The sensory conflict information is, in turn, used
to drive central estimates of angular velocity (\"velocity storage\"),
gravity (\"gravity storage\"), and linear acceleration (\"acceleration
storage\"), toward more accurate values. The model successfully predicts
\"velocity storage\" during rotation about an earth-vertical axis. The
model also successfully predicts that the time constant of the
horizontal vestibulo-ocular reflex is reduced and that the axis of eye
rotation shifts toward alignment with gravity following postrotatory
tilt. Finally, the model predicts the bias, modulation, and decay
components that have been observed during off-vertical axis rotations
(OVAR).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Merfeld, D. M.; Zupan, L. H.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Influence of rotational cues on the neural processing of
gravito-inertial force

**Editor:** Harris, Laurence; Jenkin, Michael

**Book Title:** Levels of Perception

**Pages:** 1-40

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Otology and
Laryngology, Harvard Medical School

Jenks Vestibular Physiology Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear
Infirmary

**Number of Pages:** 41

**Abstract:** Sensory systems often provide ambiguous information. For
example, otolith organs measure gravito-inertial force (GIF), the sum of
gravitational force and inertial force due to linear acceleration.
According to Einstein\'s equivalence principle, no set of linear
accelerometers alone can distinguish gravitational force (which changes
with head orientation during head tilt) from inertial force (which
changes with linear acceleration of the head). Therefore, the central
nervous system (CNS) must use other sensory cues to distinguish tilt
from translation. For example, the CNS can use rotational cues provided
by the semicircular canals and vision. Much of this chapter provides a
brief review of studies showing the influence of rotational cues on the
neural processing of tilt and translation. However, we also include
previously unpublished data. We begin by discussing the underlying
physics (and associated neural processes) and neural representations. We
then present studies that measure the influence of rotational cues on
tilt responses before presenting studies of translation responses. We
finish by reviewing modeling approaches to sensory integration for both
tilt and translation responses.

**Notes:** On July 6, 2007, the web page was no longer accessible.

**URL:**
<http://paperairplane.mit.edu/16.423J/Space/SBE/neurovestibular/NVChapter.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Merriken, Michael S.; Johnson, William V.; Cress, Jeffrey
D.; Riccio, Gary E.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Time delay communication using supplementary cues in aircraft
simulator systems

**Institution:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA)

**Type:** Experimental Report

**Report Number:** 88-4626-CP

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** This study investigated the effects of providing
real-world supplementary information to the visual and tactual
modalities to reduce the deleterious effects of a delayed primary
display on operator control performance. The supplementary visual and
motion cues were presented at two different rates: (1) at the same rate
as the primary display and (2) at a rate 133 ms faster. The results
indicate that the conditions with the faster updating secondary cues had
better performance in altitude control than the conditions with the cues
at the same rate as the delayed primary display. There were no
significant effects for heading control. When compared to a control
condition with no supplementary cue there were no statistical
differences but the trend of the faster updating secondary cue
conditions having better performance scores was maintained for both
altitude and heading control.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Thesis

**Author:** Mesland, Barbara

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** About horizontal self-motion perception\...

**City:** Utrecht, The Netherlands

**University:** Utrecht University

**Thesis Type:** Ph.D. Thesis

**Keywords:** self-motion, human perception, visual illusion

**Abstract:** This thesis discusses the technique for measuring
perceived horizontal self-motion indirectly, using perceived
object-motion. It also describes sensory interactions during the
horizontal linear self-motion perception.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Mesland, B. S.; Bles, W.; Wertheim, A. H.; Groen, E. L.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** The influence of expectation on the perception of linear
horizontal motion

**City:** Soesterberg, The Netherlands

**Institution:** TNO Human Factors Research Institute

**Date:** March 23

**Type:** TNO report

**Report Number:** TM-98-A010

**Number of Pages:** 23

**Keywords:** motion study, perception of movement, vestibular responses

**Abstract:** In normal situations the judgment of linear horizontal
self-motion largely depends on visual information. In the absence of
adequate visual feedback, however, the information provided the otolith
organs and non-vestibular proprioceptors (together called linear
proprioceptive sensors) becomes more important. the particular thing
about these sensors is that they respond to linear acceleration, which
may arise from translatory motion as well as from the gravitational
acceleration. As a consequence it is difficult for these sensors to
differentiate between linear translations and tilt with respect to
gravity. This ambiguity may lead to the false percept of tilt during
pure linear accelerations along a horizontal path. Still, it was our
experience that these illusory percepts only seldomly occur when we
oscillate subjects to and fro on a linear track (the ESA-sled). It was
hypothesized that prior knowledge of subjects, who had seen the linear
motion device before the experiment, may have biased the percept toward
a vertical sensation of linear self-motion as opposed to an illusory
sensation of self-tilt. In other words, their expectation may have
influenced their perception of the stimulus. Therefore, two experiments
were carried out in which this cognitive factor was controlled as an
independent variable. In the first experiment, blindfolded subjects who
were completely naive regarding the characteristics of the motion device
were exposed to oscillatory linear motion at frequencies of 0.159 and
0.252 Hz. In the second experiment similar linear motion was applied,
but this time in combination with various angles of actual tilt of the
subject\'s seat. The subjects in this experiment were informed
beforehand that they would be exposed to various combinations of linear
motion and tilt, so that they\--although not completely naive\--could
not have any expectation about whether to perceive tilt or translation.
In both experiments the dependent variable was the report about
experienced self-motion and self-tilt. The results of both experiments
unambiguously confirm that illusory self-tilt is sensed much more
frequently when the subject has no precise expectation about the linear
motion. Expressed in another way, the expectation of subjects who have
seen the sled beforehand seems to enhance the threshold for perceiving
self-tilt. It is concluded that expectation from prior knowledge and
previous experience should be taken into account when modeling the
perception of self-motion.

The experiments described in this report clearly demonstrate that the
expectation, or mental state, of a subject has significant bearing on
the judgment of linear horizontal self-motion. Clearly, the
interpretation of sensory information about self-motion depends more on
the transfer characteristics of the peripheral senses alone. As a
consequence, one has to take cognitive factors, such as prior knowledge
or previous experience, into account when investigating or modeling the
perception of self-motion. From this point of view it will be more
difficult to exactly predict or reconstruct the sensations of an aviator
on the basis of the physical characteristics of a flight path. Seen from
the positive side, the expectation of an experienced pilot is likely to
be advantageous for the appreciation of simulated motion in a flight
simulator.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Mikula, J.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Modeling and simulation

**Magazine:** Aerospace America

**Volume:** 12

**Pages:** 80

**Date:** December

**Number of Pages:** 1

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Mikula, Julie; Chung, William W. Y.; Tran, Duc

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Motion fidelity criteria for roll-lateral translational tasks

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Portland, OR

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mikula: NASA Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field, CA

Chung: Logicon Information Systems and Services, Moffett Field, CA

Tran: NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** A systematic effort investigating the motion cueing
dependencies for coordinated roll-lateral tasks was designed for this
study. Previous studies suggested a possible criterion to determine
required motion fidelity. This experiment was expanded to confirm the
previously suggested criteria by investigating a full range of
rotational and translational motion attenuation and phase distortion.
Two translational tasks were developed: (1) a helicopter making a 20-ft
translation in hover, and (2) a fixed-wing jet making a 20-ft
translation at a cruising speed of 250 knots. Both aircraft had desired
handling qualities. Motion fidelity ratings and handlings qualities
ratings were collected as the subjective data. The results were
consistent with and extended the previously suggested fidelity criteria
for coordinated roll-lateral tasks.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Miller, G. Kimball, Jr.; Riley, Donald R.

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** The effect of visual-motion time delays on pilot performance
in a pursuit tracking task

**Conference Name:** AIAA Visual and Motion Simulation Conference

**Conference Location:** Dayton, OH

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** April 26-28

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** AIAA Members, NASA Langley Research
Center, Hampton, VA 23665

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** A study has been made to determine the effect of
visual-motion time delays on pilot performance of a simulated pursuit
tracking task. Three interrelated major effects have been identified:
task difficulty, motion cues, and time delays. As task difficulty, as
determined by airplane handling qualities or target frequency,
increases, the amount of acceptable time delay decreases. However, when
relatively complete motion cues are included in the simulation, the
pilot can maintain his performance for considerable longer time delays.
In addition, the number of degrees of freedom of motion employed is a
significant factor.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Miller, G. Kimball Jr.; Riley, Donald R.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** The effect of visual-motion time delays on pilot performance
in a simulated pursuit tracking task

**City:** Hampton, VA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** March

**Type:** Technical Note

**Report Number:** NASA TN D-8364

**Number of Pages:** 97

**Abstract:** An experimental study has been made to determine the
effect on pilot performance of time delays in the visual and motion
feedback loops of a simulated pursuit tracking task. Three major
interrelated factors were identified: task difficulty in the form of
airplane handling qualities or target frequency, the amount and type of
motion cues, and time delay itself. In general, the greater the task
difficulty, the smaller the time delay that could exist without
degrading pilot performance. Conversely, the greater the motion
fidelity, the greater the time delay that could be tolerated. The effect
of motion was, however, pilot dependent.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Miller, James C.; Sharkey, Thomas J.; Graham, Glenna A.;
McCauley, Michael E.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Autonomic physiological data associated with simulator
discomfort

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date:** February

**Report Number:** CONTRACT NAS2-12927

NASA_CR-177609

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Monterey Technologies, Inc., P.O.
Box 223699, Carmel, CA 93922

**Number of Pages:** 30

**Keywords:** simulator discomfort, simulation, helicopter, virtual
reality, motion sickness, simulator sickness, heart period, heart rate,
electrocardiogram, electrogastrogram

**Abstract:** We report here the development of a physiological
monitoring capability for the Army\'s advanced helicopter simulator
facility and some preliminary physiological data. Our objective was to
demonstrate sensitivity of physiological measures in this simulator to
self-reported simulator sickness. The data suggested that heart period,
hypergastria, and skin conductance levels were more sensitive than were
vagal tone and normal electrogastric activity.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Mohler, Betty J.; Thompson, William B.; Riecke, Bernhard;
Bülthoff, Heinrich H.

**Year of Conference:** 2005

**Title:** Measuring vection in a large screen virtual environment

**Conference** **Name:** 2nd Symposium on Applied Perception in Graphics
and Visualization (APGV'05),

**Publisher:** ACM Press

**Pages:** 103 - 109

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Mohler and Thompson: University of
Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah

Riecke and Bülthoff: Max Plank Institute for Biological Cybernetics,
Tübingen, Germany

**Keywords:** virtual environments, locomotion, self-motion perception,
vection

**Abstract:** This paper describes the use of a large screen virtual
environment to induce the perception of translational and rotational
self-motion. We explore two aspects of this problem. Our first study
investigates how the level of visual immersion (seeing a reference
frame) affects subjective measures of vection. For visual patterns
consistent with translation, self-reported subjective measures of
self-motion were increased when the floor and ceiling were visible
outside of the projection area. When the visual patterns indicated
rotation, the strength of the subjective experience of circular vection
was unaffected by whether or not the floor and ceiling were visible. We
also found that circular vection induced by the large screen display was
reported subjectively more compelling than translational vection. The
second study we present describes a novel way in which to measure the
effects of displays intended to produce a sense of vection. It is known
that people unintentionally drift forward if asked to run in place while
blindfolded and that adaptations involving perceived linear self-motion
can change the rate of drift. We showed for the first time that there is
a lateral drift following perceived rotational self-motion and we added
to the empirical data associated with the drift effect for translational
self-motion by exploring the condition in which the only self-motion
cues are visual.

**URL:**
<http://www.kyb.mpg.de/publications/attachments/mohler-etal-apgv-2005_3489%5B0%5D.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Molloy, Robert; Parasuraman, Raja

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Monitoring an automated system for a single failure:
Vigilance and task complexity effects

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 38

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 311-322

**Date:** June

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** The present study examined the effects of task complexity
and time on task on the monitoring of a single automation failure during
performance of a complex flight simulation task involving tracking, fuel
management, and engine-status monitoring. Two groups of participants
performed either all three flight simulation tasks simultaneously
(multi-complex task) or the monitoring task alone (single-complex task);
a third group performed a simple visual vigilance task (simple task).
For the multi-complex task, monitoring for a single failure of
automation control was poorer than when participants monitored engine
malfunctions under manual control. Furthermore, more participants
detected the automation failure in the first 10 min of a 30 min session
than in the last 10 min of the session, for both the simple and the
multi-complex task. Participants in the single-complex condition
detected the automation failure equally well in both periods. The
results support previous findings of inefficiency in monitoring
automation and show that automation-related monitoring inefficiency
occurs even when there is a single automation failure. Implications for
theories of vigilance and automation design are discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Monfort, M.

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Engineering analysis

**Conference Name:** Simulation; Flight Mechanics Panel

**Conference Location:** Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** March

**Number of Pages:** 21

**Keywords:** aircraft simulation, pilot workload, pilot rating

**Notes:** Lead discussion by D. R. Madill, W. R. Reynolds, I. L.
Ashkenas and D. T. McRuer. Also includes an open discussion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Mooij, H. A.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Technology involved in the simulation of motion cues: The
current trend

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aerospace Laboratory NLR,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Keywords:** motion cues, simulator sickness, visual display, motion
cue generation, current trend in visual and motion systems, basic cueing
methodology in flight simulation, developments in image generation,
image display, platform motion cue generation and motion hardware
mechanisms, importance of maintenance and calibration of flight
simulator installations

**Abstract:** The subject of motion cue generation is a topic that
requires serious attention from all involved in the design, development
and manufacture of flight simulators. The enhanced realism in the
depiction of terrain, sky, and other aircraft available in current
visual systems has been associated with an increasing number of
instances of simulator sickness. This form of sickness is the
constellation of symptoms which may be experienced by pilots as a result
of flying a simulator.

As one of the introductory papers of the AGARD Aerospace Medical Panel
Symposium on \"Motion Cues in Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced
Sickness,\" this paper presents observations concerning the current
trend in visual and motion systems.

After an introduction of basic cueing methodology in flight simulation,
the overview concentrates on developments in image generation, image
display platform motion cue generation and motion hardware mechanisms.
The paper concludes with some observations concerning the importance of
maintenance and calibration of flight simulator installations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Moon, Richard N.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Providing high performance visual simulation at low cost

**Conference Name:** Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation &
Education (I/ITSEC) Conference

**Conference Location:** Orlando, FL

**Date:** November

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Evans & Sutherland Computer
Corporation, 580 Arapeen Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84108

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** For years, the users of visual systems, in both the
military and commercial worlds, have made a plea to the developers to
significantly lower the costs of those visual systems. Then, in a second
breath, they have continued to demand high visual fidelity. Not
surprisingly, the trend among visual system developers has been to
provide more capabilities for higher cost. This paper describes a system
design where a serious and concerted effort has been made to lower
costs, while still maintaining the features most essential and effective
for training tasks. During the highly selective process of determining
system features, some capabilities, such as smooth shading, color
blending and transparencies, were seriously questioned. Other
capabilities, such as texture, scene detail management, resolution,
dynamic coordinate systems, and reasonable image quality, remain high on
the list. The paper describes how the essential features were
incorporated in a highly cost-effective design with surprising
flexibility and modularity. Painstaking efforts were made to optimize
the hardware efficiency, making use of custom, semicustom, and
commercial VLSI. These latest technologies have made possible a parallel
processor architecture in the geometric processor\--a departure from
capabilities ranging from low-cost, night-only operation to
high-resolution, daylight scenes rivaling the current high-end systems.
All of this can be contained in a single card cage per channel. The
challenge of the visual users has been met.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Moorabbin Flying Services (MFS)

**Title:** Motion platforms

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** August 15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** \"Moorabbin Airport\'s premiere
pilot training facility\" (Australia)

**URL:**
[http://www.mfs.com.au/MFS_Motion_Platforms.htm#Three%20Rotational%20Degrees%20of%20Freedom](http://www.mfs.com.au/MFS_Motion_Platforms.htm#Three Rotational Degrees of Freedom)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Morgan, P.L.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Null hypothesis significance testing: Philosophical and
practical considerations of a statistical controversy

**Journal:** Exceptionality

**Volume:** 11

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 209-221

**Keywords:** null hypothesis

**Abstract:** This article outlines underlying logic of null hypothesis
testing and the philosophical and practical problems associated with
using it to evaluate special education research.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Morimoto, M.; Ando, Y.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** On the simulation of sound localization

**Editor:** Gatehouse, R. W.

**Book Title:** Localization of Sound: Theory and Applications

**City:** Groton, CT

**Publisher:** Amphora Press

**Pages:** 85-97

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Faculty of Engineering, Kobe
University, Nada, Kobe 657, Japan

**Number of Pages:** 13

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Morrison, John

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Power analysis of gunnery performance measures: Differences
between means of two independent groups

**Institution:** Human Resources Research Organization

**Date:** January

**Report Number:** Technical Report 871

**Number of Pages:** 25

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Muller, R. C.; Allgood, C. O.; Van Hoy, B.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Prototype data acquisition and analysis system for navy
operational flight simulators

**Report Number:** DE88 014557

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak
Ridge, TN

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** flight simulators, hardware, operating systems

**Abstract:** A problem of flight simulators has been the discomfort
experienced by some pilots to the point of nausea. Likely explanations
are a significant lack of synchronization between sight and movement as
well as motion in the critical frequency magnitude region. A program to
examine this problem has been undertaken at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, and the selection of appropriate computer hardware and
software for analyzing motion and visual systems in real time is
described. While requirements such as huge data acquisition rate and
high rates operations have driven the selections, rapid advances in
computer technologies guided system development toward easy upgrade at
modest cost. Results for use and demonstration have been positive,
especially in the areas of reliability and ease of use.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Murray, P. M.; Barber, B.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Visual display research tool

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30-October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Rediffusion Simulation Ltd, Gatwick
Road, Crawley, W.Sussex RH10 2RL, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** visual display research tool, helmet mounted

**Abstract:** The simulation of the field of view seen by the pilot
through the cockpit canopy where high detail over a wide field is
required, as in low-level flight, navigation and target acquisition for
example, remains a difficult and expensive problem. The Visual Display
Research Tool (VDRT) is a new concept in visual displays which utilizes
this \'area of interest\' approach by matching its display parameters to
those of the human eye.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Nahon, M. A.; Reid, L. D.; Kirdeikis, J.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Adaptive simulator motion software with supervisory control

**Journal:** Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics

**Volume:** 15

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 376-383

**ISSN:** AIAA-90-3133-CP

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Nahon: Student Member of AIAA,
University of Ontario, Institute for Aerospace Studies, Downsview,
Ontario, Canada M3H 5T6

Reid: Associate Fellow of AIAA, University of Ontario, Institute for
Aerospace Studies, Downsview, Ontario, Canada M3H 5T6

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Keywords:** adaptive simulator motion software, supervisory control,
washout filters

**Abstract:** Concepts for flight simulator motion-drive algorithms
range from the most basic to the relatively complex, with little to
guide a choice between these, short of implementing them all and
choosing the best. In order to avoid this lengthy process and put into
practice the experience gained in a previous large-scale evaluation
exercise, a flexible motion algorithm has been implemented. It can be
run as a simple classical algorithm with few free parameters, and can be
quickly adjusted to yield good motion performance. The more
sophisticated adaptive features of the algorithm can then be brought in
gradually to improve performance. Various forms of cost functions and
adaptive features were investigated. These were tested on a synergistic
6 degrees-of-freedom motion-base simulator and promising features were
identified. Finally, a supervisory code was included to ease motion
adjustment, and to provide a safe interactive interface with the
designer, as well as automatic motion adjustment to different flight
conditions.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Nahon, Meyer A.; Ricard, Rémi; Gosselin, Clément

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Making it real - A comparison of flight-simulator motion-base
architectures

**Conference Name:** CEAS Symposium on Simulation Technology

**Date:** October 30-November 1

**Electronic Resource Number:** MSy02

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Nahon: Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Victoria, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Ricard and Gosselin: Département de Génie Méchanique, Université Laval,
Québec, Québec, Canada

**Abstract:** This paper presents a comparison of four different
six-degree-of-freedom architectures for use as flight simulator motion
platforms. The architectures included in this study are the conventional
\'Stewart Platform\', as well as three others in which the actuator
attachment points are altered. These architectures are compared on the
basis of their kinematic properties, such as workspace and rigidity, and
in terms of their ability to simulate a particular aircraft maneuver.
The comparison of the kinematic properties of the different
architectures is performed using a specialized CAD tool developed for
the kinematic analysis and optimization of parallel mechanisms. The
performance of each architecture as a flight simulator motion platform
is evaluated using a Boeing 747 aircraft simulation coupled to classical
motion washout filters. Although no architecture proved to be better
than all the others in all respects, particular architectures do excel
in particular performance measures. Overall, the Stewart platform
exhibited the most balanced performance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Nakamura, Shinji; Shimojo, Shinsuke

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Critical role of foreground stimuli in perceiving visually
induced self-motion (vection)

**Journal:** Perception

**Volume:** 28

**Pages:** 893-902

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Nakamura: Future Project Division,
Toyota Motor Corporation 1200 Mishuku, Susono, Shizuoka, 410-1193 Japan

Shimojo Computation and Neural Systems, California Institute of
Technology, 139-74 Pasadena, CA 91125, USA

**Keywords:** vection, illusory self-motion, foreground stimuli,
background stimuli

**Abstract:** The effects of a foreground stimulus on vection (illusory
perception of self-motion induced by a moving background stimulus) were
examined in two experiments. The experiments reveal that the
presentation of a foreground pattern with a moving background stimulus
may affect vection. The foreground stimulus facilitated vection strength
when it remained stationary or moved slowly in the opposite direction to
that of the background stimulus. On the other hand, there was a strong
inhibition of vection when the foreground stimulus moved slowly with, or
quickly against, the background. These results suggest that foreground
stimuli, as well as background stimuli, play an important role in
perceiving self-motion.

**URL:**
[http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/nakamura%20(1999)%20critical%20role%20of%20foreground%20stimuli%20in%20perceiving%20visually%20induced%20self-motion%20(vection).pdf](http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/nakamura (1999) critical role of foreground stimuli in perceiving visually induced self-motion (vection).pdf)

**Author Address:** snakamur@square.mk.toyota.co.jp

**Access Date:** August 15, 2007

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** NASA Ames Research Center

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** SimLab Vertical Motion Simulator

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** Feb. 5

**Description:** Overview of Vertical Motion Simulator (VMS)

**Last Update Date:** April 25, 2005

**Abstract:** (At NASA Ames research Center, in California\'s Silicon
Valley, scientists conduct advanced research in a unique flight
simulation complex. The facility provides researchers with exceptional
tools to explore, define, and solve issues in both aircraft and
spacecraft design. It offers fast and cost-effective solutions using
real-time piloted simulation, realistic sensory cues, and the greatest
motion range of any flight simulator in the world.

**URL:** <http://www.simlabs.arc.nasa.gov/vms/vms.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Blow off the cobwebs

**Magazine:** ASRS Callback; A Monthly Safety Bulletin from The Office
of the NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System

**Issue Number:** 227

**Date:** May

**Type of Article:** Newsletter

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** P.O. Box 189, Moffett Field, CA
94035-0189

**Abstract:** Even highly-qualified pilots are prone to mistakes if they
lack recent flight experience, as an air carrier First Officer learned
on a flight with a company Flight Manager.

**URL:** <http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/callback_issues/cb_227.htm>

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Nash, Trevor

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** A changing industry?

**Journal:** Journal for Civil Aviation Training

**Volume:** 8

**Issue:** 4

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Editor-in Chief, Journal for Civil
Aviation Training

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Keywords:** US Advanced Qualification Program (AQP), Ro-Ro concept,
FFS shell, FTD

**Notes:** \"CAT comment\" section of the journal.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Nataupsky, Mark; Waag, Wayne L.; Weyer, Douglas C.;
McFadden, Robert W.; McDowell, Edward

**Year:** 1979

**Title:** Platform motion contributions to simulator training
effectiveness: Study III\--interaction of motion with field-of view

**City:** Williams Air Force Base, AZ

**Institution:** Flying Training Division, Air Force Human Resources
Laboratory

**Type:** Final Report (Technical)

**Report Number:** AFHRL-TR-79-25

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** HQ Air Force Human Resources
Laboratory (AFSC)

**Keywords:** field of view, motion simulation, platform motion,
training effectiveness, transfer of training, visual simulation

**Abstract:** The objective was to determine the effects of platform
motion cueing, visual field of view, and their interaction upon learning
in the simulator and as subsequent transfer of training to the aircraft
for basic contact maneuvers in the T-37 aircraft. A transfer-of training
study design was used in which student pilots were initially trained in
the Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training and subsequently evaluated on
their first sortie in the T-37 aircraft. Each student received training
under one of four simulator configurations: (a) full platform motion
(six degrees of freedom), full FOV (300 horizontal by 150 vertical); (b)
full platform motion, limited FOV (48 horizontal by 36 vertical); (c) no
platform motion, full FOV; and (d) no platform motion, limited FOV. For
the ASPT pretraining phase, scores from the automated performance
measuring system and overall instructor pilot ratings were used for
analysis. For the T-37 evaluation sorties, the overall instructor pilot
ratings, as well as individually recorded flight parameters, were
analyzed. These data provided no conclusive evidence of differential
transfer effects resulting from platform motion cueing, size of the
visual FOV, or their interaction. As such, these data provide support
for previous findings that platform motion cueing does not significantly
enhance the transfer of learning for basic contact tasks in the T-37
aircraft. It would seem that the impact of peripheral visual cues for
initial acquisition is not critical. Furthermore, no convincing evidence
was found indicating increased transfer using platform motion in
conjunction with a narrow FOV visual scene. The major implication from
these findings is that a fixed-base, limited FOV simulator configuration
provides sufficient cueing for basic contact skills normally trained
during Undergraduate Pilot Training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** National Air Traffic Services (NATS)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** New tower is virtually real for Heathrow air traffic control

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** Feb. 5

**Description:** News

**Last Update Date:** May 5, 2006

**Type of Medium:** Website News Release

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Abstract:** One of Europe\'s most realistic air traffic control (ATC)
simulators has gone live, preparing controllers at Heathrow for life in
their new tower, 87 meters above the runways of the world\'s busiest
international airport.

**URL:**
<http://www.nats.co.uk/article/19/58/new_tower_is_virtually_real_for_heathrow_air_traffic_control_.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Update on NTSB investigation into crash of American Airlines
flight 587

**Periodical Title:** NTSB News

**Issue:** Advisory

**Date Accessed:** October 16, 2006

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NTSB Advisory, Washington, DC 20594

**Keywords:** American Airlines flight 587, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Abstract:** On November 12, 2001, at approximately 9:17 a.m., American
Airlines flight 587, an Airbus A-300-600, N14053, crashed into a
neighborhood in Belle Harbor, New York, several minutes after taking off
from Kennedy International Airport. The plane was on a scheduled flight
to Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. All 260 persons aboard the plane
died, as did 5 on the ground. The following is an update of factual
information developed during the Safety Board\'s investigation.

**Notes:** Press Release dated November 20, 2001.

**URL:** <http://www.ntsb.gov/Pressrel/2001/011120.htm>

Updates 2-12: <http://www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/AA587/default.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** In-flight separation of vertical stabilizer American Airlines
flight 587 Airbus industrie A300-605R, N14053 Belle Harbor, New York
November 12, 2001

**City:** Washington, DC

**Date:** October 26

**Type:** Aircraft Accident Report

**Report Number:** NTSB/AAR-04/04

**Keywords:** American Airlines flight 587, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Abstract:** This report explains the accident involving American
Airlines flight 587, an Airbus Industrie A300-605R, N14053, which
crashed into a residential area of Belle Harbor, New York, following the
in-flight separation of the airplane\'s vertical stabilizer and rudder.
The safety issues discussed in this report focus on characteristics of
the A300-600 rudder control system design, below an airplane\'s design
maneuvering speed, and upset recovery training programs. Safety
recommendations concerning these issues are addressed to the Federal
Aviation Administration and the Direction Générale de l\'Aviation
Civile.

**URL:** <http://www.ntsb.gov/publictn/2004/AAR0404.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Naval Aerospace Medical Institute (NAMI)

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Disorientation not attributable to strong vestibular
stimuli - Primacy of vision

**Editor:** Naval Aerospace Medical Institute (NAMI)

**Book Title:** United States Naval Flight Surgeon\'s Manual

**Edition:** 3rd

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), disorientation

**Abstract:** (taken from introduction paragraph) Many of the
disorienting conditions described in previous sections would be
considerably ameliorated or overcome by good visual reference to the
Earth\'s surface. The single most important cause of pilot
disorientation is the absence of adequate visual reference to the Earth
because of darkness or adverse weather conditions. Certain flying
conditions can introduce visual information that may be either directly
disorienting or misinterpreted, but the crucial factor in the human
response it that, without good visual reference to Earth\'s surface, the
remaining sensory data on spatial disorientation are not sufficiently
reliable to permit safe piloting of aircraft. This was nicely
demonstrated by Krause (1959) who measured times from occlusion of
pilots\' visual reference until the aircraft assumed a condition
requiring 10,000 feet for recovery. Following banks and turns, time were
typically 20 to 30 seconds, but even after level flight, mean times were
on the order of 60 seconds. Many instances of pilot disorientation are
less attributable to some overwhelming misleading vestibular response
than to some subtle perceptual inconsistency or even to perceptual
insensitivity to the acceleration environment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Nelson, W. T.; Bolia, R. S.; McKinley, R. L. Chelette, T.
L.; Tripp, L. D.; Esken, R. L.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Localization of virtual auditory cues in high +G~z~
environment

**Conference Name:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 42nd Annual
Meeting

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Nelson, McKinley, Chelette, Esken:
Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433

Bolia, Tripp: Veridian, 5200 Springfield Pike, Dayton OH 45431-1289

**Number of Pages:** 23

**Abstract:** The ability to localize a virtual auditory source was
evaluated under varying levels of sustained (+Gz) acceleration.
Participants were required to judge the locations of virtual auditory
cues located along the horizontal plane (elevation 0°) during exposure
to 1.0, 1.6, 2.5, 4.0, 5.6, and 7.0 +Gz. The experiment was conducted at
the Air Force Research Laboratory's Dynamic Environment Simulator - a
man-rated, three-axis centrifuge. No significant increases in
localization error were found between 1.0 and 5.6 +Gz; however, a
significant increase did occur at the 7.0 +Gz level. In addition, the
percentage of reversals did not vary as a function of +Gz level.
Collectively, these results indicate that one's ability to localize
virtual

auditory cues is well maintained at various levels of sustained
acceleration.

**URL:** <http://www.hec.afrl.af.mil/Publications/Hfes98v3.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Neville, Kendall W.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** More cost effective method for update and validation of
simple derivative simulations

**Conference Name:** Training: Lowering the Cost, Maintaining the
Fidelity

**Conference Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 15-16

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Boeing Commercial Airplane Group,
Seattle, WA

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** Since the establishment of the FAA Advanced Simulation
Plan in the early 1980\'s, qualification of high-level training
simulators has required an extensive quantitative comparison of
simulator and aircraft data. The requirement for direct comparison to
flight data has played a major role in the greatly improved fidelity and
increased training credit possible for high-level simulators. However,
this improved fidelity has been accompanied by a substantial increase in
the cost to the data provider for developing simulator data bases and
software models. This paper will show that for a simple derivative
airplane model where the only significant difference relative to a new
or major derivative model is a change in fuselage length, analytical
methods may be used to supplement a reduced flight validation program to
produce an equivalent flight-updated simulation, thus avoiding much of
the cost associated with the full flight update and validation process.
The primary source of validation data for a simple derivative model
would be the aircraft manufacturer\'s engineering simulator.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Nickerson, R. S.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** Intersensory facilitation of reaction time: Energy summation
or preparation enhancement?

**Journal:** Psychological Review

**Volume:** 80

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 489-509

**Date:** November

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.,
Cambridge, MA

**Number of Pages:** 21

**Abstract:** Some recent studies of intersensory facilitation of
reaction time are reviewed. The finding of interest is that reaction
time to a primary (usually visual) stimulus can be shortened if an
accessory (usually auditory) stimulus is presented at approximately the
same time. This is true when the accessory stimulus is defined as
irrelevant in the sense that the subject need not attend to it in order
to perform the task, and he is not to respond to it when it occurs
alone. Energy summation across modalities and preparation enhancement
have been suggested as two factors that play roles in facilitation, and
the position has been taken that both concepts are necessary to account
for all the results. The argument is made in this article that it is not
necessary to invoke both concepts because a preparation-enhancement
hypothesis can account for all the findings that can be explained by an
energy-summation hypothesis, and other findings as well.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Nieuwenhuizen, F.M.; Beykirch, K.A.; Mulder, M.; Bülthoff,
H.H.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Identification of pilot control behavior in a roll-lateral
helicopter hover task

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6799

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Nieuwenhuizen: PhD student, Max
Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, P.O. Box 2169, 72012
Tübingen, Germany

Beykirch: Research Scientist, Max Planck Institute for Biological
Cybernetics, P.O. Box 2169, 72012 Tübingen, Germany

Mulder: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation Division, Faculty of
Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058,
2600GB, Delft, the Netherlands

Bülthoff: Professor, Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics,
P.O. Box 2169, 72012 Tübingen, Germany

**Abstract:** This paper focuses on the influence of different forms of
motion feedback on the perception and control behavior of pilots in a
roll-lateral helicopter hover task. To identify this influence, a
combined target-following and disturbance-rejection task is carried out
where the motion feedback is visual. The participants perform the
control task with roll motion only, lateral motion only, combined
roll-lateral motion, or with no motion. A cybernetic approach is taken
to identify multi-loop pilot describing functions and estimate the
parameters of a pilot model. Results show that participants perform
significantly better at the control task with feedback of combined
roll-lateral motion, and decrease their control activity. For the
condition with feedback of roll motion a similar trend is observed. This
is explained through the increased amount of information present in the
inner roll stabilization loop.

**Author Address:** frank.nieuwenhuizen@tuebingen.mpg.de

karl.beykirch@tuebingen.mpg.de

m.mulder@tudelft.nl

heinrich.buelthoff@tuebingen.mpg.de

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Noon, Hank; Murphy, Miles

**Year of Workshop:** 1983

**Title:** Innovative approaches to recurrent training

**Editor:** Lee, Alfred T.

**Workshop Name:** Flight Training Technology for Regional/Commuter
Airline Operation

**Workshop** **Location:** Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date of Workshop:** September 28-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Noon: Command Airways

Murphy: NASA

**Keywords:** recurrent training, cockpit resource management,
guidelines

**Abstract:** (from first page) The first thing we did was to question
whether recurrent training is necessary. It was unanimously reaffirmed
that there is a need for recurrent training, and that it is a very
important element in every training program.

We tried to set down some objectives of recurrent training. The first
one is to fulfill legal requirements. The second is to fit the needs of
the airlines, and in this regard, we felt that it may require some type
of petition to change FAR\'s so that innovation is encouraged, and I
think that RAA has already started to work on that. So we didn\'t go any
further.

Number three is that incorporation of cockpit resource management is an
absolute necessity.

Number four is program guidelines. Needs and objectives derived from
analysis, including cockpit resource management must be developed and
incorporated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Norré, Marcel E.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Cues for training vertigo, providing suggestions for the
management of simulator sickness

**Conference Name:** Aerospace Medical Panel Symposium on Motion Cues in
Flight Simulation and Simulator Induced Sickness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 29

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** M.D., Ph.D., Department of
Otoneurology & Equilibriometry, The University of Leuven Hospitals,
Leuven, Belgium

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** vertigo, simulator sickness, vestibular, sensory mismatch

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Legal Rule or Regulation

**Author:** Office of the Federal Register

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Part 119 -
Certification: Air Carriers and Commercial Operators

**Rule Number:** 60

**Start Page:** 244

**Pages:** 65913-65925

**Date of Code Edition:** December 20

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** O\'Hare, David; Roscoe, Stanley

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Training environments: Instruction and simulation

**Book Title:** Flight Deck Performance: The Human Factor

**City:** Ames, Iowa

**Publisher:** Iowa State University Press

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Oman, Charles

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Sensory conflict in motion sickness: An observer theory
approach

**Editor:** Ellis, Stephen R.; Kaiser, Mary K.; Grunwald, Arthur C.

**Book Title:** Pictorial Communication in Virtual and Real Environments

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** Taylor and Francis

**Pages:** 362-376

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Keywords:** motion sickness, observer theory, exogenous motion,
sensory rearrangement, physiological basis, sensory conflict theory,
Kalman filter, orientation brain, emertic brain

**Abstract:** \"Motion Sickness \" is the general term describing a
group of common nausea syndromes originally attributed to motion-induced
cerebral ischemia, stimulation of abdominal organ afferent, or
overstimulation of the vestibular organs of the inner ear. Sea-, car-
and airsickness are the most commonly experienced examples. However, the
discovery of other variants such as Cinerama-, flight simulator-,
spectacle- and space sickness in which the normal physical motion of the
head and body are absent has led to a succession of \"sensory conflict\"
theories which offer a more comprehensive etiologic perspective.
Implicit in the conflict theory is the hypothesis that neural and/or
humoral signals orient regions of the brain subserving spatial
orientation, and that these signals somehow traverse to other centers
mediating sickness symptoms. Unfortunately, our present understanding of
the neurophysiological basis of motion sickness is far from complete. No
sensory conflict neuron or process has yet been physiologically
identified. To what extent can the existing theory be reconciled with
current knowledge of the physiology and pharmacology of nausea and
vomiting? This paper reviews the stimuli which cause sickness,
synthesizes a contemporary observer theory view of the sensory conflict
hypothesis, and presents a revised model for the dynamic coupling
between the putative conflict signals and nausea magnitude estimates.
The use of quantitative models for sensory conflict offers a possible
new approach to improving the design of visual and motion systems for
flight simulators and other \"visual environment\" display systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Oman, Charles; Benveniste, David; Buckland, Daniel A.; Aoki,
Hirofumi; Liu, Andrew M.; Natapoff, Alan; Kozevnikov, Maria

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Incongruent spacecraft module visual verticals affect spatial
task performance

**Presentation Event:** 7th Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular
Organs in Space Exploration

**Event Location:** Noordwijk, the Netherlands

**Date:** June 8

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** **Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT), National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI)**

**Keywords:** spatial disorientation, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Apollo, Skylab, Mir and ISS crews consistently reported
difficulty visualizing spatial relationships between interiors of
spacecraft modules whose visual verticals were not co-aligned, and
disorientation when transiting between them.

**URL:**
[http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session%2004%20Spatial%20Orientation/04_10_Oman.pdf](http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session 04 Spatial Orientation/04_10_Oman.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Oman, Charles M.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** A heuristic mathematical model for the dynamics of sensory
conflict and motion sickness

**Journal:** Acta Oto-Laryngologica

**Volume:** 392

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Man Vehicle Laboratory, Department of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Cambridge, MA 02139

**Number of Pages:** 44

**Keywords:** sensory conflict, motion sickness, vestibular, movement
control, autonomic nervous system, mathematical models, biocybernetics,
upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** The etiology of motion sickness is now usually explained
in terms of a qualitatively formulated \"sensory conflict\" hypothesis.
By consideration of the information processing task faced by the central
nervous system in estimating body spatial orientation and in controlling
active body movement using an \"inertial model\" referenced control
strategy, a mathematical model for sensory generation is developed.

Further systematic efforts to experimentally refine and validate the
model are indicated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Oman, C.M.; Kendra, A.; Hayashi, M.; Stearns, M.;
Bürki-Cohen, J.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Vertical navigation displays: Pilot performance and workload
during simulated GPS constant angle of descent approaches

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 11

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 15-31

**Abstract:** This study compared the effect of alternative graphic or
numeric vertical navigation aircraft cockpit displays on horizontal and
vertical flight technical error, workload, and subjective preference.
Displays included (a) a moving map with altitude range arc; (b) the same
format, supplemented with a push-to-see profile view, including a vector
flight-path predictor; (c) an equivalent numeric display; and (d) a
numeric nonvertical navigation display. Sixteen pilots each flew 4
different approaches with each format in a Frasca 242 simulator. Our
vertical navigation displays reduced vertical flight technical error by
as much as a factor of 2 without increasing workload. Relative
advantages of the graphic formats are discussed.

**Notes:** The edited version of this paper can be obtained from the
publisher, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates:
http://www.erlbaum.com/ME2/Default.asp

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/oijapvna.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Orasanu, Judith; Fischer, Ute; McDonnell, Lori K.; Davison,
Jeannie; Haars, Keri; Villeda, Eric; VanAken, Christina

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** How do flight crews detect and prevent errors? Findings from
a flight simulation study

**Conference Name:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 42nd Annual
Meeting

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Orasanu: NASA Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field, CA

Fischer: Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA

McDonnell, Davison, Haars, Villeda, VanAken: San Jose State
University/NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** In order for a team to maintain safety in a high-risk
engineered environment, its members must monitor each other\'s behavior,
as well as the situation. The advantage of a team structure is that
members can support each other, catching errors and preventing problems
from developing into serious situations. In its analysis of aviation
accidents in which crew behavior played a role, the National
Transportation Safety Board (1994) observed that most of those accidents
involved \"monitoring and challenging\" errors. After an error occurred,
the crew either failed to detect it or to communicate effectively in
order to ameliorate the outcome.

This paper describes a simulator study that examined two factors thought
to affect monitoring and challenging: (1) level of physical risk in a
developing situation and (2) degree of face threat involved in a
challenge. Events were scripted to present errors committed by a
confederate pilot (high face threat) or problems developing outside the
flight deck (low face threat). Videotapes of performance showed that
captains were more assertive and responded earlier than first officers,
often preventing the problems from developing. This difference, however,
was only evident in high-risk situations. First officers were more
sensitive to face threat than captains, indicating a need for techniques
to overcome limits to error mitigation in high-face threat situations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Orlansky, J.; String, J.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Cost effectiveness of flight simulators for military
training. Vol I: Use and effectiveness of flight simulators

**City:** Arlington, VA

**Institution:** Institute for Defense Analyses

**Type:** IDA Paper

**Report Number:** No. 1275

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Ortiz, Gustavo

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Effectiveness of PC-based flight simulation

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 4

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 285-291

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Andrews University

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** PC-based flight-simulation effectiveness was analyzed
through a transfer-of-learning study. Sixty college students with no
previous flight experience performed a designated-aircraft maneuver.
Thirty of the subjects were trained in a computer-based training device
(CBTD) before flying; the remaining 30 were taken directly to the
aircraft. Chi-square and t-test analyses on the data revealed a
statistical advantage at the .01 level of confidence for the
CBTD-trained experimental group, which performed significantly better
than the control group. The CBTD chosen for this study was AzureSoft\'s
Electronic Instrument Flight Rules Environment (ELITE), run on a Zenith
personal computer. Cessna 150 and 152 aircraft in flight training is
recommended because they have the potential for reducing the amount of
hours spent in the airplane.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Osgood, Robert K.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Pitch cueing in the dynamic seat: An exploratory study

**Institution:** Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory Human
Engineering Division (AAMRL/HE)

**Date:** February 29

**Type:** Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** TM-87-RKO-001

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Systems Research Laboratories,
Inc., A Division of Arvin Calspan

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** pitch cueing, dynamic seat, seat-pan, RMS error, ALCOGS,
seat position, seat pitch angle

**Abstract:** Appendix includes a list of notes to trackers, a copy of
the questionnaire for subjects in the pitch study, and a pitch study
system block diagram.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Otto, Deitrich; Irving, Don

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The role of the regulator

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Dietrich Otto: Joint Aviation
Authorities, Hoofddorp, The Netherlands

Don Irving: Civil Aviation Authorities, Gatwick, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** Where is training on Synthetic Training Devices (STD)
heading? Is such training limitless or should the regulator define the
limits of STD training acceptability/development. Talking about the
regulator this will be the European angle of view, so the Joint Aviation
Authorities (JAA) will be the focus.

The regulator and all other parties involved are confronted with a vast
amount of expectations and resulting commitments, all having a potential
influence on rule making. The challenges of higher mobility on people,
technical complexity of equipment and increasingly limited financial and
personal resources will have to be addressed, shortcomings identified
and subsequently managed.

The goal of mutual recognition of Flight Simulator evaluations within
the JAA has been clearly defined - and considerable progress made.
Nevertheless there is much ground still to be covered. Mutual
recognition has to extend beyond JAA membership and the ideal goal is
global harmonization and mutual recognition. FAA/JAA harmonization
efforts represent a significant start in this essential process.

The European Union\'s declaration of competency in the matter of
aviation regulation throughout the EU membership will provide a stiff
test for the JAA in the content and structure of future Joint Aviation
Requirements (JARs), including those for STDs, The establishment of, and
transition to, a European Aviation Safety Authority (EASA) will
undoubtedly impact on the JAA and care must be taken to ensure that the
transition is smooth and that earlier mistakes are not repeated. The
European regulator would do well to ensure that future rulemaking
follows existing established and well-defined principles to prevent a
divergence of the requirements for the EU and non-EU members of the JAA.

Already different Authorities around the world make use of European
(JAA) or North American (FAA) civil aviation regulations. Thus if these
two standards can be effectively harmonized they could form the basis of
a world-wide standard in aviation regulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Padfield, Gareth D.; Lee, David N.; Bradley, Roy

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** How do helicopter pilots know when to stop, turn or pull up?
Developing guidelines for vision aids

**Conference Name:** American Helicopter Society 57th Annual Forum

**Conference Location:** Washington, D.C.

**Date:** May 9-11

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Abstract:** The title of this paper, posed as a question, reflects the
current interest in gaining an improved understanding of visual
perception in flight control to inform the development of design
guidelines for future pilot vision aids. The paper develops the optical
flow theory of visual perception into its most recent incarnation,
tau-coupling, where tau is the time to closure to surfaces at current
velocity. General tau-theory posits that the closure of any type of gap,
using any form of sensory input, is guided by sensing and constantly
adjusting the tau of the gap. According to the theory, and contrary to
what might be expected, information about the distance to obstacles or
the landing surface, for example, and about the speed and deceleration
of approach, are not necessary for precise control of landing or
stopping. Analysis is presented that supports the importance of
tau-coupling in flight control. Results from simulation trials conducted
at DERA and at The University of Liverpool demonstrate the considerable
power of what we describe as tau-guides, that lead the pilot to adopt a
prospective flight control strategy.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Page, Ray L.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Brief history of flight simulation

**Conference Name:** SimTecT

**Conference Location:** Canberra, Australia

**Publisher:** Simulation Industry Association of Australia (SIAA)

**Date:** May 28-31

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** R.L. Page and Associates, Former
Manager QUANTAS SIMULATION SERVICES, 103 David Road, Lucas Heights NSW
2234

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** history, Link, Edwin Link, standards

**Abstract:** Simulation today is a multi-million dollar industry and
its application has spread to a vast number of training and analytical
requirements. Many of those now involved with this industry have little
concept of its origins and the efforts involved to gain recognition and
credibility for simulation as a training tool. The use of Simulation for
training now dates back over seventy years and as we now enter a new
century, it seems appropriate to take a brief look at the history of
this Industry.

The origins of the Simulation Industry were generated from the use of
flight training devices. This paper briefly outlines the evolution of
the flight simulator and the efforts involved to gain recognition for
its use, the establishment of standards and the constant demands of
matching ever increasing technology.

Without doubt the technology available for the simulation task to day
and for the future is unbelievable by comparison to that of the past
seventy years; however many of the problems such as data, parts and
standards which have plagued this industry from its inception, are still
evident today. Perhaps, therefore, as we enter this new century, it is
appropriate to reflect on our history, so that organizations such as the
SIAA can carry on the tradition.

**URL:**
[www.siaa.asn.au/get/2395364797.pdf](http://www.siaa.asn.au/get/2395364797.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Pais, A.R. Valente; Wentink, M.; Mulder, M.; van Paassen,
M.M.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** A study on cueing strategies for curve driving in Desdemona

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6473

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Pais: PhD student, Control and
Simulation Division, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600
GB Delft, the Netherlands

Wentink: Researcher, TNO Defense, Security and Safety, P.O. Box 23, 3769
ZG Soesterberg, the Netherlands

Mulder: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation Division, Delft
University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, the Netherlands

van Paassen: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation Division, Delft
University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, the Netherlands

**Abstract:** Desdemona has a fully gimbaled cabin that can,
additionally, more vertically plus or minus 1 meter and slide
horizontally along an 8 meter track. The track rotates around a central
axis, providing a 4 meter long centrifuge arm that can be used to
generate sustained accelerations at the cabin. This unique simulator
requires specially designed motion filters that can take advantage of
the wide motion space. More specifically, the solution of how to combine
the traditional onset cues with the centrifuge motion to provide both
the high frequency and the sustained accelerations in a realistic
manner, is still to be perfected. A study on cueing algorithms for the
simulation of curve driving in Desdemona is presented. The results, in
terms of angular acceleration and specific forces at the cabin, are
discussed and compared to standard hexapod solutions.

**Author Address:** a.r.valentepais@tudelft.nl

mark.wentink@tno.nl

m.mulder@tudelft.nl

m.m.vanpassen@tudelft.nl

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Parasuraman, Raja; Riley, Victor

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Humans and automation: Use, misuse, disuse and abuse

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 39

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 230-252

**Date:** June

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Parasuraman: Catholic University of
America

Riley: Honeywell Technology Center

**Number of Pages:** 24

**Abstract:** This paper addresses theoretical, empirical, and
analytical studies pertaining to human use, misuse, disuse, and abuse of
automation technology. Use refers to the voluntary activation or
disengagement of automation by human operators. Trust, mental workload,
and risk can influence automation use, but interaction between factors
and large individual differences make prediction of automation use
difficult. Misuse refers to over reliance on automation, which can
result in failures of monitoring workload, automation reliability and
consistency, and the saliency of automation indicators. Disuse, or the
neglect of underutilization of automation, is commonly caused by alarms
that activate falsely. This often occurs because the base rate of the
condition to be detected is not considered in settling the trade-off
between false alarms and omissions. Automation abuse, or the automation
of functions by designers and implementation by managers without due
regard for the consequences for human performance, tends to define the
operator\'s roles as by-products of the automation. Automation abuse can
also promote misuse and disuse of automation by human operators.
Understanding the factors associated with each of these aspects of human
use of automation can lead to improved system design, effective training
methods, and judicious policies and procedures involving automation use.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Parris, Benton L.; Cook, Anthony M.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Effects of visual and motion simulation cueing systems on
pilot performance during takeoffs with engine failures

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date:** December

**Type:** NASA Technical Paper

**Report Number:** NASA Technical Paper 1365

**Number of Pages:** 79

**Abstract:** Data are presented that show the effects of visual and
motion cueing on pilot performance during takeoffs with engine failures.
Four groups of USAF pilots flew a simulated KC-135 using four different
cueing systems. The most basic of these systems was of the
instrument-only type. Visual scene simulation and/or motion simulation
was added to produce the other systems. Learning curves, mean
performance, and subjective data are examined. These data show that the
addition of visual cueing results in significant improvement in pilot
performance, but the combined use of visual and motion cueing results in
far better performance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Pearl, Daniel

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Flight test: One air crash suggests pilot\'s mental state may
pose safety risk

**Newspaper:** The Wall Street Journal

**City:** Chicopee, MA

**Pages:** 1, A10

**Issue Date:** May 25

**Number of Pages:** 2

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Perrott, D. R.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** Studies in the perception of auditory motion

**Editor:** Gatehouse, R. W.

**Book Title:** Localization of Sound: Theory and Applications

**City:** Groton, CT

**Publisher:** Amphora Press

**Pages:** 169-193

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Psychoacoustics Laboratory,
California State University, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032

**Number of Pages:** 25

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Peters, R.A.

**Year:** 1969

**Title:** Dynamics of the vestibular system

**Institution:** NASA

**Report Number:** NASA CR-1309

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Pfeiffer, M. G.; Horey, J. D.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Training effectiveness of aviation motion simulation: A
review and analysis of the literature

**City:** Orlando, FL

**Institution:** Naval Training Systems Center

**Date:** December

**Type:** Special Report

**Report Number:** 87-007

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Naval Training Systems Center,
Orlando, FL

**Keywords:** transfer of training, literature review, flight
simulators, pilot training, training simulators

**Abstract:** The literature review included 45 transfer-of-training
studies. Only studies providing transfer rations (TRs) or those that
allowed TRs to be estimated were included. Studies were categorized by
simulator device features and simulator/aircraft thrust type. Transfer
ratios were averaged within similar categories. These averaged transfer
ratios were then compared across categories of interest. Conjoint
scaling of transfer ratios was performed to adjust for the low number of
studies found within some categories and to test for device feature by
simulator type interactions. Findings for motion effects were consistent
across all types of flight simulators. Accordingly, training with visual
plus motion (VISMOT) transferred better than training with visual only
(VISNLY) simulation. Similarly, training with motion (MOTION)
transferred better than training with no motion (NOMOT) simulation. A
separate analysis of transfer effectiveness ratios (TERs) provided
results directionally consistent with the above (VISMOT \> VISNLY and
MOTON \> NOMOT).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Phillips, Edward H.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Costs key factor in Part 121 upgrade

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 59-61

**Date:** May 20

**Number of Pages:** 3

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Phillips, Edward H.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** CRM focus of FAA\'s commuter rule

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 61-64

**Date:** May 20

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** About 28 commuter airlines are currently upgrading their
pilot training and to get ready for the increased use of flight
simulators to meet the FAA\'s Commuter Rule to come into effect March
27. The more stringent training requirements include:

· Adoption of Line Oriented Flight Training (Loft) that will include
more frequent use of simulators to practice Crew Resource Management in
normal, abnormal and emergency situations. Simulators have not been
widely used because of cost and scheduling difficulties. Flight Safety
International, Simuflite and other training providers are currently
building advanced simulators of turboprop aircraft.

· CRM training mandatory for pilots, cabin attendants and dispatchers

· Inclusion of Initial Operating Experience of the second in command
pilot. SIC must have the same IOE as the PIC.

Aircraft most affected by the new training requirements are Jetstream
31/41, Beechcraft Model 1900 C and D, Bombardier/de Havilland Dash 8
series, Dornier 228, Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia, Fairchild Metro series
and the Shorts 330/360 series.

Beechcraft Model 99 and Embraer EMB-110 would also be affected, but are
likely to be phased out due to noncompliance with performance
requirements. This is true also for the Shorts 330/360 series.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Phillips, Edward H.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** NASA targets transport research

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 41

**Date:** January 4

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Keywords:** NASA, Transport Research Facilities

**Abstract:** Engineers at the NASA/Langley Research Center are
modifying a Boeing 757 into a flying laboratory as part of the agency\'s
Transport Research Facilities project designed to support testing of
advanced technology concepts.

In November, the aircraft was designated the Airborne Research
Integrated Experiments Systems (Aries) and made its first flight on
Dec.10 at Langley facilities in Hampton, Va.

Richard Couch, project manager, said the purpose of the Transport
Research Facilities (TRF) program is to provide an efficient means to
develop and test new technologies formulated by NASA, government and the
civil aviation industry. According to Couch, a key objective of TRF is
to support a simulation-to-flight process through use of same or similar
hardware and software in both ground-based simulation facilities and the
airplane.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Phillips, E. H.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** United 747 incident spotlights pilot training, safety issues

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 39-40

**Date:** March 29

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), United 747

**Abstract:** United Airlines\' Boeing 747-400 first officer\'s initial
response to an engine failure is fueling concerns about pilot
proficiency, current requirements and the airline industry\'s reliance
on simulators to train pilots.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Phillips, Edward H.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Getting upset

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 52

**Date:** December 4

**Type of Article:** part of section on Simulation and Training

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** New program will teach pilots to recover from attitudes
outside the normal flight envelope.

**Notes:** Part of section on Simulation and Training. All articles in
this section include:

Fighting human error (F. Fiorino)

Retooling maintenance lessons (L. A. Tegtmeier)

Getting upset (E. H. Phillips)

A little competition (J. C. Anselmo)

Ready, VLJet, go (F. Fiorino)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Pinet, Jean

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Cockpit environment

**Conference Name:** Simulation; Flight Mechanics Panel

**Conference Location:** Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** March

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** S.N.I.A.S., Test Pilot assigned to
Concorde, Usines de Toulouse, B.P, 1503, 31, Toulouse, France

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** cockpit, visual, aural, visual display

**Notes:** Lead discussion by D. K. Mendela and Dr. Dora Dougherty
Strother. Also includes an open discussion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Planning Systems International (PSI)

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Airplane simulator use in airman certification: Special
project team, facilities and services

**City:** Falls Church, VA

**Institution:** Planning Systems International

**Pages:** 1-24

**Date:** January 9

**Type:** Technical and Management Proposal

**Report Number:** DOT/FHA Regulatory Resume No. VS-83-105-R

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Pool, D.M.; Mulder, M.; van Paassen, M.M.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** A review of the Hosman and Van der Vaart tracking experiment

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6896

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Pool: PhD student

Mulder and van Paassen: Associate Professor

Control and Simulation Division, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft
University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, the Netherlands

**Abstract:** One of the first large research projects on human control
behavior performed at Delft University of Technology is the work of
Hosman and Van der Vaart. In their tracking experiment, Hosman and Van
der Vaart investigated the influence of visual and vestibular motion
cues on human control behavior in a situation similar to manual control
of an aircraft. In these compensatory tracking tasks, subjects were
asked to follow or counteract a signal presented on a central (foveal)
display. The changes in performance and control behavior were
investigated for the addition of peripheral visual and vestibular motion
cues.

Both disturbances and target following tasks were performed with exactly
the same forcing function signal realization. This resulted in a target
following and disturbance task which were both thought to be
representative for manual control in actual flight, but yielded a
significant difference in task difficulty between both types of task.
Because of this discrepancy in task difficulty, it is unsure to what
extent the differences between the two groups of tracking task observed
by Hosman and Van der Vaart actually result from their inherent
differences, or are caused by the different levels of task difficulty.

This paper describes the results of a recent experiment, highly similar
to the tracking experiment of Hosman and Van der Vaart, that was
performed in the SIMONA Research Simulator at Delft University of
Technology. The goal of the experiment was to measure the effect of
different visual and vestibular motion cues on control behavior in
compensatory target following and disturbance tasks of equal difficulty,
thereby allowing for clear comparison of use of motion cues in both
types of tasks. The results of this experiment indicate that the main
trends in tracking performance and control behavior reported by Hosman
and Van der Vaart for their target following and disturbance tasks can
still be seen as representative for both types of classical compensatory
tracking task.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Newspaper Article

**Reporter:** Pope, S.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Flight simulators: New corporate and regional sims deliver
virtual realism to today\'s business pilots

**Newspaper:** Aviation International News

**City:** Midland, NJ

**Pages:** 22-28

**Issue Date:** February 1

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Popular Mechanics

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** What went wrong: The crash of flight 587

**Periodical Title:** Popular Mechanics

**Issue:** January

**Date Accessed:** October 16, 2006

**Keywords:** American Airlines flight 587, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Abstract:** After a three-year investigation, the official report
finally answers lingering questions.

**URL:**
<http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/industry/1303226.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Pouliot, Nicolas A.; Gosselin, Clément M.; Nahon, Meyer A.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Motion simulation capabilities of three-degree-of-freedom
flight simulators

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 35

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 9-17

**Date:** February

**Alternate** **Journal:** 1996 AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies
Conference Proceedings (Paper 96-3474)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Pouliot: Graduate Student,
Département de Génie Méchanique, Université Laval, Québec G1K 7P4,
Canada

Gosselin: Professor, Département de Génie Méchanique, Université Laval,
Québec G1K 7P4, Canada

Nahon: Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P6, Canada

**Abstract:** This paper presents the results of a study aimed at
determining the simulation realism that might be achieved using
reduced-degree-of-freedom flight simulator motion bases. More
specifically, the quality of motion produced by two different
three-degree-of-freedom platforms was compared to that produced by a
conventional six-degree-of-freedom Stewart platform. The
three-degree-of-freedom motion bases investigated were a spherical
mechanism allowing only rotational motions, as well as a motion base
capable of heave, pitch, and roll motions. To compare the different
motion bases, three characteristic maneuvers were simulated using a
nonlinear model of a Boeing 747. The aircraft motions were then
simulated on nine different combinations of virtual motion platforms and
motion base drive algorithms. The motion cues (specific forces and
angular velocities) produced in this manner were then graphically
compared. The analysis revealed that, in most cases, a
three-degree-of-freedom simulator is capable of producing motion
simulation quality comparable to that produced by a
six-degree-of-freedom Stewart platform. Analysis of the motion
sensations, as produced by a vestibular model, revealed nearly the same
results as the motion analysis.

**Author Address:** pouliot@gmc.ulaval.ca

gosselin@gmc.ulaval.ca

mnahon@me.uvic.ca

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Pouliot, Nicolas A; Nahon, Meyer A; Gosselin, Clement A

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Analysis and comparison of the motion simulation capabilities
of third-degree-of-freedom flight simulators

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** San Diego, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** July 29-31

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Nicolas A. Pouliot and Clement M.
Gosselin: Departement de Genie Mécanique, University of Laval, Quebec,
Qc, Canada

Meyer A. Nahon: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Victoria, Victoria, B.C., Canada

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** We present results of a preliminary study aimed at
determining the simulation realism which could be achieved using reduced
degree of freedom (DOF) flight simulator motion bases. The quality of
motion produced by two different 3-DOF platforms was compared to that
produced by a standard 6-DOF Stewart platform. The 3-DOF motion bases
investigated include a spherical mechanism which allows only rotational
motions, as well as a motion base capable of heave, pitch and roll
motions. To compare the different motion bases, four characteristic
maneuvers were simulated using a nonlinear model of a Boeing 747. The
aircraft motions were then simulated on nine different combinations of
virtual motion platforms and motion base drive algorithms. The motion
cues (specific forces and angular velocities) produced in this manner
were then graphically compared. The analysis revealed that, in most
cases, a 3-DOF simulator is capable of producing motion simulation
quality comparable to that produced by a 6-DOF Stewart platform.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Previc, Fred H.; Kenyon, Robert V.; Boer, Erwin R.; Johnson,
Beverly H.

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** The effects of background visual roll stimulation on postural
and manual control and self-motion perception

**Journal:** Perception and Psychophysics

**Volume:** 54

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 93-107

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Previc: Armstrong Laboratory,
Brooks Air Force, TX

Kenyon, Boer: University of Illinois, Chicago, IL

Johnson: KRUG International, San Antonio, TX

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Abstract:** The effects of background visual roll stimulation on
postural control, manual control, and self-motion perception were
investigated in this study. In the main experiment, 8 subjects were
exposed to wide field-of-view background scenes that were tilted and
static, continuously rotating, or sinusoidally rotating at frequencies
between 0.03 and 0.50 Hz, as well as a baseline condition. The subjects
performed either a postural control task (maintain an upright stance) or
a manual control task (keep an unstable central display horizontally
level). Root-mean square (RMS) error in both the postural and manual
control tasks was low in the static tilt condition and extremely high in
response to continuous rotation. Although the phases of the postural and
manual responses were highly similar, the power and RMS error generated
by the sinusoidal visual background stimulation peaked at a lower
frequency in the postural task. Vection ratings recorded at the end of
the postural and manual trials somewhat paralleled the frequency tuning
differences between tasks, which a subsequent experiment showed to be
the result of the differential motion of the central display rather than
the differential positioning of the subject. In general, these results
show that the dynamic characteristics of visual orientation systems vary
according to the specific motor and/or perceptual system investigated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Prince, Carolyn

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Guidelines for situation awareness training

**Institution:** NAWCTSD/UCF/FAA, Partnership for Aviation Team Training

**Type:** Training Guide

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ph.D., NAWCTSD/FAA/UCF Partnership
for Aviation Team Training

**Number of Pages:** 75

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Prophet, Wallace W.; Boyd, H. Alton

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Device-task fidelity and transfer of training: Aircraft
cockpit procedures training

**City:** Fort Rucker, Alabama

**Institution:** Human Resources Research Organization

**Date:** July

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** 70-10

**Number of Pages:** 45

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Prophet, W. W.; Caro, P. W.; Hall, E. R.

**Year:** 1972

**Title:** Some current issues in the design of flight training devices

**Institution:** Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO)

**Pages:** 133-140

**Date:** March

**Type:** Professional Paper

**Report Number:** HumRRO-PP-5-72

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Resources Research
Organization (HumRRO)

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The value of the system engineering approach to training
program development has become fairly well recognized. Not so well
recognized, however, are the implications of the approach for training
equipment design. Systems engineering of training focuses on the student
and emphasizes the job for which training is to be given. All decisions
concerning training should be made in favor of the student. The
essential question is always, \"How can he best be trained to perform
the job he will be required to do?\"

In selecting or designing training equipment, of whatever order of
complexity, careful attention should be given to what the student needs
to know and be able to do to perform successfully on the operational
job. Care should be taken to ensure that equipment provides the
necessary information context and/or allows for the creation of
appropriate job-relevant conditions for performance practice. Too often,
though, emphasis is placed solely on duplication of the operational
system. The result may be an excellent simulation, but a
less-than-optimal trainer. Attention should also be given to the
inclusion within design of features whose sole function is to facilitate
the student\'s acquisition of knowledge and skill, features based on the
laws and principles which govern human learning and retention. These
features may represent deliberate departures from the real-world or
operational system model underlying the usual high-fidelity simulation.
The learning and performance characteristics of the device user, the
student, must be paramount if simulators or trainers are to be maximally
effective learning systems.

This paper develops the rationale described and examines several
considerations relevant to training equipment design from the systems
engineering standpoint. Suggested design features based on particular
student learning needs and on student learning characteristics are
presented. Training equipment design features for particular categories
of training objectives and for levels of training (e.g., initial
training of aviators vs. transition training) are considered. Also
discussed is the criticality of the synthetic training program with
respect to the total training engineering process.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Prothero, Jerrold; Draper, Mark H.; Furness, Thomas A.;
Parker, Donald E.; Wells, Maxwell J.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Do visual background manipulations reduce simulator sickness?

**Conference Name:** International Workshop on Motion Sickness

**Conference Location:** Marabella, Spain

**Date:** May 26-28

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Interface Technology
Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA 98105

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** (first paragraph) This paper puts forward the \"Rest Frame
Hypothesis,\" which addresses how the nervous system performs spatial
position, orientation and motion judgments. The hypothesis is quite
simple and is implicit in a great deal of existing literature. By making
the hypothesis explicit, we suggest that several literatures can be
linked in a simple and elegant way. These include literatures on motion
sickness; on sense of presence in virtual environments; and six classes
of visual illusions. The benefits include: the ability to borrow between
these literatures; a predicted technique for reducing simulator
sickness; Class A (\"objective\") measures for presence; and a simple
display manipulation for increasing presence at a constant
field-of-view.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Pugh, John; Wood, Simon J.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Flight crew training needs for the future

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Captains, Virgin Atlantic Airways,
Crawley, England

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** The current JAA training regulations present an imbalance
of emphasis of training requirements versus modern air transport
operations and identifies causes of aircraft accidents and incidents.
Compared with the 1960\'s, today\'s air transport carriers operate in
areas of high aircraft density, in worse weather and in higher frequency
to areas of inhospitable terrain. Advances in technology have resulted
in more reliable aircraft systems that fail, mechanically, less often
but these advances have introduced problems in man-machine interface and
the management of complex computer controlled systems.

Training and checking for events covering mechanical failures are
stipulated in detail whereas environmental factors and system management
failures are only stipulated within the context of a broad collection of
categories from which the operator may choose a minimum number at
random. This creates an imbalance in emphasis within the training
regulations. The task and operation of modern air transport has grown,
training requirements have not grown in pace.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Puig, Joseph A.; Harris, William T.; Ricard, Gilbert L.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Motion in flight simulation: An annotated bibliography

**City:** Orlando, FL

**Institution:** Naval Training Equipment Center

**Date:** July

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** NAVTRAEQUIPCEN IH-298

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Puig, Ricard: Human Factors
Laboratory

Harris: Advanced Simulation Concepts Laboratory

**Number of Pages:** 159

**Keywords:** motion simulation, simulator sickness, effects of motion,
flight training, motion drive algorithms, motion simulation
requirements, motion simulators, cost-effectiveness

**Abstract:** In support of Project 7744 - *Motion Drive Signals for
Flight Simulators*, a review of the literature concerning motion
simulation was conducted. Abstracts were included for 682 references. A
primary objective of this review was to compare data from the various
studies to identify general trends on the effects of motion on
performance and training. The publications were listed alphabetically by
author, chronologically, and also grouped into eight major categories as
follows: reviews and bibliographies; equipment descriptions; (Cont\'d)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Quantum3D

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Scalable, COTS IG solutions

**Magazine:** Training & Simulation Journal

**Date:** May 22

**Type of Article:** advertisement

**Number of Pages:** 1

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Randle, Robert J.; Sinacori, John

**Year:** 1980

**Title:** Visual space perception

**Pages:** 257-258

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** visual space perception, simulation fidelity, perceptual
fidelity, functional fidelity

**Abstract:** (first paragraph) Computer-generated scenes are presented
in perspective view and optically localized at infinity (or at least at
a great and constant distance) on a vertically projected surface in a
two-dimensional depiction of three-dimensional space; this provides a
visual environment that is at best illusory. Roscoe has referred to it
as \"The apparent realism of the illusions created.\" This deception has
not been too disruptive for the great wealth of training that has been
and is being accomplished in fixed-wing simulators, but it may well be a
source of problems in rotary-wing training, particularly since the need
for these pilots to make accurate size, distance, and rate judgments is
so crucial to their maneuvering versatility and safe flight. Frequently
mentioned complaints with simulators of rotary-wing aircraft are the
lack of field of view and inadequate textural cues. It is to be noted
that these complaints may really mask more fundamental inadequacies
caused by the way we currently present extracockpit scenes.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Rantanen, Esa M.; Talleur, Donald A.

**Year of Conference:** 2005

**Title:** Incremental transfer and cost effectiveness of ground-based
flight trainers in university aviation programs

**Conference** **Name:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 49th
Annual Meeting

**Publisher:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Institute of Aviation, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Savoy, Illinois

**Abstract:** Use of ground-based flight training devices in flight
training is attractive for several reasons. In addition to undeniable
safety aspects and immunity to weather, ground trainers also offer
benefits in terms of training effectiveness, typically measured by the
time or number of trials saved over training exclusively in an airplane.
A review of 19 studies from the past 56 years that have investigated
transfer of training effectiveness from ground trainers to airplane
revealed, however, that unambiguous conclusions about the best use of
these devices are difficult to discern. The reason for the lack of valid
data and widely varied results are the large number of intervening
variables present in flight training as well as the difficulty of
conducting sound research on this topic.

**URL:**
<http://www.humanfactors.uiuc.edu/Reports&PapersPDFs/humfac05/rantal.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Ray, Paul A.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Quality flight simulation cueing - Why?

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** San Diego, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** July 29-31

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Manager, Federal Aviation
Administration, National Simulator Program

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** The issue of flight simulation cueing is the subject of
many proposals from highly motivated individuals and organizations. Such
proposals take on many forms. Some would advocate the removal of motion
from all simulation requirements. Others would propose that \"PC\" based
representations of systems are sufficient to qualify as a Flight
Training Device for a specific airplane.

This paper addresses the causes for the need for accurate cueing in
simulation and the potential impact of less than faithful replication of
those cues. Specific areas addressed include motion, visual and tactile
feel cueing requirements. Examples of the results of less than accurate
cueing are provided. Experiences of simulation within the medical
community are reviewed and addressed regarding the impact of less than
realistic simulation cueing.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Ray, Paul A.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Flight simulator qualification

**Conference Name:** The Fifteenth Annual Flight and Ground Vehicle
Simulation Update

**Conference Location:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Date:** January 11-15

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Manager, Federal Aviation
Administration, National Simulator Program

**Number of Pages:** 21

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Ray, Paul A.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Is today\'s flight simulator prepared for tomorrow\'s
requirements?

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Manager, National Simulator
Program, Federal Aviation Administration, Atlanta, GA

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The role of flight simulation in today and tomorrow\'s
training environment clearly tests the capacity of yesterday\'s flight
simulators. The aviation industry (manufacturer, user, and regulator)
clearly desires an increasing reliance upon flight simulation for total
training and testing. Due, in large part, to the success of yesterday\'s
flight simulators, it is highly likely that flight simulators will
become the mandated vehicle for training and testing, not simply a cost
effective alternative for those able to afford its benefits.

As training centers and airlines address the potential use of flight
simulators for limited unusual attitude training, prevention of
controlled flight into terrain and training in areas unsafe to perform
in actual flight, regulatory authorities are, in all likelihood, going
to increase flight simulator fidelity requirements.

This paper addresses fidelity issues that, in some cases are clearly
lacking in some of today\'s flight simulators and previously assumed to
be accurately presented. Should those deficiencies be corrected? Should
\"grandfather rights\" prevail? To what extent should existing flight
simulators be \"grandfathered\"? These issues, as well as other fidelity
issues are addressed. Recommendations are offered for correcting
omissions and/or updating current flight simulation. Other
recommendations, including FAA and JAA resolution to update
international sound, visual and motion standards are also discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Reason, J. T.

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Motion sickness: A special case of sensory rearrangement

**Journal:** Advancement of Science

**Volume:** 26

**Issue:** 130

**Pages:** 386-393

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** BSC/Ph.D., University of
Manchester, Department of Psychology

**Number of Pages:** 8

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Reason, J. T.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Motion sickness adaptation: A neural mismatch model

**Journal:** Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine

**Volume:** 71

**Issue:** November

**Pages:** 819-829

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** BSC/Ph.D., University of
Manchester, Department of Psychology

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** (Introduction) In almost all susceptible individuals,
continued exposure to a provocative motion stimulus leads to the
diminution and eventual disappearance of established motion sickness
reactions. This reduction in symptomatology takes place without any
change in the nauseogenic stimulus; indeed, it is the absence of such
variation that promotes its occurrence. These observations are clearly
of considerable importance for elucidating the factors involved in the
aetiology of motion sickness, as they demonstrate the existence of
processes within the individual that are capable of counteracting the
disturbing properties of the imposed motion without recourse to any
external agency. It follows, therefore, that a better appreciation of
how this *vis medicatrix naturae* operates must bring us closer to
understanding how these curious and inappropriate reactions become
established in the first place, since adaptation and provocation appear
to be two sides of the same coin.

The theoretical arguments presented here are directed toward answering
two basic questions concerning the aetiology of motion sickness. First,
what is the essential nature of the provocative stimulus? How do we
explain the occurrence of motion sickness over such a wide range of
apparently diverse circumstances? What, for example, do the conditions
that elicit space sickness have in common with those that induce
seasickness, airsickness, car sickness, camel sickness, swing sickness,
simulator sickness, and so on? This question is dealt with briefly as a
necessary prelude to the main concern of this paper, namely: what are
the mechanisms underlying the acquisition of protective adaptation, and
of its sequel *mal de débarquement*? The principle research findings
relating to the effects and after-effects of protective adaptation are
summarized, and a neural mismatch model is described which attempts to
account for these data.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Regan, W. C.; Price, K. R.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** The frequency of occurrence and severity of side-effects of
immersion virtual reality

**Journal:** Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine (ASEM)

**Volume:** 1994

**Issue:** 65

**Pages:** 527-530

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Regan: B.Sc.

Price: B.A.

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** Virtual reality (VR) has become increasingly well-known
over the last few years. However, little is known about the side-effects
of prolonged immersion in VR. This study set out to investigate the
frequency of occurrence and severity of side-effects of using an
immersion VR system. Out of 146 subjects, 61% reported symptoms of
malaise at some point during a 20-min immersion and 10-min
post-immersion period. These ranged from symptoms such as dizziness,
stomach awareness, headaches, eyestrain and lightheadedness to severe
nausea. These symptoms caused 5% of the subjects to withdraw from the
experiment before completing their 20-min immersion period. Further
research needs to be conducted that attempts to identify those factors
that play a causative role in the side-effects of the VR system, and
that looks for methods of reducing these side-effects.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Regional Airlines Association (RAA)

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Background on the single safety standard

**Publisher:** Regional Airlines Association (RAA)

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** safety, \"commuter rule,\" Regional Airlines Association
(RAA), regional airlines, Part 121, Part 135

**Abstract:** Next month, the FAA is expected to announce new
regulations that will establish a single safety standard for regional
and major airlines. Under the regulatory requirements that exist today,
there are a set of rules which apply to aircraft with more than 30
passenger seats and a second set of rules which apply to aircraft with
up to 30 passenger seats.

The different set of rules exist because scheduled airline service
provided by aircraft with 30 seats or less was very limited when the
safety rules were first developed. With the rapid growth of the industry
and the advent of increasingly sophisticated new aircraft, the Federal
Aviation Administration and the airlines recognized the need for a
single rule which would apply to all scheduled airline service operating
aircraft with ten passenger seats or more.

The Regional Airline Association and its member companies are strong
supporters of the single safety standard. The FAA rulemaking will
further enhance safety, increase public appreciation for regional
airline services, and help dispel the myth that two sets of regulations
means two levels of safety. Under the new rules, all aircraft with ten
seats and more will operate under the same regulatory requirements.
These standards cover pilot training, pilot rest requirements, safety
equipment, dispatching procedures, and every other area of airline and
aircraft operations.

**Notes:** On October 17, 2001 the web page was no longer accessible.

**URL:** <http://www.raa.org/therule.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Reid, L. D.; Nahon, M. A.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Flight simulation motion-base drive algorithms: Part 3. Pilot
evaluations

**City:** Toronto, Canada

**Institution:** Institute for Aerospace Studies, University of Toronto

**Date:** December

**Report Number:** UTIAS Report No. 319

CN ISSN 0082-5255

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Reid: Ph.D., P. Eng. Professor,
Institute for Aerospace Studies, 4925 Dufferin St., North York, Ontario,
Canada M3H5T6, Phone: (416) 667-7705, Fax: (416) 667-7799

**Abstract:** This report covers the third and final phase of a project
aimed at developing and testing flight simulator motion-vase drive
algorithms suited to commercial jet transports. Full six
degrees-of-freedom motion of a synergistic motion-base was studied.
Three forms for these algorithms were considered:

\(1\) classical linear washout,

\(2\) optimal control,

\(3\) coordinated adaptive washout

It was felt that the latter two techniques might provide some advantages
over the classical, which is currently employed in most commercial
flight simulators. The aims of this project were to:

\(1\) develop the necessary equations,

\(2\) implement the necessary real-time software,

\(3\) evaluate the performance of the software with the help of airline
pilots in a complete flight simulation

The present report describes the simulated aircraft and the flight
scenarios employed during the evaluation process. The experimental plan
and data gathering process are outlined fully. Both subjective pilot
ratings and objective performance measures were obtained from seven
pilots who evaluated the different motion-base drive algorithm cases. In
addition to using a direct pilot rating technique, about half of the
experimental trials were used to obtain paired comparison results for
four of the ten algorithm cases.

The pilot ratings, pilot comments and objective measures were analyzed
and conclusions are presented based on this. The results highlight both
pilot preferences in motion-based drive algorithms and the nature of
pilot variability in assessing simulator motion quality.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Reid, Lloyd D.; Nahon, Meyer A.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Response of airline pilots to flight simulator motion

**City:** Toronto, Canada

**Institution:** The University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace
Studies

**Report Number:** AIAA 87-2436

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** The University of Toronto Institute
for Aerospace Studies, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

**Keywords:** airline pilots, flight simulator motion, six degrees-of
freedom, UTIAS flight research simulator, washout

**Abstract:** The use of physical motion in flight simulation is still a
much debated topic. This paper investigates the more narrow issue of its
application in commercial jet transport simulators. We have attempted to
quantify the perceptions of airline pilots about the quality of motion
possible when a number of different motion-drive algorithms are tested
on a simulator employing a state-of-the-art six-degrees-of-freedom
motion-base. Four broad categories of algorithms are tested: classical
washout, optimal control, coordinated adaptive, and no-motion. It was
found that although there was little impact of the algorithm type on
performance and control activity, there was a definite effect on how the
pilots perceived the simulation environment. Based on these findings, it
appears that the coordinated adaptive algorithm is generally preferred
by the pilots over the algorithms tested. There was almost unanimous
dislike of the no-motion case.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Reid, Lloyd D.; Nahon, Meyer A.

**Year:** 1988

**Title:** Response of airline pilots to variations in flight simulator
motion algorithms

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 25

**Issue:** 7

**Pages:** 639-646

**Date:** July

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Reid: Professor and Associate
Director, Associate Fellow AIAA, University of Toronto Institute for
Aerospace Studies, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Nahon: Project Engineer, University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace
Studies, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** flight simulator motion algorithms, airline pilots, UTIAS,
six-degrees-of-freedom, classical washout, visual displays, motion and
visual cue timing, optimal controller

**Abstract:** The use of physical motion in flight simulation is still a
much debated topic. This paper investigates the more narrow issue of its
application in commercial jet transport simulators. We have attempted to
quantify the perceptions of airline pilots about the quality of motion
possible when a number of different motion-drive algorithms are tested
on a simulator employing a state-of-the-art six-degrees-of-freedom
motion-base. Four broad categories of algorithms were tested: classical
washout, optimal control, coordinated adaptive, and no-motion. It was
found that although there was little impact of algorithms type on
performance and control activity, there was a definite effect on how the
pilots perceived the simulation environment. Based on these findings, it
appears that the coordinated adaptive algorithm is generally preferred
by the pilots over the algorithms tested. There was almost unanimous
dislike of the no-motion case.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Reisman, Ron

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** A brief introduction to the art of flight simulation

**Conference Name:** Festival for Art, Technology and Society: Digital
Dreams - Virtual Worlds

**Publisher:** Ars Electronica

**Abstract:** This essay presents a brief review of flight simulation
technology. The theory is presented that flight simulation is the first
and still the best form of virtual reality, and that the technology of
flight simulation can be considered \"lessons learned\" and applied to
other virtual reality endeavors. Special attention is paid to techniques
for inducing the sensations of acceleration.

**URL:** <http://www.aec.at/en/archiv_files/19902/E1990b_159.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Ricard, Gilbert L.; Parrish, Russel V.

**Year:** 1984

**Title:** Pilot differences and motion cueing effects on simulated
helicopter hover

**Journal:** Journal of Human Factors

**Volume:** 26

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 249-256

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ricard : Naval Training Equipment
Center

Parrish : NASA Langley Research Center

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Abstract:** The effects that cues of aircraft motion, delays in visual
scene, and movement of a ship model have on pilots\' ability to hover a
simulated helicopter near a destroyer-class ship were examined. Twelve
pilots were tested in a within-subject factorial combination of
fixed-base, moving-base, and G-seat conditions in which delays of 66 or
128 ms existed in the simulator\'s visual display and the pilots had to
hover near a moving or stationary ship. Best control performance was
seen under the moving-base conditions, whereas poorest control was
associated with the fixed-base simulation. An intermediate level of
performance was produced by the G-seat. In addition, visual delay
affected control of the roll axis of the simulation, and interactions
between pilots and motion cueing and visual delay were seen. Movement of
the ship had little effect.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Riccio, Gary E.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Coordination of postural control and vehicular control:
Implications for multimodal perception and simulation of self motion

**Editor:** Flach, J.; Hancock, P.; Caird, J.; Vicente, K.

**Book Title:** The Ecology of Human-Machine Systems

**City:** Hillsdale, NJ

**Publisher:** Lawrence Erlbaum

**Pages:** 1-50 + Figures 1-13

**Number of Pages:** 63

**Keywords:** self motion, virtual environment, ecological psychology,
control theory

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Riccio, Gary E.; McDonald, P. Vernon

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Multimodal perception and multicriterion control of nested
systems: I. Coordination of postural control and vehicular control

**City:** Houston, TX

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** January

**Type:** NASA Technical Paper

**Report Number:** Performing organization: S-835

Sponsoring organization: TP 3703

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Riccio: Nascent Technologies, Ltd.

McDonald: KRUG Life Sciences, Inc.

**Number of Pages:** 66

**Keywords:** postural control, vehicular control, whole-body motion,
locomotion, ecological psychology, control-systems engineering, motion,
motion perception, perception, control, adaptive control

**Abstract:** The purpose of this report is to identify the essential
characteristics of goal-directed whole-body motion. The report is
organized into three major sections (Sections 2, 3, and 4). Section 2
reviews general themes from ecological psychology and control-systems
engineering that are relevant to the perception and control of
whole-body motion. These themes provide an organizational framework for
analyzing the complex and interrelated phenomena that are the defining
characteristics of whole-body motion. Section 3 of this report applies
the organization framework from the first section to the problem of
perception and control of aircraft motion. This is a familiar problem in
control-systems engineering and ecological psychology. Section 4
examines an essential but generally neglected aspect of vehicular
control: coordination of postural control and vehicular control. To
facilitate presentation of this new idea, postural control and its
coordination with vehicular control are analyzed in terms of conceptual
categories that are familiar in the analysis of vehicular control.

**Notes:** Performing organization: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Sponsoring organization: NASA

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Rich, Henry H.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Tradeoffs in creating a low-cost visual simulator

**Conference Name:** Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation &
Education (I/ITSEC) Conference

**Conference Location:** Raleigh, N.C.

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Consultant, Star Technologies,
Inc., Raleigh, NC

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** Creating a low-cost visual system for training starts with
deciding what features it will provide. Real-time training needs high
scene content, photo-derived texture for realism, antialiasing, and
careful attention to level of detail to avoid distracting the trainee;
map-based CCCI needs fast access to large map databases; software and
database development need integration into a workstation with full
support for networking and windowing, including the ability to display
training scenes under control of the windowing system. A visual system
has three main components: a front end to manage the database, a
geometric processor to compute the views of each element of the scene,
and a shading processor to display the views. The design of each of
these components provides a challenge to the system architect, with many
old and new algorithms to be evaluated in the light of current
technology. The most difficult problems are in shading, where the
computational requirements of texturing call for parallel processing: we
opted for processing full polygons in parallel, using MIP maps for
texturing and a hybrid approach to hidden-surface removal. The front-end
and geometry subsystems use easily-programmable processors to take
advantage of coherency in the models and to provide flexibility for
special effects.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Riecke, B.; Schulte-Pelkum, J.; Caniard, F.; Bülthoff, H.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Spatialized auditory cues enhance the visually-induced
self-motion illusion (circular vection) in Virtual Reality

**City:** Tübingen, Germany

**Institution:** Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics

**Date:** October

**Report Number:** Technical Report No. 138

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department Bülthoff, Max Planck
Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Spemannstr. 38, 72076 Tübingen,
Germany

**Abstract:** "Circular vection" refers to the illusion of self-motion
induced by rotating visual or auditory stimuli. Visually induced vection
can be quite compelling, and the illusion has been investigated
extensively for over a century. Rotating auditory cues can also induce
vection, but only in about 25-60% of blindfolded participants (Lackner,
1977; Larsson et al., 2004). Furthermore, auditory vection is much
weaker and far less compelling than visual vection, which can be
indistinguishable from real motion. Here, we investigated whether an
additional auditory cue (the sound of a fountain that is also visible in
the visual stimulus) can be utilized to enhance visually induced
self-motion perception. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first
study directly addressing audio-visual contributions to vection. Twenty
observers viewed rotating photorealistic pictures of a natural scene
projected onto a curved projection screen (FOV: 54˚x45˚). Three
conditions were randomized in a repeated measures within-subject design:
No sound, mono sound, and spatialized sound using a generic head-related
transfer function (HRTF). Adding mono sound to the visual vection
stimulus increased convincingness ratings marginally, but did not affect
vection onset time, vection buildup time, vection intensity, or rated
presence. Spatializing the fountain sound such that it moved in
accordance with the fountain in the visual scene, however, improved
vection significantly in terms of convincingness, vection buildup time,
and presence ratings. The effect size for the vection measures was,
however, rather small (\<16%). This might be related to a ceiling
effect, as visually induced vection was already quite strong without the
spatialized sound (10s vection onset time). Despite the small effect
size, this study shows that HRTF-based auralization using headphones can
be employed to improve visual VR simulations both in terms of
self-motion perception and overall presence. Note that facilitation was
found even though the visual stimulus was of high quality and realism,
and known to be quite powerful in inducing vection. These findings have
important implications both for the understanding of cross-modal cue
integration and for optimizing VR simulations.

**URL:**
[http://www.kyb.mpg.de/publications/attachments/Riecke_05_TR-138\_\_Spatialized%20auditory%20cues%20enhance%20the%20visually-induced%20self-motion%20illusion%20(circular%20vection)%20in%20Virtual%20Reality\_%5B0%5D.pdf](http://www.kyb.mpg.de/publications/attachments/Riecke_05_TR-138__Spatialized auditory cues enhance the visually-induced self-motion illusion (circular vection) in Virtual Reality_%5B0%5D.pdf)

**Author Address:** bernhard.riecke@tuebingen.mpg.de

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Riecke, Bernhard E.; Schulte-Pelkum, Jorg; Avraamides,
Marios N.; Bülthoff, Heinrich H.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Enhancing the visually induced self-motion illusion (vection)
under natural viewing conditions in virtual reality

**Conference Name:** Presence

**Conference Location:** Valencia, Spain

**Date:** October 13-15

**Keywords:** vection, psychophysics, spatial presence, virtual reality,
illusions, motion stimulation

**Abstract:** The visually induced illusion of ego-motion (vection) is
known to be facilitated by both static fixation points and foreground
stimuli that are perceived to be stationary in front of a moving
background stimulus. In this study, we found that hardly noticeable
marks in the periphery of a projection screen can have similar
vection-enhancing effects, even without fixating or suppressing the
optokinetic reflex (OKR). Furthermore, vection was facilitated even
though the marks had no physical depth separation from the screen.
Presence ratings correlated positively with vection, and seemed to be
mediated by the ego-motion illusion. Interestingly, the
involvement/attention aspect of overall presence was more closely
related to vection onset times, whereas spatial presence-related aspects
were more tightly related to convincingness ratings. This study yields
important implications for both presence theory and motion simulator
design and applications where one often wants to achieve convincing
ego-motion simulation without restricting eye movements artificially.

**URL:**
[http://www.temple.edu/ispr/prev_conferences/proceedings/2004/Riecke,%20Schulte-Pelkum,%20Avraamides,%20Bulthoff.pdf](http://www.temple.edu/ispr/prev_conferences/proceedings/2004/Riecke, Schulte-Pelkum, Avraamides, Bulthoff.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Riecke, Bernhard E.; Schulte-Pelkum, Jörg; Caniard, Franck;
Bülthoff, Heinrich H.

**Year of Conference:** 2005

**Title:** Influence of auditory cues on the visually-induced
self-motion illusion (circular vection) in virtual reality

**Conference** **Name:** 8th International Workshop on Presence

**Conference** **Location:** London, UK

**Date:** September 21-23

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Max Planck Institute for Biological
Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany

**Keywords:** vection, self-motion perception, spatial orientation,
virtual reality, motion simulation, human factors, psychophysics,
multi-modal cue integration, auditory cues, HRTF

**Abstract:** This study investigated whether the visually induced
self-motion illusion (\"circular vection\") can be enhanced by adding a
matching auditory cue (the sound of a fountain that is also visible in
the visual stimulus). Twenty observers viewed rotating photorealistic
pictures of a market place projected onto a curved projection screen
(FOV: 54˚x45˚). Three conditions were randomized in a repeated measures
within-subject design: No sound, mono sound, and spatialized sound using
a generic head-related transfer function (HRTF). Adding mono sound
increased convincingness ratings marginally, but did not affect any of
the other measures of vection (convincingness and vection buildup time)
and presence ratings significantly. Note that facilitation was found
even though the visual stimulus was of high quality and realism, and
known to be a powerful vection-inducing stimulus. Thus, HRTF-based
auralization using headphones can be employed to improve visual VR
simulations both in terms of self-motion perception and overall
performance.

**URL:**
<http://www.kyb.mpg.de/publications/attachments/Riecke__05_paper4Presence2005_Influence_of_Auditory_Cues_on_the_visually-induced_Self-Motion_Illusion_-Circular_Vection-_in_Virtual_Reality_3466%5B0%5D.pdf>

**Author Address:** bernhard.riecke@tuebingen.mpg.de

joerg.sp@tuebingen.mpg.de

franck.caniard@tuebingen.mpg.de

heinrich.buelthoff@tuebingen.mpg.de

**Access Date:** August 15, 2007

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Riecke, Bernhard E.; Schulte-Pelkum, Jörg; Caniard, Franck;
Bülthoff, Heinrich H.

**Year of Conference:** 2005

**Title:** Toward lean and elegant self-motion simulation in virtual
reality

**Conference** **Name:** Virtual Reality

**Conference** **Location:** Bonn, Germany

**Publisher:** Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

**Pages:** 131- 38

**Date:** March 12-16

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Max Planck Institute for Biological
Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany

**Keywords:** vection, self-motion illusion, spatial orientation,
virtual reality, motion simulation, human factors, psychophysics,
multi-modal cue integration, vibrations, auditory cues

**Abstract:** Despite recent technological advances, convincing
self-motion simulation in Virtual Reality (VR) is difficult to achieve,
and users often suffer from motion sickness and/or disorientation in the
simulator world. Instead of trying to simulate self-motions with
physical realism (as is often done for, e.g., driving or flight
simulators), we propose in this paper a perceptually oriented approach
towards self-motion simulation. Following this paradigm, we performed a
series of psychophysical experiments to determine essential visual,
auditory, and vestibular/tactile parameters for an effective and
perceptually convincing self-motion simulation. These studies are a
first step towards our overall goal of achieving lean and elegant
self-motion simulation in Virtual Reality (VR) without physically moving
the observer. In a series of psychophysical experiments about the
self-motion illusion (circular vection), we found that (i) vection as
well as presence in the simulated environment is increased by a
consistent, naturalistic visual scene when compared to a sliced,
inconsistent version of the identical scene, (ii) barely noticeable
marks on the projection screen can increase vection as well as presence
in an unobtrusive manner, (iii) physical vibrations of the observer\'s
seat can enhance the vection illusion, and (iv) spatialized 3D audio
cues embedded in the simulated environment increase the sensation of
self-motion and presence. We conclude that providing consistent cues
about self-motion to multiple sensory modalities can enhance vection,
even if physical motion cues are absent. These results yield important
implications for the design of lean and elegant self-motion simulators.

**URL:** <http://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/publications/pdfs/pdf2904.pdf>

**Author Address:** bernhard.riecke@tuebingen.mpg.de

joerg.schulte-pelkum@tuebingen.mpg.de

franck.caniard@tuebingen.mpg.de

heinrich.buelthoff@tuebingen.mpg.de

**Access Date:** August 15, 2007

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Riecke, B.E.; Västfjäll, D.; Larsson, P.; Schulte-Pelkum, J.

**Year of Conference:** 2005

**Title:** Top-down and multi-modal influences on self-motion perception
in virtual reality

**Conference** **Name:** 1st International Conference on Virtual
Reality, part of the 11th International Conference on Human Computer
Interaction (HCI International 2005)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Riecke: Max Planck Institute for
Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany

Västfjäll: Chalmers University of Technology, Götegorg, Sweden

Larsson: Chalmers University of Technology, Götegorg, Sweden

Schulte-Pelkum: Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics,
Tübingen, Germany

**Abstract:** INTRODUCTION: Much of the work on self-motion perception
and simulation has investigated the contribution of physical stimulus
properties (so-called \"bottom-up\" factors). This paper provides an
overview of recent experiments demonstrating that illusory self-motion
perception can also benefit from \"top-down\" mechanisms, e.g.,
expectations, the interpretation and meaning associated with the
stimulus, and the resulting spatial presence in the simulated
environment. METHODS: Several VR setups were used as a means to
independently control different sensory modalities, thus allowing for
well-controlled and reproducible psychophysiological experiments.
Illusory self-motion perception (vection) was induced using rotating
visual or binaural auditory stimuli, presented via a curved projection
screen (FOV: 54 x 40.5˚) or headphones, respectively. Additional
vibrations, subsonic sound, or cognitive frameworks were applied in some
trials. Vection was quantified in terms of onset time, intensity, and
convincingness ratings. RESULTS & DISCUSSION: Auditory vection studies
showed that sound sources participants associated with stationary
\"acoustic landmarks\" (e.g., a fountain) can significantly increase the
effectiveness of the self-motion illusion, as compared to sound sources
that are typically associated with moving objects (like the sound of
footsteps). A similar top-down effect was observed in a visual vection
experiment: showing a rotating naturalistic scene in VR improved vection
considerably compared to scrambled versions of the same scene. Hence,
the possibility to interpret the stimulus as a stationary reference
frame seems to enhance the self-motion illusion perception, which
challenges the prevailing opinion that self-motion perception is
primarily bottom-up driven. Even the mere knowledge that one might
potentially be moved physically increased the convincingness of the
self-motion illusion significantly, especially when additional
vibrations supported the interpretation that one was really moving.
CONCLUSIONS: Various top-down mechanisms were shown to increase the
effectiveness of self-motion simulations in VR, even though they have
received little attention in the literature up to now. Thus, we posit
that a perceptually-oriented approach that combined both bottom-up and
top-down factors will ultimately enable us to optimize self-motion
simulations in terms of both effectiveness and costs.

**URL:**
<http://www.kyb.mpg.de/publications/attachments/Riecke__05__VE_HCI2005__Top-Down_and_Multi-Modal_Influences_on_Self-Motion_Perception_in_Virtual_Reality__asOnConferenceCD_2252_2765%5B0%5D.pdf>

**Author Address:** Riecke: bernhard.riecke@tuebingen.mpg.de

Västfjäll: daniel@ta.chalmers.se

Larsson: pontus.larsson@ta.chalmers.se

Schulte-Pelkum: joerg.sp@tuebingen.mpg.de

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Ringland, Robert F.; Stapleford, Robert L.

**Year:** 1971

**Title:** Motion cue effects on pilot tracking

**Conference Name:** Annual Conference on Manual Control

**Conference Location:** Los Angeles

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Systems Technology, Inc.

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** The results of two successive experimental investigations
of the effects of motion cues on manual control tracking tasks are
reported. The first of these was an IFR single-axis VTOL roll attitude
control task. Describing function data show the dominant motion feedback
quantity to be angular velocity. The second experimental task was
multiaxis, that of precision hovering of a VTOL using separated
instrument displays with reduced motion amplitude scaling. Performance
data and pilot opinion show angular position (i.e., g-vector tilt) to be
the dominant cue when simulator linear motion is absent.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Roberts, M. E. C.; Murray, P. M.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Optical flow - The key to integration of visual and
vestibular motion cueing

**Conference Name:** RAeS Advances in Flight Simulation - Visual and
Motion Systems

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Rediffusion Simulation, U.K.

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Abstract:** 1. [Visual and Motion]{.underline}

The limitations of motion simulators and visual simulation and their
non-linear interaction with the human senses tend to make difficult the
prediction of the integrated performance of the two systems. This paper
is an Engineer\'s attempt to examine major factors involved in the
integration so that separate measures of performance of these two
systems can lead to a better prediction of integrated performance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Robinson, Clarence A., Jr.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Synthetic training duplicates emergency cockpit conditions

**Magazine:** SIGNAL Magazine

**Pages:** 1-4

**Date:** July

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** reflectone, virtual reality

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Rodchenko, V. V.; Boris, S. Y.; White, A. D.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** In-flight estimation of pilots\' acceleration sensitivity to
thresholds

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 14-17

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Rolfe, John

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Twenty-five years of flight simulation - or - It\'s a long
time since I lost a buddy in a training accident

**Conference Name:** Royal Aeronautical Society Spring Conference

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS), AirSpace Flight
Simulation Group

**Abstract:** (first two paragraphs) Twenty five years in no way
encompasses the history of flight simulation, so why choose this time to
look back? Two events prompted this article. The first was that in 1970
the Royal Aeronautical Society held its first conference devoted to
flight simulation. The success of the conference generated interest and
support for the formation of the Society\'s Flight Simulation Group.
Since then the Group has maintained a highly successful international
conference program. Moreover, the Group has taken a number of productive
initiatives to enhance understanding and encourage progress in the
design and use of flight simulation. This article draws on the
activities of the Group to consider the changes that have taken place
and the progress that has been achieved.

The second reason for the title was that in 1971 Flight International
published an article from me entitled \'The Future of Simulation\'. In
it I concluded that simulation, at a range of levels, had the potential
to play a much greater role in aircrew training. To achieve this
objective would require addressing the issue of motivating both users
and legislators to accept simulation as a means acquiring and
maintaining competency. Twenty-five years later I will attempt to assess
how accurate I was.

**Notes:** This may have been originally released in 1996. The current
version includes a copyright from the Royal Aeronautical Society 1999.

**URL:** <http://www.raes-fsg.org.uk/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Rolfe, J. M.; Hammerton-Fraser, A. M.; Poulter, R. F.;
Smith, E. M. B.

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Pilot response in flight and simulated flight

**Journal:** Ergonomics

**Volume:** 13

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 761-768

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** All: Royal Air Force Institute of
Aviation Medicine

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** This paper describes an experiment in which an attempt was
made to assess the value of two types of response, control activity and
physiological activity, as indications of the effect on simulator
fidelity of adding pitch motion cues. The investigation used a
general-purpose research simulator and a two-seater Hunter T7 aircraft.
The responses of nine experienced pilots were compared when, flying on
instruments, they undertook the same flight plan under three different
conditions namely:

flight in the Hunter T7 aircraft:

simulated flight in the simulator with pitch motion present;

simulated flight in the same simulator without motion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Edited Book

**Editor:** Rolfe, J. M.; Staples, K. J.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Flight simulation

**Series Title:** Cambridge Aerospace Series

**City:** Cambridge, UK

**Publisher:** Cambridge University Press

**Edition:** Paperback

**ISBN:** ISBN 0-521-35751-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Rolfe: Senior Principal
Psychologist, Ministry of Defence

Staples: Royal Aircraft Establishment, Bedford

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Rolnick, Arnon; Lubow, R. E.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Why is the driver rarely motion sick? The role of
controllability in motion sickness

**Journal:** Ergonomics

**Volume:** 34

**Issue:** 7

**Pages:** 867-879

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Rolnick: Israeli Naval Hyperbaric
Institute, Motion Sickness and Human Performance Laboratory, Haifa,
Israel

Lubow: Tel-Aviv University, Department of Psychology, Tel-Aviv, Israel

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** motion sickness, controllability, stress (psychological)

**Abstract:** The central hypothesis of the work is that the dimension
of control-no control plays an important role in motion sickness.
Although it is generally agreed that having control over a moving
vehicle greatly reduces the likelihood of motion sickness, few studies
have addressed this issue directly, and the theoretical explanation for
this phenomenon is not completely clear. In the study, we equated groups
differing in controllability for head movement, vision, activity, and
predictability, which have often been suggested in the literature as
explanations for the driver\'s immunity to motion sickness. Twenty-two
pairs of yoked subjects were exposed to nauseogenic rotation. One
subject of each pair had control over the rotation and head movements,
while the other was exposed passively to the same motion stimulus.
Subjects who had control reported significantly fewer motion sickness
symptoms and less of a decrement in their well-being, as compared to the
yoked subject without control. The results are discussed in relation to
Reason\'s sensory rearrangement theory and the concept of feed-forward
mechanisms in motion perception.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Romano, Richard

**Year of Conference:** 2001

**Title:** Round table discussion: Motion cueing issues

**Conference** **Name:** 1st Human Centered Transportation Simulation
Conference

**Conference** **Location:** Iowa City, Iowa

**Date:** November 4-7

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Roscoe, S. N.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Simulator qualification: Just as phony as it can be

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 1

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 335-339

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** ILLIANA Aviation Sciences Limited,
Arcata, CA and Las Cruces, NM

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** The qualification of airplane simulators for pilot
training is based on the assumption that transfer of such training is
directly related to the similarity of the device to an actual airplane.
The consequence of this widely held position has been the specification
of training device requirements solely on the basis of engineering
criteria. However, the proper criterion is the flight hours saved in
airborne training for each incremental investment in ground training.
Furthermore, research has shown that innovation in training strategies,
in some cases involving intentional departures from reality, can have
stronger effects than high simulator fidelity on the resulting quality
of pilot performance. Ideally, each aspect of the training curriculum
could be taught to some criterion performance level on the ground.
Competence in each block of training would be demonstrated after a brief
transition in the airplane. Certification for each license and rating
would be based on demonstrated competence, thereby making possible large
reduction in the minimum required flying hours. Credit for ground-based
training would no longer be a formal issue.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** Roscoe, Stanley N.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** The transfer of training effectiveness of personal Computer
Aviation Training Devices (PCATDs)

**Type of Work:** Research paper

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Roscoe, Stanley N.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Moving horizons, control reversals, and graveyard Spirals:
Might an attitude display with a flight path predictor help to prevent
accidents such as the JFK Jr. crash in 1999?

**Journal:** Ergonomics in Design

**Volume:** Q4

**Pages:** 15

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Roscoe, Stanley N.; Williges, Robert C.

**Year:** 1975

**Title:** Motion relationships in aircraft attitude and guidance
displays: A flight experiment

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 14

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 374-387

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Keywords:** students, motion reactions, display systems, attitude
indicators, cathode ray tube screens, flight instruments, flight
testing, human factors engineering, performance (human), optical
tracking, command guidance, analysis of variance

**Abstract:** Sixteen nonpilot Naval ROTC students were tested on tasks
involving conflicting visual and vestibular cues while flying with each
of four basic aircraft attitude presentations (moving horizon, moving
airplane, frequency-separated, and kinalog) in a Beechcraft C-45H
airplane. Flight-director versions of each display presenting either
compensatory or pursuit steering guidance were also compared to a
command flight path tracking task involving random heading changes. For
all attitude presentations, pursuit tracking was superior to
compensatory tracking and the order of merit of the four attitude
presentations in flight casts doubt upon the validity of previous
simulator experiments. It was concluded that the principle of display
frequency separation provides at least equivalent pilot steering
performance to that obtained with the conventional moving horizon
format, while the anticipatory cues it affords tends to reduce the
incidence of control reversals under circumstances of subliminal angular
acceleration by providing initial direction-of-motion compatibility.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Rosenkopf, Lori; Tushman, Michael L.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** The coevolution of community networks and technology: Lessons
from the flight simulation industry

**Journal:** Industrial and Corporate Change

**Volume:** 7

**Pages:** 311-346

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Rosenkopf: The Warton School,
University of Pennsylvania, 2000 Steinberg Hall - Dietrich Hall,
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6370

Tushman: Graduate School of Business, Columbia University, 719 Uris
Hall, New York, NY 10027

**Number of Pages:** 30, plus Figures

**Abstract:** We explore how interorganizational networks coevolve with
technology in the modern flight simulation industry. Since industries
characterized by complex technologies, like flight simulation, rely on
cooperative groups such as technical committees, task forces, and
standards bodies to adjudicate the process of technological evolution,
we focus on these groups and term them \"cooperative technical
organizations\" (CTOs). Focusing on CTOs enables a multi-level
examination of interorganizational networks, as individuals represent
their employing organizations in CTOs, mapping into overlapping
membership patterns which generate community-wide networks.

We develop a set of propositions on the emergence, growth and
re-formation of CTO networks, and explore how the evolution of these
networks both shapes and is constrained by technological outcomes in the
flight simulation industry. We argue that varying levels of
technological uncertainty between eras of ferment (high uncertainty) and
eras of incremental change (low uncertainty) engender fundamentally
different modes of network evolution: social construction during eras of
ferment, and technological determinism during eras of incremental
change. More specifically, during the era of ferment, movement of new
members into the CTO community enables the re-formation of
interorganizational networks which select among competing technological
alternatives. The selection of a dominant design, however, constrains
the evolution of network structure, as subsequent CTO membership remains
relatively consistent. These dynamics have strategic implications for
firms, as the era of ferment presents a window of opportunity where
firms must seek to manage these community-level networks and selection
process to their advantage.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Rosenthal, R.; Rosnow, R. L.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Essentials of behavioral research methods and data collection

**Publisher:** McGraw-Hill

**Number of Pages:** 692

**Edition:** 2nd

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Robert Rosenthal: Harvard
University

Ralph L. Rosnow: Temple University

**Number of Pages:** 692

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Rouse, William B.; Gopher, Daniel

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Estimation and control theory: Application to modeling human
behavior

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 19

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 315-329

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Rouse: University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign

Gopher: The Technion, Haifa, Israel

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Abstract:** The methodology of estimation and control theory is
considered in terms of response, stability, estimation, and control of
linear dynamic systems. Within the context of discrete-time systems,
multi-input, multi-output, n^th^-order linear systems are discussed, and
general results for optimal estimation, optimal control, and other
topics are presented. The application of these results to modeling human
behavior is considered with special emphasis on man-machine system
models.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Year:** 1981, 1982, 1986, 1987, 1989

**Title:** Flight simulation papers

**Notes:** Table of contents only

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Year of Conference:** 1992

**Title:** Proceedings of Matching Technology to Training Requirements

**Conference** **Name:** European Forum on Matching Technology to
Training Requirements

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 19-20

**Notes:** Paper titles:

1\) Area of Interest Parameters for Effective Pilot Training (By
Hodgson, Murray, and Plummer)

2\) Simulator Computer Systems - Technology for the 1990s (By Burgin)

3\) Improved Reliability (By Irving)

4\) An Instructor Station for the Instructor (By Goode and Evans)

5\) The Civilian Simulator - A User\'s View (By Hall)

6\) Quick-Response Training System Modification and its Impact on Army
Aviation Sustainment Training (By Matusof, Polkowski, and Fullmer)

7\) Issues in Training Device Design (By Wilson)

8\) Full Mission Simulation - An Operator\'s View (By Williams)

9\) The Advanced Qualification Program: Matching Technology to Training
Requirements (By Longridge)

10\) Beyond AQP - Broad Spectrum Product Family Integration for Aircrew
Training (By Francis and Heybroek)

11\) The Cost Effective Flight Training Device (By Prime)

12\) Flight Training Devices - Meeting the Low-End Requirements (By
Upton)

13\) The Simulation of Taxiing Aircraft (By Hogg, Self, Pearce, and
Kapadoukas)

14\) A Case for Simulator Motion Standards (By Boothe)

15\) Some Considerations for the Definition of Motion Cue Validation
Tests (By Luijt and van de Moesdijk)

16\) Analysis and Development of Advanced Techniques for Cueing the
Force and Motion Environment in the Simulator of the Future (By Cardullo
and McMillan)

17\) Designing a Truly Portable Simulation Application - It Can Be Done
(By Nutt)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Use of engineering simulator data as a supplement to flight
test data to support flight simulator qualification for modified or
derivative airplanes

**Institution:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** December 14

**Type:** Draft

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** aeromodel, flight test data

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Year of Conference:** 1996

**Title:** Proceedings of Training: Lowering the Cost, Maintaining the
Fidelity Conference

**Conference** **Name:** Training: Lowering the Cost, Maintaining the
Fidelity

**Conference** **Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 15-16

**Number of Pages:** 2

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Proposal for use of engineering simulator data as a
supplement to flight test data to support flight simulator qualification
for modified or derivative airplanes

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation Data Conference

**Conference Location:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 17

**Number of Pages:** 15

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Year of Conference:** 2000

**Title:** Proceedings of RAeS Flight Simulation\--The Next Decade

**Conference** **Name:** Flight Simulation\--The Next Decade

**Conference** **Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** RAeS

**Date:** May 10-12

**Notes:** [Contents:]{.underline}

Keeping Simulators in Pace with a Fourth Generation Fighter Aircraft (by
S. Sandberg, Saab Aerospace, Sweden)

Interactive Hybrid Environment Training (by Sqn. Ldr. J. Sullivan,
Ministry of Defence, UK)

Applications and Future Trends in Synthetic Environments for Military
Training Systems (by Dr. P. Howells and D. Siksik, CAE Electronics,
Canada)

Ab-Initio Simulation in the 21st Century (by Capt. S. Green, BAE SYSTEMS
Flight Training (Europe), Spain)

Flight Crew Training Needs for the Future (by Capt. J. Pugh and Capt. S.
Wood, Virgin Atlantic Airways, UK)

The Instructor/Operator Station - Where Do We Go From Here? (by V.
Faconti, The Boeing Company, USA)

MSHATF - Delivering Military Helicopter Training in the New Millennium
(by B. Symes, CAE Aircrew Training Services, UK)

Aviation Instruction through Flight Simulation: Enhancing Pilot
Decision-Making Skills (by Dr. M. Green, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University, USA)

The Future and Technology of Remote Training: \"Bringing Training to the
Pilot\" (by Dr. D. White, Thomson Training & Simulation, UK)

The Role of the Regulator (by D. Otto, Joint Aviation Authorities, The
Netherlands and D. Irving, Civil Aviation Authority, UK)

Is Today\'s Flight Simulator Prepared for Tomorrow\'s Requirements? (by
P. Ray, Federal Aviation Administration, USA)

The Importance of Matching Technology Advancement With Training Needs
(by Capt. K. Caudrey, Flight Safety Boeing Trading International,
Canada)

Developments in Data Communications and their Effect on Simulation (by
P. Brash, Thomson Training and Simulation, UK)

Improving the Value of Commercial Training Simulators: Key Concerns and
the Search for Resolution (by R. Curnutt and K. Neville, Boeing
Commercial Airplane Group, USA)

Predictive Models for Aerial Refueling Simulations (by C. Svoboda and G.
Ryan III, Kohlman Systems Research, USA)

PC Simulators: Don\'t Call Them Games Anymore (by G. Pisanich, Jane\'s
Combat Simulations/Electronic Arts, USA)

Simulator Fidelity - The Effect of Platform Motion (by Dr. J.
Bürki-Cohen, US Department of Transportation, E. Boothe and Dr. N. Soja,
Consultants, Dr. R. Disario, Bryant College, Dr. T. Go, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, and Dr. T. Longridge, Federal Aviation
Administration, USA)

Integrated Motion Cueing Algorithm and Motion-Based Design for Flight
Simulators (by Dr. S. Advani, Aircraft Development and Systems
Engineering, and Dr. R. Hosman, Aerospace Man-Machine Systems
Consulting, The Netherlands)

The \"All Digital Display\" (by P. Berwick, SEOS Displays Ltd., UK)

Future Visual Systems Technology (by A. Fernie, CAE Electronics, Canada)

Systems and Research in Networked Tactical Training (by Dr. R. Kruk, CAE
Electronics, Canada, Dr. D. Wightman and Dr. W. Howse, US Army Research
Institute, USA)

Distributed Simulation Using COTS Software and Commodity Hardware (by A.
Jenkins and F. Lambert, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, USA)

Network Enabled Image Generators in DIS and HLA Environment (by L. Call,
Air Force Research Laboratory, USA)

Collective Training - Virtually a Reality or Still Over the Horizon (by
A. Aylward, Thomson Training and Simulation, UK)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Unpublished Work

**Author:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Year:** 2002

**Title of Work:** Flight Simulation Group position paper: Flight
simulation

**Number:** Sept. 6

**Date:** March 5, 2002

**Abstract:** This paper is intended as a briefing document summarizing
the advantages and uses of flight simulation, describing some of the
current technology available, indicating how and why it works, and
summarizing the current national and international regulatory framework.

**Notes:** As of 2/05/07, the web site was no longer accessible.

**URL:**
[http://www.raes.org.uk/fl-sim/FSG%20Position%20Paper.htm](http://www.raes.org.uk/fl-sim/FSG Position Paper.htm)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Roza, Manfred; Wentink, Mark; Feenstra, Philippus

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Performance testing of the Desdemona motion system

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6472

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Research Scientists, TNO Human
Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands

**Abstract:** In the spring of 2007 TNO Human Factors together with AMST
Systemtechnik GmbH have completed the development of their newest
research simulator, the Desdemona, in the Netherlands. The Desdemona
research simulator features a unique motion system not seen elsewhere in
the world. Its serial design and geometrical dimensions give the motion
system a large cylindrical motion space and a broad range of dynamic
performance capabilities, which go beyond those of a classical Stewart
platform. Like any other motion-base simulator the Desdemona motion
system is driven by motion filters that transform the various simulation
model outputs into safe and optimal motion cues. For the development of
these motion filters it is necessary to exactly determine the dynamic
performance characteristics of Desdemona and check whether these
characteristics meet the specified motion system requirements. This
paper described the test protocol to measure, specify and verify the
dynamic performance characteristics of the Desdemona motion system. The
performance test protocol builds upon and extends the classical
synergistic motion test approaches, like the AGARD standard, to suit the
specific Desdemona motion system capabilities.

**Author Address:** manfred.roza@tno.nl

mark.wentink@tno.nl

philippus.feenstra@tno.nl

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Rupert, Angus; Clark, Jonathan; Oman, Charles

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Astronaut selection & training to optimize maintenance of
spatial orientation

**Presentation Event:** 2007 Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular
Organs in Space Exploration

**Event Location:** The Netherlands

**Date:** June 7-9

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Angus Rupert: Naval Aerospace
Medical Research Laboratory (NAMRL), Pensacola, FL

Jonathan Clarck: National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI),
Houston, TX

Charles Oman: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA

**Keywords:** spatial orientation, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Outline:

\- First Astronaut Fatality in Space 1967

\- NASA mishap board recommendations

\- Astronaut Training/Diagnostic Devices

\- Navy/DoD Experiences

\- Vestibular Test Battery

**Notes:** On July 6, 2007, the web page was no longer available.

**URL:**
[http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session%202005%20Spaceflight%20Countermeasures/05_03_Rupert.pdf](http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session 2005 Spaceflight Countermeasures/05_03_Rupert.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Ryan, L. E.; Scott, P. G.; Browning, R. F.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** The effects of simulator landing practice and the
contribution of motion simulation to P-3 pilot training

**City:** Orlando, FL

**Institution:** Navy Training Analysis and Evaluation Group

**Date:** September

**Report Number:** TAEG Report No. 63

**Number of Pages:** 39

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Sabourin, Marc-Olivier; Sondermeyer, Vincent

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** G-cueing for fighter simulation training

**Conference Name:** Modeling and Simulation Technologies Conference and
Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 14-17

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** CAE, Montreal, Canada

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** An operator can be regarded as a set of sensors with a
feedback algorithm (reflexes and skills), rules, and a knowledge base
that are used in stabilizing and controlling an aircraft in a given
flight path. Motion cueing devices play a role in the training tool by
enabling the trainee to develop proper control strategy (tuning the
gains of the feedback algorithm), and to acquire parts of the required
set of rules and knowledge base (by simulating representative workload,
for example). The motion system and the g-seat both have relative
advantages and disadvantages and the choice of one, the other, or both
must be made on the basis of an optimal alignment between the training
objectives and the capabilities of the training device. This paper will
describe an optimized g-cueing seat design and compare its training
potential with a standard Stewart motion platform by evaluating their
respective effects on the pilot control loop, on the required workload
and on their effectiveness in facilitating the training of rule-based
and knowledge-based behaviors.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Edited Book

**Editor:** Salas, Eduardo; Bowers, Clint A.; Prince, Carolyn, (Guest
Eds.)

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology - Special issue:
Simulation and training in aviation

**Series Editor:** Jensen, Richard S.

**Series Title:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Publisher:** Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

**Volume:** 8 (3)

**Notes:** [Contents:]{.underline}

*Preface:*

Special issue on Simulation and Training in Aviation (by E. Salas, C.A.
Bowers, and C. Prince)

*Formal Papers:*

It Is Not How Much You Have but How You Use It: Toward a Rational Use of
Simulation to Support Aviation Training (by E. Salas, C.A. Bowers, and
L. Rhodenizer)

Event-Based Approach to Training (EBAT) (by J. Fowlkes, D.J. Dwyer, R.L.
Oser, and E. Salas)

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Flight Simulators for Training Combat
Skills: A Review (by H.H. Bell and W.L. Waag)

Evidence for the Validity of PC-Based Simulations in Studying Aircrew
Coordination (by F. Jentsch and C.A. Bowers)

Computer-Based Simulations as an Adjunct to Ab Initio Flight Training
(by K.A. Davis and D. Harris)

Personal Computer-Based Flight Training Devices (by J.M. Koonce and W.J.
Bramble, Jr.)

Simulator Platform Motion - The Need Revisited (by J. Bürki-Cohen, N.
Soja, and T. Longridge)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Salas, Eduardo; Bowers, Clint A.; Rhodenizer, Lori

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** It is not how much you have but how you use it: Toward a
rational use of simulation to support aviation training

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 8

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 197-208

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Salas: Naval Air Warfare Center
Training Systems Division, Orlando, FL

Bowers, Rhodenizer: Department of Psychology, University of Central
Florida, Orlando, FL

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** simulation use, aviation training, overreliance on
high-fidelity simulation, misuse of simulation

**Abstract:** One of the most remarkable changes in aviation training
over the past few decades is the use of simulation. The capabilities now
offered by simulation have created unlimited opportunities for aviation
training. In fact, aviation training is now more realistic, safe,
cost-effective, and flexible than ever before. However, we believe that
a number of misconceptions\--or invalid assumptions\--exist in the
simulation community that prevent us from fully exploiting and utilizing
recent scientific advances in a number of related fields in order to
further enhance aviation training. These assumptions relate to the
overreliance on high-fidelity simulation and to the misuse of simulation
to enhance learning of complex skills. The purpose of this article is to
discuss these assumptions in the hope of initiating a dialogue between
behavioral scientists and engineers.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Sallee, G. P.; Gibbons, D. M.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** AIA/AECMA project report on Propulsion System Malfunction
plus Inappropriate Crew Response (PSM + ICR)

**Date:** November 1

**Type:** 2 Volumes of Project Report

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Salle: AIA Co-Chair

Gibbons: AECMA Co-Chair

**Number of Pages:** Volume 1: 82

Volume 2: 179

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Sandburg, Stefan

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Keeping simulators in pace with a fourth generation fighter
aircraft

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Saab Aerospace, Linköping, Sweden

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** The challenge to keep a flight-training simulator in pace
with the technological advances in the aircraft has proven to be a time
and resource consuming exercise and has not always been met with
success. It is a known fact to the flight simulator community that
flight simulators lagging behind the aircraft standard are more common
than one would expect knowing that the trainers provide a safer and more
cost efficient way of training pilots. Experience shows that the
available budget for a weapon system upgrade is spent on the weapon
system itself rather than on its training system.

The absolute requirement from the end user of the aircraft system is
that the flight simulators should be modified, validated and
commissioned in time to meet the training requirement. This normally
means that the simulators should be available for training at the same
time or earlier than the arrival of the modified aircraft. A desirable
requirement would be to have the simulator to support the flight test,
evaluation and the development of new training programs and tactics that
are performed by the contractor and the customer prior to the
introduction to the operational squadron. In the Swedish Air Force Saab
Viggen program this objective has successfully been met through the
adaptation of the development process to support the flight-training
simulator.

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Sanderson, Jeff; Kalsey, Jas; Oman, Charles; Harris,
Laurence

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Measuring and attenuating head-movement and induced
oscillopsia

**Presentation Event:** 7th Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular
Organs in Space Exploration

**Event Location:** The Netherlands

**Date:** June 7-9

**Type:** Poster

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Jeff Sanderson, Jas Kalsey,
Laurence Harris: Center for Vision Research, York University, Toronto,
Canada

Charles Oman: Man-Vehicle Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, MA

**Keywords:** oscillopsia, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Head movement contingent oscillopsia is commonly reported
by astronauts during entry, landing, and for several days post flight,
but methods for directly quantifying it have been lacking. Oscillopsia
is characterized by the sensation that objects in the visual field are
moving. Here we use vestibular Coriolis stimulation as a model of
head-movement contingent oscillopsia and measure its temporal duration
by the method of cancellation.

**URL:**
[http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session%20posters/P08_Sanderson.pdf](http://www.congrex.nl/06a07/presentations/session posters/P08_Sanderson.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Sattler, D. E.; Sinclair, M.; Kereliuk, S.

**Year:** 1980

**Title:** An investigation of the recovery from an engine failure in a
twin engine augmentor wing aircraft using the NAE Airborne Simulator

**Journal:** Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal

**Pages:** 26-40

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aeronautical Establishment

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Abstract:** A brief piloted simulation program was conducted using the
NAE Airborne Simulator to investigate the airworthiness aspects of a
twin engine augmentor wing aircraft experiencing an engine failure
during final approach. Three evaluation pilots flew a series of STOL
approaches (-7.5 degree glideslope to a 4000 ft runway) consisting of
normal two engine approaches and approaches on which an engine was
failed at a height ranging from 17 to 92 ft above the runway elevation.
Quantitative and qualitative flight evaluation data were collected
illustrating that acceptable touchdown sink rates could be achieved
following an engine failure at any point on the approach, provided that
adequate pilot warning systems and automatic thrust compensation systems
were available, and that correct pilot recovery technique was employed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Scanlon, Charles H.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Effect of motion cues during complex curved approach and
landing tasks

**Pages:** 1-24

**Date:** December

**Type:** NASA Technical Paper

**Report Number:** NASA TP-2773

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Arkansas State University, AR

**Number of Pages:** 27

**Keywords:** simulator motion, workload, complex approach paths

**Abstract:** A piloted simulation study was conducted to examine the
effect of motion cues using a high-fidelity simulation of a commercial
airplane during the performance of complex curved approach and landing
tasks in the signal environment of the microwave landing system (MLS).
The data from these tests indicate that in a high-complexity MLS
approach task with moderate turbulence and wind, the pilot uses motion
cues to improve path tracking performance. No significant differences in
tracking accuracy were noted for the low- and medium-complexity tasks,
regardless of the presence of motion cues. Higher control-input rates
were measured for all the tasks when motion was used. Pilot eye scan, as
measured by instrument dwell time, was faster when motion cues were used
regardless of the complexity of the approach tasks. A pilot subjective
rating, based on time, mental effort, and psychological stress loads,
yielded larger work load ratings with motion than with no motion. Pilot
comments indicated a preference for motion. With motion cues, pilots
appeared to work harder in all levels of task complexity and to improve
tracking performance in the most complex approach task.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Scerbo, M. W.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Medical virtual reality simulators: Have we missed an
opportunity?

**Magazine:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) Bulletin

**Volume:** 48

**Issue Number:** 5

**Pages:** 1-3

**Date:** May

**Type of Article:** online news bulletin

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** (taken from introduction) Interest in simulators for
training has a long history within the human factors profession. In
fact, articles addressing driving simulation and simulated displays for
vigilance monitoring began appearing in the pages of Human Factors in
the early 1960s. Since then, more than 400 articles on simulation topics
such as flight, air traffic control, command and control, driving, power
plant operation, and simulator networking have appeared in Human
Factors, Ergonomics in Design, and the annual meeting proceedings (see
also Swezey & Andrews, 2001). In the early 1970s, interest in medical
issues also began to be reflected in the pages of Human Factors. A
formal technical group called Medical Systems and Rehabilitation was
formed in 1992 (now called the Health Care Technical Group). Today, more
than 100 articles can be found in our literature addressing diagnoses,

medical devices, errors, procedures, and patient safety.

**URL:** <http://www.hfes.org/web/BulletinPdf/bulletin0505.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Schmerler, J.

**Year:** 1976

**Title:** The visual perception of accelerated motion

**Journal:** Perception

**Volume:** 5

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 167-185

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Social Science,
Fordham University, Lincoln center Campus, New York 10023

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Abstract:** The present research is an investigation of how changes in
the rate of motion are perceived. Five separate experiments were
performed with the use of filmed stimulus material and a variety of
response measures, including both categorical judgments and reproduction
techniques. It was found that (a) the smaller the ratio of terminal to
initial velocity, the less frequent the judgments of acceleration or
deceleration, (b) deceleration was significantly easier to perceive than
acceleration, (c) the perception of acceleration was facilitated when
the velocity of a lead-in segment was the same as the velocity at onset
of motion, (d) a short tunnel centered in the motion path facilitated
the perception of acceleration and deceleration, and (e) instantaneous
changes in velocity were much more easily perceived than gradual
changes. A one-event model for the perception of motion change in which
there is a continuous interplay between earlier, later, and interpolated
motion segments is favored over a two-event model in which earlier and
later segments of velocity are compared.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Schmidt, Stanley F.; Conrad, Bjorn

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Motion drive signals for piloted flight simulators

**City:** Palo Alto, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Report Number:** NASA CR-1601

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center

**Number of Pages:** 75

**Abstract:** An important aspect of many piloted flight simulators is
their ability to provide realistic motion cues. Since such simulators
are constrained to move within the confines of their mechanical drive
systems, they cannot duplicate all motions (and hence all the motion
cues) associated with a real aircraft. In order to use the limited
motion capabilities of a simulator effectively it is thus necessary to
a) determine which motion cues are important to a pilot; b) ascertain
which cues are attainable within the drive system capabilities of a
simulator; c) synthesize logic for commanding motion achievable by the
drive system and realistic to a pilot. This report summarizes a
mathematical approach to this problem and presents logic synthesized for
the Ames All-Axis Motion Generator. Both the theory developed and the
logic presented should be applicable to a wide variety of motion
simulation problems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Schrater, Paul R.; Knill, Davil C.; Simoncelli, Eero P.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Mechanisms of visual motion detection

**Journal:** Nature Neuroscience

**Volume:** 3

**Pages:** 64-68

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Schrater: Department of Psychology,
University of Minnesota, N218 Elliott Hall, 75 E. River Dr.,
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA

Knill: Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, 3815 Walnut
St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA

Simoncelli: Center for Neural Science, New York University, 4 Washington
Place, New York, New York 10003, USA

**Abstract:** Visual motion is processed by neurons in the primary
visual cortex that are sensitive to spatial orientation and speed. Many
models of local velocity computation are based on a second stage that
pools the outputs of first-stage neurons selective for different
orientations, but the nature of this pooling remains controversial. In a
human psychophysical detection experiment, we found near-perfect
summation of image energy when it was distributed uniformly across all
orientations, but poor summation when it was concentrated in specific
orientation bands. The data are consistent with a model that integrates
uniformly over all orientations, even when this strategy is sub-optimal.

**URL:** <http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n1/pdf/nn0100_64.pdf>

**Author Address:** schrater@eye.psych.umn.edu

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Schroeder, Jeffery; Chung, William; Tran, Duc; Laforce,
Soren

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Pilot-induced oscillation prediction with three levels of
simulation motion displacement

**Institution:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA)

**Pages:** 1-11

**Report Number:** 98-4333

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Schroeder, Chung, Tran: NASA Ames
Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

Laforce: SYRE Logicon, Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** Simulator motion platform characteristics were examined to
determine if the amount of motion affects pilot-induced oscillation
(PIO) prediction. Five test pilots evaluated how susceptible 18
different sets of pitch dynamics were to PIOs with three different
levels of simulation motion platform displacement: large, small, and
none. The pitch dynamics were those of a previous in-flight experiment,
some of which elicited PIOs. These in-flight results served as truth
data for the simulation. As such, the in-flight experiment was
replicated as much as possible. Objective and subjective data were
collected and analyzed. With large motion, PIO and handling qualities
ratings matched the flight data more closely than did small motion or no
motion. Also, regardless of the aircraft dynamics, large motion
increased pilot confidence in assigning handling qualities ratings,
reduced safety pilot trips, and lowered touchdown velocities. While both
large and small motion provided a pitch rate cue of high fidelity, only
large motion presented the pilot with a high fidelity vertical
acceleration cue.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Schroeder, Jeffrey; Chung, William W. Y.; Hess, Ronald A.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Spatial frequency and platform motion effects on helicopter
altitude control

**Conference Name:** Modeling and Simulation Technologies Conference and
Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Portland, OR

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Schroeder: NASA Ames Research
Center, Moffett Field, CA

Chung: Logicon Information Systems & Services, Moffett Field, CA

Hess: University of California, Davis, CA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** An experiment examined how visual scene and platform
motion variations affected a pilot\'s ability to perform altitude
changes. Pilots controlled a helicopter model in the vertical axis and
moved between two points 32-ft apart in a specified time. Four factors
were varied: visual scene spatial frequency, visual scene background,
motion filter gain, and motion filter natural frequency. Drawing
alternating black and white stripes of varying widths between the two
extreme altitude points varied visual scene spatial frequency. Visual
scene background varied by either drawing the stripes to fill the entire
field-of-view or by placing the stripes on a narrow pole with a natural
sky and ground plane behind the pole. Both the motion filter gain and
natural frequency were varied in the motion platform command software.
Five pilots evaluated all combinations of the visual and motion
variations. The results showed that only the motion filter natural
frequency and visual scene background affected pilot performance and
their subjective ratings. No significant effects of spatial frequency or
motion system gain found for the values examined in this tracking task.
A previous motion fidelity criterion was found to still be a reasonable
predictor of motion fidelity.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Schroeder, Jeffery A.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Evaluation of simulation motion fidelity criteria in the
vertical and directional axes

**Journal:** Journal of the American Helicopter Society

**Pages:** 44-57

**Date:** February

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Aerospace Engineer, NASA Ames
Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Abstract:** An evaluation of existing motion fidelity criteria was
conducted on the NASA Ames Vertical Motion Simulator. Experienced test
pilots performed single-axis repositioning tasks in both the vertical
and the directional axes using transfer-function approximations of a
hovering helicopter. Gain and natural frequency variations were made
only in the software filters that attenuate the commands to the
simulator motion system. The variations spanned motion response
characteristics from nearly full math-model motion to fixed-base.
Between configurations, pilots recalibrated their motion response
perception by flying the task with full motion. Pilots subjectively
rated the motion fidelity of subsequent configurations relative to this
full motion base, which was considered the standard for comparison. The
results suggested that the existing vertical-axis criterion was accurate
for combination of gain and natural frequency changes. However, if only
the gain or the natural frequency was changed, the rated motion fidelity
was better than the criterion predicted. In the vertical axis, the
objective and subjective results indicated that a larger gain reduction
was tolerated than the existing criterion allowed. Significant
degradations in performance were noted between the full-vertical motion
and no-vertical motion configurations. The limited data collected in the
yaw axis revealed that pilots had difficulty in distinguishing among the
variations in the pure yaw motion cues, thus indicating that pure yaw
motion may be of little importance in hovering flight simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Schroeder, Jeffery Allyn

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Helicopter flight simulation motion platform requirements

**Date:** July

**Report Number:** Organization report number: A-9900432

Sponsor\'s report number: NASA/TP-1999-208766

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Schroeder: NASA Ames Research
Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 84

**Keywords:** flight simulation, helicopters, motion platforms

**Abstract:** To determine motion fidelity requirements, a series of
piloted simulations was performed. Several key results were found.
First, lateral and vertical translational platform cues had significant
effects on fidelity. Their presence improved performance and reduced
pilot workload. Second, yaw and roll rotational platform cues were not
as important as the translational platform cues. In particular, the yaw
rotational motion platform cue did not appear at all useful in improving
performance or reducing workload. Third, when the lateral translational
platform cue was combined with visual yaw rotational cues, pilots
believed the platform was rotating when it was not. Thus, simulator
systems can be made more efficient by proper combination of platform and
visual cues. Fourth, motion fidelity specifications were revised that
now provide simulator users with a better prediction of motion fidelity
based upon the frequency responses of their motion control laws. Fifth,
vertical platform motion affected pilot estimates of steady-state
altitude during altitude repositionings. Finally, the combined results
led to a general method for configuring helicopter motion systems and
for developing simulator tasks that more likely represent actual flight.
The overall results can serve as a guide to future simulator designers
and to today\'s operators.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Schroeder, Jeffery A.; Chung, William W.; Laforce, Soren

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Effects of roll and lateral flight simulation motion gains on
a sidestep task

**Conference Name:** American Helicopter Society 53rd Annual Forum

**Conference Location:** Virginia Beach, VA

**Date:** April 29-May 1

**Abstract:** To represent coordinated maneuvers accurately in a
ground-based flight simulator, the motion platform must translate
laterally when it rolls. Typical platform lateral displacement limits
often prevent an accurate representation of such maneuvers. The result
is that the pilot receives an uncoordinated lateral specific force (ball
not centered) when the model is not calculating one. This study examined
the effects of these false uncoordinated roll-lateral motion cues when
using a coordinated math model. The vehicle model represented a typical
helicopter with satisfactory handling qualities in the roll-lateral
axes. The task was a two-degree-of-freedom sidestep, in which the pilot
controlled lateral position through roll attitude. Two gains varied in
the motion platform control. One gain controlled the ratio between
platform roll angle and math model (and thus visual) roll angle. The
other gain controlled the amount of lateral platform movement, relative
to the amount needed, to keep the apparent gravity vector aligned
vertically about the pilot. Both gains varied from zero to one. With
both gains equal to one, pilots evaluated the true 1:1 motion case, in
which the motion cues matched the visual cues. As the motion cues
degraded, both objective and subjective evaluations worsened. Pilot
opinions of motion fidelity reasonably matched a combination of criteria
developed previously.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Schroeder, J. A.; Johnson, W. W.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Yaw motion cues in helicopter simulation

**Conference Name:** AGARD FVP Symposium on \"Flight Simulation \--
Where are the Challenges?\"

**Conference Location:** Braunschweig, Germany

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** May 22-25

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Mail
Stop 262-3, Moffett Field, CA

**Abstract:** 1. SUMMARY

A piloted simulation that looked at the effects of yaw motion cues on
pilot-vehicle performance, pilot workload, and pilot motion perception
was conducted on the NASA Ames Vertical Motion Simulator. The vehicle
model that was used represented an AH-64 helicopter. Three tasks were
performed in which only combinations of vehicle yaw and vertical
displacement were allowed. The commands issued to the motion platform
were modified to present the following four motion configurations for a
pilot located forward of the center of rotation: 1) only the linear
translations, 2) only the angular rotation, 3) both the linear
translations and the angular rotations, and 4) no motion. The objective
data indicated that pilot-vehicle performance was reduced and the
necessary control activity increased when linear motion was removed;
however, the lack of angular motion did not result in a measured
degradation for almost all cases. Also, pilots provided subjective
assessments of their compensation required, the motion fidelity, and
their judgment of whether or not linear or rotational cockpit motion was
present. Ratings of compensation and fidelity were affected by linear
acceleration, and the rotational motion had no significant impact. Also,
when only linear motion was present, pilots typically reported the
presence of rotation. Thus, linear acceleration cues, not yaw rotational
cues, appear necessary to simulate hovering flight.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Schweikhard, W. G.; Platz, S. J.; Halverstadt, D. E.;
Landis, Darin; Bounajem, Elias

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Flight test data processing, plotting and analysis at your
finger tips\--A flexible, automated, integrated approach

**Conference Name:** AIAA/SFTE/DGLR/SETP Fifth Biannual Flight Test
Conference

**Conference Location:** Ontario, Canada

**Date:** May 22-24

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Kohlman Systems Research (KSR),
Lawrence, KS

**Abstract:** Modern flight test data acquisition systems do not put the
data where it is needed, namely in the hands of the analysis engineer
who is charged with producing the final report. Those that do, do not
provide the analysis engineers the flexible versatile software that
allows them to operate on it in the way they want. The Flight Test
Applications Software Package (FTASP) is an example of the sort of
software that is needed for accessing today\'s huge data bases, breaking
them down to a size that is usable by the analysis engineer and
providing all of the tools needed to operate on the data and prepare the
final report. FTASP specifically addresses the analysis of aircraft
performance, stability and control, but this is only a sample. The
concept can be easily appended to accommodate the flight test
disciplines of propulsion, loads, structural dynamics and systems test.
Employing FTASP concepts and approaches could greatly enhance our
ability to produce final results early and diminish our reliance on
preliminary and partially complete real time quick look results as the
basis for major decisions in the development of airplanes and systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Manual

**Author:** Science Applications International Corporation, Systems
Control Technology Group

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Electro-load technical manual

**Place Published:** California, MD

**Publisher:** Science Applications International Corporation, Systems
Control Technology Group

**Date:** April

**Type of Work:** Technical Manual

**Number of Pages:** 50

**Keywords:** electro-load, technical manual, control algorithm, FAA
requirements, time response

**Abstract:** Simulation and Control Technologies is the recognized
leader in the development of high fidelity aerodynamic and flight
control system simulations, including ELECTRO-LOAD, an Electric Control
Loading (ECL) force feel system for vehicle simulations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Manual

**Author:** Science Applications International Corporation Simulation
and Control Technology Group

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Electro-load: Installation procedure and acceptance test
guide

**Place Published:** California, MD

**Publisher:** Science Applications International Corporation,
Simulation and Control Technology Group

**Date:** April

**Type of Work:** Installation and Test Guide

**Number of Pages:** 22

**Keywords:** electro-load, installation, test guide, physical
installation, parameter calculation

**Abstract:** Simulation and Control Technologies is the recognized
leader in the development of high fidelity aerodynamic and flight
control system simulations, including ELECTRO-LOAD, an Electric Control
Loading (ECL) force feel system for vehicle simulations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Scott, William B.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** SAE committee warns: Upset-recovery training may lead to
inflight problems

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Date:** January 12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Los Angeles, CA

**Keywords:** negative training, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Using simulators to develop upset-recovery procedures
could lead to negative training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Seamster, Thomas L.; Glass, Richard H.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Human factors considerations in the design of displays and
switches for a flight simulator\'s onboard Instructor/Operator Station
(IOS)

**Conference Name:** Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting

**Keywords:** human factors, display design, instructor/operator station

**Abstract:** The MV-22A training device suite Operational Flight
Trainer (OFT) and Aircrew System Trainer (AST) specification
requirements provide for an instructor work environment that focuses on
integrating the instructor\'s position with the training environment.
This paper will describe the process to refine a display/switch design
dedicated to over-the-shoulder instruction at the IOS. The time frame
encompasses the period from the mockup through the IOS-specific design
reviews which addresses a mature IOS display/switch design. This new IOS
display/switch design mirrors the aircraft\'s Multi-Function Displays
(MFDs) which provide the pilots rapid and efficient access to aircraft
systems and environmental data, while allowing for primary focus on
flying the aircraft. Correspondingly, the IOS display/switch design for
control and monitor of the training scenario, allows the instructor to
focus on trainee actions, the aircraft instrument panel, and the visual
system\'s forward field of view. Since the mockup, there has been a
refinement process leading to some significant design initiatives. An
analysis of this refinement process points out some key issues in
designing for this new type of IOS display.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Sedgwick, H. A.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Section IV: Space and motion perception

**Editor:** Boff, Kenneth R.; Kaufman, Lloyd; Thomas, James P.

**Book Title:** Handbook of Perception and Human Performance: Sensory
Processes and Perception

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** John Wiley and Sons

**Volume:** I

**Number of Volumes:** 2

**ISBN:** ISBN 0-471-88544-4 (v. I)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** State University of New York,
College of Optometry, New York, NY

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Seidensticker, Steve; Hecker, Mary-Ellen

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Real-time simulators: Dealing with their growing complexity

**Conference Name:** Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation &
Education (I/ITSEC) Conference

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Logicon, Inc., Tactical and
Training Systems Division, San Diego, CA

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** A number of technical and philosophical issues are
emerging in the development of large real-time simulators that are going
to have profound effects on the way such devices are designed and built.

Simulators are becoming more complex, both in the number of functions
that each must perform, and the number of disciplines involved. In the
near future it will not be uncommon to use speech generation, speech
understanding, artificial intelligence, image generation, complex
optics, embedded processors, graphic displays, and sophisticated motion
cue generators in a single simulator. Existing approaches to design,
implementation, and testing cannot support the integration of these
disciplines into a single harmonious system.

Fortunately, technical developments have kept pace with this problem.
High speed local area networks (LAN); ever faster, smaller, and cheaper
processors; cheap and plentiful memory; object oriented design
techniques; and procedures oriented programming languages all have major
potential application to the integration of components in large
real-time systems.

This paper will explore and suggest the application of these
developments to future simulators. Examples of a relatively simple
operational flight trainer (OFT) and a multi-cockpit weapon system
trainer (WST) designed around a set of well defined modules will be used
to illustrate the concepts.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Sekuler, Robert; Watamaniuk, Scott N. J.; Blake, Randolph

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Perception of visual motion

**Editor:** Pashler, Hal; Yantis, Steve

**Book Title:** Stevens\' Handbook of Experimental Psychology

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** J. Wiley

**Volume:** 1

**Number of Volumes:** 4

**Series Volume:** Sensation and Perception

**Chapter:** 4

**Edition:** 3rd

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Sekuler: Brandeis University

Watamaniuk: Wright State University

Blake: Vanderbilt University

**Notes:** This is a June 2001 version as prepared for publication.

**URL:**
<http://people.brandeis.edu/~sekuler/papers/SWBchapterJune2001.pdf>

**Author Address:** sekuler@brandeis.edu

watamaniuk@wright.edu

randolph_blake@vanderbilt.edu

**Access Date:** August 15, 2007

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Sele, Mike; Baetge, Mike

**Year of Workshop:** 1983

**Title:** Innovative uses of aircraft for flight training

**Editor:** Lee, Alfred T.

**Workshop Name:** Flight Training Technology for Regional/Commuter
Airline Operation

**Workshop** **Location:** Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date of Workshop:** September 28-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Sele: Air Wisconsin

Baetge: NASA

**Keywords:** Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT), line operations,
crew member training

**Abstract:** (from first page) The theme of our presentation is the
development of ideas and ways in which to increase effectiveness of the
aircraft as a training device with particular attention to the
application of LOFT concepts to the aircraft in its home environment.

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Shafer, Mary F.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** In-flight simulation studies at the NASA Dryden Flight
Research Facility

**City:** Washington, DC

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration

**Pages:** 1-17

**Date:** July

**Report Number:** NASA TM-4396

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Dryden Flight Research
Facility, P.O. Box 273, Edwards, CA 93523-0273

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Keywords:** in-flight simulation, flight test, Dryden history

**Abstract:** Since the late 1950\'s the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration\'s Dryden Flight Research Facility has found in-flight
simulation to be an invaluable tool. In-flight simulation has been used
to address a wide variety of flying qualities questions, including
low-lift-to-drag ratio approach characteristics for vehicles like the
X-15, the lifting bodies, and the Space Shuttle; the effects of time
delays in controllability of aircraft with digital flight-control
systems, the causes and cures of pilot-induced oscillation in a variety
of aircraft, and flight-control systems for such diverse aircraft as the
X-15 and the X-29. In-flight simulation has also been used to anticipate
problems and to avoid them and to solve problems once they appear.

This paper presents an account of the in-flight simulation at the Dryden
Flight Research Facility and some discussion. An extensive bibliography
is included.

**URL:**
[www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/88271main_H-1833.pdf](http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/88271main_H-1833.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Shah, Gautam H.; Cunningham, Kevin; Foster, John V.;
Fremaux, C. Michael; Stewart, Eric C.; Wilborn, James E.; Gato, William;
Pratt, Derek W.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Wind-tunnel investigation of commercial transport aircraft
dynamics at extreme flight conditions

**Conference Name:** World Aviation Congress & Display

**Conference Location:** Phoenix, AZ

**Publisher:** SAE International

**Date:** November 5-7

**Electronic Resource Number:** 2002-01-2912

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Gautam H. Shah, Kevin Cunningham,
John V. Foster, C. Michael Fremaux, Eric C. Stewart: NASA Langley
Research Center

James E. Wilborn, William Gato, Derek W. Pratt: The Boeing Company

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), disorientation

**Abstract:** A series of low-speed static and dynamic wind tunnel tests
of a commercial transport configuration over an extended angle of
attack/sideslip envelope was conducted at NASA Langley Research Center.
The test results are intended for use in the development of an
aerodynamic simulation database for determining aircraft flight
characteristics at extreme and loss-of-control conditions. This database
will be used for the development of loss-of-control prevention or
mitigation systems, pilot training for recovery from such conditions,
and accident investigations. An overview of the wind-tunnel tests is
presented and the results of the tests are evaluated with respect to
traditional simulation database development techniques for modeling
extreme conditions to identify regions where simulation fidelity should
be addressed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Sharkey, Thomas J.; McCauley, Michael E.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Does a motion base prevent simulator sickness?

**Conference Name:** AIAA/AHS Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Monterey Technologies, Inc.,
Carmel, CA

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** simulator sickness, high fidelity motion cues, motion
base, vertical motion simulator, motion washout, visual system

**Abstract:** Simulator sickness is an unwanted side effect of many
current flight simulators. Various strategies for minimizing the problem
have been discussed by the NASA Steering Committee on Simulator Induced
Sickness. One common proposal is to provide high fidelity motion cues to
reduce the discrepancy or conflict between the visually-implied motion
and the actual motion. The assumption is that the reduction of cue
conflict will reduce the incidence and severity of simulator sickness.
This hypothesis was tested using the NASA Vertical Motion Simulator
(VMS) at Moffett Field. Ten pilots flew a UH-60 Blackhawk model with two
low altitude flight maneuvers: S-turns and sawtooths. These flight tasks
were selected because they had generated a very high incident of
simulator sickness in a previous study using a fixed-base wide
FOV-simulator. The pilots flew maneuvers up to 60 minutes on each of two
separate days, once with the motion base turned on and once with the
motion base turned off. Several types of data were collected including
periodic self-report, pre-post symptom checklists, dark focus, and
pre-post postural equilibrium tests. The results indicate that the
motion base condition did not result in a lower incidence or severity of
simulator induced sickness.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Sharpe, D.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Beyond significance testing: Reforming data analysis methods
in behavioral research

**Journal:** Canadian Psychology

**Volume:** 45

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 317-319

**Date:** November

**Type of Article:** Book review

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Regina, Regina, SK,
Canada

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** significance testing; effect size; confidence interval
estimation; statistical decision making; null hypothesis; data analysis;
behavioral research

**Abstract:** Reviews Kline\'s book which reviews the controversy
regarding significance testing, offers methods for effect size and
confidence interval estimation, and suggests some alternative
methodologies.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Sheridan, Thomas; Ferrell, William R.

**Year:** 1974

**Title:** Fundamental considerations in modeling the human operator in
a control system

**Book Title:** Man-machine systems: Information, Control and Decision
Models of Human Performance

**City:** Cambridge, MA

**Publisher:** The MIT Press

**Pages:** 177-246

**Number of Pages:** 70

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Sheridan, Thomas B.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Considerations in development and use of a locomotive cab
simulator for human factors research

**Institution:** Volpe National Transportation Systems Center

**Date:** December

**Type:** Research Report

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** Consideration is being given by the Federal Rail
Administration (FRA) to use of the Amtrak Acela simulator and also to
the development of a new simulator facility devoted primarily for human
factors research. In April 2001, Foster-Miller (Reinach 2001) issued a
report examining the applicability of the Acela high speed rail
simulator for human-centered research purposes. The primary intended use
of that simulator is to familiarize locomotive engineers with Acela
train sets; human factors research was not a consideration in specifying
its design. Section 7 of the Foster-Miller report makes recommendations
for the design of a simulator facility devoted to human factors
research.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Sheridan, T.B.; Bürki-Cohen, J.; Corker, K.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Human transient into-the-loop simulation for NGATS

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Keystone, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 21-24

**Abstract:** Serious planning is underway for the United States Next
Generation Air Transportation System. While design decisions are far
from complete, there is consideration of having aircraft-trajectory
control in space and time be determined by some combination of pilots,
air-traffic personnel, and computers. Insofar as any control input is
continuous in time, because of human perception and decision response
times and/or computer multitasking or optimization-cycle times, there
are likely to be time delays (e.g., human transients getting "into the
control loop") that could threaten control stability. Using the MATLAB®
Simulink® dynamic simulation tool this paper examines some hypothetical
situations and offers examples of how delays and signal sampling in
aircraft control could cause unacceptable oscillations and instability.

**URL:** <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/docs/ngats-aiaa06.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Shifrin, Carole A.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Regional airlines special report: Changing rules challenge
U.S. regionals

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 54-55

**Date:** May 20

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** RAA, Regional Airlines Association, Part 135, Part 121

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Shinn-Cunningham, B.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Applications of virtual auditory displays

**Conference Name:** 20th International Conference of the IEEE
Engineering in Biology and Medical Society

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Hear. Res. Center, Depts. of
Cognitive and Neural Systems and Biomedical Engineering, Boston
University, 677 Beacon St., Boston, MA 02215

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** virtual environments, spatial hearing

**Abstract:** Current technology makes it possible to simulate
naturally-occurring spatial auditory cues quite accurately. However, the
cost of such a system is not justifiable, or even desirable, for all
applications. This paper surveys some of the applications currently
using virtual auditory displays and some of the issues important in the
design of virtual auditory displays.

**URL:** <http://cns-web.bu.edu/~shinn/pages/pdf/IEEE_VAS_Appl.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Shirachi, Douglas K.; Shirley, Richard S.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Visual/motion cue mismatch in a coordinated roll maneuver

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** May

**Report Number:** NASA-CR-166259

**Number of Pages:** 48

**Abstract:** An experiment was performed to investigate the effects of
bandwidth differences between visual and motion cueing systems on pilot
performance for a coordinated roll task. In addition, for visual and
motion cue configurations which were judged to be acceptable, the
effects of reduced motion cue scaling on pilot performance were studied
to determine the scale reduction threshold for which pilot performance
was significantly different from full scale pilot performance.

The major conclusions were that (1) the presence or absence of high
frequency (w \> 3.5 rad/sec) error information in the visual and/ or
motion display systems significantly affects pilot performance, and (2)
the attenuation of motion scaling while maintaining other display
dynamic characteristics constant affects pilot performance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Shirley, Richard S.

**Year:** 1968

**Title:** Motion cues in man-vehicle control

**City:** Cambridge, MA

**Institution:** Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

**Date:** January

**Type:** Sc. D. Thesis

**Report Number:** MIT Report No. MVT-68-1

**Abstract:** An investigation is made to determine how the human
operator makes use of roll motion cues in a man-vehicle control system.
To this purpose the human operator's describing function is measured
over a wide range of vehicle dynamics and under conditions of visual
inputs only, motion inputs only, and combined visual and motion inputs.
Both the describing function (amplitude and phase of the human
operator's output relative to his input) and the remnant (power spectral
density of that part of the human operator's output which is
uncorrelated with his input) are measured as a function of frequency.
The relative integral squared error is also measured. Visual inputs are
made by means of a dot moving laterally on an oscilloscope, and roll
motion inputs are made by means of a motion simulator.

An analytical method of correcting the experimental measurements for
errors introduced by the remnant is developed and applied to the data.
The corrections are generally small.

Examination of the describing function data leads to some conclusions
about he human operator's use of angular motion cues in a man-vehicle
control system. When the roll motion cues are added to the visual cues,
the human operator is able to increase his lead in the frequency range
above three radians per second. This permits him to increase his gain
and cross-over frequency without decreasing his phase margin. The net
effect of these changes in the human operator's control behavior is to
increase the open loop gain without a loss of stability, and thus to
reduce the relative integral squared error for the closed loop system.

The percentage reduction of the relative integral squared error upon the
addition of the motion cues to the visual cues varies as a function of
the controlled vehicle dynamics. The human operator can make the most
use of motion cues for vehicle dynamics which lead to significant roll
motions above one radian per second. Such vehicle dynamics include low
order dynamics (1/s as opposed to 1/s^2^) and dynamics with an
associated high control stick gain.

It is possible, in some cases, to use the body of data obtained for this
thesis to predict actual in-flight or moving-base measurements of the
human operator's describing function from fixed-base measurements of the
human operator's describing function.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Shirts, R. Garry

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Ten secrets of successful simulations

**Magazine:** Training

**Date:** October

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Simulation Training Systems

**Abstract:** This article by Garry Shirts originally appeared in the
October 1992 issue of Training magazine. It presents 10 suggestions for
developing effective simulations. It is based on Garry Shirts\'
experience in designing more than 40 simulations and experiential
programs.

**URL:** <http://www.stsintl.com/business/articles/tensecrets.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Showalter, Thomas W.; Miller, Robert J.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** G-seat system step input and sinusoidal response
characteristics

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date:** June

**Type:** Technical Memorandum

**Report Number:** NASA TM - 78478

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Washington, DC 20546

NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Keywords:** G seat, step input response, frequency response

**Abstract:** The step input and sinusoidal response characteristics of
a pneumatically driven computer controlled G seat were examined in this
study. The response data show that this system can be modeled as a first
order system with an 0.08 sec time lag and a 0.53 sec time constant.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Showalter, T. W.; Parris, B. L.

**Year:** 1980

**Title:** The effects of motion and g-seat cues on pilot simulator
performance of three piloting tasks

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Date:** January

**Report Number:** NASA TP 1601

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA

**Number of Pages:** 38

**Keywords:** motion and g-seat cue evaluation, ground-based simulation,
flight simulation, pilot performance in simulators

**Abstract:** Data are presented that show the effects of motion system
cues, g-seat cues, and pilot experience on pilot performance during
takeoffs with engine failures, during in-flight precision turns, and
during landings with wind shear. Eight groups of USAF pilots flew a
simulated KC-135 using four different cueing systems. The basic cueing
system was a fixed-base type (no-motion cueing) with visual cueing. The
other three systems were produced by the presence of either a motion
system or a g-seat, or both. Extensive statistical analysis of the data
was performed and representative performance means were examined. These
data show that the addition of motion system cueing results in
significant improvement in pilot performance for all three tasks:
however, the use of g-seat cueing, either alone or in conjunction with
the motion system, provided little if any performance improvement for
these tasks and for this aircraft type.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Workshop Proceedings

**Author:** Sifford, J. C.

**Year of Workshop:** 1983

**Title:** Management training for cockpit crews at Piedmont Flight

**Editor:** Lee, Alfred T.

**Workshop Name:** Flight Training Technology for Regional/Commuter
Airline Operation

**Workshop** **Location:** Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date of Workshop:** September 28-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Piedmont Airlines

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Silbergeld, David

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Want to polish your flight skills? Try FLY! 2K

**Magazine:** National Defense Magazine

**Date:** November

**Type of Article:** Online Article

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Abstract:** The original "FLY!" emerged in the 1999 flight sims, a
product from developer Terminal Reality that went head-to-head with
Microsoft's Flight Simulator.

**URL:**
<http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/issues/2000/Nov/Want_to.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Sinacori, J. B.

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** The determination of some requirements for a helicopter
flight research simulation facility

**City:** Moffett Field, CA

**Institution:** National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
Ames Research Center

**Date:** September

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** 1097-1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Ames Research Center

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Sinacori, John B.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Modeling flight simulator visual/motion cue effects on pilot
performance: A summary

**Date:** July

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** AFAMRL-TR-86-064

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** modeling flight simulator, pilot, motion cue

**Abstract:** The advent of the modern computer during WWII and its
proliferation following that conflict has greatly enhanced the human
thinking process. The words \"model\" and \"simulation\" are commonplace
today and are used to describe mathematical formalisms usually
implemented on a computer that mimes some intuitive thought. These
models may be thought as a preliminary theory of the process involved,
because if developed properly, their results are subject to experimental
verification.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Sinclair, S. R. M.; West, T. C.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Handling qualities of a simulated STOL aircraft in natural
and computer-generated turbulence and shear

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Sinclair: Flight Research
Laboratory, National Aeronautical Establishment, Ottawa, Canada K1A OR6

West: Systems Research and Development Service, U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, DC 20591

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** STOL aircraft, turbulence, shear

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Sivan, Raphael; Ish-Shalom, Jehuda; Huang, Jen-Kuang

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** An optimal control approach to the design of moving flight
simulators

**Journal:** IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics

**Volume:** SMC-12

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 818-827

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Keywords:** optimal control approach, moving flight simulators, ground
based motion simulators, washout filter, cross-product scheme, crossfeed
scheme, parameter optimization, optimal model reference designs,
vestibular system, washout matrix

**Abstract:** An abstract simulator design problem is formulated as
follows: we are given a dynamic system S^a^ called the actual system and
another dynamic system S^s^ called a simulator for S^a^. Furthermore, we
are given an input signal which drives the actual system S^a^. The
problem is to find an operator, properly constrained, which generates
the input to the simulator S^s^ on the basis of the input to S^a^ so
that the discrepancy between the output S^a^ and S^s^ is as small as
possible. This abstract simulator design problem is brought in the form
of an optimal control problem and then solved for the linear-quadratic
Gaussian special case. Next the solution of the abstract simulator
problem is applied to the design of the motion generators for motion
simulators. A fairly elaborate mathematical model of the vestibular
organs is used. The optimization criterion that is selected is the
mean-square difference between the physiological outputs of vestibular
organs for the pilot in the airplane and for the pilot in the simulator.
The dynamical equations are linearized and the input signal is modeled
as a random process with a rational power spectral density. Subject to
the above assumptions, the optimal structure as the motion generator for
the simulator, also called a washout filter is derived. This method
stands in contrast to existing design schemes for motion generators
which generally assume a certain fixed structure for the motion
generator and concentrate on optimizing its parameters. This paper
concludes with an example of a design for a two degree of freedom flight
simulator including simulations for simple inputs.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Smaili, Hafid; Jansen, Hans; Naseri, Amir; Groen, Eric L.;
Stroosma, Olaf

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Pilot motion perception and control during a simulated decrab
maneuver

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6797

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Smaili: R&D Engineer, Cockpit and
Flight Operations Department, National Aerospace Laboratory NLR, P.O.
Box 90502, 1059 CM Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Jansen: Senior Research Engineer, Training and Simulation Department,
National Aerospace Laboratory NLR, P.O. Box 90502, 1059 CM Amsterdam,
The Netherlands

Naseri: PhD Candidate, Institute for Aerospace Studies, University of
Toronto, 4925 Dufferin St., Toronto, ON, M3H 5T6 Canada

Groen: Aerospace Physiologist, Education and Training Department, TNO
Human Factors, P.O. Box 23, 3769 ZG, Soesterberg, The Netherlands

Stroosma: Research Engineer, Delft Control and Simulation Division,
Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB, Delft, The
Netherlands

**Abstract:** A set of experiments were conducted on the National
Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) GRACE research flight simulation facility to
determine the effects of sway, yaw and roll motion on perceived motion
fidelity, motion perception, pilot workload and pilot compensation.
Fourteen pilots were asked to perform a manual decrab maneuver when the
aircraft was on final approach with a 30 knots crosswind. Platform yaw,
sway and roll motions were varied independently to examine their
relative contribution to the pilot\'s judgments on perceived motion cues
and workload. To determine possible effects of workload in the pilot\'s
opinion about motion fidelity and perception of motion, pilots were
grouped in pairs. For each simulator run, one pilot was asked to fly the
aircraft while the other pilot was asked to monitor the maneuver. Both
pilots answered the same questionnaire after each run. The results show
that perception of simulator motion was positively affected by platform
sway for both pilots-flying and pilots-not-flying. Platform roll had
only a main effect on the perceived motion of the pilots-not-flying.
Platform yaw motion seemed to have a positive effect on motion
perception only in the absence of platform sway. The pilot motion
fidelity ratings show that platform sway improved the fidelity ratings
for the pilots-not-flying only. Platform roll (in the absence of sway)
also showed to have a positive effect on pilot fidelity ratings. On
average, pilot fidelity ratings were higher when the pilot was
controlling the aircraft. Handling qualities results show that pilots
felt less compensation was required when platform sway was present. This
was confirmed by the decrease in pilot pedal and column activity when
platform sway was present. The results of the experiment as described in
this paper will support our previous studies in the development of
objective evaluation criteria for the optimization of simulator motion
cues.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Smith, R. Marshall; Chung, Victoria I.; Martinez, Debbie

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Transport delays associated with the NASA Langley flight
simulation facility

**Number of Pages:** 12

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Smode, A. F.

**Year:** 1974

**Title:** Recent developments in instructor station design and
utilization for flight simulators

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 16

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 1-18

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Dunlap and Associates, Inc.,
Darien, CT

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Abstract:** The instructional capability of the training simulator has
improved in tempo with simulation technology. The business of shaping
student behaviors has achieved a leap forward in efficiency due to
digital computation and the computer display terminal. This paper
discusses the impact of computer assistance on the capability for
structuring and controlling synthetic flight training, and examines the
instructional potential of the \"new breed\" of flight simulators
presently on-line or in the developmental stage. A number of recent
innovations in instructor station design is described. These developing,
student-centered instructional techniques for promoting training
effectiveness place the simulator quite realistically in contention as a
major flight training medium of the future.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Snow, Allen E.; Moon, Richard N.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** Providing high performance visual simulation at low cost,
revisited

**Conference Name:** Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation &
Education (I/ITSEC) Conference

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Evans & Sutherland Computer
Corporation, Salt lake City, UT

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** In the process of transitioning from the theoretical to
the actual, things often change greatly. This is also the case in the
move from system design, to system implementation and finally the actual
performance characterization. In a follow-up to last year\'s paper
\"Providing High Performance Visual Simulation at Low Cost,\" which
described the system design and architecture, this paper will discuss
what has been learned in the actual implementation and use of this
system.

An evaluation of the low cost approach is presented, delineating the
system capabilities and limitations under various training requirements.
One aspect that will be discussed at length is the channelized system
architecture and how this architecture responds to different types of
visual imaging simulation including sensor channels, narrow fields of
view, and combinations of imaging channels, all used in the same system.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Snowden, Robert J.; Freeman, Tom C. A.

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** The visual perception of motion

**Periodical Title:** Current Biology

**Volume:** 14

**Issue:** 9

**Date Accessed:** August 14, 2007

**URL:**
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6VRT-4DG5TDG-6-7&_cdi=6243&_user=645219&_coverDate=10%2F05%2F2004&_sk=%23TOC%236243%232004%23999859980%23522418%23FLA%23display%23Volume_14,_Issue_19,_Pages_1694-1790_(5_October_2004)%23tagged%23Volume%23first%3D14%23Issue%23first%3D19%23Pages%23first%3D1694%23last%3D1790%23date%23(5_October_2004)%23&view=c&_gw=y&wchp=dGLbVzb-zSkWb&md5=91f72cfa2e40f8493929123dc6bc055e&ie=/sdarticle.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** So, Richard H. Y.; Ho, Andy; Lo, W.T.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** A metric to quantify virtual scene movement for the study of
cybersickness: Definition, implementation, and verification

**Journal:** Presence

**Volume:** 10

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 193-215

**Date:** April

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Human Performance and Virtual
Reality Laboratory

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology

**Number of Pages:** 23

**Abstract:** This paper presents a metric to quantify visual scene
movement perceived inside a virtual environment (VE) and illustrates how
this method could be used in future studies to determine a cybersickness
dose value to predict levels of cybersickness in VEs. Sensory conflict
theories predict that cybersickness produced by a VE is a kind of
visually induced motion sickness. A comprehensive review indicates that
there is only one subjective measure to quantify visual stimuli
presented inside a VE. A metric, referred to as *spatial velocity* (SV),
is proposed. It combines objective measures of scene complexity and
scene movement velocity. The theoretical basis for the proposed SV
metric and the algorithms for its implementation are presented. Data
from two previous experiments on cybersickness were reanalyzed using the
metric. Results showed that increasing SV by either increasing the scene
complexity or scene velocity significantly increased the rated level of
cybersickness. A strong correlation between SV and the level of
cybersickness was found. The use of the spatial velocity metric to
predict levels of cybersickness is also discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Edited Book

**Editor:** Spanitz, Jackie

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Federal Aviation Regulations Parts 25, 63, and 121

**City:** Renton

**Publisher:** Aviation Supplies and Academics, Inc. (ASA)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Sparaco, Pierre

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Human factors cited in French A320 crash

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 30-31

**Date:** January 3

**Number of Pages:** 2

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Stanney, Kay M.; Hash, Phillip

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Locus of user-initiated control in virtual environments:
Influences on cybersickness

**Journal:** Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments

**Volume:** 7

**Issue:** 5

**Pages:** 447-460

**Date:** October

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Central Florida,
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems, Orlando, FL
32816-2450 USA

**Keywords:** cybersickness, simulator sickness, user-initiated control,
virtual environments

**Abstract:** Cybersickness is a pervasive and deleterious effect of
human-virtual environment interaction. This paper applies
motion-sickness adaptation theory to cyber sickness in virtual
environments to determine if the degree of user-initiated control can
suppress sickness. It is suggested that if users are allowed some level
of control over their movement within a virtual environment,
cybersickness will not be as severe as that resulting from an
environment in which users must follow a predetermined (i.e., scripted)
path of movement. While past motion-sickness studies have examined
control versus no control, the present study focuses on modifying the
level of user-initiated control such that it matches the needs of the
task characteristics while minimizing sickness. The degree of user
sickness was tested under passive, active, and active-passive control
scenarios. As measured by the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire, the
active (i.e., complete control) condition reduced the severity of
symptoms experienced as compared to the passive (i.e., no control)
condition, but did not do so as completely as the active-passive (i.e.,
coupled control) condition. The implication is that the level of
user-initiated control can be manipulated to modify the deleterious
effects of human-virtual environment interaction.

**Author Address:** stanney@iems.engr.ucf.edu

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Stapleford, Robert L.; Peters, Richard A.; Alex, Fred R.

**Year:** 1969

**Title:** Experiments and a model for pilot dynamics with visual and
motion inputs

**Institution:** NASA

**Pages:** 115

**Date:** May

**Type:** NASA Contractor Report

**Report Number:** CR 1325

**Keywords:** Pilot dynamics, pilot model, visual feedback, motion
feedback

**Abstract:** This report describes the results of a simulator program
to investigate the effects of motion cues on a manual-control tracking
task. The experimental variables were controlled-element dynamics,
linear motion characteristics, and angular motion characteristics. The
data obtained include: pilot describing functions, both overall
(combined visual and motion feedbacks) and separate (independent visual
and motion pathways); remnant characteristics; and tracking performance.
These data are also compared with previous experimental results.

From the previous and present data, a multimodality pilot model for both
visual and motion feedbacks is derived. The dynamics of the two (angular
and linear) motion feedback paths and the integration of visual and
motion feedbacks are discussed. The overall effects of motion on the
crossover model are found to be the lower pilot effective time delays
and higher crossover frequencies. The changes are roughly 0.15 sec and 1
rad/sec. These effects are primarily due to an angular rate feedback via
the semicircular canals. The lead provided by this vestibular path
allows the pilot to reduce his lead in the visual path and increase his
low frequency gain. The relative magnitudes of the visual and vestibular
feedbacks depend on the controlled element dynamics (whether or not
pilot low frequency lead equalization is required).

The implications of the experimental data and the multimodality pilot
model on the design requirements for moving-base simulators are also
reviewed. While the effects of motion cues on manual tracking, failure
detection, and realism must be considered, the only definitive
requirements are those relating to tracking. Translational motion cues
appear to be generally less important than rotational ones, although
linear motions can be significant in special situations. A conservative
estimate for the requirements on angular cues seems to be good fidelity
over the frequency range of 0.5-10 rad/sec. A procedure for establishing
tracking requirements for a specific problem is outlined.

**URL:**
<http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690018693_1969018693.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Staples, K. J.

**Year:** 1970

**Title:** Motion, visual, and aural cues in piloted flight simulation

**Conference Name:** Simulation; Flight Mechanics Panel

**Conference Location:** Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** March

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Bedford, England

**Number of Pages:** 23

**Keywords:** cues, motion, visual, aural, yaw motion, cue conflict

**Abstract:** An analysis is made of the part played by various cues in
simulation. The aim is to highlight the problems rather than to
summarize the state of the art. Each cue is considered in turn with
particular emphasis on the interaction with human physiological sensors.
The deficiencies in the cues compared with flying an actual aircraft are
stated, and some assessment of their relative importance is attempted.
The substitution of one cue by another is mentioned and the effect of
the interaction between cues is discussed.

**Notes:** Lead discussion by R. Deque, O. H. Gerlach, and Richard S.
Bray. Open discussion also included.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Staples, K. J.; Love, W; Parkinson, D.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Progress in the implementation of AGARD-AR-144 in motion
system assessment and monitoring

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30 - October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Staples: Royal Aircraft
Establishment, Bedford MK41 6AE

Love: Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranfield, Bedford MK43 0AL

Parkinson: Singer Link Miles, Lancing, West Sussex BN15 8UE

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** AGARD-AR-144, motion systems

**Abstract:** After a brief explanation of the techniques defined in
AGARD-AR-144 a description is given of two systems which have been built
and tested to satisfy the requirements in the AGARD Report. Each system
is stand-alone and only requires the user to supply the sensors on the
motion system itself. One system, from Singer Link Miles, is especially
suited to six-degrees-of-freedom, synergistic motion systems, whereas
the other, from the Cranfield Institute of Technology, is more
appropriate to systems with independent axes. The systems have each been
used on several different motion systems and some sampled measured
results are given.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** State University of New York at Binghamton

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Flight and ground vehicle simulation update

**Date:** January 11-15

**Type:** CD of Powerpoint Presentations

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Office of Continuing Education,
Watson School of Engineering, State University of New York\' Binghamton,
New York

**Abstract:** Contents:

Fundamentals of Simulation

Professor Frank M. Cardullo

State University of New York at Binghamton

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Simulators as Tools for Training and Design

Professor John M. Flach

Wright State University

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Mathematical Modeling

R. Thomas Galloway

Naval Air Warfare Center, Training Systems Division

Simulator Validation and Verification

R. Thomas Galloway

Naval Air Warfare Center, Training Systems Division

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Visual Simulation Overview

Walter S. Chambers

Future Technology, Inc.

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Visual Display Systems

Dr. James L. Davis

GRADIENT Inc.

NON-CGI

VISUAL IMAGE GENERATION

Dr. James L. Davis

GRADIENT Inc.

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Motion and Force Cueing I, Whole-body motion

Dr. Edward A. Martin

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Motion and Force Cueing II

Professor Frank M. Cardullo

State University of New York at Binghamton

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Flight Control System Simulation

James R. Takats

OPINICUS Corporation

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Distributed Simulation

Christina Bouwens

Science Application International Corporation

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Flight Simulator Qualification

Paul A. Ray

FAA

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Computer Image Generation

Michael Fortin

Raytheon Corporation

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

PC Image Generators

Roy W. Latham

Computer Graphics Systems

Development Corporation (CGSD)

Real Time Computing

\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--

Simulator Systems Integration

Professor Frank M. Cardullo

State University of New York at Binghamton

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Stern, R. M.; Hu, S.; Anderson, R. B.; Leibowitz, H. W.;
Kock, K. L

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** The effects of fixation and restricted visual field on
vection-induced motion sickness

**Journal:** Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine (ASEM)

**Volume:** 61

**Issue:** 8

**Pages:** 712-715

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Psychology and
Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Penn State
University, University Park and Hershey, PA

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** Approximately 60% of healthy human subjects experience
motion sickness when exposed to a rotating optokinetic drum. The purpose
of the present study was to determine the effects of certain visual
factors on susceptibility to motion sickness. Vection data (illusory
self-motion), horizontal eye movement recordings, subjective motion
sickness report, and a measure of gastric myoelectric activity
(electrogastrogram, EGG) were obtained from 45 subjects, who were
randomly divided into the following three groups: a control group that
observed the entire visual field with no fixation, a group that fixated
on a central target, and a third group that had a visual field
restricted to 15 degrees. The experimental session was divided into the
following three 12-min periods: baseline, drum rotation, and recovery.
The results showed that fixation greatly reduced nystagmus and slightly
reduced vection. The restricted visual field slightly reduced nystagmus
and greatly reduced vection. Both of these manipulations significantly
reduced symptoms of motion sickness and tachyarrhythmia, the abnormal
gastric myoelectric activity that usually accompanies nausea.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Stevens, Brian L.; Lewis, Frank L.

**Year:** 1992

**Title:** Aircraft control and simulation

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** John Wiley & Sons

**ISBN:** ISBN 0-471-61397-5

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Stevens: Georgia Tech Research
Institute

Lewis: The University of Texas at Arlington

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Stewart, John E. II; Dohme, John A.; Nullmeyer, Robert T.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** U.S. Army initial entry rotary-wing transfer of training
research

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology

**Volume:** 12

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 359-357

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Stewart and Dohme: U.S. Army
Research Institute

Nullmeyer: Air Force Research Laboratory

**Keywords:** helicopter, rotary-wing, initial entry rotary wing
training (IERW), simulator training, UH-1

**Abstract:** Early fixed-wing research demonstrated that potential cost
and training benefits could be derived from simulation-augmented flight
training. More recent research in this area has been the exception, not
the rule. This is especially true for rotary-wing aircrew training
research. Currently, the U.S. Army does not use simulation in the
primary (contact) phase of initial entry rotary-wing (IERW) training.
Research performed by the Army Research Institute showed that a
combination of synthetic flight simulation and criterion-based training
during the primary phase of IERW had the potential for saving time and
costs in the aircraft. This research was performed using a low-cost
simulator based upon the UH-1 helicopter. In the 4 quasi-experiments
reported, positive transfer effectiveness ratios (TERs) were observed
for most flight maneuvers pretrained in the simulator; student pilots in
the simulator group required fewer iterations than control participants
to reach proficiency on most flight maneuvers in the UH-1 training
aircraft. As the visual display and flight modeling systems were
upgraded, greater TERs were observed, and differences among groups
tended to become significant.

**URL:** <http://www.leaonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/S15327108IJAP1204_3>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Sticha, Paul J.; Singer, Michael J.; Blacksten, Ric H.;
Morrison, John E.; Cross, Kenneth D.

**Year:** 1990

**Title:** Research and methods for simulation design: State of the art

**City:** Alexandria, VA

**Institution:** United States Army Research Institute for the
Behavioral and Social Sciences

**Date:** September

**Type:** Final Technical Report

**Report Number:** ARI Technical Report 914

**Keywords:** training system optimization, training system model,
medium selection, fidelity, instructional features, training resource
allocation

**Abstract:** This report reviews the empirical results and analytical
methods available to the training-device designer for tradeoff analyses
necessary to predict cost-efficient training device designs. It
addresses the problem of training system optimization in three ways.
First, it describes existing methods that can aid training-device design
functions. The function and operations of methods are compared to the
model for the optimization of simulation-based training systems (OSBATS)
developed for this project. Second, it reviews research on several
issues related to training-device optimization. The issues covered in
the review include training-device fidelity, instructional featured,
skill acquisition, skill retention transfer of training, and cost
estimation. Third, the review organizes the requirements for future
research on the topics and sets priorities for research topics based on
their cost and the benefit they could offer to the training-device
designer. The review focused on quantitative models that can be used to
estimate training cost and effectiveness and to determine optimal levels
of training-device design variables. The research plan identifies the
topics that reduce critical gaps in our knowledge at a reasonable cost.
Research addressing (a) relative impact of fidelity features and
instructional features on training effectiveness, (b) effects of student
aptitudes on training-device design, and organization of nonmonetary
reasons for simulation-based training can produce a moderate benefit at
a relatively low cost. The most critical research issues involve the
impacts of training-device fidelity and instructional features on
training effectiveness.

This review provides information that may be used by researchers who
wish to develop or improve methods to aid the training-device designers.
Designers may use this review to identify methods to aid the
training-device design process and individuals who manage research
programs may use this information to set priorities for future research
efforts.

**Notes:** This report was produced by Human Resources Research
Organization, 1100 South Washington Street, Alexandria, VA 22314.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Stoffregen, Thomas A.; Hettinger, Lawrence

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Postural instability and motion sickness in a fixed-base
flight simulator

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 42

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 458

**Date:** Fall

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Stoffregen: University of
Cincinnati

Hettinger: Logicon Technical Services Inc

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Abstract:** We evaluated the prediction that postural instability
would precede the subjective symptoms of motion sickness in a fixed-base
flight simulator. Participants sat in a cockpit in a video projection
dome and were exposed to optical flow that oscillated in the roll axis
with exposure durations typical of flight simulation. The frequencies of
oscillation were those that characterize spontaneous postural sway
during stance. Head motion was measured prior to and during exposure to
imposed optical flow. Of 14 participants, 6 were classified as motion
sick, either during or after exposure to the optical oscillation. Prior
to the onset of subjective symptoms, head motion among participants who
later became sick was significantly greater than among participants who
did not become motion sick. We argue that the results support the
postural instability theory of motion sickness. Actual or potential
applications include the prevention or mitigation of motion sickness in
virtual environments.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Strachan, Ian

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** To move or not to move

**Journal:** Aerospace International

**Volume:** 25

**Issue:** 9

**Pages:** 48-52

**Date:** September

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** The importance of producing cues of real motion in flight
simulators, such as acceleration onset cues and motion cues from visual
sources, is discussed. It is noted that, although in the military case
many aspects of the training can be satisfied only by real aircraft
flight, much cost-effective training can be undertaken in a simulator
which accurately replicates the flight handling and other cues. The
discussion covers relevant standards and regulations, motion platforms,
simulator latency, simulator sickness, formation flying and air
refueling, control law development, and training for high g. (AIAA)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Strachan, I.

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Radical ideas at RAeS

**Magazine:** Civil Aviation Training (CAT)

**Issue Number:** 1

**Pages:** 26-27

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Keywords:** RAeS, Flight Simulation Group (FSG), International Working
Group (IWG)

**Abstract:** The Flight Simulation Group (FSG) of the Royal
Aeronautical Society (RAeS) in \[the\] UK organizes two two-day
conferences each year in London, one in June and the other in November.
The June meeting is normally on general matters; the November event on a
more specialized subject. The specialist subject in November 2005 was,
\'Regulation, is it time for an update?\'

**URL:** <http://cat.texterity.com/cat/2006-1/?pg=27>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Strachan, I. W.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Cueing for motion

**Conference Name:** RAeS Flight Simulation Group Symposium

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 17

**Abstract:** Nine types of motion cues used by a pilot in flight are
analyzed and evaluated for their characteristics, their strengths and
limitations.

These flight cues are then compared with those which it is possible to
generate in a simulated environment. Conclusions are drawn on the
efficacy of various simulation systems. These include motion platforms
of different sizes, degrees of freedom and other performance aspects
such as latency, accelerations, bandwidth, buffet and vibration. Cueing
for high Gz is discussed, considering G seats, anti-G suits, G-dimming,
and the use of centrifuge-mounted cockpits.

Motion cues from visual sources are also discussed. This includes head
down and head-up instruments, sensor displays, and outside-world
displays. Outside world scenes are considered from good visibility day
conditions, through sensor displays, poor visibility and night, to pure
instrument flight. Flight regimes discussed include taxiing, takeoff,
enroute, approach and landing (including training for appropriate
emergencies); and, for the military, low flying and ground attack, air
combat, formation, and air-to-air refueling.

Conclusions are then drawn as to the best mix of simulator systems, the
interfaces and phasing between systems, and the training tasks best
carried out by different combinations of systems. The overall conclusion
is that simulator systems are available to do most training tasks except
realistic cueing for high Gz.

Civil training can therefore be particularly effectively accomplished
and this is borne out by the success of Zero Flight Time simulator
conversions. Most aspects of military training can also be effective
using simulation systems; even in high-G situations there are many
simulator systems that will produce a significant amount of cueing.

The civil side is working well under a sound system of standards and
regulation, but the military side has some way to go both in a
commitment to available technology and in creating a structure of
standards and regulation as efficient as that developed over many years
for civil aircraft.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Unpublished Work

**Author:** Strachan, Ian W.

**Year:** 2006

**Title of Work:** Motion and visual cues in the real world and in
simulators: Principles and practice

**Pages:** 1-20

**Date:** July 1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** MBE AFC FRAeS

**Number of Pages:** 20 + Annexes

**Abstract:** This paper analyzes the cues used for control of the
flight path in an aircraft and other vehicles, relates them to the
simulator systems available, and draws conclusions. Aircraft systems are
mainly discussed because all six degrees of freedom are constantly
involved and so they demonstrate the principles of motion cueing better
than vehicles with less degrees of freedom. However, the same principles
apply to simulations of other moving vehicles.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Strasburger, Hans

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Converting between measures of slope of the psychometric
function

**Journal:** Perception and Psychophysics

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität,
München, Germany

and Otto-von-Guericke-Universität, Magdeburg, Germany

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** The psychometric function\'s slope is a basic descriptor
of human performance in a sensory task. It provides information about
the reliability of psychophysical threshold estimates, and further
allows to compare thresholds that were obtained at different performance
criterion levels. Unfortunately, there is a bewildering variety of slope
measures in use which hinders the communication between authors and the
empirical validation of slope estimates by comparing slope results
across studies. The present note provides conversion formulas for the
most popular cases, including the logistic, Weibull, Quick, cumulative
normal and hyperbolic tangent functions as analytic representations, in
both linear and log coordinates and to different log bases, for the
practical decilog unit, the empirically based interquartile-range (IQR)
measure of slope, and slope in a *d\'* representation of performance.

**URL:** <http://www.hans.strasburger.de/>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Streiner, D.L.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Unicorns do exist: A tutorial on \"proving\" the null
hypothesis

**Journal:** Canadian Journal of Psychiatry

**Volume:** 48

**Issue:** 11

**Pages:** 756-761

**Date:** December

**Keywords:** significance testing, equivalence testing, null hypothesis
equivalence testing

**Abstract:** There are times when it is necessary to try to prove the
nonexistence of a difference between groups.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Sullivan, B. T.; Soukup, P. A.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** The NASA 747-400 flight simulator - A national resource for
aviation safety research

**Conference Name:** AIAA Flight Simulation Technologies Conference

**Conference Location:** San Diego, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** July 29-31

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Barry T. Sullivan: NASA, Ames
Research Center, Moffett Field, CA

Paul A. Soukup: NSI Technology Services Corp., Sunnyvale, CA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** This paper describes the NASA Ames Research Center\'s
Current Technology Glass Cockpit Flight Training Simulator located at
Moffett Field, CA. This unique simulator is used to conduct aviation
human factors and airspace operations research. The simulator is an
exact replica of a cockpit of one of the most sophisticated and advanced
airplanes flying in the world today. Although the simulator replicates a
typical flight training simulator, it has unique research capabilities
above and beyond the normal training simulator that is used to train
today\'s airline pilots. This paper will describe the NASA simulator and
its advanced features, including its unique research capabilities. It
will also describe some of the research that has been conducted in the
cab since its installation, and will also review some of the upgrades
that are currently in progress, or will be conducted in the not too
distant future.

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Sullivan, John M.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Interactive hybrid environment training

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Squadron Leader, Royal Air Force,
Eurofighter Requirements (EFRM4), Defence Procurement Agency, MOD Abby
Wood, Bristol

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The UK requirement for Eurofighter Typhoon Aircrew
Synthetic Training Aids (ASTA) was determined by 2 Training Needs
Analyses (TNAs). Subsequent to the conclusion of these comprehensive
studies, the doctrine of the UK Armed Forces was fundamentally reviewed
to reflect the emerging perception of the military capability demanded
by the change in global politics, alliances and attitudes that
accompanied the end of the Cold War. Accordingly, an appraisal of the
previous TNAs was conducted during 1999, to ensure their continued
relevance. In attempting to determine the most appropriate medium with
which to address the total training task for EF pilots, it became
apparent that there were fundamental limitations in the training that
can be delivered by both real and synthetic regimes in isolation.
However, a capability to merge these training regimes could mitigate
these inherent weaknesses and draw upon the strengths of each to create
a holistic training environment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Presentation

**Author:** Summit Aviation

**Year:** 1999, 1998

**Title:** Break the paper barrier\--Computerized aviation reference
library

**Type:** CD-ROMs

**Abstract:** Contents:

A Hazard in Acrobatics: Effects of G-Forces on Pilots, AC 91-61.

A Model Zoning Ordinance to Limit Height of Objects Around Airports, AC
150/5190-4A.

Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and Practices - Aircraft Alterations, AC
43.13-2A.

Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and Practices - Aircraft Inspection and
Repair, AC 43.13-1A.

Accessibility to Excess Emergency Exits, AC 20-60.

Accident/Incident Investigation Procedures, 49 CFR Part 831 (NTSB 831).

The Accident Prevention Counselor Program, AC 60-13.

The Accident Prevention Program - Your Key To Safe Flight, FAA-P-8740-8.

Accident Prevention Program Publications, FAA.

Accidents Resulting from Wheelbarrowing in Tricycle Gear Equipped
Aircraft, AC 90-34.

Accounting Records Guide for Airport Aid Program Sponsors, AC
150/5100-10A.

Acrobatics - Precision Flying with a Purpose, AC 91-48.

Active Flight Controls, AC 25.672-1.

Additional Weather Information: Domestic and Flag Air Carriers, AC
121-25.

Address List for Regional Airports Divisions and Airports District/Field
Offices, AC 150/5000-3T.

Administrative Claims Under Federal Tort Claims Act, FAR Part 15.

Advanced Qualification Program, AC 120-54.

Advisory Circular Checklist, AC 00-2.11.

Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators.

Aeroelastic Stability Substantiation of Transport Category Airplanes, AC
25.629-1A.

Aeronautical Decision Making, AC 60-22.

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) (Formerly Airman\'s Information
Manual)

Agricultural Aircraft Operations, AC 137-1.

Agricultural Aircraft Operations, FAR Part 137.

Aids Authorized for Use by Airman Written Test Applicants, AC 60-11B.

Air Carrier Dispersal Planning Program, AC 120-36A.

Air Carrier First Aid Programs, AC 120-44A.

Air Carrier Internal Evaluation Programs, AC 120-59.

Air Carrier Operational Approval and Use of TCAS II, AC 120-55A.

Air Carrier Regulations, 14 CFR Parts 200 to 399, as designated.

Air Carrier Security, AC 108-1.

Air Traffic Control Handbook, Order 7110.65L.

Air Transportation of Handicapped Persons, AC 120-32.

Air Transportation of Mental Patients, AC 120-34.

Air Transportation Operations Inspector\'s Handbook (HBAT), Order
8400.10.

Airborne VHF Communications Equipment Installations, AC 20-67B.

Aircraft Arresting System for Joint Civil/Military Airports, AC
150/5220-9.

Aircraft Certification Directorate Procedures, Order 8100.5.

Aircraft Certification Directorates, Order 8000.51.

Aircraft Certification Service Fees for Providing Production
Certification-Related Services Outside the United States, AC 187-2.

Aircraft Certification Service Field Office Listing, AC 20-126F.

Aircraft Certification Systems Evaluation Program, AC 21-39.

Aircraft Dispatcher Practical Test Standards, FAA-S-8081-10A (8081-10).

Aircraft Engine Crankshaft Failure, AC 20-103.

Aircraft Engine Type Certification Handbook, AC 33-2B.

Aircraft Fire and Rescue Communications, AC 150/5210-7B.

Aircraft Fire and Rescue Facilities and Extinguishing Agents, AC
150/5210-6C.

Aircraft Fuel Control, AC 20-43C.

Aircraft Fuel Storage, Handling, and Dispensing on Airports, AC
150/5230-4.

Aircraft Ground Handling and Servicing, AC 00-34A.

Aircraft Ice Protection, AC 20-73.

Aircraft Inspection for the General Aviation Aircraft Owner, AC 20-106.

Aircraft Metal Propeller Maintenance, AC 20-37D.

Aircraft Position and Anticollision Light Measurements, AC 20-74.

Aircraft Position Light and Anticollision Light Installation, AC 20-30B.

Aircraft Registration, FAR Part 47.

Aircraft Wake Turbulence, AC 90-23E.

Aircraft Weight and Balance Control, AC 120-27C.

Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Airframe Handbook, AC 65-15A.

Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Certification Guide, AC 65-2D.

Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Certification Information, AC 65-11B.

Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics General Handbook, AC 65-9A.

Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Powerplant Handbook, AC 65-12A.

Airline Transport Pilot and Aircraft Type Rating Practical Test
Standards for Airplane, FAA-S-8081-5C (8081-5).

Airline Transport Pilot and Aircraft Type Rating Practical Test
Standards for Helicopter, FAA-S-8081-20 (8081-20).

Airline Transport Pilot, Aircraft Dispatcher, and Flight Navigator
Knowledge Test Guide, AC 61-113.

Airline Transport Pilot and/or Type Rating Practical Test Standards,
FAA-S-8081-5B. See FAA-S-8081-5C, Airline Transport Pilot and Aircraft
Type Rating Practical Test Standards for Airplane.

Airman Medical Record Transmittal (FAA Form 8500-16), Order 8065.2A.

Airman\'s Information Manual (AIM), Now known as the Aeronautical
Information Manual.

Airplane Flight Manual, AC 25.1581-1.

Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM), Approved Manual Materials, Markings, and
Placards - Airplanes, AC 60-6B.

Airplane Flight Training Device Qualification, AC 120-45A.

Airplane Operator Security, FAR Part 108.

Airplane Simulator Qualification, AC 120-40B.

Airport Aid Program, FAR Part 152.

Airport Capacity and Delay, AC 150/5060-5.

Airport Certification Manual (ACM) and Airport Certification
Specifications (ACS), AC 139.201-1.

Airport Compliance Requirements, Order 5190.6A.

Airport Design, AC 150/5300-13.

Airport Drainage, AC 150/5320-5B.

Airport Emergency Medical Facilities and Services, AC 150/5210-2A.

Airport Emergency Plan, AC 150/5200-31.

Airport Fire and Rescue Personnel Protective Clothing, AC 150/5210-14A.

Airport Improvement Program Grant Assurance Number One - General Federal
Requirements, AC 150/5100-16A.

Airport Landscaping for Noise Control Purposes, AC 150/5320-14.

Airport Lighting Equipment Certification Program, AC 150/5345-53A.

Airport Master Plans, AC 150/5070-6A.

Airport Miscellaneous Lighting Visual Aids, AC 150/5340-21.

Airport Noise Compatibility Planning, FAR Part 150.

Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation, AC 150/5320-6D.

Airport Pavement Design for the Boeing 777 Airplane, AC 150/5320-16.

Airport Rescue and Firefighting Station Building Design, AC 150/5210-15.

Airport Safety Self-Inspection, AC 150/5200-18B.

Airport Security, FAR Part 107.

Airport Signing and Graphics, AC 150/5360-12A.

Airport Snow and Ice Control Equipment, AC 150/5220-20.

Airport Winter Safety and Operations, AC 150/5200-30A.

Airports - Required Data, AC 121-26.

Airspace Utilization Considerations in the Proposed Construction,
Alteration, Activation and Deactivation of Airports, AC 70-2E.

Air-to-Ground Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems, AC
150/5340-27A.

Airworthiness and Operational Approval of Airborne Systems to be Used in
Lieu of Ground Proximity Warning System (GWPS), AC 20-112.

Airworthiness and Operational Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision
Avoidance Systems (TCAS II) and Mode S Transponders, AC 20-131A.

Airworthiness Approval of Airborne Loran-C Navigation Systems for Use in
the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS), AC 20-121A.

Airworthiness Approval of Global Positioning System (GPS) Navigation
Equipment for use as a VFR and IFR Supplemental Navigation System, AC
20-138.

Airworthiness Approval of Navigation or Flight Management Systems
Integrating Multiple Navigation Sensors, AC 20-130A.

Airworthiness Approval of Omega/VLF Navigation Systems for the United
States NAS and Alaska, AC 20-101C.

Airworthiness Approval of Vertical Navigation (VNAV) Systems for use in
the U.S. NAS and Alaska, AC 20-129.

Airworthiness Certification of Aircraft and Related Products, Order
8130.2C.

Airworthiness Certification of Civil Aircraft Engine, Propellers, and
Related Products, AC 21-23.

Airworthiness Certification of U.S. Produced Aircraft and Engine Kits
Assembled Outside the United States, AC 21-28.

Airworthiness Criteria for the Approval of Airborne Windshear Warning
Systems in Transport Category Airplanes, AC 25-12.

Airworthiness Designee Function Codes and Consolidated Directory for
DMIR/DAR/ODAR/DAS/DOA and SFAR No. 36, AC 183-35G.

Airworthiness Designee Management Program, Order 8130.28.

Airworthiness Directives.

Airworthiness Directives, AC 39-7C.

Airworthiness Directives, FAR Part 39.

Airworthiness Inspector\'s Handbook (HBAW), Order 8300.10.

Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines, FAR Part 33.

Airworthiness Standards: Manned Free Balloons, FAR Part 31.

Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, FAR Part 27.

Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter
Category Airplanes, FAR Part 23.

Airworthiness Standards: Propellers, FAR Part 35.

Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes, FAR Part 25.

Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft, FAR Part 29.

All About Fuel, FAA-P-8740-35A.

Altimeter and Static System Tests and Inspections, AC 43-203B.

Altimeter Setting Sources, AC 91-14D.

Altitude Alerting Devices/Systems, AC 91-22A.

Always Leave Yourself an Out, FAA-P-8740-25.

Amateur-Built Aircraft and Ultralight Flight Testing Handbook, AC
90-89A.

Amendment of Federal Aviation Regulation Part 171 (FAR 171) - Cost of
Flight and Ground Inspections, AC 170-11.

Americans with Disabilities Act.

Anatomy of a Landing - Cue by Cue, FAA-P-8740-26.

Announcement of Availability - A Series of Aeronautical Decision Making
Training Manuals, AC 60-21.

Announcement of Availability - Aircraft, Aircraft Engines, and Propeller
Type Certificate Data Sheets and Specifications, AC 21-15K.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-10A (8081-10), Aircraft
Dispatcher Practical Test Standards, AC 61-121.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-5C, Airline Transport Pilot
and Aircraft Type Rating Practical Test Standards for Airplane.

Announcement of Availability - Airport Land-slide Simulation Model
(ALSIM), AC 150/5360-10.

Announcement of Availability - Airport Research and Technical Reports,
AC 150/5000-4B.

Announcement of Availability - All Cargo Carrier Activity Report (FAA
Form 5100-108, Revised), AC 150/5000-11.

Announcement of Availability - Bird Strike Incident/Ingestion Report, AC
150/5200-32.

Announcement of Availability - Changes to Practical Test Standards, AC
60-27.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-6A, Flight Instructor
Practical Test Standards for Airplane (Single-Engine and Multiengine) -
with Change 1, dated 4/13/98, AC 61-128.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-12, {See FAA-S-8081-12A},
Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards (Airplane), AC 61-110.

Announcement of Availability - Commercial Pilot Practical Test
Standards: FAA-S-8081-18 and FAA-S-8081-12A, AC 61-125.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-19, Recreational Pilot Powered
Parachute Practical Test Standard, AC 61-127.

Announcement of Availability - FAA Order 8130.21A, Procedures for
Completion and Use of FAA Form 8130, Airworthiness Approval Tag, AC
00-55.

Announcement of Availability - Flight Standards Service Airman Testing
and Training Information, AC 60-26A.

Announcement of Availability - Industry-Developed Transition Training
Guidelines for High Performance Aircraft, AC 61-103.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-4B (8081-4), Instrument Rating
Practical Test Standards, AC 61-111.

Announcement of Availability - List of Air Carriers Certificated by
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Part 135, AC
135-13F.

Announcement of Availability - Micro-Paver, Pavement Management System,
AC 150/5000-6.

Announcement of Availability - National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) Aircraft Familiarization Charts Manual, AC 5210-20.

Announcement of Availability - National Plan of Integrated Airport
Systems (NPIAS) 1993-1997, AC 150/5000-14.

Announcement of Availability of Information on Foreign Airport Planning,
Design, Construction, and Trade Opportunities, AC 150/5360-8B.

Announcement of Availability - Parts Manufacturer Approvals - 1992
(Microfiche), AC 21.303-2H.

Announcement of Availability - Passenger Facility Charge (PFC)
Application (FAA Form 5500-1), AC 150/5000-12.

Announcement of Availability - Practical Test Standards (Rotorcraft);
FAA-S-8081-7A (8081-7), FAA-S-8081-15 (8081-15), and FAA-S-8081-16
(8081-16), AC 61-123.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-14 (8081-14), Private Pilot
Practical Test Standards (Airplane), AC 61-118.

Announcement of Availability - FAA-S-8081-17 (8081-17), Private Pilot
Practical Test Standards for Lighter-Than-Air (Balloon/Airship), AC
61-124.

Announcement of Availability - Report No. DOT/FAA/PP/92-5, Guidelines
for the Sound Insulation of Residences Exposed to Aircraft Operations,
AC 150/5000-9A.

Announcement of Availability - Report No. DOT/FAA/PP/92-6, Estimating
the Regional Economic Significance of Airports, AC 150/5000-10A.

Announcement of Availability - Report No. DOT/FAA/PP/87-1, Measuring the
Regional Economic Significance of Airports, AC 150/5000-7.

Announcement of Availability - Report No. FAA AAS-80-1, National Runway
Friction Measurement Program, AC 150/5300-11.

Announcement of Availability - RTCA Inc, Document RTCA-221, AC
150/5000-13.

Announcement of Availability - Summary of Airworthiness Directives, AC
39-6R.

Announcement of Availability - Summary of Supplemental Type Certificates
1995 Edition, AC 21-5M.

Announcement of Availability - Takeoff Safety Training Aid, AC 120-62.

Announcement of Cancellation - FAA-S-8081-11 (8081-11), Flight
Instructor - Lighter-than-Air (Balloon-Airship) Practical Test
Standards, AC 61-116A.

Anti-misfueling Devices: Their Availability and Use, AC 20-122A.

Antiskid and Associated Systems, AC 20-99.

Application for Air Agency Certificate - Manufacturer\'s Maintenance
Facility, AC 145.101-1B.

Application for U.S. Airworthiness Certificate, FAA Form 8130-6, AC
21-12A.

Application Guide for Obtaining a Supplemental Type Certificate, AC
21-40.

Approach Lighting System Configurations and Energy Conservation, AC
170-13.

Approval Basis for Automatic Stabilization Equipment (ASE) Installations
in Rotorcraft, AC 29-1.

Approval of Airborne Radar Approach (ARA) Procedures For Helicopters to
Offshore Platforms, AC 90-80A.

Approval of Aircraft and Operators for Flight In Airspace Above Flight
Level (FL) 290 Where a 1,000 Foot Vertical Separation Minimum is
Applied, AC 91-RVSM.

Approval of Area Navigation Systems for Use in the U.S. National
Airspace System, AC 90-45A.

Approval of Flight Management Systems in Transport Category Airplanes,
AC 25-15.

Approval of U.S. Operators and Aircraft to Operate Under Instrument
Flight Rules (IFR) in European Airspace Designated for Basic Area
Navigation (BRNAV/RNP-5), AC 90-96.

Approved Aircraft Inspection Program, AC 135-10A.

Approved Airport Equipment, AC 150/5345-1V.

Architectural, Engineering, and Planning Consultant Services for Airport
Grant Projects, AC 150/5100-14C.

Atmospheric Turbulence Avoidance, AC 00-30B.

Automated Weather Observing Systems (AWOS) for Non-Federal Applications,
AC 150/5220-16B.

Automatic Landing Systems (ALS), AC 20-57A.

Automatic Pilot Systems Approval, AC 25.1329-1A.

Automatic Pilot System Installation in Part 23 Airplanes, AC 23.1329-2.

Automatic Pressure Altitude Encoding Systems and Transponders
Maintenance and Inspection Practices, AC 43-6A.

Automatic Reporting System - Altimeter Setting and Other Operational
Data, AC 91-54.

Auxiliary Fuel System Installations, AC 25-8.

Auxiliary Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered Part 23
Airplanes, AC 23-10.

Aviation Careers Series

Aviation Instructor\'s Handbook, AC 60-14.

Aviation Insurance, FAR Part 198.

Aviation Maintenance Alerts, AC 43-16A.

Aviation Maintenance Technician Awards Program, AC 65-25A.

Aviation Maintenance Technician Schools, FAR Part 147.

Aviation Mechanic General, Powerplant, and Airframe Knowledge Test
Guide, AC 65-28.

Aviation Medical Examiner System, Order 8520.2D.

Aviation Safety Action Programs (ASAP), AC 120-66.

Aviation Safety Inspector Work site Access, AC 13-1.

Aviation Safety Reporting Program, AC 00-46D.

Aviation Security - Acceptance and Handling Procedures Indirect Air
Carrier Security, AC 109-1.

Aviation Security - Airports, AC 107-1.

Aviation Security: Air Taxi Commercial Operators (ATCO), AC 135-4A.

Aviation Weather, AC 00-6A.

Aviation Weather Services, AC 00-45D.

Avoiding or Minimizing Encounters With Aircraft Equipped With Depleted
Uranium Balance Weights During Accident Investigations, AC 20-123.

Balloon Safety Tips - False Lift, Shear & Rotors, FAA-P-8740-39.

Basic Helicopter Handbook, AC 61-13B.

Bilateral Airworthiness Agreements, AC 21-18.

Buildings For Storage and Maintenance of Airport Snow and Ice Control
Equipment and Materials, AC 150/5220-18.

Cabin Pressurization Systems in Small Airplanes, AC 23.841-1.

Canceling or Closing Flight Plans, AC 91.83-1B.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Contamination in Aircraft - Detection and
Prevention, AC 20-32B.

Carriage of Cargo in Restricted Category Aircraft and Other Special
Purpose Operations, AC 21-17.

Carry on Baggage, AC 121-29A.

Category II Operations - General Aviation Airplanes, AC 91-16.

Certification: Air Carriers and Commercial Operators, FAR Part 119.

Certification: Airmen Other Than Flight Crewmembers, FAR Part 65.

Certification and Operation of Amateur-Built Aircraft, AC 20-27D.

Certification and Operation of Aviation Maintenance Technician Schools,
AC 147-3.

Certification and Operations: Airplanes having a seating capacity of 20
or more passengers or a maximum payload capacity of 6,000 pounds or
more., FAR Part 125.

Certification and Operations: Land Airports Serving Certain Air
Carriers, FAR Part 139.

Certification: Flight Crewmembers other than Pilots, FAR Part 63.

Certification Maintenance Requirements, AC 25-19.

Certification of a Repairman (General), AC 65-24.

Certification of Air Carriers, AC 120-49.

Certification of Normal Category Rotorcraft, AC 27-1.

Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions, AC
23.1419-2.

Certification of Repairmen (Experimental Aircraft Builders), AC 65-23A.

Certification: Pilot and Flight Instructors, AC 61-65C.

Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors, Old FAR Part 61, effective
before Aug. 4, 1997.

Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors, New
FAR Part 61.

Certification Procedures for Products and Parts, AC 21.303-1A.

Certification Procedures for Products and Parts, FAR Part 21.

Charles Taylor \"Master Mechanic\" Award, AC 65-26A.

Circuit Protective Device Accessibility, AC 25.1357-1.

Circuit Selector Switch, AC 150/5345-5A.

Citizen Participation in Airport Planning, AC 150/5050-4.

Civil Air Patrol and State and Regional Defense Airlift Relationships,
AC 00-32A.

Civil Rights Requirements For The Airport Improvement Program (AIP), AC
150/5100-15A.

Civil Utilization of Global Positioning System (GPS), Order 8260.38A.

Cockpit Noise and Speech Interference Between Crewmembers, AC 20-133.

Cockpit Voice Recorder Installations, AC 25.1457-1A.

Code of Federal Regulations

See Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations.

See Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations.

Cold Weather Operation of Aircraft, AC 91-13C.

Commercial Assistance During Construction of Amateur-Built Aircraft, AC
20-139.

Commercial Pilot Knowledge Test Guide, AC 61-114.

Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards for Airplane, FAA-S-8081-12A
(8081-12).

Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards for Lighter-than-Air
(Balloon/Airship), FAA-S-8081-18 (8081-18).

Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards for Rotorcraft, Helicopter,
and Gyroplane, FAA-S-8081-16 (8081-16).

Commercial Space Transportation, FAA, DoT (14 CFR Parts 400 to 499, as
designated.

Communication and Coordination Between Flight Crewmembers and Flight
Attendants, AC 120-48.

Communication Interference Caused By Unintentional Keyed Microphones, AC
20-111.

Compliance and Enforcement Program, Order 2150.3A.

Composite Aircraft Structure, AC 20-107A.

Composite Propeller Blade Fatigue Substantiation, AC 35.37-1.

Computer Generated/Stored Records, AC 21-35.

Conserving Energy in Flight Instruction, FAA-P-8740-28.

Conspicuity of Aircraft Instrument Malfunction Indicators, AC 20-69.

Construction Progress and Inspection Report Airports Grant Program, AC
150/5370-6B.

The Continued Airworthiness of Older Airplanes, AC 91-60.

Continuing Structural Integrity Program for Large Transport Category
Airplanes, AC 91-56A.

Continuous Airworthiness Maintenance Programs, AC 120-16C.

Control of Parts Shipped Prior to Type Certificate Issuance, AC 21-32A.

Control System Locks, AC 23.679-1.

Control System Operations Test, AC 23.683-1.

Conversion of the Inspection Authorization Knowledge Tests to the
Computer Based Airmen Knowledge Testing Program, AC 65-29.

Conversion to the Computer Based Airmen Knowledge Testing Program, AC
60-23.

Corrosion Control for Aircraft, AC 43-4A.

Crew Qualification and Pilot Type Rating Requirements for Transport
Category Aircraft Operated Under FAR Part 121, AC 120-53.

Crew Resource Management Training, AC 120-51B.

Crewmember Training on Inflight Radiation Exposure, AC 120-61.

Criteria for Acceptance of Ownership and Servicing of Civil Aviation
Interest(s) Navigational and Air Traffic Control Systems and Equipment,
AC 170-9.

Criteria for Approval of Category III Landing Weather Minima, AC
120-28C.

Criteria for Approving Category I and Category II Landing Minima for FAR
121 Operators, AC 120-29.

Criteria For Operational Approval of Airborne Wind Shear Alerting and
Flight Guidance Systems, AC 120-41.

Criteria for Operational Approval of Auto Flight Guidance Systems, AC
120-67.

Currency and Additional Qualification Requirements for Certificated
Pilots, AC 61-98A.

Cutouts in a Modified Fuselage of Small Airplanes, AC 23-5.

Daily Body Rhythms, Jet Lag, and Flight Safety, FAA-P-8740-46.

Damage Tolerance and Fatigue Evaluation of Structure, AC 25.571-1C.

Data Base Standardization for the Global Positioning System (GPS)
Overlay Program, AC 97-2.

Dead Reckoning Navigation, FAA-P-8740-22.

Debris Hazards at Civil Airports, AC 150/5380-5B.

Definitions and Abbreviations, FAR Part 1.

Definitions of \"U.S. National Aviation Standards\", AC 00-26.

Density Altitude, FAA-P-8740-2.

Descent to the MDA and Beyond, FAA-P-8740-9.

Design Considerations Concerning the use of Titanium in Aircraft Turbine
Engines, AC 33-4.

Design Considerations for Minimizing Hazards Caused by Uncontained
Turbine Engine and Auxiliary Power Unit Rotor Failure, AC 20-128A.

Design Considerations to Protect Fuel Systems During a Wheel-Up Landing,
AC 25.994-1.

Design Dive Speed, AC 25.335-1.

Design of Aircraft Deicing Facilities, AC 150/5300-14.

Design Standards for an Aircraft Rescue and Fire fighting Training
Facility, AC 150/5220-17A.

Designated Alteration Station Authorization Procedures, AC 21.431-1A.

Designated Engineering Representatives, AC 183.29-1FF.

Designated Engineering Representatives (DER) Guidance Handbook, Order
8110.37B.

Designated U.S. International Airports, AC 150/5000-5C.

Designation of Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E Airspace
Areas; Airways; Routes; and Reporting Points, FAR Part 71.

Detecting and Reporting Suspected Unapproved Parts, AC 21-29B.

Detonation Testing in Reciprocating Aircraft Engines, AC 33.47-1.

The Development and Use of Major Repair Data Under Provisions of Special
Federal Aviation Regulation No. 36, AC 140-6C.

Development of State Standards for General Aviation Airports, AC
150/5100-13.

Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms.

Directory of FAA Certificated Aviation Maintenance Technician Schools,
AC 147-2DD.

Dispatch Resource Management Training, AC 121-32.

Digital Clock Installation in Aircraft, AC 20-94.

Disposition of Unsalvageable Aircraft Parts and Materials, AC 21-38.

Doors Between Pilot\'s Compartment and Passenger Cabin in Small
Airplanes, AC 23.807-2.

Driver\'s Enhanced Vision System (DEVS), AC 150/5210-19.

Dual Locking Devices on Fasteners, AC 20-71.

Dynamic Evaluation of Seat Restraint Systems and Occupant Protection on
Transport Airplanes, AC 25.562-1A.

Dynamic Flight Evaluation of Seat Restraint systems & Occupant Restraint
for Rotorcraft (Normal and Transport), AC 20-137.

Dynamic Testing of Part 23 Airplane Seat/Restraint Systems and Occupant
Protection, AC 23.562-1.

Economy Approach Lighting Aids., AC 150/5340-14B.

Effect of Icing on Aircraft Control and Airplane Deice and Anti-Ice
Systems, AC 91-51A.

Electrical Fault and Fire Prevention and Protection, AC 25-16.

Eligibility, Quality, and Identification of Approved Aeronautical
Replacement Parts, AC 20-62D.

Emergency Evacuation Demonstration, AC 20-118A.

Emergency Evacuation Demonstrations, AC 25.803-1.

Emergency Exits Openable From Outside For Small Airplanes, AC 23.807-3.

Emergency Medical Service/Airplane (EMS/A), AC 135-15.

Emergency Medical Services/Helicopter (EMS/H), AC 135-14A.

Energy Conservation for Airport Buildings, AC 150/5360-11.

Engine Operation for Pilots, FAA-P-8740-13.

English Language Skill Standards Required by 14 CFR Parts 61, 63, and
65, AC 60-28.

Equipment, Systems, and Installations in Part 23 Airplanes, AC
23.1309-1B.

Establishment and Discontinuance Criteria for Air Traffic Control
Services and Navigational Facilities, FAR Part 170.

Establishment of Airport Action Groups, AC 150/5050-7.

Estimated Airplane Noise Levels in A-Weighted Decibels, AC 36-3G.

Evaluating Turbine Engine Operating Characteristics, AC 25.939-1.

Evaluation of Flight Loads on Small Airplanes with T, V, +, or Y
Empennage Configurations, AC 23-9.

Exclusive Rights at Airports., AC 150/5190-2A.

Expenditure of Federal Funds for Nonmilitary Airports or Air Navigation
Facilities Thereon, FAR Part 169.

Export Airworthiness Approval Procedures, AC 21-2H.

Extended Range Operation With Two-Engine Airplanes (ETOPS), AC 120-42A.

Extending a Production Certificate to a Facility Located in a Bilateral
Airworthiness Agreement Country, AC 21-24.

Exterior Colored Band Around Exits on Transport Airplanes, AC 20-47.

FAA Accident Prevention Program Publications.

FAA Computer Software Quality Program, AC 00-53.

FAA DAR, DAS, DOA, and SFAR Part 36 Directory, AC 183-35F. See AC
183-35G, Airworthiness Designee Function Codes and Consolidated
Directory for DMIR/DAR/ODAR/DAS/DOA and SFAR No. 36. Added Change 1,
dated March 2, 1998.

FAA Designated Technical Personnel Examiners Directory, AC 183-32H.

FAA Job Required Airman Medical Certification, Order 8500.2.

FAA Legal Interpretations.

FAA Policy on Facility Relocations Occasioned by Airport Improvements or
Changes, AC 150/5300-7B.

FAA Quality Control System Certification Program, AC 00-41B.

FAA Specification L-853, Runway and Taxiway Centerline Retroreflective
Markers, AC 150/5345-39B.

Facility Operation and Administration, Order 7210.3P.

FAR 135: Additional Maintenance Requirements for Aircraft Type
Certificated for Nine or Less Passenger Seats, AC 135-7.

FAR Part 135 Icing Limitations, AC 135-9.

Fatigue and Fail-Safe Evaluation of Flight Structure and Pressurized
Cabin for Part 23 Airplanes, AC 23-13.

Fatigue Evaluation of Rotorcraft Structure, AC 20-95.

Federal Aid to Airports, FAR Part 151.

Federal Surplus Personal Property for Public Airport Purposes, AC
150/5150-2B.

Fees, FAR Part 187.

Fire Department Responsibility in Protecting Evidence at the Scene of an
Aircraft Accident, AC 150/5200-12A.

Flammability Requirements for Aircraft Seat Cushions, AC 25.853-1.

Flammability Tests, AC 23-2.

Flap Interconnections in Part 23 Airplanes, AC 23.701-1.

Flight and Ground Instructor Knowledge Test Guide, AC 61-112.

Flight Attendant Seat and Torso Restraint System Installations, AC
25.785-1A.

Flight Engineer Knowledge Test Guide, AC 63-1.

Flight Instructor - Instrument (Airplane and Helicopter) Practical Test
Standards. eff. March 1990, FAA-S-8081-9A (8081-9).

Flight Instructor Practical Test Standards for Airplane - Single-Engine
and Multiengine, FAA-S-8081-6A (8081-6).

Flight Instructor Practical Test Standards for Glider, FAA-S-8081-8
(8081-8).

Flight Instructor Practical Test Standards for Lighter-Than-Air,
Balloon, Airship, FAA-S-8081-11 (8081-11).

Instrument Landing System (ILS) and Ancillary Electronic Component
Configuration and Performance Requirements, Order 6750.24C.

Instrument Rating Knowledge Test Guide, AC 61-119.

Instrument Rating Practical Test Standards for Airplane, Helicopter, and
Powered Lift, FAA-S-8081-4C (8081-4).

International Civil Aviation Organization Three-Letter and Radio
Telephony Designators, AC 120-26H.

Interpretation of Failure of Static Structural Test Programs, AC 23-6.

Investigative and Enforcement Procedures, FAR Part 13.

Isolation Transformers for Airport Lighting Systems, AC 150/5345-47A.

Issuance of Repair Station Certificates to JAA-Approved Maintenance
Organizations Under the Maintenance Implementation Procedures of a
Bilateral Aviation Safety Agreement, AC 145-7.

Issuance of Type Certificate: Restricted Category Agricultural
Airplanes, AC 21.25-1.

Jig Fixtures; Replacement of Wing Attach Angles and Doublers on Douglas
Model DC-3 Series Aircraft Airworthiness Directive 66-18-2, AC 39-1A.

Labor Requirements for the Airport Improvement Program (AIP), AC
150/5100-6D.

Land Acquisition and Relocation Assistance for Airport Improvement
Program Assisted Projects, AC 150/5100-17.

Landing Gear Doors and Retraction Mechanism, AC 23.729-1.

Large and Turbine-Powered Multiengine Airplanes, Part 91, Subpart D, AC
91-38A.

Law Enforcement Alert Message System, Order 1600.29C.

Legal Interpretations, FAA.

Light Signals from the Control Tower for Ground Vehicles, Equipment, and
Personnel, AC 90-67B.

Lightweight Approach Light Structure, AC 150/5345-45A.

Line Operational Simulations: Line-Oriented Flight Training, Special
Purpose Operational Training, Line Operational Evaluation, AC 120-35B.

List of Certificated Pilot Schools, AC 140-2Z.

Maintenance and Handling of Air-Driven Gyroscopic Instruments, AC 91-26.

Maintenance Aspects of Owning Your Own Plane, FAA-P-8740-15A.

Maintenance Certification Procedures, AC 121-16.

Maintenance Control by Reliability Methods, AC 120-17A.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for Boeing B-707/720 Series Aircraft, AC
20-76.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for Boeing B-727 Series Aircraft, AC 20-84.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for Boeing B-737 Series Aircraft, AC 20-83.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for Convair 240, 340/440, 240T, and 340T
Series Aircraft, AC 20-59.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for Douglas DC-6/7 Series Aircraft., AC
20-52.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for Fairchild Hiller F27/FH-227 Series
Aircraft, AC 20-82.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for Lockheed L-188 Series Aircraft, AC
20-64.

Maintenance Inspection Notes for McDonnell Douglas DC-8 Series Aircraft,
AC 20-78.

Maintenance of Airport Visual Aid Facilities., AC 150/5340-26.

Maintenance of Weather Radar Radomes, AC 43-14.

Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration, FAR
Part 43.

Maintenance Program Approval for Carry-On Oxygen Equipment for Medical
Purposes, AC 135-5B.

Maintenance Programs for US. Registered Aircraft Under FAR Part 129, AC
129-4.

Maintenance Records, AC 43-9C.

Maintenance Review Board Procedures, AC 121-22A.

Management of Airport Industrial Waste, AC 150/5320-15.

Manufacturers Reporting Failures, Malfunctions, or Defects, AC 21-9A.

Manufacturers\' Service Documents, AC 20-114.

Marking Aircraft Fuel Filler Openings With Color Coded Decals, AC
20-116.

Marking of TSO-C72b Individual Flotation Devices, AC 20-56A.

Means of Compliance with Section 23.629, \"Flutter\", AC 23.629-1A.

Measured or Estimated (Uncertificated) Airplane Noise Levels, AC 36-2C.

Measurement, Construction, and Maintenance of Skid Resistant Airport
Pavement Surfaces, AC 150/5320-12C.

Measurement of Cabin Interior Emergency Illumination in Transport
Airplanes, AC 20-38A.

Mechanical Work Performed on U.S. and Canadian registered Aircraft, AC
43-10A.

Medical Certification - Denial Procedures, Order 8500.1B.

Medical Clinic Clearance, Order 8065.1.

Medical Facts for Pilots, FAA-P-8740-41.

Medical Handbook for Pilots, AC 67-2 NOTE: AC 67-2 is canceled by AC
00-2.11, dated August 15, 1997 - Ed.

Medical Information for Air Ambulance Operators, AC 67-1.

Medical Investigation of Aircraft Accidents, Order 8025.1B.

Medical Standards and Certification, FAR Part 67.

Meet Your Aircraft, FAA-P-8740-29.

Methods, Techniques, and Practices Acceptable to the Administrator
Governing the Installation, Removal, or Changes of Identification Data
and Identification Plates, AC 43-17.

Military Flying Activities, AC 210-5B.

Minimum Barometry for Calibration and Test of Atmospheric Pressure
Instruments, AC 43-2B.

Minimum Equipment Requirements for General Aviation Operations Under FAR
Part 91, AC 91-67.

Minimum Flightcrew, AC 25.1523-1.

Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW) Enroute Safe Altitude Warning
(E-MSAW), AC 90-72B.

Minimum Standards for Commercial Aeronautical Activities on Public
Airports, AC 150/5190-1A.

Model Aircraft Operating Standards, AC 91-57.

Modified Seats and Berths Initially Approved Under a Technical Standard
Order, AC 21-25A.

Monitoring of Navigational Performance in Oceanic Areas, Order 7110.82B.

Moored Balloons, Kites, Unmanned Rockets and Unmanned Free Balloons, FAR
Part 101.

National Route Program, AC 90-91A.

Nationally Scheduled (FAA) Approved, Industry-Conducted Flight
Instructor Refresher Clinics, AC 61-83D.

Nickel-Cadmium Battery Operational, Maintenance, and Overhaul Practices,
AC 00-33A.

Noise Abatement Departure Profile, AC 91-53A.

Noise Abatement for Helicopters, AC 91-66.

Noise Certification Handbook, AC 36-4B.

Noise Control and Compatibility Planning for Airports, AC 150/5020-1.

Noise, Hearing Damage, and Fatigue in General Aviation Pilots, AC 91-35.

Noise Levels for Certificated and Foreign Aircraft, AC 36-1G.

Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification, FAR Part
36.

Non-Federal Navigation Facilities, FAR Part 171.

Notice and Approval of Airport Noise and Access Restrictions, FAR Part
161.

Notice of Construction, Alteration, Activation, and Deactivation of
Airports, FAR Part 157.

Notice of Proposed Rulemaking Distribution System, AC 11-2A.

Notices to Airmen, FAA-P-8740-54.

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) for Airport Operators, AC 150/5200-28B.

Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or Incidents and
Overdue Aircraft, and Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail, Cargo,
and Records, 49 CFR Part 830 (NTSB 830).

Nondestructive Testing in Aircraft, AC 43-3.

Nondirectional Beacon Frequency Congestion, AC 20-120.

NTSB regulations pertaining to aircraft operations, 49 CFR Parts 800 -
845, selected.

Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace, FAR Part 77.

Obstruction Marking and Lighting, AC 70/7460-1J.

Oceanic Operations, AC 91-70.

ODAR/DAR, DMIR/DOA, and DAS Standardization Seminar 1997, 1998, and 1999
Tentative Schedules, Order 8000.60G.

Office of Airport Safety and Standards Electronic Bulletin Board, AC
150/5000-8A.

Offpeak Construction of Airport Pavements Using Hot-Mix Asphalt, AC
150/5370-13.

On Landings - Part I, FAA-P-8740-48.

On Landings - Part II, FAA-P-8740-49.

On Landings - Part III, FAA-P-8740-50.

Operating Procedures for Airport Traffic Control Towers (ATCT) That Are
Not Operated by, or Under Contract with, the United States
(Non-Federal), AC 90-93.

Operating Requirements: Commuter and On-Demand Operations, FAR Part 135.

Operating Requirements: Domestic, Flag, and Supplemental Operations, FAR
Part 121.

Operation of Hot Air Balloons with Airborne Heaters, AC 91-71.

Operations: Foreign Air Carriers and Foreign Operators of
U.S.-Registered Aircraft Engaged in Common Carriage, FAR Part 129.

Operational and Airworthiness Approval of Airborne Omega Radio
Navigation Systems as a Means of Updating Self-Contained Navigation
Systems, AC 120-31A.

Operational and Airworthiness Approval of Airborne Omega Radio
Navigational Systems as a Sole Means of Long Range Navigation Outside
the United States, AC 120-37.

Operational and Maintenance Practices for Emergency Locator Transmitters
and Receivers, AC 91-44A.

Operational Approval of Airborne Long-Range Navigation Systems for
Flight Within the North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance
Specifications Airspace, AC 120-33.

Operational Landing Distances for Wet Runways: Transport Category
Airplanes, AC 121.195-1A.

Operational Safety on Airports During Construction, AC 150/5370-2C.

Operational Use & Modification of Electronic Checklists, AC 120-64.

Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet MSL and/or MACH
numbers (Mmo) Greater Than 0.75, AC 61-107.

Operations of Large Airplanes Subject to Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 125, AC 125-1.

Operations Reservations for High-Density Traffic Airports (HDTAs), AC
90-43G.

Organization and Functions of the Board and Delegations of Authority, 49
CFR Part 800 (NTSB 800).

Painting, Marking, and Lighting of Vehicles Used on an Airport, AC
150/5210-5B.

Parachute Jumping, FAR Part 105.

Parachute Rigger - Senior/Master - Certification Guide, AC 65-5B.

Parachute Rigger Knowledge Test Guide, AC 65-27.

Parts Manufacturer Approval {PMA} Procedures, Order 8110.42.

Passenger Facility Charges (PFCs), FAR Part 158.

Passenger Safety Information Briefing and Briefing Cards, AC 121-24A.

Passenger Safety Information Briefing and Briefing Cards (FAR Part 135),
AC 135-12A.

Pavement Management System, AC 150/5380-7.

Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings, AC 61-89D.

Pilot Compartment View for Transport Category Airplanes, AC 25.773-1.

Pilot Examiner\'s Handbook, Order 8710.3C.

Pilot Guide - Small Aircraft Ground Deicing, AC 135-17.

Pilot Guide for Large Aircraft Ground Deicing, AC 120-58.

Pilot in Command Qualifications For Special Areas/Routes And Airports.
FAR Section 121.445, AC 121.445-1D.

Pilot Precautions and Procedures to be taken in Preventing Aircraft
Reciprocating Engine Induction System & Fuel System Icing Problems, AC
20-113.

Pilot Prerogatives, FAA-P-8740-17.

Pilot Proficiency Award Program, AC 61-91H.

Pilot Qualification and Operation of all Surplus Military Turbine
Powered Airplanes, AC 91-68.

Pilot Records Improvement Act of 1996, 120-68.

Pilot School Certification, AC 141-1A.

Pilot Schools, FAR Part 141.

Pilot Schools, Old FAR Part 141, effective before Aug. 4, 1997.

Pilot Transition Course for Self-Launching or Powered Sailplanes
(Motorgliders), AC 61-94.

Pilot Transition Courses for Complex Single Engine and Light,
Twin-Engine Airplanes, AC 61-9B.

Pilot Windshear Guide, AC 00-54.

Pilot\'s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, AC 61-23C.

Pilots\' Role in Collision Avoidance, AC 90-48C.

Pilot\'s Spatial Disorientation, AC 60-4A.

Pilot\'s Weight and Balance Handbook, AC 91-23A.

Placards for Battery-Excited Alternators Installed in Light Aircraft, AC
20-40.

Plane Sense, AC 20-5G.

Planning and Design Guidelines for Airport Terminal Facilities, AC
150/5360-13.

Planning and Design of Airport Terminal Facilities at Non-Hub Locations,
AC 150/5360-9.

Planning the Airport Industrial Park, AC 150/5070-3.

Planning the Metropolitan Airport System, AC 150/5070-5.

Planning the State Aviation System, AC 150/5050-3B.

Planning Your Takeoff, FAA-P-8740-23.

Portable Battery-Powered Megaphones, AC 121-6.

Positive Exchange of Flight Controls Program, AC 61-115.

Powerlines and Thunderstorms, Balloon Safety Tips, FAA-P-8740-34.

Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection
Test Methods, Standards and Criteria, AC 20-135.

Practice Guide for Decontaminating Aircraft, AC 20-48.

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) Systems, AC 150/5345-28D.

Predesign, Prebid, and Preconstruction Conferences for Airport Grant
Projects, AC 150/5300-9A.

Preflighting Your Avionics, FAA-P-8740-18.

Preparation and Loading of Magnetron Magnetic Materials for Air
Transportation, AC 121-28.

Presolo Written Test, AC 61-101.

Pressurization, Ventilation and Oxygen Systems Assessment for Subsonic
Flight Including High Altitude Operation, AC 25-20.

Preventing Accidents During Aircraft Ground Operations, FAA-P-8740-20.

Prevention of Retractable Landing Gear Failures, AC 20-34D.

Preventive Maintenance, AC 43-12A.

Primary Category Aircraft, AC 21-37.

Private and Commercial Pilots Refresher Courses, AC 61-10A.

Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Lighter-Than-Air
Balloon/Airship, FAA-S-8081-17 (8081-17).

Private Carriage Versus Common Carriage of Persons or Property, AC
120-12A.

Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Airplane (SEL, MEL, SES,
MES), FAA-S-8081-14 (8081-14).

Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Rotorcraft, Helicopter, and
Gyroplane, FAA-S-8081-15 (8081-15).

Procedures for Completion and Use of FAA Form 8130-3, Airworthiness
Approval Tag, Order 8130.21B.

Procedures for Conducting Fuel System Hot Weather Operation Tests, AC
23.961-1.

Procedures for Determining Acceptable Fuel/Oil Ratio As Required By FAR
23.1011(b), AC 23.1011-1.

Production Certificates, AC 21-1B.

Procedures for Termination/Nonrenewal of Aircraft Certification Service
Designations and Delegations, Order 8130.24.

Production Certification Multinational/Multicorporate Consortia, AC
21-27.

Production Under Type Certificate Only, AC 21-6A.

Proficiency and the Private Pilot, FAA-P-8740-36.

Programs for Training of Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting Personnel, AC
150/5210-17.

Propeller Operation and Care, FAA-P-8740-21.

Proposed Construction or Alteration of Objects that may Affect the
Navigable Airspace, AC 70/7460-2J.

The Propwatcher\'s Guide, FAA-P-8740-37.

Protection of Aircraft Fuel Systems Against Fuel Vapor Ignition Due to
Lightning, AC 20-53A.

Protection of Aircraft Electrical/Electronic Systems Against the
Indirect Effects of Lightning, AC 20-136.

Protection of Sensitive Security Information, FAR Part 191.

Public Aircraft, AC 20-132.

Public Availability of Information, 49 CFR Part 801 (NTSB 801).

Qualification and Approval of Personal Computer-Based Aviation Training
Devices, AC 61-126.

Qualification of Fuels, Lubricants, and Additives, AC 20-24B.

Qualification Testing of Turbojet Engine Thrust Reversers, AC 20-18A.

Quality Assurance Control for Products Acceptance Software, AC 21-36.

Quality Assurance of Software Used In Aircraft or Related Products, AC
21-33.

Quality Control for the Manufacture of Composite Structures, AC 21-26.

Quality Control for the Manufacture of Nonmetallic Compartment Interior
Components, AC 21-31.

Quality Control of Construction for Airport Grant Projects, AC
150/5370-12.

Radiation Exposure of Air Carrier Crewmembers, AC 120-52.

Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques, FAA-P-8740-47.

Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics, Inc. Document RTCA/DO-178B,
AC 20-115B.

Reciprocating Engine Overhaul Terminology and Standards, AC 43-11.

Reciprocating Engine Power-loss Accident Prevention and Trend
Monitoring, AC 20-105B.

Recommended Guidelines for Instrument Shops, AC 43-15.

Recommended Practices and Procedures for the Use of Electronic
Long-Range Navigation Equipment, AC 90-79.

Recommended Radiation Safety Precautions for Ground Operation of
Airborne Weather Radar, AC 20-68B.

Recommended Standard Traffic Patterns and Practices for Aeronautical
Operations at Airports without Operating Control Towers, AC 90-66A.

Recommended Standards for IFR Aeronautical Charts, AC 211-2.

Recording of Aircraft Titles and Security Documents, FAR Part 49.

Recreational and Private Pilot Knowledge Test Guide, AC 61-117.

Recreational Pilot Powered Parachute Practical Test Standard,
FAA-S-8081-19 (8081-19).

Recreational Pilot Practical Test Standards, FAA-S-8081-3 (8081-3).

Reduced and Derated Takeoff Thrust (Power) Procedures, AC 25-13.

Reduction of Electrical System Failures Following Aircraft Engine
Starting, AC 91-55.

Reference Materials and Subject Matter Knowledge Codes for Airman
Knowledge Testing, AC 60-25B.

Release of Airport Property from Surplus Property Disposal Restrictions,
FAR Part 155.

Repair Station Limited Ratings Beech 18 Series Aircraft, AC 145-2.

Repair Station Internal Evaluation Programs, AC 145-5.

Repair Stations, FAR Part 145.

Repair Stations for Composite and Bonded Aircraft Structure, AC 145-6.

Reporting Requirements of Air Carriers, Commercial Operators, Travel
Clubs, and Air Traffic Operators of Large and Small Aircraft, AC
120-30A.

Representatives of the Administrator , FAR Part 183.

Required Navigation Performance 10 (RNP-10) Operational Approval, Order
8400.12A.

Requirements for 760 Channel VHF Radio for Aeronautical Operations, AC
90-50D.

Revised Powerplant Engineering Report No. 3, Standard Fire Test
Apparatus and Procedure (for Flexible Hose Assemblies), AC 20-104.

Role of Preflight Preparation, AC 61-84B.

Rotorcraft External Load Operations, FAR Part 133.

Rotorcraft External-Load Operations in Accordance with FAR Part 133, AC
133-1A.

RTCA Document DO-160D, AC 21-16D.

Rules Implementing the Equal Access to Justice Act of 1980, FAR Part 14.

Rules of Practice for Federally-Assisted Airport Enforcement
Proceedings, FAR Part 16.

Rules of Practice in Air Safety Proceedings, 49 CFR Part 821 (NTSB 821).

Rules of Practice in Transportation; Accident/Incident Hearings and
Reports, 49 CFR Part 845 (NTSB 845).

Rules of Thumb for Avoiding or Minimizing Encounters With Clear Air
Turbulence, AC 00-30A, See AC 00-30B, Atmospheric Turbulence Avoidance.

Runway and Taxiway Edge Lighting System, AC 150/5340-24.

Runway Length Requirements for Airport Design, AC 150/5325-4A.

Runway Surface Condition Sensor Specification Guide, AC 150/5220-13B.

Runway Visual Range (RVR), AC 97-1A.

Runway Visual Range (RVR), Order 6560.10B.

Safe Flying for Agricultural Aviation, FAA-P-8740-42.

The Safe Pilot\'s 12 Golden Rules, FAA-P-8740-7.

Safety Guide for Private Aircraft Owners, FAA-P-8740-4A.

Safety In and Around Helicopters, AC 91-32B.

Safetying of Turnbuckles on Civil Aircraft, AC 20-45.

Security Control of Air Traffic, FAR Part 99.

Self-Locking Nuts on Bolts Subject to Rotation, AC 23.607-1.

Screening of Persons Carrying U.S. Classified Material, AC 108-3.

Seaplane Bases, AC 150/5395-1.

Seaplane Safety for FAR Part 91 Operations, AC 91-69.

Security Control of Air Traffic, AC 99-1C.

Security Rules - Carriage of Weapons and Escorted Persons, AC 108-2.

Segmented Circle Airport Marker System, AC 150/5340-5B.

Self-Contained Navigation Systems (Long Range), AC 121-13.

Service Difficulty Program (General Aviation), AC 20-109A.

Sharing the Skies, FAA-P-8740-33.

Shoulder Harness-Safety Installations, AC 21-34.

The Silent Emergency, (Pneumatic System Malfunction), FAA-P-8740-52.

Small Airplane Certification Compliance Program, AC 23-15.

Small Propeller-Driven Air Taxi Airplanes That Meet Sections 135.169
(formerly 135.144), AC 135.169-1.

Smoke Detection, Penetration, and Evacuation Tests and Related Flight
Manual Emergency Procedures, AC 25-9A.

Some Hard Facts About Soft Landings, FAA-P-8740-6.

Special Air Traffic Rules and Airport Traffic Patterns, FAR Part 93.

Special Use Airspace, FAR Part 73.

Special Flight Permits for Operation of Overweight Aircraft, AC 21-4B.

Specification for Airport and Heliport Beacon, AC 150/5345-12C.

Specification for Airport Light Bases, Transformer Houses, Junction
Boxes and Accessories, AC 150/5345-42C.

Specification for Constant Current Regulators Regulator Monitors, AC
150/5345-10E.

Specification for Discharge-Type Flasher Equipment, AC 150/5345-51.

Specification for L-821 Panels for Remote Control of Airport Lighting,
AC 150/5345-3D.

Specification for L-823 Plug and Receptacle, Cable Connectors, AC
150/5345-26B.

Specification for L-824 Underground Electrical Cable for Airport
Lighting Circuits, AC 150/5345-7D.

Specification for L-841 Auxiliary Relay Cabinet Assembly for Pilot
Control of Airport Lighting Circuits, AC 150/5345-13A.

Specification for Obstruction Lighting Equipment, AC 150/5345-43E.

Specification for Portable Runway Lights, AC 150/5345-50.

Specification for Runway and Taxiway Light Fixtures, AC 150/5345-46A.

Specification for Taxiway and Runway Signs, AC 150/5345-44F.

Specification for Wind Cone Assemblies, AC 150/5345-27C.

Specification L-854, Radio Control Equipment, AC 150/5345-49A.

Sport Parachute Jumping, AC 105-2C.

Stall Spin Awareness Training, AC 61-67B.

Standard Airworthiness Certification of Surplus Military Aircraft and
Aircraft Built from Spare and Surplus Parts, AC 21-13.

Standard Instrument Approach Procedures, FAR Part 97.

Standard Operations Specifications - Aircraft Maintenance Handbook, AC
121-1A.

Standardized Method of Reporting Airport Pavement Strength - PCN, AC
150/5335-5.

Standards for Airport Markings, AC 150/5340-1G.

Standards for Airport Sign Systems, AC 150/5340-18C.

Standards for Specifying Construction of Airports, AC 150/5370-10A.

Standby Power for Non-FAA Airport Lighting Systems, AC 150/5340-17B.

State and Regional Disaster Airlift (SARDA) Planning, AC 00-7C.

State Block Grant Pilot Program, FAR Part 156.

Static Strength Substantiation of Attachment Points for Occupant
Restraint System Installations, AC 23-4.

Status of the Federal Aviation Regulations, AC 00-44II.

Stepping up to a Complex Airplane, FAA-P-8740-11.

Strobe Light System Inspection Practices, AC 90-75.

Structural Substantiation of Part 23 Airplane Modifications Involving
Increased Engine Power, AC 23-12.

Structural Substantiation of Secondary Structures, AC 23-3.

Student Pilot Guide, AC 61-12M.

Substantiating Flow Rates and Pressures in Fuel Systems of Small
Airplanes, AC 23.955-1.

Substantiation for an Increase in Maximum Weight, Maximum Landing
Weight, or Maximum Zero Fuel Weight, AC 23-7.

Substitute Technical Standard Order (TSO) Aircraft Equipment, AC 20-41A.

Summary of Airworthiness Directives

Summary of Supplemental Type Certificates (STC or STCs).

Supplemental Structural Inspection Program For Large Transport Category
Airplanes, AC 91-56. See AC 91-56A, Continuing Structural Integrity
Program for Large Transport Category Airplanes.

Supplemental Type Certificate Requirements, Notice 8110.69.

Supplemental Wind Cones, AC 150/5340-23B.

Supplier Surveillance Procedures, AC 21-20B.

Surface Movement Guidance and Control System, AC 120-57A.

Surge and Stall Characteristics of Aircraft Turbine Engines, AC 33.65-1.

Surplus Military Aircraft - A Briefing for Prospective Buyers, AC 20-96.

Survival Equipment for Use in Overwater Operations, AC 120-47.

System Design Analysis, AC 25.1309-1A.

Systems for Interactive Training of Airport Personnel, AC 150/5210-18.

Takeoff Configuration Warning Systems, AC 25.703-1.

Taxiway Centerline Lighting System, AC 150/5340-19.

Technical Information Regarding Civil Aeronautics Manuals 1, 3, 4a, 4b,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13 and 14, AC 20-33B.

Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR), AC 91-63B.

Test Procedures for Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicators, AC 20-134.

Testimony by Employees and Production of Records in Legal Proceedings,
and Service of Legal Process and Pleadings, FAR Part 185.

Thunderstorms, AC 00-24B.

Thunderstorms - Don\'t Flirt \... Skirt \'Em, FAA-P-8740-12.

Tie-Down Sense, AC 20-35C.

Time In Your Tanks, FAA-P-8740-3.

Tips On Winter Flying, FAA-P-8740-24.

Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)

FARs, 14 CFR Parts 1 - 199, as designated.

14 CFR Preambles, selected.

Air Carrier Regulations, 14 CFR Parts 200 - 399, as designated.

Title 49, United States Code (49 USC).

Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers,
AC 90-42F.

Training Centers, FAR Part 142.

Transport Airplane Cabin Interiors Crashworthiness Handbook, AC 25-17.

Transport Category Airplane Electronic Display Systems, AC 25-11.

Transport Category Airplanes Cabin Ozone Concentrations, AC 120-38.

Transport Category Airplanes Modified for Cargo Service, AC 25-18.

Tundra Tires, AC 23.733-1.

Turbine and Compressor Rotors Type Certification Substantiation
Procedures, AC 33-3.

Turbine Engine Continued Rotation and Rotor Locking, AC 33.74/92.

Turbine Engine Rotor Blade Containment/Durability, AC 33-5.

Turbine Engine Vibration Survey, AC 33.83.

Turbine-Engine Foreign Object Ingestion and Rotor Blade Containment Type
Certification Procedures, AC 33-1B.

Truth in Leasing, AC 91-37A.

Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) and Specifications, Volume I -
Single-Engine Airplanes.

Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) and Specifications, Volume II -
Small Multiengine Airplanes.

Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) and Specifications, Volume III -
Large Multiengine Airplanes.

Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) and Specifications, Volume IV -
Rotorcraft, Gliders, Balloons and Airships.

Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) and Specifications, Volume V -
Aircraft Engines and Propellers.

Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) and Specifications, Volume VI -
Aircraft Listing and Aircraft Engine and Propeller Listing (older
aircraft models).

Type Certification Airships, AC 21.17-1A.

Type Certification Fixed Wing Gliders (Sailplanes) Including Powered
Gliders, AC 21.17-2A.

Type Certification for Conversion from Reciprocating Engine to Turbine
Engine-Powered Part 23 Airplanes, AC 23-14.

Type Certification of Automobile Gasoline in Part 23 Airplanes with
Reciprocating Engines, AC 23.1521-1B.

Type Certification of Oxygenates and Oxygenated Gasoline Fuels in Part
23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines, AC 23.1521-2.

Type Certification of Very Light Airplanes Under FAR 21.17(b), AC
21.17-3.

Type Certification of Very Light Airplanes with Powerplants and
Propellers Certificated to Parts 33 and 35 of the Federal Aviation
Regulations (FARs), AC 23-11.

Type Certification Process, Order 8110.4A.

Ultralight Vehicle Operations - Airports, ATC, and Weather, AC 103-6.

The Ultralight Vehicle, AC 103-7.

Ultralight Vehicles, FAR Part 103.

Ultrasonic Testing for Aircraft, AC 43-7.

Unanticipated Right Yaw in Helicopters, AC 90-95.

Understanding and Caring for your Gyroscopic Instruments, FAA-P-8740-16.

Uniform Distribution of Exits, AC 25.807-1.

United States Code, Title 49 (49 USC).

United States (U.S.) National Aviation Standard for the VOR/DME/TAC
Systems, AC 00-31A.

United States Standard Flight Inspection Manual, Order 8200.1A.

United States Standard for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS), Order
8260.3B.

Unreliable Airspeed Indications, AC 91-43.

Unusable Fuel Test Procedures For Small Airplanes, AC 23.959-1.

U.S. Airworthiness Certificates and Authorizations for Operation of
Domestic and Foreign Aircraft, AC 20-65.

Use of Aircraft Fuel Anti-icing Additives, AC 20-29B.

Use of Advanced Training Devices (Airplane Only), AC 120-46A.

Use of Alternate Grades of Aviation Gasoline for Grade 80/87 and Use of
Automotive Gasoline, AC 91-33A.

Use of Approach Slope Indicators for Pilot Training, AC 61-47A.

Use of Automobile Gasoline in Agricultural Aircraft, AC 21-21.

Use of CD-ROM Systems, AC 120-69.

Use of Child Seats In Aircraft, AC 91-62A.

Use of Federal Aviation Administration Communications System, FAR Part
189.

Use of Manufacturers\' Maintenance Manuals, AC 20-77.

Use of Nondestructive Testing Devices in the Evaluation of Airport
Pavements, AC 150/5370-11.

Use of Portable Electronic Devices Aboard Aircraft, AC 91.21-1.

Use of Pyrotechnic Visual Distress Signaling Devices in Aviation, AC
91-58.

Use of Radionavigation Land Test Station and Signal Generators, AC
170-6C.

Use of Shoulder Harness in Passenger Seats, AC 91-65.

Use of Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Class H11 bolts, AC 20-127.

Use of Value Engineering for Engineering and Design of Airport Grant
Projects, AC 150/5300-15.

Using the System (TCA - TRSA), FAA-P-8740-32.

Vertiport Design, AC 150/5390-3.

VFR Flight Near Noise-Sensitive Areas, AC 91-36C.

Vibration Evaluation of Aircraft Propellers, AC 20-66.

Voluntary Disclosure Reporting Program, AC 00-58.

Voluntary Industry Distributor Accreditation Program, AC 00-56.

VOR Course Errors Resulting from 50 kHz channel Mis-Selection, AC
90-58C.

Waivers of Part 101, Federal Aviation Regulations, AC 101-1A.

Waivers of Provisions of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Part 91, AC 91-72.

Waivers of Subpart B, Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations
(FARs), AC 91-5C.

Waivers: Aviation Events, AC 91-45C.

Washington Headquarters Directives Checklist, Order 0000.4Z.

Waste Water/Potable Water Drain System Certification, AC 25.1455-1.

Water in Aviation Fuels, AC 20-125.

Water Ingestion Testing for Turbine Powered Airplanes, AC 20-124.

Water Rescue Plans, Facilities, and Equipment, AC 150/5210-13A.

Water Supply Systems for Aircraft Fire and Rescue Protection, AC
150/5220-4B.

Water, Slush, and Snow on the Runway, AC 91-6A.

Weight and Balance, FAA-P-8740-5.

Weld Repair of Aluminum Crankcases and Cylinders of Piston Engines, AC
33-6.

What\'s an Accident Prevention Counselor?, FAA-P-8740-43.

Wind Shear, FAA-P-8740-40.

Your Shoulder Harness, FAA-P-8740-45.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Sumwalt, Robert L. III

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Airplane upset recovery training: A line pilot\'s perspective

**Magazine:** Flight Safety Digest

**Volume:** 22

**Issue Number:** 7-8

**Date:** July-August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Captain

**Keywords:** loss of control, upset recovery training (URT), in-flight
simulation

**Abstract:** To reduce loss of control accidents, the U.S. government
has funded a program to provide airplane upset-recovery training to
2,000 airline pilots. The training is conducted in an aerobatic
single-engine airplane and in a multi-engine jet modified as a
variable-stability in-flight simulator.

**Notes:** in issue Loss of Control: Returning from Beyond the Envelope

**URL:** <http://flightsafety.org/fsd/fsd_jul-aug03.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Svensson, E.; Angelborg-Thanderz, M.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Simulated landings in turbulence\--Motion, predictive
modeling, and psychometric aspects

**Conference Name:** Modeling and Simulation Technologies Conference and
Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 14-17

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Defence Research
Establishment (FOA), Linkoping, Sweden

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** To maintain control in approach/landings under turbulence,
the pilot requires prompt attention. The lead provided by non-visual
cues is then important. One objective of two studies was to analyze
whether a moving base dome simulator could produce more realistic cues
than a fixed base simulator. In the first study half of 60 landings were
performed with the motion system disengaged. The pilots rated risk,
difficulty, workload, performance, handling qualities, and induced
oscillations. Stick activity and difficulty were higher and performance
lower under the motion condition. In a second study the importance of
motion in turbulent landings was verified and analyses of the pilots\'
control responses showed that there were inter-individual differences.
Model analyses showed that turbulence affects workload, and that
workload, in its turn, influences performance. We found that handling
qualities and induced oscillations could be predicted from the other
variables. The variables turbulence and motion of the aircraft explain
65 percent of the variance in handling qualities ratings and 36 percent
of the variance in ratings of pilot induced oscillations. Accordingly,
handling qualities and pilot induced oscillations can be estimated and
predicted in situations \'without man in the loop\'. The analyses
present psychological aspects related to and underlying aircraft
handling qualities and pilot induced oscillations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Symes, Brian

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** MSHATF - Delivering military helicopter training in the new
millennium

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** CAE Aircrew Training Services plc,
Wallingford Oxfordshire OX10 6AA England

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** The UK Ministry of Defense (MoD)\'s decision, in October
1997, to award a 40 year Private Finance Initiative contract to CAE
Aircrew Training Services plc for the design, construction, management,
financing and operation of a purpose-built facility to provide simulator
training for RAF Support Helicopter aircrews, marked a new concept for
training delivery to the Royal Air Force.

This paper will summarize the rationale and training objectives which
underpinned the decision to adopt the Medium Support Helicopter Training
Facility (MSHATF) approach. It will provide a flavor of the demanding
functional requirements specified for the training facility by the MoD
and detail the various elements of the training service, including the 6
Dynamic Mission Simulators and the Tactical Control Center - which makes
the MSHATF unique.

It will review progress to date in delivering the contracted training
service, consider the potential of the MSHATF and speculate on the
extent to which this might be exploited in the future.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Szczepanski, Cezary; Leland, Dick

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Move or not to move? Continuous question

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 14-17

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Cezary Szczepanski: Ph.D.,
M.Sc.Eng, Warsaw University of Technology, ETC-PZL Aerospace Industries,
Poland

Dick Leland: Environmental Tectonics Corporation, Southampton, PA

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** The authors\' many years experience in design and
manufacture of flight simulators, aviation training devices, and ground
vehicle simulators have provided extensive understanding regarding the
importance of motion systems in simulators. This paper presents our
conclusions on the necessity of motion systems in flight training
simulators for fixed wing aircraft and helicopters used by the armed
forces. Motion system options considered were no motion, less than 6
DoF, and 6 DoF. In preparing the paper, the following factors were
considered:

\- Type of simulated aircraft

\- Range of simulator usage

\- User of the Simulator

\- Technological aspects

\- Pilots\' psychological and physiological needs

\- Financial aspects

Our conclusion is that motion systems are necessary for flight
simulation, especially when training flight tasks where motion stimuli
are important for the pilot to determine appropriate control inputs.
When the simulation only stimulates the pilot visually, there is a great
deal of missing information that is normally present in flight and
learning transfer is often adversely affected. Pilots should be trained
in an appropriate motion system equipped simulator in order not to
sacrifice training effectiveness. This is especially essential when
pilots are trained for high G tolerance and Spatial Disorientation
avoidance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Talleur, Donald Anders

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Equilibrium and flying: Illusions of flight

**Periodical Title:** Canadian Owners and Pilots Association (COPA)
Pilot Primer

**Issue:** May

**Date Accessed:** July 26, 2002

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Assistant Chief Flight Instructor,
University of Illinois, Institute of Aviation

**Keywords:** illusions, vestibular system, upset recovery training
(URT)

**Notes:** On July 6, 2007, the web page was no longer available.

**URL:**
<http://www.copanational.org/non-members/safety/safetyPPMay01.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Talleur, Donald A.; Taylor, Henry L.; Bradshaw, Gary L.;
Emanuel, Tom W. Jr.; Rantanen, Esa; Lendrum, Lester; Hulin, Charles L.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Effectiveness of a personal computer aviation training device
(PCATD) for maintaining instrument currency

**Conference Name:** The Eleventh International Symposium on Aviation
Psychology

**Conference Location:** Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** This study investigates the potential of personal Computer
Aviation Training Devices (PCATDs) to substitute for actual aircraft
experience for maintaining instrument currency. A Jeppesen FS-2000 PCATD
and a Frasca-141 flight training device (FTD) were tested. The
experiment compared the flight performance of four groups after a
six-month period between instrument proficiency check (IPC) flights. The
control group received no training to maintain currency in this period.
Three other groups training in either the PCATD, the Frasca, or the
aircraft. Preliminary results for the 106 subjects are presented. The
performance of the subjects on an initial evaluation flight test and a
final proficiency flight test six months later were compared. All
subjects were instrument current by FAA standards prior to the
evaluation flight test. Forty-two percent of the 106 subjects passed the
evaluation flight test while 52 percent passed the final test. Results
also indicate that the additional training received during the six
months had the effect of improving final flight performance as compared
to the evaluation flight. In particular, both the PCATD and Frasca FTD
subjects were more likely to pass the final proficiency test than the
control or aircraft subjects. Poorer performance from the aircraft group
was not expected. A detailed analysis of individual maneuvers was also
performed in order to determine if a particular method of maintaining
currency was better suited for certain maneuvers.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Taylor, Henry L.; Lintern, Gavan

**Year:** 1993

**Title:** Quasi-transfer as a predictor of transfer from simulator to
airplane

**Journal:** The Journal of General Psychology

**Volume:** 120

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 257-276

**Date:** July

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Savoy, IL

**Number of Pages:** 20

**Abstract:** Simulators have emerged as important components of
flight-training programs. Nevertheless, the development of design
principles that can maximize training transfer and cost-benefit
trade-offs are not well established. The most significant challenge to
research that would bear on simulator design principles is the
difficulty and expense of flight transfer experiments. This difficulty
and expense can be reduced by the use of an in-simulator transfer
design, designated here as a quasi-transfer study, in which transfer is
to a high-fidelity configuration of a simulator. Of primary concern for
such studies is whether the implied assumption of correspondence between
quasi-transfer and transfer effects is well founded. In this article, we
review evidence that bears on this issue. The evidence is not entirely
supportive but does indicate some correspondence between quasi-transfer
and transfer.

**URL:**
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2405/is_n3_v120/ai_15204656/print>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Taylor, H. L.; Lintern, G.; Hulin, C. L.; Talleur, D.;
Emanuel, T.; Phillips, S.

**Year:** 1997

**Title:** Transfer of training effectiveness of personal computer-based
aviation training devices

**Date:** May

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/AM-97/11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Institute of Aviation, Savoy, IL 61874

**Number of Pages:** 24

**Keywords:** personal computer-based aviation training devices, flight
training, instrument flight, psychology, applied psychology

**Abstract:** The training effectiveness of Personal Computer-Based
Aviation Training Devices (PCATDs) has received only limited testing. In
the experiment reported here, a commercially available PCATD was
evaluated in a transfer of training experiment for its effectiveness in
supporting instrument flight training. The data show levels of savings
in airplane flight time that varied from 15% to over 40% for certain
training exercises. However, there were also cases in which savings were
essentially zero or even showed decrements as high as 25%. In general,
transfer savings were positive and substantial when new tasks were
introduced. The data indicate that a PCATD can provide training benefit
for certain tasks but, in addition, use of the PCATD in some areas is
not expected to result in savings and will erode the overall potential
to reduce costs.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Taylor, Henry L.; Lintern, Gavan; Hulin, Charles L.;
Talleur, Donald A.; Emanuel, Jr., Tom W.; Phillips, Sybil I.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Transfer of training effectiveness of a personal computer
aviation training device

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 9

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 319-335

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** The training effectiveness of personal computer aviation
training devices (PCATDs) has received only limited testing. In the
experiment reported here, a commercially available PCATD was evaluated
for its transfer effectiveness for teaching of instrument flight skills.
Students from the beginning and advanced instrument courses at the
University of Illinois were trained to criterion in the PCATD on a wide
range of tasks and were then retained to criterion in the airplane on
the same tasks. Other students were trained to criterion on the same
tasks only in the airplane. Comparisons of trials to criterion in the
airplane for the 2 groups, their times to complete each flight lesson in
the airplane, and their course completion times were used to assess the
training effectiveness of the PCATD. Transfer savings were generally
positive and substantial when new tasks were introduced but low when
tasks already learned in previous lessons were reviewed. A comparison of
course completion times showed savings of 3.9hr in the airplane for the
PCATD group compared to the airplane-control group.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Taylor, Henry L.; Talleur, Donald A.; Phillips, Sybil I.;
Emanuel, Tom W. Jr.; Hulin, Charles L.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Use of personal computers for instrument training

**City:** Savoy, IL

**Institution:** Institution of Aviation, University of Illinois

**Type:** Research Study

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Abstract:** The training effectiveness of Personal Computer Aviation
Training Devices (PCATDs) has received only limited testing. This study
evaluated a commercially available PCATD to determine its transfer
effectiveness for the instruction of instrument skills. In order to
evaluate transfer of training, the performance of a group of subjects
trained in a PCATD, and later trained to criterion in an aircraft, was
compared to the performance of a control group of subjects trained only
in the airplane. For the PCATD group, all new maneuvers and procedures
were introduced and trained to proficiency in a PCATD prior to training
and skill validation in the aircraft. For the Airplane Control group,
all new maneuvers were introduced and trained to proficiency in the
airplane. Comparisons of trials to criterion in the airplane for the two
groups, their times to complete each flight lesson in the airplane, and
their course completion times were used to assess the training
effectiveness of the PCATD. The data from this study indicates that the
PCATD is an effective training device for teaching instrument tasks.
Transfer savings were generally positive and substantial when new tasks
were introduced but low when tasks already learned in previous lessons
were reviewed. A comparison of course completion times showed savings of
about four hours in the airplane for the PCATD group compared to the
Airplane Control group. The cumulative transfer effectiveness ratio was
0.15 or a saving of 1.5 flight hours for each ten hours of PCATD time.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Taylor, Henry L.; Talleur, Donald A.; Rantanen, Esa M.;
Emanuel, Tom W. Jr.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** The effectiveness of a personal computer aviation training
device (PCATD), a flight training device (FTD), and an airplane in
conducting instrument proficiency checks

**Conference Name:** 13th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology

**Conference Location:** Dayton, OH

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign Institute of Aviation

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** This project evaluated the effectiveness of a personal
computer aviation training device (PCATD), a flight training device
(FTD) and an airplane for conducting an instrument proficiency check
(IPC). The study compared the performance of pilots receiving an IPC in
a PCATD, in an FTD and in an airplane (IPC #1) with performance on a
later IPC in an airplane (IPC #2). Chi-square tests were used to analyze
the IPC #1 and IPC #2 data to determine whether the treatment
(assignment to group) had an effect on the pass/fail ratio for the IPC
#1 and IPC #2 flights respectively. The treatment effect on the IPC #1
and IPC #2 pass/fail ratios were not statistically significant. A series
of planned-comparison tests were performed both between the experimental
groups and between subjects within each experimental group. The PCATD
group was compared to the Airplane group and to the FTD group, the
Airplane group to the FTD group. None of these comparisons showed
statistically significant (a \< .05) differences between groups. These
findings provide compelling evidence for permitting the use of PCATDs to
give IPCs.

**URL:**
<http://www.humanfactors.uiuc.edu/Reports&PapersPDFs/isap05/taytalranemaavpsy05.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Technical Cooperation Program (TTCP)

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Simulation evaluation

**Access Year:** 2007

**Access Date:** Feb. 5

**Description:** Website

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** -What types of simulations are available?

-What is advanced/distributed distance learning (ADL)?

-How do you determine the effectiveness of representations?

-How do I measure simulator fidelity?

-What is the relationship between fidelity and training effectiveness?

**URL:**
<http://trainingsystems.org/TTCP/html/evaluation_simulation/simulation_eval.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Tegtmeier, Lee Ann

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Retooling maintenance lessons

**Magazine:** Aviation Week & Space Technology

**Pages:** 50

**Date:** December 4

**Type of Article:** part of section on Simulation and Training

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Abstract:** Training industry considers moving from \'chalk and talk\'
to simulators.

**Notes:** Part of section on Simulation and Training. All articles in
this section include:

Fighting human error (F. Fiorino)

Retooling maintenance lessons (L. A. Tegtmeier)

Getting upset (E. H. Phillips)

A little competition (J. C. Anselmo)

Ready, VLJet, go (F. Fiorino)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Telban, Robert J.; Cardullo, Frank M.; Houck, Jacob A.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Developments in human centered cueing algorithms for control
of flight simulator motion systems

**Institution:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA)

**Report Number:** AIAA-99-4328

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Abstract:** The authors conducted further research with cueing
algorithms for control of flight simulator motion systems. A variation
of the so-called optimal algorithm was formulated using simulated
aircraft angular velocity input as a basis. Models of the human
vestibular sensation system, i.e. the semicircular canals and otoliths,
are incorporated within the algorithm. Comparisons of angular velocity
cueing responses showed a significant improvement over a formulation
using angular acceleration input. Results also compared favorably with
the coordinated adaptive washout algorithm, yielding similar results for
angular velocity cues while eliminating false cues and reducing the tilt
rate for longitudinal cues. These results were confirmed in piloted
tests on the current motion system at NASA-Langley, the Visual Motion
Simulator (VMS). Proposed future developments by the authors in cueing
algorithms are revealed. The new motion system, the Cockpit Motion
Facility (CMF), where the final evaluation of the cueing algorithms will
be conducted, is also described.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Teufel, H.J.; Nusseck, H.-G.; Beykirch, K.A.; Butler, J.S.;
Kerger, M.; Bülthoff, H.H.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** MPI motion simulator: Development and analysis of a novel
motion simulator

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6476

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Teufel: Research Assistant

Nusseck: VR-System Administrator

Beykirch: Research Scientist

Butler: Research Scientist

Kerger: VR Administrator

Bülthoff: Director, Department Bülthoff

Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Department Bülthoff,
Spemannstraße 44, 72076, Tübingen, Germany

**Abstract:** This paper discusses the technical issues that were
required to adapt a KUKA Robocoaster for use as a real-time motion
simulator. Within this context, the paper addresses the physical
modifications and the software control structure that were needed to
have a flexible and safe experimental setup. It also addresses the
delays and transfer function of the system. The paper is divided into
two sections.

The first section describes the control and safety structures of the MPI
Motion Simulator. The second section shows measurements of latencies and
frequency response of the motion simulator. The results show that the
frequency responses of the MPI Motion Simulator compare favorably with
high-end Stewart Platforms, and therefore demonstrate the suitability of
robot-based motion simulators for flight simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Generic

**Author:** The Boeing Company; Airbus

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Airplane upset recovery training aid

**Secondary Author:** Carbaugh, Captain Dave; Rockliff, Captain Larry

**Date:** August 6

**Type of Work:** Training aid

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Carbaugh: The Boeing Company,
Co-Chair Upset Recovery Industry Team

Rockliff: Airbus, Co-Chair Upset Recovery Industry Team

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Industry solutions for large swept-wing turbofan airplanes
typically seating more than 100 passengers.

**URL:**
<http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs200/branches/afs210/training_aids/media/upsetrecoveryweb.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Tomlinson, B. N.

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Simulator motion characteristics and perceptual fidelity

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Flight
Simulation

**Conference Location:** Cambridge, United Kingdom

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** September 30 - October 3

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** FS(B)3 Division, Royal Aircraft
Establishment, Bedford MK41 6AE, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** perceptual fidelity, motion characteristics, cue
generation

**Abstract:** This paper is a progress report on a study, commissioned
by the AGARD Flight Mechanics Panel, to review existing data and try to
describe a relationship between certain motion systems parameters,
identified in an earlier AGARD report (AR-144), and the fidelity of the
pilot\'s perception of flight. Motion systems characteristics as a whole
are discussed, this extending AR-144\'s treatment of motion mechanisms
to include motion drive software and other features. Some of the key
parameters of AR-144 are then examined in relation to total motion
system fidelity. Finally, some proposals are made of a common format
data structure with which to summarize research results on motion cues.
The study is continuing.

**Notes:** Published in September 1986.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Tran, Duc; Hernandez, Estela

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** Use of the vertical motion simulator in support of the
American Airlines flight 587 accident investigation

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Providence, RI

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

**Date:** August 16-19

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2004-5032

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Tran: Aerospace Engineer, Aerospace
Simulation Operations Branch, M/S 243-5, NASA Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field, CA 94035

Hernandez: Simulation Engineer, Northrop Grumman Information Technology,
M/S 243-6, Moffett Field, CA 94035

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** vertical motion simulator (VMS), American Airlines flight
587, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** As part of the investigation of the accident involving
American Airlines Flight 587, the National Transportation Safety Board
(NTSB), in cooperation with NASA Ames Research Center, proposed to
conduct observations and tests using the Vertical Motion Simulator
(VMS). The investigation was divided into two phases. Phase I consisted
of evaluating the accelerations experienced during the accident event by
back-driving the cockpit controls, displays, out of the window scene,
cockpit communications, and motion of the aircraft as recorded and
derived from the aircraft\'s flight data recorder (FDR) and cockpit
voice recorder (CVR). Phase II consisted of evaluating the effects of
flight control characteristics and accelerations similar to those
experienced during the accident event on pilot perception and
performance using a tracking task. The tracking task consisted of pilots
following an on-screen target with various flight control
configurations, with both motion off and motion being back-driven using
derived acceleration data from the FDR. This paper describes the work
provided by the VMS in support of the investigation and does not include
any conclusions drawn from the study.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Treisman, Michel

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Motion sickness: An evolutionary hypothesis

**Journal:** Science

**Volume:** 197

**Issue:** July

**Pages:** 493-495

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Oxford, Department of
Experimental Psychology, South Parks Road, Oxford, England OX13UD

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Abstract:** Since the occurrence of vomiting as a response to motion
is both wide-spread and apparently disadvantageous, it presents a
problem for evolutionary theory. A hypothesis is proposed suggesting
that motion sickness is triggered by difficulties which arise in the
programming of movements in the eyes or head when the relations between
the spatial frameworks defined by the visual, vestibular, or
proprioceptive inputs are repeatedly and unpredictably perturbed. Such
perturbations may be produced by certain types of motion, or by
disturbances in sensory input or motor control produced by ingested
toxins. The last would be the important cause in nature, the main
function of the emesis being to rid the individual of ingested
neurotoxins. Its occurrence in response to motion would be an accidental
by-product of this system.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Tuxill, Bruce

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** United States perspective on long range training requirements

**Conference Name:** RAeS International Conference - Flight Simulation

**Date:** May 10-12

**Notes:** This is the text of a presentation given

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** U.S. Department of Transportation

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Cockpit human factors research requirements

**City:** Cambridge, MA 02142

**Institution:** Research and Special Programs Administration

**Date:** April

**Number of Pages:** 59

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** U.S. Department of Transportation/Federal Aviation
Administration

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Flight simulation training device initial and continuing
qualification and use; Final rule

**Document Number:** Docket No. FAA--2002--12461

**Date:** October 30

**Alternate Title:** Part 60

**Report Number:** 14 CFR Part 60

**Abstract:** The FAA is amending the regulations to establish a new
part to set forth qualification requirements for flight simulation
training devices (FSTD). The new part consolidates and updates FSTD
requirements that currently exist in different parts of the FAA\'s
regulations and in advisory circulars. In addition, the FAA is requiring
that sponsors of FSTDs have a Quality Management System. These changes
are necessary to promote standardization and accountability for FSTD
qualification, maintenance, and evaluation. The intended effect of the
new part is to ensure that users of FSTDs receive training in devices
that closely match the performance and handling characteristics of the
aircraft being simulated.

**URL:** http://dmses.dot.gov/docimages/p88/431747.pdf

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** U.S. Department of Transportation/ Federal Aviation
Administration

**Year:** 2004

**Title:** FSD ARC Recommendations of Part 60 Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking

**Series Title:** Docket Management System

**City:** Washington, DC

**Date:** February 3

**Report Number:** FAA-2002-12461-84

**URL:** <http://dmses.dot.gov/docimages/pdf88/267911_web.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Comparison of multivariate methods

**Access Year:** 2002

**Access Date:** August 13

**Type of Medium:** website

**Abstract:** Most of the differences in multivariate methods can be
understood in terms of the underlying model which can be defined by the
number of independent and dependent variables on each side of the
equation and the type of variables included in the model. The tables on
this page compare the number and types of variables used in each method.

The tables below use a very simplified form for a multivariate
statistical model:

Dependent variable(s) = f(independent variables).

**Notes:** As of Sept. 6, 2006, web page was no longer available.

**URL:** <http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/primer/tablemv.html>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Ungs, Timothy J.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Simulator induced syndrome: Evidence for long term simulator
aftereffects

**Conference Name:** Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting

**Conference Location:** Santa Monica, CA

**Publisher:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** U.S. Coast Guard and Wright State
University

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence,
risk factors, and significance of adverse symptoms occurring in pilots
more than 24 hours after completion of flight simulator training. This
continued occurrence or recurrence of symptoms is termed by the author
as \"Long Term Simulator Aftereffects\" (LTSA). Information was gathered
by multi-part, anonymous, and voluntary questionnaires. Nine of 196
pilots studied reported LTSA. Several pilots reported symptoms up to one
week and one three weeks post simulator training. Symptoms reported
included: recurrent visual flashbacks, continued disturbance in balance,
difficulties in concentrating and hand-eye coordination. Three pilots
reported difficulties in flying aircraft. There was no statistically
significant association between LTSA and: total flight time, total
simulator time, length of simulator training, self-determined motion
sickness susceptibility, and sex. Simulator training can result in the
occurrence of long term (1 day) adverse symptoms which poses flight
safety concerns.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** University of Toronto

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Annual progress report 1988-1989

**City:** Downsview, Ontario, Canada

**Institution:** University of Toronto, Institute for Aerospace Studies

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Toronto, Institute
for Aerospace Studies, 4925 Dufferin Street, Downsview, Ontario, Canada,
M3H5T6

**Number of Pages:** 123

**Notes:** Presents summaries of work including references,
participants, and equipment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** USAF Scientific Advisory Board

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Report of the ad hoc committee on simulation technology

**Institution:** Department of the Air Force

**Date:** April

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Vaden, Eric A.; Hall, Steven

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** The effect of simulator platform motion on pilot training
transfer: A meta-analysis

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology

**Volume:** 15

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 375-393

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Vaden: Human Factors and Systems
Department, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Hall: Galaxy Scientific Corporation, Fairfax, VA

**Keywords:** meta-analysis, flight simulation, training effectiveness,
motion, transfer of training

**Abstract:** We used a meta-analysis (MA) approach to generate an
estimate of true mean effect size (δ) for simulator motion with regard
to fixed-wing pilot training transfer. We based the analysis on the
techniques developed by Hunter and Schmidt (1999). We used a *d*
statistic for effect size calculations based on information available in
the included sources. We reviewed and considered 11 studies for
analysis, but only 7 of these included the information necessary for
calculating effect size and we included these in the study. The result
of the MA suggests a small, positive effect for motion, *d* = .16. No
credibility interval could be built around this estimate of population
mean effect size because the resulting sampling error variance was
larger than the observed variance in *d* across the accessed studies.
This led to a negative variance estimate for δ and subsequently an
estimated *SD*~δ~ of 0. These results suggest that simulator motion has
a small, positive effect on pilot training transfer and contradict
earlier MA on the same subject. The small sample size (few studies) and
methodological shortcomings within the included studies require that the
findings be interpreted cautiously. We discuss alternative
interpretations and their implications for the aviation training
community.

**URL:** <http://www.leaonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15327108ijap1504_5>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Valverde, Horace H.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** A review of flight simulator transfer of training studies

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 15

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 510-523

**Date:** December

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Advanced Systems Division, Air
Force Human Resources Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Keywords:** transfer, training, simulator, fidelity, motion

**Abstract:** Often operational equipment is considered to be the most
effective and valid training equipment. However, this is not true in
every instance. In fact, sometimes it may be undesirable to use real
equipment for training if suitable simulators are available. For
example, the use of operational equipment has several disadvantages
which include (1) high costs, (2) limitation on practice of varied
aspects of tasks, and (3) safety hazards. Practical decisions in the use
of training devices depend upon compromises between economic and
training objectives. A trainer need not duplicate operational equipment
to have training value. Technical reports pertaining to flight simulator
transfer of training studies available from the Defense Documentation
Center are reviewed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** van de Moesdijk, G. A. J.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Non-Gaussian structure of the simulated turbulent environment
in piloted flight simulation

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 27

**Keywords:** non-Gaussian, atmospheric turbulence, simulation, flight
tasks, psychological effects

**Abstract:** After a description of the general non-Gaussian
characteristics of actual atmospheric turbulence as observed in the
atmosphere, a non-Gaussian turbulence simulation model has been
described. The non-Gaussian characteristics have been classified as
patchiness and intermittency, both dependent on higher order statistics.
These non-Gaussian characteristics have been mathematically elaborated
and described. The effects of patchiness on pilots' behavior, using
physiological parameters have been evaluated in a small simulator
experiment.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** van den Berg, A. V.; Van de Grind, W. A.

**Year:** 1989

**Title:** Reaction times to motion onset and motion detection
thresholds reflect the properties of bilocal motion detectors

**Journal:** Vision Research

**Volume:** 29

**Issue:** 9

**Pages:** 1261-1266

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** vision, motion detection threshold, motion detection
reaction time

**Notes:** Referenced in Ruud Hosman\'s book, Pilot\'s perception and
control of aircraft motions (1996).

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** van den Berg, P.; Zaal, P.M.T.; Mulder, M.; Van Paassen,
M.M.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Conducting multi-modal pilot model identification - Results
of a simulator experiment

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6892

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** van den Berg: MSc Student, Control
and Simulation Division, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

Zaal: PhD Candidate, Control and Simulation Division, Faculty of
Aerospace Engineering

Mulder: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation Division, Faculty of
Aerospace Engineering

van Paassen: Associate Professor, Control and Simulation Division,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, The
Netherlands

**Abstract:** As part of the research project \"A cybernetic approach to
assess simulator fidelity\" an experiment was conducted in the SIMONA
Research Simulator. The experiment is performed in preparation of an
in-flight experiment with the objective to perform multi-modal pilot
model identification during real flight in the Citation II laboratory
aircraft of the Delft University of Technology. To capture the pilot\'s
behavior in a mathematical model, the pilot is asked to perform a well
defined pitch attitude control task. The multi-modal identification of
the pilot requires the pilot to perfrom a simultaneous target tracking
and disturbance rejection task. Two forcing functions are therefore
inserted into the closed-loop system. One of the primary goals of the
experiment is to gain more insight in the design requirements of the
distubance and tracking signals. The simulator experiment is also used
to investigate the effect of turbulence on the accuracy of the
identification results. The final goal of the simulator experiment was
to investigate the possibility of modifying the aircraft dynamics by
using a stick shaping filter. The experiment revealed that the power
that can be inserted by the forcing functions is limited by the torque
limiters of the autopilot. Turbulence did not affect the identification
results significantly. The pilots showed crossover regression for the
conditions with the stick-shaping filter. This is probably caused by the
high bandwidth of the forcing functions used in combination with double
integrator dynamics.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** van der Pal, Jelke

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** The effect of simulator motion on parameter training for F-16
pilots

**Editor:** Harris, Don

**Book Title:** Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics:
Transportation Systems, Medical Ergonomics and Training

**City:** Oxford, England

**Publisher:** Ashgate

**Volume:** 3

**Pages:** 267-275

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aerospace Laboratory
(NLR), The Netherlands

**Abstract:** Although several studies have been reported with respect
to the training value of platform motion systems for military training,
most of them are now outdated due to technological improvements and
improved measurement techniques. Within the experiment reported here, a
quasi transfer-of-training design has been applied, using a modern
6-DOF, dome simulator for the F-16 as a training device to train
experienced pilots on flight parameters for a weapon delivery maneuver.
The pilots obtained good learning progress. However, despite
expectations, pilots training with motion cueing tended to perform worse
than pilots trained without motion cueing. Motion cueing did not lead to
faster learning. On transfer, the lack of motion during training did not
lead to a consistent negative effect. However, without motion cueing,
pilots\' learned control strategies were less efficient during transfer,
as more input corrections were needed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** van der Steen, F. A. M.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** Simulating self-motion

**Journal:** Brain Research Bulletin

**Volume:** 40

**Pages:** 473-475

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, The
Netherlands, Email: Han.Steen@LR.TUDelft.NL

**Number of Pages:** 3

**Keywords:** virtual environments, vehicle simulation, self-motion
perception, visual-vestibular, interaction, perception model

**Abstract:** In general, vehicle motions far exceed the mechanical
constraints of an Earth-fixed simulator base. Inertial motions can
therefore only be simulated in partial agreement with those of the
actual vehicle. As a consequence, physical mismatches between inertial
and environmental motion are inevitable. Here, the concept of a
subjective reference frame is introduced, relative to which perceived
self-motion is defined. This frame must be released from the Earth-fixed
frame in order to evoke simulated self-motion. In addition, self-motion
and environmental motion need to be perceived reciprocal, in order to
evoke a stationary perceived environment. Due to the only limited
accuracy of human self-motion perception, however, perceived self-motion
and perceived environmental motion need not be *exactly* reciprocal. The
extent to which self-motion and environmental motion may differ, can be
expressed by a just noticeable difference. This just noticeable
difference denotes the threshold at which the environment is perceived
to move. In this paper, a self-motion perception model is outlined in
which perceived environmental motion and perceived self-motion are
separated. The perception model and the just noticeable differences can
then be applied to determine the inertial stimulation that is needed to
evoke perceived self-motion, in which the environment is perceived
stationary throughout simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** van der Steen, F. A. M.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** A stationary perceived visual scene during roll and yaw
motions in a flight simulator

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 36

**Keywords:** self-motion, perception, visual-vestibular, simulator

**Abstract:** In two experiments, human observers in a moving base
flight simulator were subjected to angular accelerations. The first
experiment concerned accelerations about the longitudinal roll axis. The
second experiment concerned accelerations about the vertical yaw axis.
It was determined to which extent the amplitudes of inertial body motion
(with respect to an earth-fixed frame) and visual scene motion (with
respect to the simulator cabin) may differ, while maintaining the
perception of an earth-stationary visual scene. Both the body and visual
motion consisted of a 0.75 *s* acceleration, followed by a 1.50 *s*
deceleration, and a 0.75 *s* acceleration. The visual acceleration
amplitude *W* was fixed at either 0, 2, 4, 8, or 12 deg/*s*^2^ while the
inertial acceleration amplitude *I* was varied by a staircase procedure,
depending on whether the subject had perceived the scene to be
stationary or not. Following the visual and inertial motion
presentation, the subjects pushed a button when they perceived the scene
to be not stationary. At each displayed visual motion amplitude, the
"slow" and "fast" inertial threshold amplitudes were determined in
between which the visual scene was perceived to be stationary. At the
slow threshold, the inertial amplitude is too small while at the fast
threshold, this amplitude is too large to evoke the perception or an
earth-stationary visual scene. The slow thresholds were determined for
*W* = 0 through *W* =12 deg/*s*^2^ and satisfy the linear relation *I* =
2.7 + 1.7 *W* for roll and *I* = 2.2 + 1.4 *W* for yaw. When considering
the slow and fast threshold amplitudes to have symmetry at the *W* = 0
condition, a strong non-linearity of the thresholds near *W* = 0 was
found.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Thesis

**Author:** van der Steen, Han

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Self-motion perception

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**University:** Delft University of Technology

**Thesis Type:** Ph.D.

**Keywords:** perception of self-motion

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** van der Steen, Han

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Measuring the realism of motion in flight simulators

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 14-17

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Siemens - Traffic, Transport and
Special Projects division

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** A prominent issue in flight simulation technology is the
extent to which inertial (mechanical) motions are necessary. A condition
that refers to the need for inertial motions is the perceptual condition
that the simulator trainee may not perceive self-movements as
unrealistic.

This paper describes results of experiments in a flight simulator which
determined inertial motion amplitudes which are needed to provide
realistic motion. Two motion directions were tested: roll and yaw.

The experiments demonstrated that the perception of an earth-stationary
visual scene corresponds to the perception of realistic self-motion. It
is outlined that rather large ranges exist in which visual and inertial
self-motion stimuli may physically mismatch, while the simulated
self-motion is perceived as realistic.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** van der Steen, Han F. A. M.; Hosman, Ruud J. A. W.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Perception of coherence of visual and vestibular velocity
during rotational motion

**Conference Name:** IFAC Symposium on Analysis, Design and Evaluation
of Man-Machine Systems

**Conference Location:** Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB, Delft, The
Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Keywords:** human perception, visual motion, thresholds,
many-degrees-of-freedom systems, simulators

**Abstract:** Psychophysical experiments are described that concern the
ability of subjects to indicate the velocity coherence of vestibular and
visual stimuli during rotations. The coherence zone is determined by the
thresholds at which the suggested outside visual world is no longer
perceived as stationary. The results show high gains for roll and swing
(1 to 6) and gains about one (0.5 to 2) for yaw motions. The use of
perceived coherence zones in moving-base vehicle simulation is
discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** van der Vaart, J. C.; Hosman, R. J. A. W.

**Year:** 1987

**Title:** Compensatory tracking in disturbance tasks and target
following tasks. The influence of cockpit motion on performance and
control behavior

**City:** Delft, The Netherlands

**Institution:** Delft University of Technology

**Date:** December

**Report Number:** Report LR-51 l

**Number of Pages:** 53

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** van Gool, M. F. C.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Influence of motion washout filters on pilot tracking
performance

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** National Aerospace Laboratory NLR,
Anthony Fokkerweg 2, 1059 CM Amsterdam, The Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** motion washout filters, human motion perception, tracking

**Abstract:** An investigation has been carried out on the NLR moving
base flight simulator to establish the influence of the simulator motion
wash-out filters in the pitch and roll axis in the performance of four
pilots when stabilizing an aircraft disturbed by turbulence in one of
these axes. For this compensatory tracking task, pilot describing
functions, remnant spectra and other performance measures have been
determined.

The results lead to the conclusion that, for the task under
consideration, no significant differences can be observed when the break
frequency of the (linear second-order) wash-out filter is varied from
0.1 rad/sec to 0.5 rad/sec. However performance in either condition is
considerably better when compared to fixed-rate results. This is also
reflected in the pilot comments and effort ratings, stating that the
task is easier with motion.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Veltink, Peter H.; Luinge, Henk J.; Kooi, Bart J.; Baten,
Chris T.M.; Slycke, Per; Olthuis, Wouter; Bergveld, Piet

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** The artificial vestibular system: Design of a tri-axial
inertial sensor system and its application in the study of human
involvement

**Conference Name:** Measuring Behavior, 4th International Conference on
Methods and Techniques in Behavioral Research

**Conference Location:** Amsterdam, The Netherlands

**Publisher:** Noldus Information Technology bv

**Date:** August 27-30

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Veltink and Luinge: Institute for
Biomedical Technology (BMTI)

Kooi, Olthuis, Bergveld: MESA Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box
217, 7500 AE Enschede, the Netherlands

Baten, Slycke, Wouter: Xsens Sports Technologies bv, P.O. Box 545, 7500
AM Enschede, the Netherlands

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Veltman, J. A.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** A comparative study of psychophysiological reactions during
simulator and real flight

**Journal:** International Journal of Aviation Psychology (IJAP)

**Volume:** 12

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 33-48

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, The
Netherlands

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Abstract:** During selection tests in a flight simulator and a real
aircraft, physiological workload measures were evaluated. The selection
context guaranteed high motivation in the participant to exert
additional effort during difficult flight tasks. The aim of the study
was to obtain information about the sensitivity to mental effort of
several physiological measures and to explore the applicability of these
measures in real flight. The following measures were used: heart rate,
heart rate variability, respiration (frequency and amplitude), blood
pressure, eye blinks (frequency, duration and amplitude), and saliva
cortisol. Blood pressure was the only measure that was difficult to
obtain during real flights.

All physiological measures showed large differences between baseline and
flight tasks. Heart rate, heart rate variability, and respiratory
frequency showed similar results in the simulator and real flight. Blink
frequency showed an expected decrease during simulator flight, whereas a
large increase was found during real flight. This can be partly
explained by eye movements, which were made more frequently during real
flight. Blink duration was shorter and amplitude was larger during both
flights. This indicates that a combination of blink parameters provides
better information about workload than blink frequency alone. Cortisol
was not affected by the simulator flight, whereas greatly increased
levels were found after the real flight. This indicates that cortisol is
not affected by mental effort. G-forces during the real flight most
likely caused the increased cortisol levels.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Vinje, Edward W.; Pitkin, Edward T.

**Year:** 1972

**Title:** Human operator dynamics for aural compensatory tracking

**Journal:** IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics

**Volume:** SMC-2

**Issue:** No. 4

**Pages:** 504-512

**Keywords:** human operator dynamics, compensatory tracking, aural
display

**Abstract:** The effects of aural and combined aural and visual
displays of tracking error on human operator dynamics were investigated
using a compensatory tracking task. The aural displays indicated error
magnitude with tone pitch and error polarity by either modulating the
tone or by switching it between the ears. Describing functions,
remnants, and rms tracking performance were measured with test
conditions which were similar to those for previous studies of visual
tracking performance. Human operator control characteristics measured
for aural displays agree closely with those which result for visual
displays. Also, operators could control equally well with either one- or
two-ear displays. However, the reduction in operator time delays,
expected because of the generally faster human response to aural
stimuli, was not clearly evident in the results. Results also indicate
that the combined aural and visual presentation of tracking error
improved operator performance slightly.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Vogl, E.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Differences between simulation and real world at the IABG Air
to Air Combat Simulator with a wide angle visual system

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:**
Industrieanlagen-Betriebsgesellschaft, 8012 Ottobrunn, FRG

**Number of Pages:** 11

**Keywords:** wide angle visual system, air to air combat

**Abstract:** This paper presents the experiences of IABG with its Dual
Flight Simulator (DFS) for air-to-air combat. First of all IABG has
discovered that air-to-air combat simulation without a motion system is
no problem to its pilots. During the verification phase it was found
that the results of simulators at DFS were very good.

On the other hand IABG has researched all simulator effects in respect
to human factors. All of the following effects are existent, but have an
unimportant influence on the results of air-to-air combat simulations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** von Croy, Alexis

**Year:** 2007

**Title:** Perfect go-around

**Magazine:** Planet AeroSpace

**Issue Number:** 1

**Pages:** 4-11

**Date:** January

**Number of Pages:** 7

**Keywords:** ATR 42-500, ATR 72-500, turboprop

**Abstract:** Threatened with extinction by the global turboprop crisis
only a few years ago, ATR - the European joint venture between EADS and
Alenia Aeronautica, part of the Italian Finmeccanica group - is now the
world\'s leading manufacturer of turboprop regional airliners. Planet
AeroSpace went to visit the company in Toulouse.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** von der Heyde, Markus; Riecke, Bernhard E.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** How to cheat in motion simulation - Comparing the engineering
and fun ride approach to motion cueing

**Pages:** 1-8

**Date:** December

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** TR No. 089

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** The goal of this working paper is to discuss different
motion cueing approaches. They stem either from the engineering field of
building flight and driving simulators, or from the modern Virtual
Reality fun rides presented in amusement parks all over the world. The
principles of motion simulation are summarized together with the
technical implementations of vestibular stimulation with limited degrees
of freedom. A psychophysical experiment in Virtual Reality is proposed
to compare different motion simulation approaches and quantify the
results using high-level psychophysical methods as well as traditional
evaluation methods.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Voorhees, James W.; Waddington, Michael J.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Fidelity in human-in-the-loop driving simulation

**Magazine:** Traffic Technology International

**Issue Number:** Winter

**Pages:** 76-77, 79-80

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** In-Mar-Tech, Australia

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** physical fidelity, system fidelity, environmental
fidelity, situational fidelity, Real Drive simulator

**Abstract:** This article examines the technologies for designing
successful vehicle simulators, and describes the Real Drive simulator
commissioned by the Victorian Transport Accident Commission (TAC) in
Australia. \'Fidelity\' is the degree of correspondence between a
simulated system and the real world system that it represents. It has
several forms (physical, system, environmental, and situational) and
many different levels. It is important in simulation, because training,
assessment and research all aim to improve performance in the real
world. Cost and design flexibility are also important. The Victorian TAC
and the Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC) decided to
investigate the young driver problem by using driving simulators as a
training device and research tool. After their worldwide survey found no
suitable existing simulators, the Real Drive simulator project was
launched. Situational and physical fidelity were found to be essentially
important, and system and environmental fidelity to relate to research
and training needs. The Real Drive simulator toured the USA during
Summer 1994. Over 1000 people had an opportunity to drive it and record
their opinions about its four types of fidelity. The article reports
some of these comments.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Waag, Wayne L.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Training effectiveness of visual and motion simulation

**City:** Williams Air Force Base, AZ

**Institution:** Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

**Date:** January

**Type:** Interim Report

**Report Number:** AFHRL-TR-79-72

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Operations Training Division, Air
Force Human Resources Laboratory, Williams Air Force Base, AZ 85221

**Number of Pages:** 27

**Keywords:** visual simulation, motion simulation, flight simulation,
transfer of training, flight training

**Abstract:** A review of the literature concerning the training
effectiveness of visual and motion simulation is presented in this
report. Although there exist much pilot opinion and in-simulator
performance data, their extrapolation to training effectiveness
information is questioned. The present review focuses on data obtained
through the application of the transfer-of-training methodology. The
results are discussed in terms of study design factors, and
recommendations are made wherein additional research data are needed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Wade, Michael G.; Hammond, Curtis

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Simulation validation: Evaluating driver performance in
simulation and the real world

**Date:** July

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** MN/RC - 1998-28

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of Minnesota, Human
Factors Research Laboratory, 1901 4th Street, S.E., Minneapolis, MN
55455

**Number of Pages:** 101

**Keywords:** simulation performance, collision avoidance, driver
behavior

**Abstract:** Simulation offers a cost-effective way to conduct research
on collision avoidance and accident prevention. To be effective,
simulated performance must be a valid measure of real world performance.
This project sought to validate real world driving performance based on
the performance of individuals driving in simulation.

The study presents performance data on 14 male and 12 female volunteer
subjects who drove a route adjacent to the University of Minnesota
campus and then performed in a similar computer-generated driving route.
Generally, subjects reported the simulated driving test comfortable and
realistic; performance and characteristics of driving in the simulator
closely paralleled the real world; the qualitative pattern of driving
was similar; and errors and the control parameters of driving
performance suggested acceptable reliability between both driving
worlds. Researchers concluded that the simulator performed reliably and
provided a valid set of performance data that could be used to better
understand driving behavior, especially as it related to accident
prevention and collision avoidance.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Walker, K.

**Year:** 2005

**Title:** Plugging in

**Magazine:** Training & Aviation Journal

**Pages:** 40

**Date:** October

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Abstract:** Latest full-flight simulators feature electric motion
systems.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Wallace, James

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** 2 loud bangs preceded fall of flight 261

**Periodical Title:** Seattle Post-Intelligencer

**Issue:** February 5

**Date Accessed:** October 19, 2006

**Keywords:** Alaska Airlines flight 261, compressor stall, upset
recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Voice recorders picked up sounds as pilots struggled to
control plane.

**URL:** <http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/crsh05.shtml>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Wargo, M. J.; Kelley, C. R.; Mitchell, M. B.; Prosin, D. J.

**Year:** 1967

**Title:** Human operator response speed, frequency, and flexibility: A
review, analysis and device demonstration

**City:** Santa Monica, CA

**Institution:** Dunlap and Associates, Inc.

**Pages:** 1-74

**Date:** November

**Report Number:** NASA CR-874

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Dunlap and Associates, Inc., Santa
Monica, CA

**Recipient\'s Title and Affiliation:** Electronics Research Center,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

**Number of Pages:** 75

**Abstract:** (taken from Summary) The human operator\'s manual control
speed, frequency and flexibility is limited by his innate
characteristics and by the state-of-the-art in manual control
technology. The basis of these limitations was reviewed and analyzed and
recommendations for overcoming or reducing these limitations were
suggested. On the basis of these suggestions a muscle action potential
control, simultaneous visual-auditory display device was developed to
demonstrate the increase in operator response speed, frequency and
flexibility that accrue from advanced manual control techniques.

In a discrete control situation muscle action potential control was
found to increase response speed by approximately 100 ms and
simultaneous visual-auditory display was found to reduce response time
by an additional 40 ms. In a continuous control situation, muscle action
potential control via the facial muscles increased operator response
bandwidth across a range of forcing function amplitudes. These results
demonstrate the increase in response speed, frequency and flexibility
that accrues from use of muscle action potential control and suggests
that further development of muscle action potential control devices is
warranted.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Warwick, Graham

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** SIMONA seeks realism

**Magazine:** Flight International

**Pages:** 57

**Date:** April 17-23

**Number of Pages:** 1

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Warwick, Graham

**Year:** 2006

**Title:** Lufthansa low-cost order will test industry opinion

**Magazine:** Flight International

**Date:** April 18

**Keywords:** Level B, flight training device (FTD), Mechtronix

**Abstract:** Decision to buy low-fidelity Level B machine could have
far-reaching impact.

**URL:**
<http://www.mechtronix.ca/c/mech/sim/file_db/flight_international_april_20061.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Weingarten, Norman C.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** History of in-flight simulation & flying qualities research
at Calspan

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 42

**Issue:** 2

**Date:** March/April

**Alternate** **Journal:** AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference,
August 2003, Austin, TX AIAA Paper 2003-5464

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Calspan Corporation, Flight
Research, Buffalo, NY 14225

**Number of Pages:** 15

**Keywords:** in-flight simulation, Calspan, variable stability aircraft

**Abstract:** Calspan Corporation has been the primary innovator,
developer, and operator of in-flight simulators in the United States as
well as the rest of the world since 1947. Though other agencies and
countries have developed their own in-flight simulators, this paper
concentrates on Calspan's accomplishments in this field. In-flight
simulation puts the pilot in the real flight environment and has been
used in the development of new aircraft, research of flying qualities
and flight control systems, and training of pilots and engineers in
these areas. More recent uses have been in the field of display systems
and as avionics test beds. This paper starts with the early technologies
that led to the development of variable stability aircraft and their
earlier applications. It then describes Calspan\'s history in the
development and utilization of in-flight simulation, starting in 1949
with the first flight of the F4U-5 and its auxiliary rudder surface up
to the present with the five degree-of-freedom F-16 Variable Stability
In-Flight Simulator and Test Aircraft (VISTA). Specific case studies are
presented which describe the development and distinctive features of the
Calspan in-flight simulators and highlight some of the more significant
applications of these unique tools.

**URL:**
[http://www.calspan.com/pdfs/IFS_History_AIAA%20Paper_Calspan.pdf](http://www.calspan.com/pdfs/IFS_History_AIAA Paper_Calspan.pdf)

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Weingarten, N. C.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** History of in-flight simulation & flying qualities research
at General Dynamics

**Conference Name:** AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference

**Conference Location:** Austin, TX

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** General Dynamics Advanced
Information Systems, Flight and Aerospace Research, Buffalo, NY 14225

**Number of Pages:** 16

**Keywords:** in-flight simulation, upset recovery training (URT),
variable stability airplane

**Abstract:** General Dynamics--Advanced Information Systems (GDAIS)
(formerly Veridian) has been the primary innovator, developer, and
operator of in-flight simulators in the United States, as well as the
rest of the world, since 1947. Though other agencies and countries have
developed their own in-flight simulators, the focus is on GDAIS
accomplishments in this field. In-flight simulation puts the pilot in
the real flight environment and has been used in the development of new
aircraft, research of flying qualities and flight-control systems, and
training of pilots and engineers in these areas. More recent uses have
been in the field of display systems and as avionics test beds. Early
technologies that led to the development of variable stability aircraft
and their earlier applications, are described first, followed by GDAIS's
history in the development and utilization of in-flight simulation,
starting in 1949 with the first flight of the F4U-5 and its auxiliary
rudder surface, up to the present with the five-degree-of-freedom F-16
Variable Stability In-Flight Simulator and Test Aircraft. Specific case
studies are presented that describe the development and distinctive
features of each of the GDAIS in-flight simulators and some of the more
significant applications of these unique tools are highlighted.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Electronic Article

**Author:** Weiss, Yair; Simoncelli, Eero P.; Adelson, Edward H.

**Year:** 2002

**Title:** Motion illusions as optimal percepts

**Periodical Title:** Nature Neuroscience

**Volume:** 5

**Issue:** 6

**Pages:** 598-604

**Date Accessed:** August 15, 2007

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Weiss: School of Computer
Engineering, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram Campus, Jerusalem
91904, Israel

Simoncelli: Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Center for Neural Science
and Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, 4
Washington Place, New York, NY 10003, USA

Adelson: Brain and Cognitive Sciences Department, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139,
USA

**Keywords:** visual motion perception, local image velocity, visual
illusions

**Abstract:** The pattern of local image velocities on the retina
encodes important environmental information. Although humans are
generally able to extract this information, they can easily be deceived
into seeing incorrect velocities. We show that these \'illusions\' arise
naturally in a system that attempts to estimate local image velocity. We
formulated a model of visual motion perception using standard estimation
theory, under the assumptions that (i) there is noise in the initial
measurements and (ii) slower motions are more likely to occur than
faster ones. We found that specific instantiation of such a velocity
estimator can account for a wide variety of psychophysical phenomena.

**URL:** <http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v5/n6/pdf/nn858.pdf>

<http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/pub_pdfs/weiss_bayes_nn_02.pdf>

**Author Address:** yweiss@cs.huji.ac.il

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Welch, Brian L.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Recent advances in television visual systems

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** CAE Electronics Ltd., P.O. Box
1800, St. Laurent, Montreal, Quebec H4L 4X4 Canada

**Number of Pages:** 12

**Keywords:** television visual systems, display system

**Abstract:** A closed circuit television (CCTV) model board visual
system, which was designed for a CH-47 helicopter, is described herein.
The attributes and deficiencies of the system are discussed in an
attempt to show how a model board based visual system suitable for full
mission simulation in Nap of the Earth (NOE) environments could be
designed. A new computer generated image (CGI) visual system which makes
extensive use of texture is presented as an alternative to the model
board approach. The importance of realism in full mission simulators as
distinct from flight and weapons trainers is also discussed.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Wertheim, Alexander H.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Motion perception during self-motion: The direct versus
inferential controversy revisited

**Journal:** Behavioral and Brain Sciences

**Volume:** 17

**Issue:** 2

**Pages:** 293-355

**Type of Article:** Draft

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** TNO Institute for Perception, P.O.
Box 23, 3769 ZG, Soesterberg, The Netherlands

**Keywords:** motion perception, velocity perception, self-motion,
extraretinal signal, efference copy, direct perception,
visual-vestibular interactions

**Abstract:** According to the traditional inferential theory of
perception, percepts of object motion or stationarity stem from an
evaluation of afferent retinal signals (which encode image motion) with
the help of extraretinal signals (which encode eye movements). Direct
perception theory, on the other hand, assumes that the percepts derive
from retinally conveyed information only. Neither view is compatible
with a special perceptual phenomenon which occurs during visually
induced sensations of ego-motion (vection). A modified version of
inferential theory yields a model in which the concept of an
extraretinal signal is replaced by that of a reference signal. Reference
signals do not encode how the eyes move in their orbits, but how they
move in space. Hence reference signals are produced not only during eye
movements but also during ego-motion, (i.e., in response to vestibular
stimulation and to retinal image flow, which may induce vection). The
present theory describes how self-motion and object motion percepts
interface. Empirical tests (using an experimental paradigm that allows
quantitative measurement of the magnitude and gain of reference signals
and the size of the Just Noticeable Difference (JND) between retinal and
reference signals) reveal that the distinction between direct and
inferential theories largely depends on: (1) a mistaken belief that
perceptual veridicality is evidence that extraretinal information is not
involved, and (2) a failure to distinguish between (the perception of)
absolute object motion in space and relative motion of objects with
respect to each other. The new model corrects these errors, thus
providing a new, unified framework for interpreting many phenomena in
the field of motion perception.

**URL:**
<http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.wertheim.html>

**Author Address:** wertheim@izf.tno.nl

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Wertheim, A.H.

**Year:** 1998

**Title:** Working in a moving environment

**Journal:** Ergonomics

**Volume:** 41

**Issue:** 12

**Pages:** 1845

**Date:** December

**Number of Pages:** 14

**Keywords:** motion, simulators, work load, task performance, motion
sickness

**Abstract:** The present paper provides a review of research and
theories concerning the question of how and why working in a moving
environment may affect performance. It is argued that performance
decrements can be expected to occur as a result of general factors or as
a result of specific impairments of particular human skills. General
effects happen when environmental motion, simulated or real, reduces
motivation (due to motion sickness), increases fatigue (due to increased
energy requirements), or creates balance problems. Specific effects of
moving environments on task performance may only be expected through
biomechanical influences on particular skills such as perception
(interference with oculomotor control) or motor skills (such as manual
tracking). There is no evidence for direct effects of motion on
performance in purely cognitive tasks.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Westra, D. P.

**Year:** 1982

**Title:** Simulator design features for carrier landing: II.
In-simulator transfer of training

**City:** Orlando, FL

**Institution:** Naval Training Equipment Center

**Date:** December

**Type:** Technical Report

**Report Number:** NAVTRAEQUIPCEN 81-C-0105-1

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Canyon Research Group, Inc.,
Westlake Village, CA 91361

**Number of Pages:** 79

**Keywords:** simulation, carrier landing, transfer of training, field
of view, scene detail, motion simulation, holistic design, visual
simulation, visual technology research simulator (VTRS)

**Abstract:** The Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS) at the
Naval Training Equipment Center was used to study the effects of six
factors on carrier-landing training. An in-simulator transfer paradigm
was chosen in which students were trained under various conditions and
then tested under a standard condition that represented maximum realism.
The experimental design permitted a relatively large number of variables
to be studied, using a relatively small number of student subjects. The
subjects were pilots who had no prior carrier-landing experience: 16
recent graduates of Air Force T-38 training, and 16 highly experienced
Navy P-3 pilots.

Display and simulator factors investigated were field of view (160 x 80
vs. 48 X 36 degrees), scene detail (day, solid-surface vs. night,
point-light) and platform motion (six-degrees-of-freedom vs. no motion).
Two training factors were included: descent-rate cueing (presence or
absence of an extra element on the Fresnel lens display that provided
information on glideslope descent-rate error), and approach type
(training on straight-in approaches vs. circling approaches). Turbulence
was included as a factor and pilot type (Navy P-3 vs. Air Force T-38)
was also included as a factor to control this source of subject
variability. After training under a certain factor-level combination,
students were tested on the day, wide field of view, circling task with
motion and without descent-rate cueing.

Results showed some temporary transfer advantages for the wide field of
view and high scene detail conditions. Training on straight-in
approaches resulted in transfer performance that was better than that
produced by training on circling approaches. There was no motion or
FLOLS rate cueing effects on the transfer task. Display and simulator
transfer effects did not differ between the two pilot groups despite
large differences in mean group performance.

As a result of these findings, it was suggested that a
simulator-to-field transfer study be conducted with field of view, scene
detail and approach type as factors. Such a study, using pilots from the
target population of undergraduate Naval aviators, would provide the
necessary information to make final simulator design decisions for the
carrier-landing task.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Westra, D. P.; Simon, C. W.; Collyer, S. C.; Chambers, W. S.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Simulator design features for carrier landing: I. Performance
experiments

**City:** Orlando, FL

**Institution:** Naval Training Equipment Center

**Date:** December

**Type:** Interim Report

**Report Number:** NAVTRAEQUIPCEN 78-C-0060-7

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Naval Training Equipment Center

**Number of Pages:** 62

**Keywords:** Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS), multifactor
experiments, holistic experimentation, flight simulation, carrier
landing research, visual stimulation, motion simulation

**Abstract:** The effects of twelve factors on carrier landing
performance in the Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS) at the
Naval Training Equipment Center (NTEC), Orlando, Florida, were
investigated in a series of three experiments. Subjects for the
experiment were experienced naval aviators. The purpose was to determine
and rank order the sizes of effects, identify factors having no effect,
and to obtain information for making decisions about future
transfer-of-training studies.

\[some text was unreadable\] experiment, the task was a straight-in
approach and landing. Seven visual display factors (Fresnel Lens Optical
Landing System type, ship detail, field of view, visual lags, seascape,
brightness, TV line rate), two non-visual factors (motion and engine
lags), one environmental factor (turbulence) and subjects as a factor
were studied. In the second experiment, a circling approach to landing
was employed as the task and included as factors ship detail, visual
lags, seascape, brightness, motion, and turbulence. In the third
experiment, a straight-in approach was employed. Two simulation factors,
G-seat and ship type, were studied along with turbulence.

Results generally showed small to null effects for equipment factors
although several had statistically reliable effects. As the display and
simulator factors were manipulated over a wide range of interest
representing expensive vs. inexpensive simulation options, the
implication is that simulation for carrier landing skill maintenance and
transition training for experienced pilots does not require the highest
levels of fidelity for these features. Simulator requirements for
training at the undergraduate level are currently being examined.

**Notes:** See also:

·Waag (1981). Training effectiveness of visual and motion simulation.

·Westra (1982). Simulator design features for carrier landing: II.
In-simulator transfer of training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** White, Alan D.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** The impact of cue fidelity on pilot behavior and performance

**City:** Bedford, United Kingdom

**Institution:** FDS Department, Defence Research Agency

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** FDS Department, Defence Research
Agency, Bedford, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 12

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** White, A. D.; Hall, J. R.; Tomlinson, B. N.

**Year:** 1991

**Title:** Initial validation of an R&D simulator with large amplitude
motion

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Symposium on Piloted
Simulation Effectiveness

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** October 14

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Flight Systems Department, Defence
Research Agency, Bedford MK41 6AE, United Kingdom

**Number of Pages:** 24

**Keywords:** AFS, large amplitude motion, validation

**Abstract:** The Advanced Flight Simulator (AFS) Complex at DRA Bedford
has been enhanced by the addition of a large displacement motion
platform and a three channel Computer Generated Image (CGI) outside
world visual system. The trial described in this report was the first in
a series of trials aimed at validating the AFS in its present
configuration and in particular at demonstrating its ability to address
a wide range of vehicle handing qualities with a high degree of fidelity
and user confidence. It concluded a direct comparison between the ground
based AFS and the Calspan Learjet in-flight simulator.

The comparison between the AFS and Learjet involved three pilots flying
the same offset approach landing racks using the same aircraft model in
both the AFS and in flight. The lateral handling qualities were varied
by adjusting the time constant of a filter in the pilots roll control
loop. Pilot comments, handling quality and PIO ratings indicate that the
AFS reproduces the lateral handling qualities and roll PIO tendencies of
the Learjet in-flight simulator with high fidelity. The degradation in
handling qualities and increase in PIO tendencies with increasing filter
time constant were clearly revealed in both the AFS and Learjet. The
importance of good platform motion cueing and task design when
evaluation handling qualities was also determined.

**Notes:** Published in February 1992.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** White, Alan D.; Rodchenko, Victor V.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Motion fidelity criteria based on human perception and
performance

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** White: Defence Evaluation and
Research Agency (DERA), Bedford, United Kingdom

Rodchenko: Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI), Zhukovsky, Russia

**Number of Pages:** 9

**Abstract:** Based on experience accumulated by DERA and TsAGI in
developing and using moving-base flight simulators and on the results of
recent experiments the following aspects of motion cueing are
considered: the role of accelerations in piloting, motion system drive
law criteria and the requirements for motion system dynamic performance.
The paper presents a theoretical approach to estimating the effect of
accelerations, proposes criteria to evaluate motion fidelity for
different driving laws and identifies the requirements for motion
platform dynamics. Estimates according to the theoretical approach and
criteria are compared with the experimental data.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** White, David

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** The future and technology of remote training - \'Bringing
training to the pilot\'

**Conference Name:** Flight Simulation - The Next Decade

**Conference Location:** London, UK

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Date:** May 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Chief Scientist, Thomson Training &
Simulation Limited, Crawley, England, RH10 2RL

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The advances in Personal Computer (PC) processing power,
graphics and network bandwidth are providing an environment that allows
the full range of Full Flight Simulator (FFS) functionality & fidelity
to be assessed from a laptop PC.

The latest generation of Thomson Training & Simulation (TT&S) Flight
Management System Trainers (FMST), Enhanced Situation Awareness Trainers
(ESAT) and Cockpit System Trainers (CST) also encompass provision for
access via a modem or internet connection. This enables them to be used
as \'remote learning and practice\' facilities which do not require the
pilot to travel to the \'Airline Training Center\'.

Since these technologies will no doubt subsequently influence the
training methods and type of training equipment delivered in the next
decade, this paper discusses the technologies employed, the first
feedback from the beta trials and the lessons learned.

During late 1999 TT&S and Honeywell Aviation Services set up a beta site
to start testing the principles of remote \'practice\'. Initial
prototype testing has subsequently confirmed that the PC processing
power, graphics and network bandwidth are not a problem. However these
issues generated by the variation in network latency \'Jitter\' when
closing the loop over a commercial Internet Service Provider (ISP)
connection, especially over Trans-Atlantic or Trans-Pacific connections,
can be somewhat problematic.

The emphasis has been on evaluating the technology for use in remote
learning and practice at this juncture, the next stage envisages the
training community and regulatory bodies assessing the methodology and
fidelity of these devices for inclusion in both established and newly
generated approved training programs.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Whiteside, T.C.D.

**Year:** 1983

**Title:** Simulators and realism

**Journal:** Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology

**Volume:** 35A

**Pages:** 3-15

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Abstract:** The objectives of simulation are discussed on the basis of
training in procedures or neuromuscular skills, and in relation to the
amount of realism required. Motion sickness arising from inadequate
coordination of visual and motion cues is considered in relation to
fixed and moving base simulators. In the perception of distance and
size, the role of ocular convergence is discussed and an experimental
approach suggested. The mentally stressful effects of increased
responsibility, as robots enable the operator to extend his output, are
discussed in relation to its covert symptomatology and to advanced
flight concepts.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book Section

**Author:** Wickens, Christopher D.

**Year:** 1986

**Title:** The effects of control dynamics on performance

**Editor:** Boff, Kenneth R.; Kaufman, Lloyd; Thomas, James P.

**Book Title:** Handbook of Perception and Human Performance

**City:** New York

**Publisher:** John Wiley and Sons

**Volume:** II

**Pages:** 39.1 - 39.60

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Wickens: University of Illinois
Institute of Aviation, Aviation Research Laboratory, Savoy, IL

**Number of Pages:** 60

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Wickens, Christopher D.; Gopher, Daniel

**Year:** 1977

**Title:** Control theory measures of tracking as indices of attention
allocation strategies

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 19

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 349-365

**Date:** August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Wickens: University of Illinois,
Department of Psychology

Gopher: The Technion, Haifa, Israel

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** In an intelligent man-machine control system, control
theory measures describing the operator's tracking performance can
provide useful information concerning an operator's attentional state.
This information may be used to implement adaptive aiding procedures.
Research is reviewed that relates attentional manipulations to variation
in control theory parameters, and an experiment is then described in
which 29 subjects performed a tracking task alone, and concurrently with
a serial reaction-time task. Within the time-sharing condition, relative
priorities between the two tasks were manipulated. The results are
interpreted in terms of the separate effects of time-sharing and of
priority manipulations upon measures of tracking gain, remnant,
time-delay and response \"holds,\" and the feasibility of on-line
measurement of those variables.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Wightman, Dennis C.; Lintern, Gavan

**Year:** 1985

**Title:** Part-task training for tracking and manual control

**Journal:** Human Factors

**Volume:** 27

**Issue:** 3

**Pages:** 267-283

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** Part-task training was defined as practice on some set of
components of the whole task as a prelude to performance of the whole
task. Part-task procedures are intended to improve learning efficiency
and to reduce costs. Our review focused on the instruction of tracking
skills for manual control. Transfer of training was emphasized and
crucial features of the methodology and of means of assessing transfer
were discussed. The part-task procedures of segmentation, fractionation,
and simplification were explained, and procedures for reintegrating
parts into whole task were summarized.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Williams, Kevin W.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Summary proceedings on the joint industry-FAA conference on
the development and use of PC-based aviation training devices

**Conference Name:** Joint Industry-FAA Conference on the Development
and Use of PC-Based Aviation Training Devices

**Conference Location:** Oklahoma City, OK

**Publisher:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Civil Aeromedical
Institute

**Date:** June 16-17

**Number of Pages:** 23

**Keywords:** personal computer-based aviation training devices, flight
training, psychology, applied psychology, memory

**Abstract:** This report is a summation of the proceedings of a joint
industry-FAA conference on the development and use of PC-based aviation
training devices (PCATDs) that was held June 16-17 1994 in Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma. The primary purpose of the conference was to provide a
forum of open dialog among interested PCATD parties, with the aim of
finding common ground or areas of consensus, through which progress can
be made in reducing or resolving any differences in viewpoint.

**Notes:** Published in November 1994.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Williams, Kevin W.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Qualification guidelines for personal computer-based aviation
training devices: Private pilot certificate

**City:** Oklahoma City, OK

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Civil Aerospace
Medical Institute

**Date:** July

**Type:** Final Technical Report

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/AM-01/13

**Number of Pages:** 63

**Keywords:** PCATD, Transfer of Training, Private Pilot Training, Task
Analysis

**Abstract:** As part of the development of qualification guidelines for
a personal computer-based aviation training device (PCATD), a task
analysis of flight tasks for the private pilot certificate has been
completed and is reported in this paper. The primary goal of the task
analysis was to identify training device requirements for supporting
specific private pilot maneuvers. Before PCATDs can be authorized for
use as qualified and approved training devices within a private pilot
flight training course, a set of qualification guidelines must be
developed for use by the FAA in evaluating such potential training
devices. This task analysis constitutes the first steps in the
development of those qualification guidelines.

**URL:** <http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA396322>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Williams, Kevin W.; Blanchard, Robert E.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Development of qualification guidelines for personal
computer-based aviation training devices

**City:** Oklahoma City, OK

**Institution:** Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Civil
Aeromedical Institute

**Date:** February

**Report Number:** DOT/FAA/AM-95/6

**Number of Pages:** 28

**Keywords:** personal computer-based aviation training devices, flight
training, instrument flight, applied psychology

**Abstract:** Recent advances in the capabilities of personal computers
have resulted in an increase in the number of flight simulation programs
made available as Personal Computer-Based Aviation Training Devices
(PCATDs). The potential benefits of PCATDs have been recognized by
researchers and software/hardware developers alike. The purpose of this
report is twofold: 1) present a conceptual approach based upon human
learning and available flight training data for use in the development
and evaluation of PCATDs; and 2) provide a detailed technical plan for
an initial effort to develop and test guidelines for assessing the use
of PCATDs in a training curriculum of a flight school conducted in
accordance with the regulations stated in FAR Part 141.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Willingham, Stephen

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Navy seeks balance between simulator and flight training

**Magazine:** National Defense Magazine

**Date:** April

**Type of Article:** Online Article

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** Future U.S. Navy investments in training programs must
focus on the integration of real flying, live-firing exercises and
simulators, according to service officials. Such integration is
important, these officials asserted, because of the new emphasis in U.S.
warfare doctrine on precision bombing and computer network-based
technologies.

**URL:**
<http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/issues/2000/Apr/Navy_Seeks.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Magazine Article

**Author:** Willingham, Stephen

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** U.S. Air Force to invest \$500 million in simulators through
2006

**Magazine:** National Defense Magazine

**Date:** November

**Type of Article:** Online article

**Number of Pages:** 2

**Abstract:** The first big Air Force Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite
Quantity (ID/IQ) contract for simulators is the Training System
Acquisition (TSA) program, which could be worth up to \$500 million. TSA
is scheduled to run through 2006.

**URL:**
<http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/issues/2000/Nov/US_Air.htm>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Report

**Author:** Wilson, D.

**Year:** 1965

**Title:** Visual simulation - Where we are - Where we are going

**Institution:** Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

**Pages:** 55-59

**Date:** February 1

**Type:** Technical Paper

**Report Number:** SAE TR 670303

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** General Precision Systems Ltd.

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Abstract:** Visual simulation has added a new dimension to flight
training simulators. Monochrome TV projection preceded the early color
displays which are, in turn, superseded by high definition color systems
incorporating features such as full runway and approach lighting.

The paper outlines the progress in visual simulation and high definition
color systems which we have today. The requirements of all-weather
operation are detailed. New developments are discussed which will
further advance the art of visual simulation.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Wolf, John; Gibb, Gerald; Hampton, Steven; Wise, John A.

**Year:** 1996

**Title:** An evaluation of full flight simulators and flight training
devices in air carrier initial flight training programs

**Conference Name:** Fifteenth Biennial Applied Behavioral Sciences
Symposium

**Conference Location:** Colorado Springs, CO

**Date:** April

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University, Center for Aviation/Aerospace Research, Daytona Beach, FL

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** The effectiveness of motion in flight simulators used to
train and certify pilots is examined. Two groups of pilots were put
through two similar training programs: one was a traditional program in
which a full flight simulator (FFS)\--including motion\--was used for
all training and certification, and the other program in which a FFS was
used only at the final stage to measure pilot skill. This second group
(the experimental group) received training in a simulator featuring all
of the FFS features (including visual simulation) except motion.
Training effectiveness was measured by using the simulator computer to
determine the error in pilot control for six maneuvers. A flight
instructor rating sheet was also filled out by an independent observer
pilot.

Results show no significant difference between the training measures for
four of the six maneuvers. In one maneuver, the angle of bank portion of
the steep turn maneuver, the control group did perform significantly
better than the experimental group. In the visual approach maneuver,
however, the experimental group performed better than the control group.

**URL:** <http://home.earthlink.net/~johnwise/wise-delta-dod-paper>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Book

**Author:** Wood, S. J.

**Year:** 1995

**Title:** Airplane flight simulation evaluation handbook

**Series Title:** International Standards for the Qualifications of
Airplane Simulators

**City:** London

**Publisher:** Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS)

**Volume:** II

**Edition:** Draft

**Keywords:** simulator evaluation, subject evaluation

**Abstract:** Lists methods, evaluations, and discussions on the
different training tasks.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Woomer, C. W.; Williams, R. L.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Environmental requirements for simulated helicopter/VTOL
operations from small ships and carriers

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Woomer: Engineering Test Pilot, US
Navy, Rotary Wing Aircraft Test Directorate, Naval Air Test Center,
Patuxent River, MD 20670

Williams: Branch Manager, Marketing, Simulation Systems, McDonnell
Douglas Electronics Company, Box 426, St. Charles, MO 63301

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** takeoff and landing tasks, environmental requirements

**Abstract:** Helicopter/VTOL operations from ships create demanding
flying qualities and performance requirements. The environment in which
takeoff and landing evolutions must occur has a significant influence on
these tasks. Aircraft and simulator designers, each in their own way,
must make appropriate provision for environmental factors, such as
visual landing aids (VLA), ship motion, turbulence, relative wind, and
ground effect.

The unique characteristics of a helicopter combined with the shipboard
operations of a naval environment have been successfully simulated in
Device 2F106, the SH-2F Weapons System Trainer (WST). It is equipped
with a VITAL III computer-generated image (CGI) calligraphic visual
system. The development and validation of this device have provided
valuable experience on environmental requirements needed to perform
takeoff and landing tasks from ships. Technical advances in the
state-of-the-art of CGI visual systems now offer capabilities which
overcome many previous limitations. This permits additional tasks to be
successfully simulated, improving the safety and economics of training.

The paper discusses the specific requirements for the simulated
environment to satisfactorily provide training for shipboard takeoff and
landing. Test techniques to validate trainer fidelity in flying
qualities, performance, and environmental simulation are discussed. The
specific subject of calligraphic visual systems is extensively covered
including a report on the current state-of-the-art as related to the
at-sea environment. Finally, the utilization of a high-fidelity trainer
is explored for research as well as for expanded fleet training.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

**Title:** Spatial disorientation in flight

**Access Date:** March 17, 2003

**Description:** Spatial Disorientation - Physiological Mechanisms

**Keywords:** upset recovery training (URT), spatial disorientation,
physiological mechanisms

**Notes:** On 6/14/07, the website was no longer available.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Wuensch, K. L.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Factorial MANOVA

**Publisher:** Karl L. Wuensch

**Abstract:** A factorial MANOVA may be used to determine whether or not
two or more categorical independent variables (and their interactions)
significantly affect optimally weighted linear combinations of two or
more normally distributed dependent variables.

**URL:** <http://core.ecu.edu/psyc/wuenschk/MV/MANOVA/MANOVA2.doc>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Web Page

**Author:** Wyle Laboratories

**Title:** Advanced spatial disorientation demonstrator

**Access Year:** 2002

**Access Date:** July 27

**Keywords:** spatial disorientation, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** Description of the Wyle Model 2400 Vertifuge advanced
spatial disorientation system.

**Notes:** On June 13 2006, the web page no longer exists.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Yanus, Thomas M.; Maelstrom, Frederick V.

**Year:** 1994

**Title:** Is motion sickness hereditary?

**Conference Name:** Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 38th Annual
Meeting

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University

**Number of Pages:** 5

**Keywords:** motion sickness, fatigue, headache, nausea, genetics,
hereditary

**Abstract:** Motion Sickness surveys were administered to 77 male
graduate students and 95 male and female members of an Air Force Reserve
medical unit. Results of Survey 1 indicated significant and sizeable
correlations between sons and their natural fathers for severity of
motion sickness symptoms of fatigue, headache, and nausea. Stepwise
multiple regression indicated that the father\'s nausea accounted for
59.4% of the total variance of their son\'s nausea during travel.
Results of Survey 2 indicated sizeable and significant correlations
between respondents and both natural parents for percentage of reported
symptoms of fatigue and headache. Stepwise multiple regression indicated
that both parents reported percentage of fatigue (26.6%) and headache
(33.6%) reliably predicted the respondents\' percentage of fatigue and
headache symptoms but not the nausea symptoms. In addition, there were
no significant correlations between self-reported symptoms of fatigue,
headache, and nausea. Findings suggest (1) hereditary factors may be a
significant contributor to motion sickness, both in severity and
frequency of symptoms, and (2) fatigue, headache, and nausea are largely
independent of each other. Indications are that motion sickness be
considered a syndrome rather than a unitary disorder.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Young, L. R.

**Year:** 1967

**Title:** Some effects of motion cues on manual tracking

**Journal:** Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets

**Volume:** 4

**Issue:** 10

**Pages:** 1300-1303

**Date:** October

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, MA

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Abstract:** Although sustained high acceleration or vibration can have
a deleterious effect on a pilot\'s tracking ability, there are some
situations in which motion cues, as felt in flight or moving-base
simulation, yield a significant improvement in pilot performance. The
first of these situations is in a control task requiring more lead
compensation than is easily developed from visual displays. The
vestibular and tactile sensations contribute velocity and acceleration
information which is used in stabilization. Experiments on control of
inverted pendulums and VTOLS with and without motion cues are discussed.
Tests of labyrinthine defective patients on similar tasks demonstrated
the critical importance of vestibular inputs. The second situation
required rapid adaptation to controlled element failures in a simulated
blind landing experiment. Other tests showed motion effects to be
important in a class of flexible booster control problems. These results
were combined with many comparisons of fixed-base-moving-base flight
experiments in the literature to arrive at some general conclusions
regarding the effects of motion cues on tracking.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Young, Laurence R.

**Year:** 1978

**Title:** Visually induced motion in flight simulation

**Conference Name:** Flight Mechanics Panel Specialists\' Meeting on
Piloted Aircraft Environment Simulation Techniques

**Conference Location:** Brussels, Belgium

**Publisher:** Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
(AGARD)

**Date:** April 24-27

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Man Vehicle Laboratory, Department of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Cambridge, MA 02139

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Keywords:** visually induced motion, flight simulation,
visual-vestibular interaction, visual cues, circularvection

**Abstract:** Much of the attention to visual displays for flight
simulation in recent years has been devoted toward precision wide field
presentations. The significant advances in multiscreen computer image
generation and point light source displays have quite literally widened
our horizons for presentation of \"out-the-window\" information. Most
attention has been devoted to the precise static display considerations
including perspective, grain and contrast. Relatively less attention has
been devoted to the dynamic properties of the visual scene and in
particular the role of moving wide field presentation in sustaining a
pilot's motion sense. This paper addresses the experimental data
accumulation on the subject of visually induced motion for all linear
and angular degrees of freedom. In particular, we discuss visually
induced yaw (circularvection) resulting from a moving wide field
presentation, and its interaction with vestibular cues and the low
frequency use of visual cues to support sustained angular velocity. The
implications for fixed and moving base flight simulator design are
discussed. Similar considerations apply to visually induced linear
velocity (linearvection) and interesting asymmetries in the fore-aft
direction are noted. Finally, visually induced pitch and roll are
discussed and modeled in terms of conflict between the visually induced
motion and the information regarding attitude based upon graviceptor
signals.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Young, L. R.; Dichgans, J.; Murphy, R.; Brandt, T.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** Interaction of optokinetic and vestibular stimuli in motion
perception

**Journal:** Acta Otolaryng

**Volume:** 76

**Pages:** 24-31

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** The sensation of self-rotation (circular vection) was
produced by rotation of a stripe pattern to the left or to the right at
constant angular velocity. During circular vection, subjects were
randomly accelerated in constant acceleration steps. The major
experimental findings are:

1\) Thresholds for detection of angular acceleration are raised when
this acceleration is opposite to the direction of circular vection.
Times to detect these accelerations are similarly increased.

2\) Magnitude estimates of angular velocity show the effect of a
visually induced velocity offset which is increased slightly by
vestibular responses in the same direction and decreased markedly when
the vestibular responses are in the direction opposite to self-rotation.

3\) Many of the effects of angular acceleration on perceived velocity
are accurately predicted by the adaptation model of the vestibular
system. However, an important nonlinear interaction exists whereby
rapidly occurring conflicts between visual and vestibular sensation,
especially those involving direction disparities, result in precipitous
decline in circular vection and temporary domination by the vestibular
response.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Young, L. R.; Oman, C. M.; Curry, R. E.; Dichgans, J. M.

**Year:** 1973

**Title:** A descriptive model of multi-sensor human spatial orientation
with applications to visually induced sensations of motion

**Conference Name:** AIAA Visual and Motion Simulation Conference

**Conference Location:** Palo Alto, CA

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** September 10-12

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Young, Oman, Curry: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA

Dichgans: Neurologische Universitatsklinik, Freiburg, West Germany

**Number of Pages:** 4

**Keywords:** multi-sensor human spatial orientation, visually induced
sensations to motion, vestibular sensors, circularvection, exteroceptive
tactile information, upset recovery training (URT)

**Abstract:** The physiological systems underlying human sensation of
spatial orientation and postural control are of particular interest from
a control point of view and are reviewed in the first part of the paper.
The second part of the paper summarizes recent experiments investigating
visually induced motion sensations.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Zacharias, G. L.; Young, L. R.

**Year:** 1981

**Title:** Influence of combined visual and vestibular cues on human
perception and control of horizontal rotation

**Journal:** Experimental Brain Research

**Volume:** 41

**Pages:** 159-171

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Man Vehicle Laboratory, Department
of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA 02139

**Number of Pages:** 13

**Keywords:** vestibular, motion perception, visual-vestibular
interaction, manual control

**Abstract:** Measurements are made of manual control performance in the
closed-loop task of nulling perceived self-rotation velocity about an
earth-vertical axis. Self-velocity estimation is modeled as a function
of the simultaneous presentation of vestibular and peripheral visual
field motion cues. Based on measured low-frequency operator behavior in
three visual field environments, a parallel channel linear model is
proposed which has separate visual and vestibular pathways summing in a
complementary manner. A dual-input describing function analysis supports
the complementary model; vestibular cues dominate sensation at higher
frequencies. The describing function model is extended by the proposal
of a non-linear cue conflict model, in which cue weighting depends on
the level of agreement between visual and vestibular cues.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Zahorik, P.; Tam, C.; Wang, K.; Bangayan, P.; Sundareswaran,
V.

**Year:** 2001

**Title:** Localization accuracy in 3-D sound displays: The role of
visual-feedback training

**Conference Name:** Advanced Displays Consortium: ARL\'s 5th Federated
Laboratory Annual Symposium

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** P. Zahorik: Department of
Psychology, University of California - Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA
93106-9660

C. Tam, K. Wang, P. Bangayan, & V. Sundareswaran: Rockwell Science
Center, 1049 Camino Dos Rios, Thousand Oaks, CA 91360

**Number of Pages:** 6

**Abstract:** Using an inexpensive headphone-based 3-D sound display,
sound localization accuracy was assessed for six listeners, before,
during, and after a perceptual feedback training procedure which
provided listeners with paired auditory/visual feedback as to the
correct sound source position. We show that feedback training markedly
improved localization accuracy, with the largest improvements resulting
from listener\'s enhanced abilities to distinguish sources in front from
sources behind. Further, these improvements were not transient
short-term effects, but appear to last a number of days between training
and testing sessions. These results suggest that simple and relatively
short periods of perceptual training can effectively mitigate technical
deficiencies in low-cost 3-D sound systems due to the use of
non-individualized head-related transfer functions.

**URL:** <http://www.recveb.ucsb.edu/pdfs/ZahorikEtAl01.pdf>

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Zaichik, L. E.; Rodchenko, V. V.; Rufov, I. V.; Yashin, Y.
P.; White, A. D.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** Acceleration perception

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Portland, OR

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Zaichik, Rodchenko, Rufov, Yashin:
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI), Handling Qualities and
Flight Simulation Section, Zhukovsky, Russia

White: Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA), Bedford, UK

**Number of Pages:** 19

**Abstract:** This results of simulator experiments on acceleration
perception using a 6-dof motion platform are presented and compared with
previously published data. The roles of different sensory systems
(vestibular, kinesthetic, tactile) in perception of the accelerations
are analyzed and acceleration perception math-models are discussed.
Absolute and differential sensitivity thresholds are determined for
sinusoidal accelerations of different frequencies and the influence of
different factors on the threshold values is estimated. The laws
governing the perception of acceleration over-threshold values are
substantiated.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Zaichik, L. E.; Rodchenko, V. V.; Yashin, Y. P.; Rufov, I.
V.; White, A. D.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** A theoretical approach to estimation of acceleration effects
on piloting

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Denver, CO

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 14-17

**Abstract:** The paper presents an analysis, based on experimental
data, of the effects of acceleration on pilot ratings and performance
for various piloting tasks and aircraft characteristics. These
acceleration effects are discussed and a theoretical approach to the
estimation of these effects for different aircraft and control axes is
proposed and substantiated. The effectiveness of the approach is
illustrated by an analysis of the effects of acceleration and roll
control.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Proceedings

**Author:** Zaychik, Kirill B.; Cardullo, Frank M.

**Year of Conference:** 2007

**Title:** Genetic algorithm based approach for parameters estimation of
the Hess operator model

**Conference** **Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference** **Location:** Hilton Head, SC

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 20-23

**Electronic Resource Number:** AIAA 2007-6893

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Zaychik: PhD Candidate, Department
of Mechanical Engineering

Cardullo: Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering and on
sabbatical at Delft University of Technology

State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000

**Abstract:** In the 2006 MSTC paper on operator modeling (A Conspectus
on Operator Modeling: Past, Present and Future), the authors laid the
theoretical foundation for the prospective methodology of the real-time
estimation of operator modeling parameters. The proposed approach
heavily relies on hybrid intelligent computing techniques, including
neural networks, fuzzy interference systems and genetic algorithms. This
paper addresses the first part of the approach which is to identify the
parameters of a human operator model, which is necessary to establish a
data base to be used in the real-time application. Such an approach is
categorized as a data driven model, which implies that time histories of
the input/output data are available. In the case of the operator model,
this relationship is given by the disturbance and the operator control
as predicted by the Hess structural model. The primary task of the
current investigation was to devise a methodology, which would
automatically identify parameters of the Hess model given the knowledge
of the input disturbance and actual (real) operator behavior. The
identification process is accomplished by searching for a combination of
the Hess model parameters that would drive the model response to match
the actual operator behavior. The search engine utilized by the proposed
methodology is based on the Genetic Algorithm, (GA) concept, - a
powerful soft computing technique, often used as an alternative to
conventional optimization algorithms. Preliminary, non-real-time results
presented in this paper demonstrate high efficiency of the proposed
methodology. The estimated parameters are in good correlation with the
nominal values: the estimation error is 0% in its minimum, and 15% in
its maximum. Time domain comparison shows an exact match of the
estimated and actual operator control signals. These results are
accompanied by the appropriate graphs and tables.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Conference Paper

**Author:** Zeyada, Y.; Hess, R. A.

**Year:** 1999

**Title:** A methodology for evaluating the fidelity of ground-based
flight simulators

**Conference Name:** AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies
Conference and Exhibit

**Conference Location:** Portland, OR

**Publisher:** American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

**Date:** August 9-11

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** Department of Mechanical and
Aeronautical Engineering, One Shields Avenue, University of California,
Davis, CA 95616-5294

**Number of Pages:** 17

**Abstract:** An analytical and experimental investigation was
undertaken to model the manner in which pilots perceive and utilize
visual, proprioceptive, and vestibular cues in a ground-based flight
simulator. The study was part of a larger research effort which has the
creation of a methodology for determining flight simulator fidelity
requirements as its ultimate goal. The study utilized a closed-loop
feedback structure of the pilot/simulator system which included the
pilot, the cockpit inceptor, the dynamics of the simulated vehicle and
the motion system. With the exception of time delays which accrued in
visual scene production in the simulator, visual scene effects were not
included in this study. The NASA Ames Vertical Motion Simulator was used
in a simple, single-degree of freedom rotorcraft bob-up/down maneuver.
Pilot/vehicle analysis and fuzzy-inference identification were employed
to study the changes in fidelity which occurred as the characteristics
of the motion system were varied over five configurations. The data from
three of the five pilots that participated in the experimental study
were analyzed in the fuzzy-inference identification. Results indicated
that both the analytical pilot/vehicle analysis and the fuzzy-inference
identification can be used to reflect changes in simulator fidelity for
the task examined.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Zeyada, Y.; Hess, R.A.

**Year:** 2000

**Title:** Modeling human pilot cue utilization with applications to
simulator fidelity assessment

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 37

**Issue:** 4

**Pages:** 588-597

**Date:** July-August

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of California, Davis
California

**Number of Pages:** 10

**Abstract:** An analytical investigation to model the manner in which
pilots perceive and utilize visual, proprioceptive, and vestibular cues
in a ground-based flight simulator was undertaken. Data from a NASA Ames
Research Center vertical motion simulator study of a simple,
single-degree-of-freedom rotorcraft bob-up/down maneuver were employed
in the investigation. The study was part of a larger research effort
that has the creation of a methodology for determining flight simulator
fidelity requirements as its ultimate goal. The study utilized a
closed-loop feedback structure of the pilot/simulator system that
included the pilot, the cockpit inceptor, the dynamics of the simulated
vehicle, and the motion system. With the exception of time delays that
accrued in visual scene production in the simulator, visual scene
effects were not included in this study. Pilot/vehicle analysis and
fuzzy-inference identification were employed to study the changes in
fidelity that occurred as the characteristics of the motion system were
varied over five configurations. The data from three of the five pilots
who participated in the experimental study were analyzed in the
fuzzy-inference identification. Results indicate that both the
analytical pilot/vehicle analysis and the fuzzy-inference identification
can be used to identify changes in simulator fidelity for the task
examined.

● ● ● ● ●

**Reference Type**: Journal Article

**Author:** Zeyada, Y.; Hess, R. A.

**Year:** 2003

**Title:** Computer-aided assessment of flight simulator fidelity

**Journal:** Journal of Aircraft

**Volume:** 40

**Issue:** 1

**Pages:** 179-180

**Date:** January-February

**Author\'s Title and Affiliation:** University of California, Davis, CA
95616-5294

**Number of Pages:** 8

**Abstract:** A technique for computer-aided assessment of flight
simulator fidelity is presented. The assessment procedure utilizes a
mathematical model of the human pilot that includes proprioceptive,
visual, and vestibular cues. The quality of the latter two cues can be
varied to capture the effects of flight simulator limitations associated
with visual and motion cueing. A MATLAB-based tool that automates the
selection of the majority of parameters in the pilot model and the
generation of a fidelity metric is described. In addition, a prediction
of the task-dependent handling qualities of the nominal flight vehicle
can be obtained. The assessment procedure is exercised in a hypothetical
example involving the six-degree-of-freedom control of a rotorcraft
completing a vertical remask maneuver. It is demonstrated that by
varying the quality of the visual and vestibular cues in the
pilot/vehicle model the effects of simulator limitations upon fidelity
can be systematically addressed.

● ● ● ● ●

[^1]: Most publications resulting from this work are available at
    <http://www.volpe.dot.gov/hf/pubs.html>